Abstracts - ALCAS Conference - Australian Life Cycle Assessment ...

THE 8TH LIFE CYCLE
CONFERENCE
Pathways to Greening
Global Markets
An LCA and carbon foot printing
conference hosted by the Australian
Life Cycle Assessment Society
Abstracts
Platform and Shortform Presenters
Novotel Sydney, Manly Pacific
15th - 18th July 2013

Platform
Presenters
PATHWAYS TO
GREENING GLOBAL
MARKETS
ALCAS

Ms Lynda Amitrano
Sustainable Built Environment Manager, BRANZ
Co Author - Dr Dave Dowdell, Principal Scientist - Sustainability, BRANZ, Roman Jaques, Senior Sustainable
Building Scientist, BRANZ.
An Overview of Developments in use of LCA and EPD in Building Environmental Rating Schemes
Materials credits in green building rating systems have traditionally evolved from a consensus based
understanding of environmental issues, often resulting in evaluation of products based on proxy measures of
environmental performance, such as transport distance and having an ISO 14001 environmental management
system (for example).
Workshops with the New Zealand construction industry in 2010 showed a desire for more robust, flexible
whole of life based assessment to provide a better basis for comparisons. The outputs of Life Cycle
Assessments (LCA) and Environmental Product Declarations (EPD) are currently barely referenced in
GBCA’sand NZGBC’s suite of building rating tools such as GreenStar and Home Star, although increasing local
interest is evident as shown by the GBCA’s consultation on LCA in GreenStar. Internationally, standards that
address application of LCA to construction products and buildings have been or are in the process of
development, providing an underpinning framework for application of LCA to the built environment. This is
resulting in changes to EPD schemes that seek closer alignment and increasing examples of building
environmental rating tools that utilise LCA, EPD and whole building whole of life assessments in their building
rating processes.
This paper sets the scene by providing an overview of key international standards and how they have been
shaping EPD schemes, particularly with respect to the long recognised need for better alignment of detailed
requirements contained in scheme product category rules (PCRs). Furthermore, it provides examples of how
building environmental rating tools are increasingly utilising LCA and EPD derived data about building products
as part of a broader building level assessment across the life cycle.
Mr Jonas Bengtsson
Director, Edge Environment
Co Author - Mr Scott Grierson, Chief Technology Manager - Research & Development, MBD Energy Limited.
Life cycle assessment of a microalgae biomass cultivation, bio-oil extraction and pyrolysis
processing regime
A clear message from the ‘Technology Roadmap’ published by the US Department of Energy’s (DOE) Biomass
Program is that there are many possible parameters to investigate in relation to the commercialisation of
microalgae biomass, spanning the full spectrum from ‘species selection’ and ‘cultivation systems’, to
‘intermediate constituents’, ‘conversion processes’ and ‘end use fuels and products’. Standardisation and
comparison of results is therefore challenging, as different product pathways may require unique assumptions,
functional units and/or allocation decisions. At present, there is no known LCA study within the current body
of published work that assesses the pyrolysis conversion of microalgae biomass into its various co-products.

This paper presents the use of LCA of a microalgae biomass cultivation, bio-oil extraction and pyrolysis
processing regime to gauge the likely environmental impact of this prospective new development on an
industrial scale. Coupled to thermal conversion via slow pyrolysis, the prospect of biologically ‘sequestering’
carbon derived from microalgae biomass as biochar, added to soil, is considered. Results indicated that an
intensive closed culturing photobioreactor (PBR) system coupled to a pyrolysis process incurs a net increase in
global warming impact and overall life cycle impact, nowithstanding biochar application.
Results indicate that up to 50% of environmental impact in certain categories stems from the upstream
influence of fertiliser production. Energy used in flue gas delivery and pumping during cultivation is also
considerable, suggesting that current practice in closed cultivation systems does not yet adequately trade-off
biomass productivity against operating intensity. Drying of the harvested microalgae biomass for pyrolysis
processing is potentially a major hurdle in terms of process viability also. Overall, utilisation of nutrients
derived from waste streams, integrating renewable energy and capture of process heat for more efficient
drying are essential levers for reducing the environmental impact of this proposition.
Dr Wahidul Biswas
Senior Lecturer, Curtin University
Co Authors - Mr Ahsanul Kabir, Mechnical Engieer, Dr Nazrul Islam, Senior Lecturer, Curtin University.
Life cycle environmental benefits from the use of retrofit electric vehicles in Western Australia
Electric vehicles are being considered to replace conventional combustion engine vehicles in the near future,
and the notion is gaining momentum and popularity worldwide, especially due to zero tailpipe emissions
associated with its propulsion mechanism. The paper presents the life cycle emissions savings in the use of
retrofit electric vehicles in Western Australia. The emissions associated with aftermarket conversion of a
conventional gasoline vehicle have been compared to that of the original vehicle over a lifespan mileage of
150,000 kilometres.
The study presents a methodology to evaluate GHG savings from electric mobility over an assumed lifespan
mileage. A detailed life cycle assessment of four main electric propulsion components has been carried out
based on available data from the manufacturers and past literature.
The main focus of the study lies only on the electric propulsion mechanism and thus the life cycle impacts of
the glider have not been considered. Two scenarios for the electric vehicle components were considered
under the investigation, one where the electric drivetrain components to be manufactured overseas, and the
other where the components were to be manufactured locally. Total life cycle GHG emissions of the electric
propulsion system manufacture overseas was found to be 6.67 tonnes of CO2 eq., whereas that for
conventional gasoline was found to be substantially higher, 9.02 tonnes of CO2 eq. In comparison with
conventional vehicles, the carbon footprint mitigation potential of using an electric drivetrain manufactured
locally with Western Australian energy mix was found to be 2.35 tonnes of CO2 eq. over a course of 150,000
km mileage. The amount of emission savings is comparable to that from electricity consumption of a
household for about five months

Dr Wahidul Biswas
Senior Lecturer, Curtin University
Co Authors - Dr Waqar Ahmad, Principal Scientist, CSIRO, Mrs Deborah Engelbrecht, Ph.D Student and
Research Assistant, Curtin University.
Methodology development for the Integrated Spatial Technology
The Clean Energy Act 2011 aims to drive the transformation of the Australian economy to a clean energy
future by reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. To aid the land use sector to reduce GHG emissions, the
Carbon Farming Initiative has been designed for landholders to generate and sell carbon credits. Currently
limited methodologies have been developed which address these issues.
This paper presents the application of Integrated Spatial Technology (IST) Framework that aims to reduce
Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions from Western Australian grain industries by integrating Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA), Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS). The data for
implementing into the project, were obtained from a current Department of Agriculture and Food Western
Australia (DAFWA) project which focuses on crop sequencing in Western Australia.
To delineate the project boundary and extract paddocks for this project, two satellite images were acquired
and all paddock co-ordinates were registered on these. Secondly, the landholders from the paddocks which
were within the satellite images were then interviewed to obtain input/output data for the LCA. Thirdly, the
carbon footprints resulting from these inputs/outputs were calculated and thereafter incorporated into a GIS,
giving a visual representation of the “hotspot” in the farm management practice used. Furthermore the IST
aided with the identification of the maximum and minimum levels of GHG emissions across all the stages of
farming from cradle-to-gate. Fourthly the farm management system, soil and climate variability and calculated
GHG emissions allowed for the identification of mitigation measures that were introduced into the IST
framework for future grain production across similar conditions. Finally, the IST was applied to predict the
carbon footprint from paddocks surrounding those analysed.
Miss Pornpimon Boonkum
Doctoral student, Waseda Univeristy, Graduate School of Environment and Energy Engineering
Co Authors - Dr Jitti Mungkalasiri, Researcher, National Metal and Materials Technology Center, A/Prof Hiroshi
Oonoda, Assoc Prof, Waseda Univeristy, Graduate School of Environment and Energy Engineering.
Impact of different farm management systems on Jatropha cultivation for biodiesel feedstock. A
case study in Thailand
Renewable energy has been promoted by the Thai government since 90’s, with the aim to solve and relieve
the problem of fossil energy depletion. One of the key factors for the success of the promotion on bio-fuels is
the potential of feedstock in terms of economic and environment. Nowadays, oil palm is a major feedstock for
the biodiesel production in Thailand while Jatropha curcas L. (hear in after as Jatropha), potentially non-edible
oil plant is considering as an alternative energy crop that can avoid the competition between food industries
and energy sectors. Jatropha cultivation in Thailand has different agricultural practices due to the variety of

climate and soil condition. The disadvantage of JCL is the low seed yield and inconsistent of seed yield, while
the advantage of JCL is the low investment and low energy for milling process.
The objective of this study would like to evaluate the environmental impact of Jatropha crude oil (JCO) from 2
different methods of JCL cultivation practices; conventional and managed plantation, by using the concept of
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). Data collection was done in JCL farm in the north of Thailand. The main
environmental impact will be focused on Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission and energy balance. Allocation
method will be applied for allocate the impacts of the main product and co-products of JCO from this system.
Dr Pip Brock
Project Officer, Grain Life Cycle Assessment, NSW Department of Primary Industries
Co Authors - Dr Sally Muir, NSW Department of Primary Industries, Dr Graeme Schwenke, Soil Scientist, NSW
Department of Primary Industries.
Identifying opportunities for reducing greenhouse gas emissions for climate change mitigation in
grain production systems in NSW using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).
The Grains Research and Development Corporation has commissioned the NSW Department of Primary
Industries to prepare greenhouse gas emissions profiles using LCA for specific grain production systems in New
South Wales. Comparative regional studies developed during 2012 to 2015 will provide the Australian grains
industry with information about emissions sources and provide data to support eco-labelling and product
marketing. Potential emissions reduction strategies will be provided to the industry within the context of
practical and economic opportunities. Previous LCA indicates the magnitude of possible emissions reductions
in grain production systems in NSW. Nitrogen fertilisation is a major contributor to emissions. Calculated
emissions from wheat in Central NSW were approximately 200 kg CO2-e/t grain comprising 30% from the
production and transport of fertiliser and 26% from N2O emitted from soil after fertiliser application.
Emissions from N-fertilised cereals in a field trial at Tamworth, NSW, were 251 and 242 kg CO2-e/t grain for
two wheat crops in 2010 and 137 kg CO2-e/t grain for barley in 2011. Emissions from the production and
transport of fertiliser and N2O emitted from soil in field trial were similar to those from wheat in Central NSW.
A major opportunity exists to reduce emissions by moving towards systems which include substantial inputs of
nitrogen from legume N2 fixation. At Tamworth, chickpeas provided some nitrogen for a following wheat crop
grown without urea, with total emissions reduced to 98 kg CO2-e/t grain. Grain yield remained similar to ureafertilised
crops but protein was reduced. Preliminary LCA comparisons will be presented of rotations involving
winter cereals, sorghum and canola with added N-fertiliser or prior legume N2 fixation. Current economic
data, field research on N2O emissions factors and LCA of irrigated cotton production will assist modelling of
mitigation options which may be significant when implemented over large areas/volumes of production.

Dr Cecil Camilleri
Manager, Sustainable Wine Programmes, The Yalumba Wine Company
Growing and Making Wine in an Atmosphere of Increasing Risk - Mitigation and Adaptation to
Climate Change at Yalumba
The Yalumba Wine Company has developed an ethos of quality that is inclusive of environmental, economic
and stakeholder stewardship. Yalumba’s sustainability story commence in 1999 when it became the first
Australian wine company, and one of the first enterprises operating in the agricultural sector, to undertake a
Greenhouse Challenge co-operative agreement. Since then, Yalumba has adopted a life cycle approach to
continuous improvement in the management and conservation of the essential ‘elements’ that make up fine
wine: earth, air, energy and water. These are the essential ‘elements’ of photosynthesis and fermentation.
By adopting life cycle thinking, Yalumba is addressing mitigation and adaptation to climate change by
strategically applying life cycle management and life cycle analysis to the development of business
management practices that include setting aside land for conservation and carbon sequestration. Importantly,
Yalumba and its people aspire to be recognised as a smart, knowledge-based, independent Australian wine
company with the necessary adaptive capacity and resilience to succeed in a globalised competitive winemarket
that is increasingly being impacted by the uncertainty of climate change, and where the consumer and
other stakeholders are at the centre of business concern for sustainability.
Therefore, Yalumba must engage its stakeholders in profit-making by allocating scarce resources amongst
competing economic, environmental and social needs without compromising the life options of future
generations. In the face of uncertain future scenarios, action research at Yalumba has highlighted that this can
be achieved by establishing a coaching culture at the workplace that communicates and co-creates sustainable
business practices that: 1. Maintains or improves economic viability; and 2. Maintains or enhances production;
and 3. Minimises risk; and 4. Satisfies Yalumba’s stakeholders; and 5. Protects the biotic or abiotic
environment; and 6. Makes the purchase experience a responsible activity, socially, ecologically and
economically.
Therefore, to deal with the vagaries of climate change, forward looking organisation mitigation should adopt
workplace coaching which isa continuum based on a positive, affirmative approach that: 1. Builds on and
extends the capacity of Yalumba and its People to develop skills and competencies as part of the wine firm’s
commitment to sustainable winemaking. 2. Attains new knowledge and understanding as part of the process
of sensemaking and sensegiving. 3. Builds and maintains effective workplace relationships.
Dr Guangnan Chen
Lecturer, National Centre for Engineering in Agriculture
Co Author - Craig Baillie, University Southern Queensland, Sandra Eady, CSIRO.
Developing farm energy inventory for life cycle assessment
The sustainable development of modern industry and society has been identified as a significant national and
international issue. To achieve sustainable development, the first step would be to understand and identify

where the environmental impacts and damages occur so that targeted remedy actions can be taken. Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA) is an ideal tool for such a purpose. It analyses and quantifies the environmental impacts of
the whole process of making, using and disposing a product e.g. a cotton T-shirt. LCA has also the advantage of
providing a rigorous, comprehensive, and multi-dimensional analysis of all relevant factors.
A comprehensive LCA analysis would in particular have the advantage of being able to quantify the magnitude
of potential environmental saving in each (environmental) category, and to avoid the pitfall of just shifting
from one category to another category. In this paper, the importance of farm energy inputs and high quality
data in LCA analyses is highlighted. Different approaches to building life cycle inventory, particularly the
methods for allocating farm machinery inputs (on an ownership of a whole unit by the farm versus an hourly
allocation based on average machine inputs) and recycling of machinery materials, are discussed. The impacts
of these approaches on the accuracy of LCA models are also examined, using cotton production in Australia as
an example.
Mr Scott Clarkson
Project Manager – CSR Innovations, CSR Building Products
Co Author - Mr Jonas Bengtsson, Director, Edge Environment.
Cradle to Grave Assessment and Benchmark of the CSR House
CSR Building Products is investing to drive innovation within the built environment to deliver high performance
building solutions to the mainstream market. The CSR House research centre, launched in November 2012 has
been constructed to research building processes and perform ongoing operational research on building
performance. Edge Environment was commissioned by CSR to conduct a LCA of the CSR House.
This project is the first whole building assessment to use the BP LCI toolkit and to create “robust data” that will
underpin CSR initiatives to communicate with, and educate industry stakeholders about the life cycle
performance of CSR products. The CSR LCA tool includes 23 climate zones, selected by building activity. The
environmental performance is benchmark against the Housing Industry Association reference building. The
default scope of the LCA was 70 years building life, including production and transport of all major fixed
building elements; construction site impacts; building products maintenance and replacement lives;
operational energy and water use from fixed appliances over the life of the building; and end of life disposal.
The following three functional units were used to benchmark the building impact: Cradle to end of life per
whole dwelling; per m2 floor area; and per occupant. The LCI data was entered into the SimaPro LCA program
and linked to the pre-existing data for the upstream feedstocks and services selected primarily from the BP LCI
database and AusLCI. Energy modelling including fixed appliances was performed using AccuRate Sustainability
algorithms.
The life cycle inventory data was interpreted into key environmental impacts, including global warming
potential and Australian ecopoint, in accordance with the BP LCI methodology. The results and tool
provided CSR with a comprehensive basis for evaluating life cycle performance during building design and
construct, and going forward to underpin sustainable product development and building design
communication nationwide.

Monique Cornish
Senoir Associate, Net Balance
Co Author - Nicole Sullivan
BlueScope Steel – a new era inspired by LCA
Many Australian manufacturers are facing increasing market pressure due to domestic market conditions and
the high Australian dollar. As a response, BlueScope Steel has developed technology to differentiate their
steel products – like ZINCALUME® and COLORBOND® steel – with a new and compelling value proposition
based on sustainability.
In 2013 BlueScope will launch next generation ZINCALUME® steel. For the first time in BlueScope Steel’s
history, this world-leading technology will be launched with a full LCA and EPD to demonstrate the improved
environmental performance and overall sustainability credentials of the product.
Data collection and life cycle modelling for a system as complicated and integrated as Port Kembla Steelworks
presented a number of methodological challenges. We will share some of these challenges and solutions from
a practitioner perspective. The results of the LCA show a significant improvement in the footprint of next
generation ZINCALUME® steel compared to last generation ZINCALUME® steel across all 18 categories
assessed. The study highlights the importance of dematerialisation and resilience in the determining the
footprint of building materials, and the overall sustainability of Australia’s built environment.
As a result of this initial LCA there is much greater cross-functional recognition of the value of LCI and LCA
within BlueScope Steel. We will share how LCI and LCA are now emerging as drivers of innovation and market
leadership, as well as how they are facilitating better operational understanding and research into further
manufacturing developments, including another BlueScope Steel product launch supported by LCA planned for
2013.
The future for LCA in BlueScope Steel is bright: we are now able to identify and envision the opportunities that
LCA presents to the business. The challenge is to translate these opportunities into actions that result in
further improvements in our environmental credentials.
Ms Annette Cowie
Director, Rural Climate Solutions, University of New England
Update on the ISO Carbon Footprint standard
Recognising the desire of many stakeholders for better information about the climate change impacts of
products, the International Standards Organisation (ISO) agreed to develop a standard to guide the
quantification and communication of the carbon footprint of products. The quantification component is based
on life cycle assessment, following closely ISO 14040 and ISO 14044. The communication guidance is based on
the environmental labelling standards ISO 14020, ISO 14024 and ISO 14025.

The process has met hurdles, as is it seen to have potential implications for international trade, for example,
disadvantaging developing countries that have little capacity to improve their GHG-intensive energy systems.
There has also been uneasiness about communication based on a single impact category.
Thus the development has been a protracted exercise, taking five years from inception.
The final draft did not find agreement for release as an international standard, however, there was sufficient
support to release it as a Technical Specification. Thus ISO/TS 14067 Greenhouse gases — Carbon footprint of
products — Requirements and guidelines for quantification and communication has been approved, and is due
for imminent release.
The standard encourages use of Product Category Rules, in order to increase consistency in calculation of
carbon footprints for similar products produced by different organisations.
The GHG emissions and removals from some sources and sinks are reported separately in addition to being
included in the calculation of the carbon footprint. This applies to fossil and biogenic carbon sources and sinks,
emissions and removals due to direct land use change, aircraft emissions, and non-CO2 emissions from
livestock, manure and soils. The standard does not require inclusion of emissions due to indirect land use
change.
The climate change impacts of timing of emissions and removals has been a particular point of debate, and is
an issue which has been largely neglected in LCA to date. There was no consensus on whether delayed
emissions and temporary sequestration do indeed deliver a benefit. Nevertheless this was recognised as a
potentially important feature for some products, and therefore it was agreed that the timing of emissions
across a product’s life cycle must be documented as part of the carbon footprint. No guidance is provided on
how to quantify the impacts of timing of emissions and removals.
The committee that developed ISO/TS 14067 is aware of limitations with this document, and there is strong
desire from some members to reconvene the committee in the near future, in order to revise the TS and work
towards approval of an International Standard.
Miss Kelly Cox
Researcher, Boeing Research and Technology Australia
Life Cycle Assessment of Jetfuel Production in Queensland: A Comparison of Three Potential
Feedstocks
The aim of the Queensland Sustainable Aviation Fuel Initiative is to detail the potential costs and
environmental impacts or benefits that might arise if a supply chain is established to produce a realistic
amount of aviation fuel for use in a commercial aviation setting, from feedstocks that are capable of being
grown in Queensland. The feedstocks considered for this project include molasses from sugarcane, the oilseed
plant Pongamia and autotrophic algae.
This information may be used to build support for financial commitments from government or private
investors to implement the modeled supply chains. Two models were developed for each feedstock, a baseline
model showing the potential process flow based on published and publicly available data which incorporates
the use of a digestion and cogeneration system for disposal of waste and by-products, and a variation model
which removes the use of the cogeneration system and relies on the protein value of any potential co-

products. Both allocation and system expansion modeling methodologies were applied for this LCA in order to
show the variation of results for each method across the three feedstocks; and while both methods are
correct, the disparity between method results causes a reasonable feedstock comparison to be quite difficult.
The relevant impact categories identified for this model include cumulative energy demand, Global Warming
Potential (GWP), eutrophication, land and water use, and human and eco- toxicity. A Monte Carlo uncertainty
analysis was performed for all data as part of the LCIA in order to define a 95% confidence interval for the
results of each impact category. Results for both the baseline and variation models will be presented, with a
comparison of the outcomes of the three feedstocks. These results are specific to aviation fuel in Queensland.
Helene Cruypenninck
Life Cycle Strategies Pty Ltd
Modelling pesticide flows in agricultural Life Cycle Inventories using PESTLCI
A common current practice for assessing on-farm pesticides output flows in agricultural Life Cycle Inventories
(LCI) is to assume that 100% of applied pesticide active ingredient is released into soil [Nemecek 2007]. The
partitioning of the chemicals into different compartments (air, surface water, groundwater) is then left to the
impact assessment methods (such as USEtox [Rosenbaum 2008]) which use non-farm specific partitioning
factors. PestLCI 2.0 [Dijkman 2012] models the on-farm dynamics of active ingredients flows, from the time of
application up to the time they leave the farm boundaries. Taking into account farm specific climate, soil and
crop characteristics, this model estimates the output flows to surface water, ground water and air for a given
active ingredient. Soil being part of the technosphere, there is no active ingredient output flow to this
compartment.
This paper will present the successive steps required to extend the current range of application of PestLCI 2.0
from European to Australian conditions. These steps include: automation of PestLCI to allow for multiple
calculations and interfacing with other Life Cycle Inventory tools; identification of the most sensitive user input
parameters (amongst climate, month, crop type, etc.); accessing and defining these identified parameters for
Australia by selecting the appropriate geographic scale; and identification of remaining data gaps and further
research needs.
The PestLCI model for partitioning on farm pesticides emissions will be applied to a selection of broad acre and
horticulture crops. The effect of the use of PestLCI on on-farm ecotoxicity results compared to the traditional
way of dealing with pesticides in agricultural cradle-to-gate Life Cycle Assessment will be presented and
discussed.
Dijkman, T.J., M. Birkved and M.Z. Hauschild 2012, PestLCI 2.0: A second generation model for estimating
emissions of pesticides from arable land in LCA, International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 17: 973-986.
Nemecek, T. and T. Kagi 2007, ecoinvent data version 2.0, Life Cycle Inventrories of Agriculture Production
Systems. Zurich, Ecoinvent Centre.
Rosenbaum, R.K., T.M. Bachmann, L.S. Gold, M.A.J. Huijbregts, O. Jolliet, R. Juraske, A. Koehler, H.F. Larsen, M.
MacLeod and M. Margni 2008, USEtox—the UNEP-SETAC toxicity model: recommended characterisation
factors for human toxicity and freshwater ecotoxicity in life cycle impact assessment, The International Journal
of Life Cycle Assessment 13(7): 532-546.

Dr Sandra Eady
Research Scientist, CSIRO
Co Authors - Mr Tim Grant, Life Cycle Strategies, Mr Simon Winter, RIRDC.
The business case for investment in agricultural life cycle inventory to support sustainable industry
development and competitiveness in a carbon constrained global economy
Over the last decade there has been a significant focus on the environmental impact of products and services
across the economy. This is beginning to play out in a variety of spheres: - environmental product declarations
to inform consumer choice - delivery agreements where the supplier is required to demonstrate an on-going
improvement program of environmental sustainability - the likely advent of trade agreements premised on
climate change mitigation efforts - realignment of insurance risk and costs to the economy.
A minority of environmental impacts have a clear and immediate cost to farmers and society. Hence, the
financial signals for taking action to reduce environmental impacts are muted. However, once action is
required (as imposed by a supplier or a pricing mechanism) primary producers need to be able to make an
objective assessment of their environmental impact so that “hot spots” in their production system can be
identified, and options to reduce these impacts can be investigated. Often it is not clear which inputs or
processes in the production system are contributing the largest impact, and how these impacts will vary
depending on the impact category of interest. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is the most commonly used tool to
determine the environmental impact that a product or service has, by taking into account all of the impacts
from resource extraction, production, use, through to end of life disposal.
However, LCA is only as good as the underlying data or Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) that is used for modelling and
analysis. Country specific LCI for agricultural products is essential for Australian agriculture to undertake
environmental impact studies related to food and fibre, especially where differences in management systems
and regional climate, soils and vegetation significantly affect LCA results. In addition, Australia exports a large
proportion of production and provision of publicly available national LCI is essential to allow our trading
partners to undertake LCAs with robust cradle-to-gate inventory that reflects the country of origin. CSIRO is
partnering with RIRDC and a range of industry research and development corporations on a pilot initiative to
produce LCI for Australian agriculture (AusAgLCI Project). Inventory being developed for AusAgLCI is based on
publicly available data on farming systems as found in grower handbooks and gross margin publications.
The goal of inventory collection for AusAgLCI is to provide the underlying data to ensure Australian primary
producers can readily, and objectively, demonstrate that their products are being produced in a responsible
manner, in a system where environmental assessment is used to aid and drive improvements. This will assist
producers to meet marketing requirements and to benchmark their production in global markets.
Dr Michael Faltenbacher
Principle consultant, PE INTERNATIONAL
Co Authors - Mr Michael Held, Scientist, Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics, dept. Life Cycle Engineering,
Mr Michael Baumann, Scientist, Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics, dept. Life Cycle Engineering.
Assessment of the environmental impacts of E-Mobility concepts

Under the impression of current discussions of depleting resources and environmental questions, the
transportation sector is aware of its responsibility and in search of alternative concepts. Especially electric
vehicles are expected to have a high potential, since they reduce the dependence from fossil fuels and reduce
local noise and emissions during the vehicle operation. However, besides the environmental impacts of power
generation, it is also required to investigate the production and end of life phase of electric vehicle concepts
and power train specific components in an early stage. To do this, the method of life cycle assessment (LCA) is
a suitable tool, since it evaluates the environmental impacts of products or services from a life cycle
perspective. Main goal of this project is to give a first estimate of the environmental potential different of e-
vehicle concepts and to identify significant parameter and indicators.
The production and use phase of different electric vehicle concepts, like battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are evaluated in a screening LCA. In addition, as a broader market entry
of electric vehicles is expected in the next years (e.g. the national roadmap for electric mobility of the German
federal government expects around one million electric vehicles on German street until the year 2020) the
study investigates future scenarios to estimate the environmental potential of future concepts and
developments.
In a first step the scenarios investigate the environmental profile of e-mobility due to further developments of
battery systems as well as the future development of the national electricity grid mix. The presentation gives
an overview of the main approach and outcomes of the study, identifies the significant indicators and
parameters and discusses the relevant topics and questions for future research.
Mr Sebastian Gollnow
LCA and Sustainability Consultant, PE Australasia
Co Authors - Dr. Sven Lundie, CSR & Sustainability Strategy Consultant, PE-INTERNATIONAL, Jake McLaren, Life
Cycle Assessment and Design for Environment Consultant, PE Australasia.
Carbon footprint of dairy production in Australian
This paper explores the carbon footprint of dairy production in Australia and follows the approach of ISO
14044 and the dairy industry specific carbon footprinting guidelines published by the International Dairy
Federation (IDF 2010). This study is one of the first carbon footprinting studies for dairy production that has
been conducted on a national level and is also one of the first to follow the IDF (2010) carbon footprinting
guidelines. An industry cross section of primary data has been analysed from 139 farms across the country.
The scope of the system covers all inputs and outputs cradle to farm gate for the year 2009/10. A web-based
software platform has been developed as part of the project to enable auditable data collection and analysis.
Results for production of average Australian raw milk at farm gate show the average carbon footprint for the
year 2009/10 is 1.11 (-+0.22) kg CO2 e. / kg fat and protein corrected milk. More than half of the emissions are
associated with enteric fermentation (57%), 8% are associated with manure management and 10% with
manure excreted onto pasture. Fertiliser and energy inputs are each associated with 8% and purchased feed
are associated with 9%.
Further analysis of the feed systems, productivity, concentrate intake and individual farms indicated: GHG
emissions differ substantially between farms, reduction potentials can best be derived at an individual farm

level. Each participating dairy farmer has received an interpretation of their own farm input with respect to the
overall project results. Within the scope of the project an innovative software platform for data collection and
analysis has been developed to overcome challenges associated with handling of extensive and complex
primary data. Further methodological challenges associated with the allocation approaches between milk and
meat at farm gate was assessed.
Mr Tim Grant
Director, Life Cycle Strategies
New AUSLCI data – Making LCA easier
Undertaking Life Cycle Assessment is a much a exercise in time management as it is a scientific investigation.
Deciding what data to focus on, which impacts and flows to include in the assessment and how to interpret the
robustness of results are all decision which a practitioner needs to make in the process of an LCA. Assessing
the quality of the background data is time consuming and uncertainty in the background data can undermine
the results of an LCA study.
The new AusLCI data being developed by ALCAS will significantly reduce the time and uncertainty for LCA’s
being undertaken in Australia and on Australian production systems. The guidelines for data collection provide
a common framework for the collection and modelling fully connected life cycle inventory covering a broad
range of flows which can support detail life cycle impact assessment and enable transparent interpretation of
the source of impacts.
For foreground data development in LCA many of the AusLCI modules are parameterised to allow the average
or typical data in AusLCI to be easily customised specific situations. This includes electricity, transport, and
agricultural inventories.
The presentation will highlight the features of the new AusLCI data and how to get the most from using it.
Mr Tim Grant
Director, Life Cycle Strategies
Economic and environmental analysis of Algae fuel systems
According to market research organisations, algae biomass is poised for explosive growth in the next ten years.
In particular there is interest in Algae providing alternative biomass source to traditional crop based biofuels
which have caused a series of negative environmental outcomes due to land use and crop production impacts.
Currently the environmental impacts of biomass from Algae production are highly variable depending on the
location of production, source of inputs of land water carbon and nutrients and the technologies used for
harvesting and conversion to an energy source.
This paper explores the drivers of these impacts based on work undertaken in Australia looking at the use of
Algae ponds within waste water treatment facilities and in saline and freshwater production systems.

Unlike the economic factors which are dominated by capital equipment, the life cycle impacts are dominated
by harvesting, thickening and processing stages due to chemical and energy use. The recycling of nutrients
and production of co-products however lead to significant environmental gains. In particular energy coproducts
are particularly valuable.
Dr Anthony Halog
Lecturer, University of Queensland
Co Author - Mr. Nana Awuah Bortsie-Aryee, PhD student, School of Forest Resources, University of Maine, USA.
Attributional Life Cycle Assessment of a Forest Derived “Drop-in” Biofuels
The United States Department of Energy (DOE) has been championing efforts to ensure that the next
generation of biofuels is regarded as “drop-in” biofuels. “Drop-in” biofuels are infrastructure-compatible –
they can either be used directly or blended with their petroleum-derived fuels. This study initially evaluated
the environmental life cycle impacts across the supply chain of a new drop-in biofuel, developed by the
University of Maine (UMaine).
The study made use of primary data for the biomass conversion stage and utilized Maine’s regional data as
well as generic data developed in the United States. With respect to water use, it is clear from our analysis that
the biomass production phase requires a significant amount of water intake to enable the biomass to grow to
maturity. A water intake of 0.120 tonnes shows the importance of finding a suitable source of water to use in
the first phase of the life cycle and not relying on potable water for the growth of the biomass. Though the
global warming potential associated with carbon dioxide is very high, it should be understood that growing
biomass actually helps reduce the atmospheric carbon dioxide in conjunction with photosynthesis.
As compared to fossil fuel derived oils, the UMaine TDO oil could perform better in terms of GHG emissions.
The internal physiological processes of the biomass during the biomass production phase reduce the carbon
dioxide emitted during the complete life cycle phase by using it to further the growth of the trees.
Mr Richard Haynes
Engineer, eTool
LCA of the built environment - the client’s perspective
As LCA practitioners we’re all guilty of becoming so obsessed with the science that we’re embedded in at times
that we forget about why and who we are doing the work for. One of the most important aspects of what we
do is to encourage, influence and motivate the rest of the world to use LCA to improve how we create things.
The best way to do this is to understand who the real client is (in construction it’s the developer, builder,
architect or the actual end owner or occupant), what motivates them and how we can work to increase their
motivation to get the best result for the project. The second most important thing is to ensure you have the
tools and services that can deliver the best results. eTool has always started with the client and worked back
from there. The following paper explores this process over a number of case studies ranging from residential

and commercial to infrastructure projects. It highlights how you can get the best results for the client and the
environment.
Mr Nigel Howard
Principal, Clarity Environment
Practical LCA for Building Design - ENVEST Au
This paper presents the key features of the ENVEST LCA based building design tool and how it reconciles the
complexity of whole building LCA, working from the limited information available at inception and
communicating the complex and often perverse effects of design decisions for environmental impacts and
financial costs. Building design teams may include Architects, Structural and Services Engineers, Cost
Consultants, Landscape Architects, Environmental Consultants, each using specialist software to aid design
development. Some tools share common data through the Building Information Modelling (BIM) protocol.
ENVEST is unique because: • ENVESTworks from design inception where the biggest decisions are made. At
inception, just 4 key pieces of information from the client brief dominate thinking – site location, size of
building, mix of uses and budget and pencil are the main tools used.
In about an hour of furious collective creative effort, massing and basic shape/dimensions, position on the site,
orientation, glazing, rooflights/atria basic appearance i.e wall specification are all decided. Perhaps 90% of a
buildings’ life cycle performance is locked in in this first design hour - the next weeks and months of design
time will detail the building making relatively trivial improvements in performance. • ENVEST is a full LCA
design tool that simultaneously and instantly reveals the complex and often perverse outcomes of decisions
that affect materials and operational energy, water and waste. • ENVEST uses and complies with the BP LCI
methodologies, data and Protocol. • ENVEST provides a starting point BIM file for all design team members •
ENVEST simultaneously calculates financial cost to build and operate over the life, revealing cost trade-offs as
well as environmental ones • Users can select from 12 environmental impact measures (include greenhouse
gas emissions) and a composite Australian ecopoint indicator (based on the BP LCI 11 City weightings surveys).
Ms Delwyn Jones
Director Sustainability Assessment, The Evah Institute
Deriving Negative and Net Positive LCA Metrics
Making cities more liveable and sustainable is key to planning, analysis and reporting. Initiatives to visualize
greener supply chains are constrained by current LCA philosophy and metrics. In practice LCA analysis typically
focuses mostly or only on negative impacts. It begs many questions of how can we imagine or create
restorative services, markets and cities if we do not measure net positive benefits needed for their
development.
While assessing greenhouse gas emissions why not report Oxygen generation? When assessing biodiversity
loss why does LCA not typically asses growth in habitat richness? The paper seeks to answer these questions.

Life Cycle Benefit Analysis (LCBA) is designed to quantify e.g. habitat richness, oxygen generation and resource
regeneration capacity of Eco-positive products, systems and urban and infrastructure development. The
presentation proposes definitive algorithms to combine impacts and benefits at a local to global level on top of
existing algorithms that address only negative metrics.
Ms Yumi Kobayashi
Student, University of New South Wales
Co Authors - Greg M. Peters, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden & University of New
South Wales, Stuart J. Khan, University of New South Wales
Towards harmonised use of DALYs in Life Cycle Assessment and Quantitative Risk Assessment
The hybridisation of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Quantitative Risk Analysis (QRA) has been recognised as a
beneficial objective. The areas of their focus are quite distinct, but the common use of Disability Adjusted Life
Years (DALYs) for human burden of disease (BoD) impacts appears advantageous.
However, since various assumptions are unavoidable in DALY value derivations, finding a consistent set of
assumptions is essential for compatibility. The current state of use of DALYs in LCA was examined through a
comprehensive literature review by contrasting three well established LCA methodologies to identify the
assumptions involved. Further research is recommended to evaluate the feasibility of establishing a global
consensus on the underlying assumptions for future LCA and QRA hybridisation.
Dr Paul Koltun
Senoir Research/Scientist, CSIRO
Co Author - Dr. Ambavalar Tharumarajah, Principal Research/Scientist, CSIRO, Dr. Terry Norgate, Senior
Research Ingineer, CSIRO.
Life Cycle Assessment of the New Generation Nuclear power plant for Australian Conditions
This study describes a life cycle assessment of a generation IV nuclear power plant based on a high
temperature helium cooled reactor and gas turbine technology with modular design (GT-MHR) taking into
account all phases of the nuclear power plant: pre-construction (design and equipment fabrication),
construction, operation, decommissioning and waste disposal (spent fuel, radioactive and non-radioactive
waste). The method adopted for the study was a desk-top hybrid LCA analysis.
The analysis of each phase of the life cycle under consideration wherever possible was done on the basis of
process chain analysis (PCA), using averaged available published data. Where detailed data were not available,
the analysis of Input/Output (I/O) databases was employed. All inventory data used to calculate environmental
impacts (greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and energy intensity) as well as all assumptions made in the study
are presented in the paper.
The overall greenhouse gas footprint of nuclear power was estimated to be about 9.6g CO2 eq/kW with
current uranium ore grade. The study also investigated other sustainability aspects of nuclear power in

addition to environmental impacts, namely, social impacts (biodiversity impact, health and safety,
employment.) and economic impacts (cost of electricity), and these are discussed in the report. Australian
energy demands, which are largely met by fossil fuels, keep growing along with the associated greenhouse gas
emissions. Electricity production from nuclear power could potentially be part of the solution to reduce these
greenhouse gas emissions. This study provides valuable information which can contribute to the ongoing
debate about the possible future deployment of nuclear power generation in Australia.
Mr Joe Lane
Research Scientist, University of Queensland
Co Author - A/Prof Tommy Wiedmann, University of New South Wales, Prof Manfred Lenzen, Professor of
Sustainability Research, University of Sydney.
New capability for hybrid input-output life-cycle assessment – the Industrial Ecology Virtual
Laboratory
As pressure grows on Australia’s export industries to provide robust and comprehensive environmental
information to support product evaluations, it is expected that life-cycle inventory data collection efforts in
Australia will intensify. For LCA practitioners to meet this challenge, they will need access to robust and
efficient databases and data estimation techniques. Hybrid input-output (IO) life cycle assessment (hybrid LCA)
is an advanced technique for assessing the sustainability of processes, products or entities. Hybrid LCA utilises
the strengths of both process- and IO-based inventory data; enabling the evaluation of multiple environmental
impacts at both a high level of detail, and a high level of completeness.
Doing so can improve the quality and reliability of information provided for applications such as supply chain
analysis, eco-labelling of products, corporate reporting, policy formation, and infrastructure selection.
Combining detailed process-specific data with an input-output (IO) framework is typically seen as a labour- and
cost-intensive exercise. Disparate economic and environmental data need to be collated and aligned at a fine
level of detail. In the Australian context, the difficulties are exaggerated by the lack of integrated collections of
economy-wide environmental interventions, and the low sectoral and spatial resolution of ABS IO tables.
The Industrial Ecology Virtual Laboratory (IE-VL) is a novel approach to overcoming the challenges of data
compilation and analysis for hybrid LCA. The IE-VL will create and automatically update a multi-region inputoutput
framework, linking environmental interventions with financial tables at a high level of spatial (substate)
and industry (~500 sectors) disaggregation. It will be housed on the Australian National Research Cloud,
making it easily accessible to the research community for hybrid LCA projects.
This paper will outline the process, strengths and constraints in using the IO-VL system. We will demonstrate
how the IO-VL maximises the use of automation and pre-defined data feeds, in order to minimise manual
manipulation error, ensure repeatability, and provide a tool that can be updated over the long term. The
output capabilities of the IO-VL will be demonstrated through application of a case study.

Dr Mark Lieffering
Senior Scientist, AgResearch Ltd.
Co Author – Dr Stewart Ledgard, Senior Scientist, AgResearch, Mr Mark Boyes, Research Associate, AgResearch.
The GHG footprint of New Zealand manufacturing beef: the importance of allocation and other
methodology factors
A recent study calculated that the GHG footprint of generic beef exported from New Zealand was 2.2 kg CO2-e
per 100 g meat portion; on-farm enteric methane production and nitrous oxide from excreta contributed
about 80% of this total. The footprint was calculated using the weighted average on-farm emissions per kg
live-weight for all cattle (i.e. animals from all the traditional beef systems, as well as cull dairy cows) and
assumed a carcass contained a mix of prime and other cuts as well as the meat used for manufacturing grade
beef. A large proportion of New Zealand exported beef is manufacturing grade beef, with the biggest volume
going to the U.S.A. Manufacturing beef is made predominantly from culled dairy cows, with varying
proportions of bull beef and other cattle types and cuts contributing to the mix.
In this paper we calculate the GHG footprint of manufacturing beef made only from culled dairy cows; we
assumed a live-weight meat yield of 30% and that the carcass produced no prime cuts. We first explored the
effect that allocation between meat and milk had on on-farm GHG emissions: these ranged from 1.3 kg CO2-e
per 100 g meat using biophysical allocation to between 1.0 and 0.6 kg CO2-e per 100 g meat for when
economic allocation was used and the meat value was varied from 10 to 6% respectively. Adding in processing,
transport and consumption emissions means that, depending on the allocation methodology used, the whole
GHG footprint of manufacturing beef from New Zealand culled dairy cows consumed in the U.S.A. can range
from 0.8 to 1.5 kg CO2-e per 100 g meat. These results are comparable to recently published GHG footprints of
chicken and pork grown and consumed in the U.S.A. of 0.7 and 1.2 kg CO2-e per 100 g meat respectively.
Mr Gonzalo Mata
Scientist, CSIRO
Co Authors - Ms Helene Cruypenninck, Lifecycle Strategies Pty Ltd, Dr Sandra Eady, Research Scientist, CSIRO.
Steps to Continuous Improvement Pathway to best practice LCA in developing the AusAgLCI
Inventory
National Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) for agricultural products is essential for enabling environmental impact
studies related to food and fibre. This is particularly the case for agricultural products where differences in
management systems and regional climate, soils and vegetation significantly affect Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
results. For counties like Australia, which export a large proportion of production, provision of national LCI
with regional differentiation gives public access to inventory for cradle-to-farm gate, allowing LCAs to be
completed with robust inventory that reflects the country and region of origin.
This paper examines the process of moving from generic inventory found in common published LCI to more
highly specified inventory that takes into account regional and production system specific inputs and
environmental flows. The steps and tools to enable this transition are presented and discussed based on case
studies from wheat production systems across Australia. These cover the use of agro-ecological classifications

to define production regions, land use maps to define spatial distribution of production systems within
regions, product gross margins to define system inputs and timing of activities, and GIS data to populate
models for pesticide and nutrient fate modelling and farm energy inputs.
Mr Andrew D Moore
Senior Consultant, PE International
Co Authors - Dr Barbara Nebel, Managing Director, PE International, Ms Sheryl Chaffer, Development Manager,
Cedar Woods Properties Limited.
How sustainable are sustainability features on a residential building?
A life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle costing (LCC) study of a typical Western Australian house was
conducted for Cedar Woods and the WA Department of Housing by PE International in 2009. This original
study provided baseline information to which the environmental performance of sustainability features could
be compared.
This study addresses the question: How sustainable are sustainability packages on a residential building, on the
example of a Western Australian house? Four sustainability packages were investigated as part of the study;
solar photovoltaic systems, rainwater tanks, solar hot water systems, and insulation. Each sustainability
package was modelled to include the whole life cycle from raw material extraction, production, transport, use,
and disposal at the end of life. Several variations of each sustainability package were investigated to ensure
that the environmental benefits and impacts for each package were explored in detail (for example different
sizes and types of solar system, types of rainwater tanks, efficiency of rainwater pumps, orientation aspect of
solar hot water system, type of insulation). The results were presented in comparison with the baseline results
that were established in the original study.
The study demonstrated that the sustainability packages can lead to significant reductions in the
environmental impacts of the house over its whole life cycle. The solar photovoltaic systems had the largest
increase in environmental impact associated with their construction but also the greatest reduction in impacts
during the use phase. The rainwater tank systems investigated can reduce the consumption of mains water
without adding significantly to each of the impact categories investigated, depending on the specifications of
the pump. Solar hot water systems can lead to reductions in environmental impact categories even in
comparison to gas storage hot water systems. Insulation also reduces the contribution to all impact categories
regardless of the type of insulation chosen.
Mr Aidan Mullan
Sustainability and Lean Manager, Interface
Co Author - Ms Connie Hensler, Director Corporate LCA Programs, Interface, , .
Effectively Communicating LCA Results Internally and Externally
Effectively translating the complex results of a LCA into understandable and actionable information is
challenging, and should be presented in a way that supports the overall decision making process. The balance

etween the presentation of detailed data and general conclusions can influence how the results are
understood and used. For internal communications, choosing the right graphic is crucial to presenting detailed
data and properly informing the audience. For example, radar graphs displaying multiple impacts can
effectively show relative results between scenarios at a glance, but can also misrepresent the data if not
carefully explained. A combination bubble graph can show normalized data while keeping raw data visible to
give both detail and perspective. A traditional bar graph often thought of as old fashioned or boring, is
sometimes still the most effective way to tell the story. This presentation will provide examples from actual
LCA studies, and will show how presenting detailed data using different graphics can drive various conclusions.
Externally communicating LCAs to provide high-level data and general conclusions of the environmentally
related impacts is a separate challenge.
The publication of critically reviewed studies is the most thorough method for communications; however the
audience for that level of detail is limited. This presentation will show examples of LCA results in marketing
collateral, as well as how the incorporation of LCA results into an ISO 14025 Environmental Product
Declaration (EPD) allows for external communication to a larger audience without sacrificing the rigor of third
party verification.
Mr Aidan Mullan
Sustainability and Lean Manager, Interface
Co Author - Ms Connie Hensler, Director corporate LCA Programs, Interface.
Use of an LCA Study in the Development and registration of an EPD
An Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) is an ISO type III ecolabel requiring life cycle assessment and third
party verification. While EPDs are being adopted in Europe, so far they have little traction in Australia or the
US. Interface is the first carpet manufacturer in Australia to have registered EPDs for its products. EPDs follow
a credible, verifiable process in their development. Companies must have a commitment to full disclosure of
what is usually confidential information about how products are made. In addition to this ingredient
information, companies must perform a life cycle assessment pursuant to ISO 14040 standards with goal and
scope defined by the Product Category Rules (PCR). From this information, an Environmental Product
Declaration is developed, pursuant to ISO 14025 standards. Interface’s first verified and registered EPD (US
market) was for a modular carpet. The PCR was adopted from the IBU (Institut fur Bauen and Umwelt) PCR –
Floor Coverings, Environmental Product Declarations Harmonized Rules for Textile, Laminate and Resilient
Floor coverings, 2008.
The LCA study and the EPD were verified by Five Winds International and the EDP was subsequently registered
with The Green Standard. The process of developing an EPD is extensive and the adoption of EPDs as a
decision making tools in the US is uncertain. The first companies to invest in EPD take a risk in exposing
proprietary information about their products, but hopefully will reap the rewards of the position of
environmental leadership. The value of an EPD beyond demonstrated leadership will depend on the
acceptance of EPDs as a common method for environmental disclosure and guidance for purchasing decisions.
When there’s only one EPD out there, there’s nothing for comparison. When it is commonly available on
products, comparisons can be made to guide purchasing decisions and to assist in understanding the
environmental footprint of larger systems. A trend in Europe is use of EPDs for construction products to
measure the environmental impact of entire buildings. While here in the US, there is less support, but the

transparency made possible with EPDs should make it the standard environmental comparisons between
products
Dr Barbara Nebel
Managing Director, PE INTERNATIONAL
Co Authors - Mr David Drysdale, Consultant, PE Australasia, Mr Ian McGill, Engineering Specialist, Fisher and
Paykel Appliances.
Comparative Analysis of the Use of LCA and Hot Spot Analysis to steer the design of sustainable
refrigerators and sustainability standards for refrigerators
This paper explores the recent use of LCA by Fisher and Paykel Appliances (FPA) and parallel industry activity to
develop a sustainability standard for household refrigerators in a joint effort by the Association of Home
Appliance Manufacturers (AHAM) in the United States, Canadian Standards Association (CSA) and
Underwriters Laboratories Environment (ULe) for North America. During 2011-12 Fisher and Paykel Appliances
conducted an LCA study of three kitchen appliances to inform and steer FPA’s environmental strategy and to
provide an internal benchmark for future product improvement.
The study was conducted by PE INTERNATIONAL. While FPA developed its LCA study, PE was involved in the
development of the AHAM Sustainability Standard for Household Refrigeration Appliances (AHAM 7001-
2012/CSA SPE 7001-2012/UL 7001) which was published in June 2012. The approach for the development of
this standard was to use hot spot analysis as an effective initial step in elucidating the significant
environmental life cycle impacts of refrigeration appliances, as well as a means to balance these impacts with
stakeholder concerns.
These life cycle impacts or “hot spots” – are the pre-cursor to the attributes within the standard. This paper
reports the results of the FPA refrigerator LCA, an analysis of the hotspots identified from this study, and a
comparison with the hot spot analysis conducted during the development of the AHAM refrigerator standard.
The results of the refrigerator hot spots identified by the FPA LCA closely reflect the hotspots identified during
the development of the AHAM standard. The refrigerator hotspots are not centred on a single attribute (e.g.
energy efficiency) but instead include multiple attributes including: materials, energy consumption during use,
manufacturing and operations, product performance, and end-of-life management.
Dr Barbara Nebel
Managing Director, PE INTERNATIONAL
Co Author - Ms Carina Svensson, Programme manager, Swedish Standards Institute.
Trade Promotion through Standardisation in the South and South East (SESA) regions based on the
Carbon Footprinting Standard
Today, many retailers and consumers on the global markets demand that products and services are produced
according to international standards. International standards can therefore function as a supporting tool for
trade, sustainable development and be a crucial factor in order to get access to global markets. During the

development of the ISO standard 14067 for product carbon footprinting it became very clear that developing
countries are concerned about the standard being used as a barrier to trade.
This project addresses this issue and aims to assist developing countries in South and South East Asia through
increased access to markets by local and regional producers by implementing the standard as a tool to support
trade. Another overall goal is to contribute to greenhouse gas mitigation activities within the exporting
sectors.
The project is managed by the Swedish Standards Institute (SIS) and funded through Swedish International
Development Cooperation Agency (Sida). Pilot studies in the following countries on different products will be
developed: Indonesia (hotel stay), Pakistan (electric fans), Bangladesh (plastic products), Nepal (tea), Vietnam
(rubber), Cambodia (rice), Laos (coffee) and Sri Lanka (rubber). By involving local chambers of commerce,
relevant associations, national standardisation bodies as well as companies, the pilot studies will be used to
transfer knowledge in the region and sectors. Communication of the learning process as well as the
development of guidelines will enable other companies in the sector to undertake carbon footprinting.
This paper will present early findings and the approach of involving industry in the implementation of the
standard as a tool to support trade.
Dr Barbara Nebel
Managing Director, PE INTERNATIONAL
Co Author - Mr Alistair Robertson, Managing Director, WE-EF LIGHTING Pty Ltd.
Life cycle assessment for street lighting, including an example of an Environmental Product
Declaration
The designer and manufacturer of luminaires and lighting systems ‘WE-EF LIGHTING’ is using Life Cycle
Assessment to develop its commitment to environmental and resource protection. Initiated by the Australian
arm of the business, a full LCA was undertaken, covering the manufacturing, installation, operation and
recycling. The product in question, coded VFL540, sits within the LED area and street lighting family of
luminaire’s. Energy use and emissions during the operation of the luminaires were assessed based on
representative streets in a range of locations. This inclusion of the energy mix, allows WE-EF to use the results
across a range of markets, in particular the United Sates, South East Asia and Australasia; clients across the
globe can now be provided with meaningful data for their particular location. The full evaluation was
completed with Environmental Product Declarations (EPD) pursuant to ISO 14025. The programme not only
allows the direct and integrated comparison of lighting solutions in terms of the environmental cost, it also
provides WE-EF with valuable data to effect environmentally appropriate improvements to the product design
and the production process. The functional unit of the study was 1 kilometre of street lighting designed to the
appropriate standards and with an operational life of twenty years.
The LCA study used the ‘cradle to grave’ principle and made certain conservative assumptions, the life of the
LED’s mounted on printed circuit boards and the electronic controllers for example was assumed to be 50,000
hours meaning an operational life of 13.7 years. The findings highlight that installation and operation are the
life cycle stages that most influence the results. This in turn points to the importance of high performance
products capable of reducing the quantity employed and the energy consumed.

Dr Caroline Noller
Chief executive officer, The footprint company
Co Author - Ms Hilary Beckmann, Sustainability Manager Property, Macquarie University.
Application of ecological footprint to building development and sustainability strategy.
The Ecological Footprint is a simple and elegant method for quantifying the impact of human consumption of
the planet's biological resources. Developed in the 1990's it has been applied to sustainability policy
development at the country, region and personal level with reasonable success.
This paper will describe the adaption of the Ecological Footprint to building development and planning and
demonstrate through case study, the strengths and weaknesses in relation to building sustainability
assessment.
It will also highlight the gap which exists between current green rating best practice and sustainable built form
in the context of resource constraint. The use of the method to improve cost benefit evaluation of
sustainability features will also be discussed.
Mr Chris Nunn
Sustainability Leader, Norman Disney & Young
Embodied carbon footprinting and life cycle assessment to inform materials selection for 6
underground stations for the Crossrail project in London
This presentation will outline the method used and results of embodied carbon footprinting calculations and
life cycle assessment evaluations of approximately 30 key materials being considered for as architectural
components of 6 new underground train stations in London as part of the Crossrail project. Crossrail is a major
new £16 billion railway infrastructure project that will cross London. It will link towns to the east and west of
London with Heathrow Airport, the West End in central London and the Canary Wharf business district in East
London. Our sustainability consultancy work involved liaising with Crossrail to set priorities and agree a process
for sustainability evaluation of the underground station design, communicating sustainability requirements to
architects, engineers, cost planners and industrial designers, coordinating inputs toward BREEAM certification,
producing and issuing supplier sustainability questionnaires, interviewing suppliers, evaluating supplier
responses and component options using a scoring matrix, and making recommendations about the most
sustainable architectural components for the: floor; walls; ceiling; fixtures; lifts & escalators; communication
systems; signage; and lighting.
This evaluation involved and life cycle evaluation to compare the products being considered, taking into
account the following factors: BRE Green Guide to Specification score; materials intensity; operational carbon
emissions; embodied carbon; recycled content; toxic or hazardous materials; wastage rate; volatile organic
compounds; service life expectations; maintainability considerations; and end of life reuse or disposal options.
The presentation will provide an overview of the method used and sources of data relied on to compare the
products against one another, and highlight the results of the analysis.

Miss Aurélie Perrin
PhD student, Cirad
Co Authors - Dr Claudine Basset-Mens, Researcher, Cirad, Prof Benoit Gabrielle, Professor, AgroParisTech.
The use of a mechanistic model to estimate the emissions of reactive Nitrogen for the Life-Cycle
Assessment of Tomato production in Benin, West Africa
Field emissions and more specifically of reactive nitrogen (Nr) compounds bear a large contribution to the
environmental impacts of agricultural products. In the life-cycle assessment (LCA) of horticultural products, the
methods currently used to estimate Nr emissions appeared unsuitable due to inconsistencies between their
validity domain (annual crops in temperate regions) and the diversity of cropping systems encountered.
The use of mechanistic models represents a promising avenue for better estimating Nr emission in a context of
data scarcity such as horticultural production systems in the Tropics. Here, we compared the LCA results of
tomato production using first the usual methods (ex. IPCC) and then a mechanistic crop model to estimate Nr
emissions. We assessed 12 tomato cropping systems in Benin involving a variety of soils and agricultural
practices. The crop model STICS simulates the main processes underlying Nr emissions: ammonia volatilization,
nitrification, denitrification, and nitrate leaching, as a function of fertilizer input rates and environmental
conditions.
The resulting Nr emissions varied across cropping systems, both in terms of quantity and Nr forms (NH4, N2O
and NO3). Compared to the usual methods for Nr emissions, the model-based LCA results differed in terms of
impacts and contributions of emissions. As measurements of Nr emissions are resource-consuming, this
modeling approach provides a good understanding of key factors responsible for their variations. Future work
involves the implementation of a statistical experiment to quantify the range of potential variations due to
these factors and assess the uncertainties due to missing data.
In addition, the nitrogen balance approach from the STICS model led to a consistent estimation of the three
main Nr emissions. This lance approach already used in European contexts brought perspectives for a
generalized method to set adapted Nr emission factors for horticultural products in the Tropics.
Miss Hannele Pulkkinen
Research Scientist, Agrifood Research Finland, MTT
Co Authors - Miss Hanna Hhartikainen, Research Scientist, Agrifood Research Finland, MTT, Mr Juha-Matti
Katajajuuri, Research Scientist, Agrifood Research Finland, MTT.
Consumer attitudes and desires towards carbon footprints and labels of food products – A Finnish
consumer study
The climate impacts of production and consumption of food are significant. In Finland around 25 % of climate
impacts of private consumption originate from the production and consumption of food, including household
food preparation, food preservation, journeys to shops and meal services. Communication of climate impacts
for food products is highlighted by there being no great reductions made solely by adapting low carbon
technology. Carbon labeling of food products is one significant way of communicating the climate impacts of

food. In fact, thus far six Finnish food companies include carbon labels on their product packages. However,
there is lack of knowledge about how consumers perceive carbon labelling. In the Climate Communication 2
(2011-2013) project Finnish consumers perception about carbon footprinting and information needs were
studied.
The study consisted of 5 semi-structured focus groups and one online-survey with over 1000 respondents.
Both the focus groups and online-survey showed that the product carbon footprint -term is familiar to many
Finnish consumers. Nevertheless, the term is generally misunderstood. Finnish consumers describe product
carbon footprint either too broadly (e.g. total environmental load) or too narrowly (e.g. energy use).
Furthermore, terms “climate impact” and “global warming” are seldom spontaneously related to carbon
footprint.
There are positive attitudes towards communicating product carbon footprints, though, but the information
on product carbon footprints can become important purchasing criteria only when other key criteria, such as
price and taste, are satisfied. In other words, carbon label could have a positive impact on Finnish consumers’
purchase decisions only when the choice is to be made between two otherwise equal food products.
Additionally, there are divergent desires for type and form of the information on product carbon footprints
e.g. on carbon label designs. These consumer information desires will be discussed further in the presentation.
Miss Hannele Pulkkinen
Research Scientist, MTT Agrifood Research Finland
Co Authors - Mr Juha-Matti Katajajuuri, Research Area Manager, MTT Agrifood Research Finland, Miss Hanna
Hartikainen, Research Scientist, MTT Agrifood Research Finland.
Co-operation within food industry - disclosing carbon footprints in a meaningful way
Life cycle thinking is spreading among companies around the world. Growing efforts to mitigate climate
change and development of life cycle assessment methodologies have pushed and enabled also food sector to
act. In Finland national carbon footprint methdology for food sector has been developed and the industry has
been brought together to discuss on common communication of product carbon footprints. Despite the
activities of the industry, more knowledge on LCA is still needed in the sector and among its stakeholders, and
specially, active companies need to be engouraged to be more open of their activities. It has been
acknowledged that when LCA is used for communication to third parties, it is critical to bring together different
industries in order to develop harmonised methodology. The national methodology is based on the existing
generic international standards and guidelines, as well as, best existing practises of LCA methodologies on
food. The guidelines are more practical than other standards for food sector, offering clear rules to assessment
makers in decision making situations they face when conducting LCA and aiming towards more comparable
carbon footprinting. Workshops have been organised nearly twice a year for past three years.
To create a commonly accepted guidelines, there were several workshops among stakeholders, and hearings
of several LCA experts. In the workshops also different kind of carbon labels have been evaluated, latest
international developments and new research results, problems in conducting product carbon footprint
studies and common approach to communication has been discussed.
The hopes are high that in future the active co-operation in the industry will lead to more reliable and
harmonised product carbon footprint studies and which would be communicated to consumers in

understandable and meaningful way. For now, challenges, such as open discussion between food companies
or creation of a common approach to communication, still remains.
Miss Hannele Pulkkinen
Research Scientist, MTT Agrifood Research Finland
Co Author - Mr Juha-Matti Katajajuuri, Research Area Manager, MTT Agrifood Research Finland.
Reducing environmental footprints in agriculture - a combined beef and dairy production
The food sector, and especially the beef and dairy production, is responsible for a large share of environmental
impacts of Finnish private consumption. System innovations in beef and dairy production have a large
potential to reduce the environmental footprints also as it is a system which both requires and provides
nutrients. The long supply chain will act as a challenging case study aiming at closed nutrient loop by optimal
nutrient use throughout the entire production chain from fertilizer production through cultivation to animal
production. This will require system analysis and inclusion of many experts along the chain and will give a
holistic view for stakeholders of the importance of nutrient recycling in their business environment and will
provide insights for policy makers on how to stimulate transition towards sustainable nutrient economy.
The case study starts with a holistic, detailed carbon footprint and nutrient balance and nutrient footprint
evaluation of the current different beef and milk production systems. In addition, utilizing scenario techniques
and expert assessments, other footprint reduction methods are investigated, such as concentrate feed protein
modifications and manure handling methods. Then the study goes further by investigating those desirable
system changes which have the largest potential to improve efficient nutrient use and reduce nutrient and
other environmental footprints. The potential of optimizing nutrient use, fertilization in feed production using
manure and/or synthetic fertilizers, feeding intensity and composition to mitigate environmental footprints
will be given a special focus.
To avoid -optimization, this will be done by assessing nutrient footprints and also others environmental
footprints such as carbon and acidification of current feeding and entire beef and dairy production systems. A
holistic view will be used for the assessment of the nutrient footprint and its improvements and different
improvement options, and also assessment of other footprints and their improvements towards sustainability.
Mrs Catherine Rae
Sustainability Analyst, Amcor Limited
Supporting Flexible Packaging Conversion using LCA
There is a growing trend for the conversion of rigid packaging to flexible formats across a range of products
and for a variety of reasons. Flexible packaging can offer advantages in terms of cost, enables packaging
companies to help their customers to meet packaging reduction goals, and provides increasing functionality to
consumers with features such as easy open, microwavable, and refill packs, amongst many other innovative
developments. However, recycling of flexible packaging from consumer products is limited, and the typical

need to landfill these materials in Australia creates a perception of a poorer environmental outcome to
consumers well versed in recycling.
Life cycle assessment is a critical tool to show the environmental benefit of conversion to flexible packaging,
which is counter-intuitive to those focussed on recycling. Packaging companies then have a role to play in
communicating the results, not just to the customer but also to the consumer through the medium of the
packaging itself. There are opportunities to influence the outcome further by ensuring that end of life
instructions are clearly communicated, removing confusion for consumers.
At Amcor, our proprietary LCA tool, ASSET, is used to quantify the benefits of packaging development projects.
ASSET uses respected international databases and company information to enable quick comparison of
multiple packaging formats. ASSET covers all stages of the packaging life cycle, and is certified by the Carbon
Trust to PAS 2050:2008 for cradle to gate greenhouse gas calculations. Three LCA studies are presented as
examples of the benefits of flexible packaging and the output of ASSET, comparing the environmental impacts
of rigid containers with flexible packs for coffee, drinking yoghurt and detergent.
Dr Marguerite Renouf
Adjunct Lecturer, The University of Queensland
Co Author - Mr Carlos Fujita-Dimas, Post-graduate student, The University of Queensland.
Application of LCA in agriculture and food in Australia – a review
LCA studies conducted on Australian agriculture and food production systems and products have been
reviewed to understand the status of LCA work in the agri-food sector. Around 30 published studies
undertaken between 2000 and 2012 underwent a structured review to identify the scope of products /
processes assessed, the purpose of the studies, the scope of the assessments (system boundaries, impact
categories), and the approaches taken in inventory development and impact assessment. Observations were
then made about the intent and coverage of work to date and trends in methodological approaches, leading to
a critique of gaps in knowledge and opportunities for improving the value of agriculture LCA in Australia.
The review found that many important Australian agricultural products (livestock for meat, dairy and wool,
wheat, canola, sugarcane, some horticulture products and cotton) have been examined to various extents. The
intent of most has been exploratory to identify environmental hotspots, and studies of meat products have
also aimed at allowing meaningful comparisons between competing products. Studies have predominantly
been partial LCAs, representing generic processes, with scopes limited to agricultural processes up to the farm
gate, and focusing on global warming potential using default greenhouse gas emission factors.
Few studies have assessed the broad spectrum of impact categories, or evaluated the full supply chain of
agricultural products. Products found to be under-represented in published work to date are fruit, vegetables,
nuts, grains other than wheat and canola, and aquaculture products.
While past studies have allowed the global warming impacts of Australian agricultural processes to be well
understood, there is still a considerable gap in our understanding of other impact categories (eutrophication,
eco-toxicity, water use, land transformation), which may be more significant for this sector. The significance of
Australian agriculture in the context of the full supply chain has also not been well assessed to date.

Dr Marguerite Renouf
Adjunct Lecturer, The University of Queensland
Co Authors - Dr Peter Allsopp, Manager, Cropping Systems & Technology Support, BSES Limited, Ms Nicole
Price, Research Officer, The University of Queensland.
CaneLCA tool to support practice change decision making in sugarcane growing
CaneLCA is a customised LCA tool for Australian sugarcane growing that aims to make LCA more accessible to
the sugar industry. It was developed in response to expectations that the industry adopt sustainable
sugarcane-growing practices, driven by government water quality protection measures for the Great Barrier
Reef, but also by opportunities to benefit from greenhouse gas abatement through the Carbon Farming
Initiative. CaneLCA can be used by sugar industry extension advisors to help sugarcane famers understand the
eco-efficiency of different cane growing practices and make informed decisions about practice changes. It
differs from existing LCA-based tools for agriculture because it caters for the complexities of sugarcane
cropping, assesses a range of impacts (not just carbon footprint), and allows users to extensively alter and
compare operations.
In this paper we demonstrate the use of CaneLCA for assessing practice change, by applying it to some typical
practice change scenarios, and generating indicators for non-renewable energy use, carbon footprint, water
use, eutrophication and eco-toxicity. The results show the potential for environmental benefits from many of
the practice changes being adopted in the industry, but with possible downsides for others. It shows how
CaneLCA can identify and communicate sources of, and changes in, environmental impacts so that practice
change can be optimised.
We also discuss feedback received from users, which has guided the tool’s development. Industry input has
been crucial for ensuring the effectiveness of the tool. It has led us to present the LCA results as eco-efficiency
indicators rather than absolute impact values, use more meaningful terminology to name the eco-efficiency
indicators, include a single eco-efficiency score, and match data entry requirements to industry protocols. It
has also identified possible future enhancements, such as integration with farm profitability calculators to
better inform practice change decisions, and to enable automatic data feed from farm data management
systems (if used) to avoid duplication of data collection.
Dr Bradley Ridoutt
Principal Research Scientist, CSIRO
Co Authors - Dr Marlies Zonderland-Thomassen, AgResearch, New Zealand, Dr Stewart Ledgard, AgResearch,
New Zealand.
Water footprint: Application of a new single-indicator calculation method to New Zealand milk
production
The development of impact assessment models for water use in LCA has been an active research topic in
recent years, supported by a project group working under the auspices of the UNEP-SETAC Life Cycle Initiative
(Kounina et al. 2012 International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0519-3). These
new methods are filling an important gap in LCA. Water is a critical resource supporting human and ecosystem

health and water use is an important environmental burden in many product systems, especially in the
agriculture, food and energy sectors. Also important is a new international standard for water footprint (ISO
14046) which is at an advanced stage of development. This new standard, coherent with the ISO 14040 series
and environmental metrics such as carbon footprint, will support water use assessment in LCA generally and
have particular relevance where LCA studies are used for environmental reporting and labeling purposes.
According to ISO 14046, impacts related to both consumptive and degradative water use (pollution) need to
be assessed. Due to the range of environmental mechanisms involved and the absence of a single midpoint
indicator that is relevant to all the many potential impact pathways, the reporting of results as a profile of
impact category indicators has been common, and meeting the market demand for a single stand-alone water
footprint indicator (comparable to the carbon footprint) has been problematic.
We present a new water footprint calculation method integrating consumptive and degradative water use into
a single score (Ridoutt and Pfister 2012 International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment DOI 10.1007/s11367-
012-0458-z) and demonstrate its use with case study dairy systems in Waikato and Canterbury, New Zealand
(Zonderland-Thomassen and Ledgard SF 2012 Agricultural Systems 110, 30-40). The results highlight the need
for improved nutrient management to reduce water footprints in these systems.
Ms Alison Rothwell
PhD Student, University of Western Sydney
Application of Consequential LCA to a “Wicked” Peri-Urban Problem
The Australian Public Service (APS) has stated that they are increasingly being tasked with what have been
termed ‘wicked’ problems requiring policy responses (APSC 2007). Wicked problems involve complex issues
where there is disagreement on the nature, scope and solution (for example, climate change). The decision to
displace horticulture through urbanisation of peri-urban land in the Sydney basin can be seen as a wicked
problem: it is the result of multiple causal factors; involves high levels of disagreement between stakeholders;
is socially complex; and has no verifiably right solution. The stakes are high as once urbanised, land is not
typically reclaimed. Linear thinking is not suitable to solve such problems. Instead, the solution lies in how to
best manage the decision to urbanise. According to the APS, holistic responses utilising high level systems
thinking are required in order to generate sustainable policy responses. The decision to extract land for
urbanisation is typically based on economics. With natural capital providing a limited flow of goods that
support civilization, it is vitally important to make optimal land use decisions that best support an increasingly
uncertain future. However the environmental consequences of the decision to urbanise are not typically
measured. A consequential LCA (CLCA) approach enables a method that provides quantifiable evidence of
environmental impacts associated with land use decision consequences.
This presentation illustrates how a consequential LCA method was used to compare scenarios: different
housing systems (greenfield versus infill) were combined with different horticultural land use options (local
versus interstate production) for peri-urban Sydney, using lettuce production in a case study approach.
Environmental impacts including greenhouse gas emissions and cumulative energy demand were compared.
Results per hectare of land indicate that environmental impacts are dominated by housing system, rather than
horticultural system.

This CLCA case study provides an example of how land use options in the Sydney basin can provide both
housing and food, at lower relative emissions and energy requirements. Using CLCA provides an innovative
systems-based solution to inform a complex decision, providing environmental data that may balance
economic growth as a sustainable policy objective. (Reference APSC 2007, Tackling Wicked Problems A Public
Policy perspective, Australian Public Service Commission (APSC) viewed 28 November 2011,
http://www.apsc.gov.au/publications-and-media/archive/publications-archive/tackling-wicked-problems,
Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra.)
Mr Rob Rouwette
Director, start2see
Co Author - Mr Brian Au, Director, RESET Carbon Limited, Mr Byford Tsang, Consultant, RESET Carbon Limited.
LCA: supercharged
This paper presents a case study where LCA is being used in a fast, practical manner to inform the client's
product design and marketing strategy. The client, a starting primary battery manufacturer in Hong Kong,
intended to create a new type of battery with the lowest possible environmental impact. The initial battery
design was based on functionality and a high level understanding of environmental impacts. The key focus was
on retrieving the highest possible percentage of materials during a typical battery recycling process. A
streamlined LCA quickly showed that there were some "hidden" issues in the raw material supply chain that
would have significant effects for the battery's environmental performance. The client used this information to
make critical changes to the design and research various alternatives.
During a follow up meeting we assessed the possibilities in real time and a decision on the changes of the final
design was locked in. By dealing directly with the CEO ecause the client contact was the key decision maker we
were able to implement changes at great speed. Using a life cycle approach has saved the client significant
costs (marketing as well as raw material costs), has improved their chances of gaining a positive reputation,
reduced the weight of their product by half and reduced environmental impacts. We are currently preparing
an ISO compliant LCA that will be independently reviewed and is scheduled for completion around March/April
2013.
Dr Fabian Sack
Principal, Fabian Sack & Associates
Co Authors - Dr Maartje Sevenster, Principal, Sevenster Environmental Consultancy, Ms Louise Pastro,
Manager, Sustainability and Stakeholder Engagement, Focus Press.
The story behind the page – social–Life Cycle Assessment of Focus Press
As part of a move toward “Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment”, social LCA (S-LCA) is a necessary extension of
traditional, environmental LCA. Since the release of the Unep/Setac LCI guidelines for S-LCA in 2009 only a
handful of those assessments have been performed (e.g. Ekener and Finnveden, IJLCA, 2012) despite the fact
that social sustainability attracts a lot of interest. One of the complexities lies in the lack of data for the level of

disaggregation normally required for process LCA. Quantitative data for social indicators are typically available
at the level of nations.
Thus issues such as relating inventory data to the reference flow for the functional unit and determining
materiality are complicated. Economic Input/Output tables may provide some of the background data. We will
present results of a innovative Australian print industry case study, covering both social and environmental
impacts, with international production chains involving countries with different social issues.
We will discuss benefits and limitations of the process from perspective both of the practitioners and of the
client. Interpretation of results and suitability for decision support will receive specific attention.
Ms Julie Sandilands
Solution Manager, PE INTERNATIONAL
Co Author - Miss Oy Cheng Phang, Principal Consultant, PE INTERNATIONAL Malaysia
Challenges, Opportunities and Success Factors in conducting the Carbon Footprint Study in
Malaysian Port
During COP15, Malaysia’s Prime Minister restated Malaysia’s commitment to reduce national carbon intensity
by up to 40% by 2020 from 2005 levels. This statement was restated during the 3rd International Green
Technology Conference (IGEM) in October 2012 to call for a greater concerted and pragmatic move from the
industries towards a lower carbon development. However, the low response rate (13.33% in 2011, 11.43% in
2012) from the Malaysia industries towards the annual survey conducted by Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP),
suggests that more awareness are required for meeting the 40% carbon reduction target. As part of this
initiative and commitment, Bintulu Port has committed to becoming the first Green Port in Malaysia. Arising
from this commitment, Bintulu Port embarked on a carbon footprinting exercise to determine their baseline
carbon emissions and to identify opportunities for reduction. PE INTERNATIOAL Malaysia was called in to
provide assistance in this endeavour.
This study present the challenges, limitations and opportunities from conducting a carbon footprint exercise
for a Malaysian port. The methodology undertaken for this exercise was in accordance to the GHG Protocol
(March 2004). Due to uncertainties regarding the methodological aspects (especially the Scope 3 emissions),
data quality, lack of awareness and understanding from the departments were associated with several
challenges. Outcome of the study showed that the vessels activities within the Port (vessels manuvering and
berthing), which also the Scope 3 emissions were the largest source of carbon footprint.
This coincides well with typical a service sector. Moreover, the method of how PE INTERNATIONAL works with
Bintulu Port in developing the carbon reduction plan will be discussed in this paper. Finally, the success factors
and the potentials in using carbon footprint in business communication for a port will be presented in this
paper.

Miss Julia Seddon
Group Environment Manager, Inghams Enterprises Pty Limited
Co Author - Mr Jonas Bengtsson, Director, Edge Environment.
Environmental impact of Inghams chicken products and options for product facing labelling
This paper presents the results of the LCA of chicken production by Inghams Enterprises, a major poultry
producer in Australia. This study was funded by a grant from Woolworths to explore environmental impact of
Inghams chicken products and options for product facing labelling. Of specific interest was the comparative
environmental impact of conventional and free-range chicken production, as well as fresh produce versus
further processed products such as chicken schnitzel.
The scope of the study was cradle to and including retail handling. Foreground data were obtained from
Inghams’ internal and external reports; background data were modelled in the SimaPro software. The life cycle
impact assessment includes 12 environmental impact categories, characterized at midpoint, normalised per
capita Australia and weighted into Australian ecopoints. Allocation of impact between co-products were based
the associated economic wholesale price of roaster chicken and breast fillet in relation to the average overall
production output value.
The results confirm previous research in that upstream feed production is the largest impact area of the
chicken meat supply chain, contributing approximately half of the overall impact and two thirds of the overall
water consumed for chicken meat. This highlights the importance of productivity measures, such as feed
conversion ratio, on the environmental performance of chicken meat. Poultry farm operation contributes
approximately one third of the overall impact, primarily from manure emissions and energy used in chicken
housing, and over half of non-renewable energy consumption. Meat processing is the third largest impact
source with approximately 10% of the overall impact.
All other life cycle stages combine to less than 10% of the overall impact. Attempts to benchmark the results
with the Australian RIRDC chicken meat LCA and international studies highlighted the need for a consistent
and level playing field methodology for the food sector in order for LCA to provide meaningful and reliable
input into businesses decision-making and for product comparisons.
Dr Maartje Sevenster
Director, Sevenster Environmental
Delayed GHG emissions : limitations of the ILCD approach
In life-cycle assessment (LCA) and carbon foot printing (CFP), climate neutrality of so-called short-cycle carbon
dioxide emissions has always been accepted as a given. The inevitable question that arises from this practice is
for what time separation of uptake and emission the carbon cycle can no longer be called 'short'. To avoid an
arbitrary cut off, current methodology development focuses on delayed emissions (see Brandao et al., January
2013), e.g. the recommendations of the ILCD Handbook.

The ILCD Handbook has considerable standing in providing guidance to best practice LCA, with practitioners as
well as industry bodies, that refer to the Handbook in e.g. product category rules. The current draft ISO
standard 14067 states that the effect of delaying emissions (by more than ten years) may be included in
inventory and reported as a separate item. As practitioners will have to make a – well founded – choice on
how to calculate those effects (no recommendation is given in the draft ISO standard), it is important to be
aware of the limitations of fully linear approaches such as ILCD (and similarly PAS2050). We assess the
influence of the profile of emissions as a function of time and propose some limited-linear approaches that
more closely follow results of dynamic modeling.
Dr Maartje Sevenster
Director, Sevenster Environmental
Natural land transformation in comparative LCA.
Natural land transformation is not only a major cause of biodiversity loss but also one of the large contributors
to global greenhouse gas emissions. A complex issue in LCA and foot printing is how to attribute this land
transformation to particular products. While foot printing standards typically apply a 'worst case' direct
attribution, there is a move towards averaged, indirect attribution (Cranfield report). While there is no doubt
that agricommodity markets are very much intertwined, this approach does not leave a lot of perspective for
producer responsibility as on of the solutions.
In a recent study for a Dutch NGO, we looked into the issue of replacing South American soy by alternative
ingredients in cattle feed. We will report on the findings regarding minimum conditions that need to be
satisfied in order to limit the pressure on South American ecosystems with some certainty, both via direct and
indirect mechanisms. The approach provides a step forward in the discussion on environmental consequences
of replacing South American soy. We will apply the findings to the Australian context.
Dr Maartje Sevenster
Director, Sevenster Environmental
QuestionMark: LCA made easy - consumer app providing full life cycle information
Mid 2012, a new smartphone App was launched in the Netherlands.
It provides people in supermarkets with information on life-cycle impacts of a product when they
scan the barcode.
The App uses impacts from an extensive life cycle inventory database containing more than 100
production chains of meat, dairy and alternative meat products. Next to typical LCA endpoint
indicators, a quantitative evaluation of animal welfare as well as several other issues is made. The
App has been very popular in the first year of its existence and recently 7 million Euro was granted
for extending the concept to include more product groups as well as additional impact categories.

Miss Helene Sterzik
PhD Student, Massey University
Co Author - A/Prof Sarah McLaren, Associate Professor, Massey University, Dr Anthony Hume, Senior Advisor,
Landcare Research.
Challenges and Enablers for Successful LCM Uptake in the New Zealand Kiwifruit Industry
New Zealand relies heavily on agricultural production of primary products which is intimately connected with
the natural environment. Therefore, proactive integration of sustainability into business practices is
particularly important for primary industries to reinforce the country’s ‘clean and green’ image and strengthen
competitiveness in the global market place [1-3]. One approach to incorporate environmental sustainability
into company operations, management and strategies is the implementation of Life Cycle Management (LCM)
initiatives.
However, research focusing on individual organisations has shown that the majority of them, particularly small
and medium sized enterprises (SMEs), still struggle to effectively manage and mitigate environmental impacts
[4, 5]. An alternative approach is to focus on overcoming the LCM implementation challenges through
activities initiated at the level of an industry sector. That will potentially allow cost and time effective LCM
implementation in any industry sector.
For this research a framework has been developed that visualises and assesses the various drivers and
enablers to successful LCM uptake within an industry sector. It is based on a literature review on
environmental management in SMEs, supply chain management and technology transfer. The latter two are
closely related to the concept of LCM since knowledge about LCM needs to be communicated effectively to
and between the organisations that are linked in a product life cycle. The main criteria in the framework
include structure of the sector, resources, culture, recognition of environmental issues, market requirements,
distance to markets, communication and networks. The framework has been tested in the New Zealand
kiwifruit industry using a combination of quantitative and qualitative research methods. The findings from the
face-to-face interviews with growers, packhouses and the industry board show that the New Zealand kiwifruit
industry sees limited financial resources and the long distance to markets as major barriers. However, the
industry benefits from its unique structure characterised by almost all growers using the single kiwifruit
marketing desk and its proactive stance on environmental issues. References 1. Green Growth Advisory Group,
Greening New Zealand's Growth. 2011. 2. McLaren, S., Defining a Role for Sustainable Consumption Initiatives
In New Zealand. 3. Pure Advantage, New Zealand's Position in the Green Race, 2012. p. 58. 4. Hillary, R., Small
and medium-sized enterprises and the environment: business imperatives2000: Greenleaf Publishing. 5.
Seidel, M., et al., Overcoming Barriers to Implementing Environmentally Benign Manufacturing Practices:
Strategic Tools for SMEs. Environmental Quality Management, 2009: p. 37-55.

Mr Wymond Symes
Consultant, Catalyst Ltd
The impact of methodology and data on calculating enteric fermentation emissions for the New
Zealand dairy goat industry
In agricultural LCA studies involving livestock there are two methods for determining GHG emissions from
enteric fermentation. A Tier 1 approach applies a default annual methane value, sourced from IPCC guidelines
or local studies, to each animal species. A Tier 2 approach is country specific and calculates emissions from
feed intake data, either measured or estimated based on energy requirements and dietary composition. New
Zealand has a growing dairy goat industry which is actively investigating its environmental impact. In 2012 a
scoping study on the life cycle carbon footprint of on farm production was performed on case study farms in
the Waikato.
Like most livestock agricultural systems, the biggest contributor to GHG emissions was found to be enteric
fermentation. Using the Tier 1 approach we determined enteric fermentation emissions to range between 8.6
and 12.0 tonne methane (CH4) for a single farm over 3 consecutive seasons. Applying Tier 2 methodology to
the same farm emissions ranged between 16.0 and 21.9 tonne CH4. For the Tier 1 approach the emission
factors (EF) used in New Zealand’s national GHG inventory (8.6 kg CH4/head/annum) was applied. For the Tier
2 approach methane emissions were based on estimated dry matter (DM) intake values and an EF of 20.9g
CH4/kg DM (OVERSEER® Technical Bulletin).
The difference, nearly 2-fold, has been attributed to some of the assumptions made in estimating DM intake
and highlights the uncertainty associated with currently available data. This paper will discuss how DM intake
values were calculated and compare this approach to that taken for the Tier 1 emission factor used, identify
what data is missing for a comprehensive Tier 2 method, and discuss the challenges a relatively small industry
may have in meeting the requirements for Tier 2 data.
Mrs Katie Symons
Senior Engineer, Ramboll
Co Authors - Dr Alice Moncaster, Senior Research Associate, University of Cambridge, Dr Digby Symons,
University Lecturer, University of Cambridge.
An application of the CEN/TC350 standards to an Energy and Carbon LCA of timber used in
construction, and the effect of end-of-life scenarios.
The use of timber products in construction in Europe is increasing; this is coinciding with an increasing
awareness of the energy and carbon impacts of the construction, maintenance and demolition of buildings
(known as embodied energy and carbon), in addition to the more commonly assessed and well-regulated
operational impacts. Businesses are keen to be able to present reliable and robust figures for embodied energy
and carbon to inform design and procurement decisions, but are currently struggling, as agreement on Life
Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodologies to apply in these situations is not finalised.

This paper describes the LCA approach presented in the European Standards suite CEN/TC350, and assesses
the results when it is applied to timber, particularly innovative heavyweight construction products and
techniques, such as cross laminated timber. Comparisons of the energy and carbon impacts of timber with
different end-of-life scenarios (such as incineration with energy recovery and landfill disposal) and the
treatment of the carbon ‘sequestered’ within timber products is discussed. Availability and quality of data for
energy and carbon LCA of timber in construction is examined. Results from an energy and carbon LCA tool
developed in the UK at the University of Cambridge are presented, and the relative impact of each life cycle
phase, as well as timber and other construction materials used in a traditional UK domestic building is
analysed.
A sensitivity analysis of these results to the end-of-life scenario adopted and different timber construction
systems is presented. Finally, the energy and carbon impacts of a larger home-grown timber construction
industry in the Australasia region is assessed, including quantifying the energy and carbon savings that could
be made by using local (rather than Austrian) sources for the timber used in the Forte building in Melbourne,
and potential energy and carbon implications to the post-earthquake rebuilding of Christchurch.
Dr Mark Tatam
Technical Manager, Kingspan Insulated Panels Pty Ltd
Co Author - Mr Jonas Bengtsson, Director, Edge Environment Pty Ltd.
Environmental Product Declarations : A Building Industry Experience for Kingspan Insulated Panels
Kingspan have been publicly publishing its global sustainability performance for the last six years as part of a
Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) to promote economic, environmental and social sustainability. A key part of
this has been the development of environmental product declarations (EPDs) and labels for their insulated
panels range.
The overall goal of publishing EPDs and labels is to encourage the demand for, and supply of, those products
that cause less impact on the environment, through communication of verifiable and accurate information
that is not misleading, thereby stimulating the potential for market-driven continuous environmental
improvement. In 2011 Kingspan commissioned Edge Environment to conduct a LCA study of their range of
insulated panel products for roof, wall and controlled environment applications produced in Australia, in order
to establish rigorous environmental credentials for external communications. The study was conducted in
accordance with the Building Products Life Cycle Inventory (BP LCI) methodology developed by Australian
building product manufacturers under the auspices of the Building Products Innovation Council (BPIC).
The study was peer-reviewed by PE International in the UK and the results published as a self-declaration
following the ISO 14025 format for Type III EPDs, in the absence of an Australian or New Zealand EPD
programme. The EPD of embodied performance in combination with extensive energy modelling of whole
building operational performance was first published and presented at the GBCA Green Cities Conference in
2012.
This paper presents the Australian Kingspan business and its staff’s learnings and experiences from developing
EPDs. It also describes the new challenges for Kingspan – for example how EPDs are effectively communicated
by Kingspan, and how they are interpreted and used in the marketplace by green product leaders.

Mr Bill Thompson
Boral Plasterboard
Industry Update - Gyspum Board Manufacturer's of Australasia
The GBMA was a leader in commissioning an industry based LCI on a cradle to grave basis encompassing all
plasterboard manufacturers in Australia and New Zealand. The resulting industry average life cycle assessment
data is publicly available and forms the basis of the GBMA’s entry in the BPIC database. An update of activities
since then, including amendments required for inclusion in the AusLCI database will be presented.
Dr Pep Turner
Ecologist, School of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Tasmania
Co Authors: Fabiano Ximenes, SW Dept. of Primary Industries, Dr. Trent Penman, University of Wollongong,
Dr Brad Law, NSW Dept of Primary Industries, Dr Cathy Waters, NSW Dept of Primary Industries, Matthew Mo,
NSW Dept. of Primary Industries, Dr Pip Brock, Port Stephens Fisheries Centre
Accounting for biodiversity in Life Cycle Impact Assessments of forestry and agricultural systems
There are currently no globally appropriate means of assessing biodiversity within the LCA framework. A new
project is under way to test a new method proposed to address the issue of accounting for biodiversity
impacts in LCA. The approach relies on literature review and expert opinions through a series of questions
which aim to encapsulate the main issues relating to biodiversity within a disturbance impact framework. This
project will test the applicability of this model using two forest industry case studies (native and plantation
forestry) and a case study from the agricultural sector (cropping). Using a series of quantitative questions,
biodiversity impacts are estimated for each taxonomic group (e.g. flora, mammals, diurnal birds, frogs and
invertebrates) and then scaled to an overall biodiversity measure.
In this talk we will provide some background on the proposed method, outline the current project and some
preliminary results based on an initial literature review and a survey of ecologists to refine proposed questions
to be addressed by the method.
Mr Stephen Wiedemann
Agricultural Scientist, FSA Consulting
Co Authors - Ms Caoilinn Murphy, Project engineer, FSA Consulting, Mr Eugene McGahan, Senior Engineer, FSA
Consulting.
Greenhouse gas mitigation strategies for livestock production: what are the impacts on resource
use?
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) is an important objective for Australian farmers supported by
government legislation (i.e. the Carbon Farming Initiative – CFI). However, there has been little investigation of
changes to other environmental impacts when targeting GHG mitigation.

This study investigated two farm-gate GHG mitigation strategies for beef and pork production and examined
the impact on energy, water and cultivated land use. The emission profile of both beef and pork is dominated
by one major source; enteric methane (beef) and manure management methane (conventional pork). For beef
cattle, mitigation strategies for grower cattle included i) feedlot finishing, and ii) grazing on irrigated Leucaena.
Both strategies worked by improving growth rates and via diet modification to reduce enteric methane.
The pig GHG mitigation strategies focussed on changed housing systems to remove manure management
conditions favourable to methane production. Both beef mitigation strategies reduced emissions per kilogram
of live-weight (25% for feedlot finishing, 29% for finishing on Leucaena) compared to the baseline scenario
(grass finished 600 kg LW steer). However, energy use increased more than two-fold for feedlot beef and
water use increased markedly for grazing on irrigated Leucaena. Both scenarios required more cultivated land
use. For pigs, outdoor housing during breeding reduced GHG emissions and water use by 21% and 24%
respectively compared to the baseline. However, energy and grain use were both higher because of the
system’s poorer breeding efficiency. Deep litter growing-finishing resulted in 44% lower GHG and a
concomitant reduction in both water (36% decrease) and energy (8% decrease) compared to conventional
housing. However, both systems tend to provide poorer growing conditions for pigs, resulting in inferior
performance compared to conventional housing. The results highlight the importance of a broader impact
assessment process to determine where GHG mitigation can be achieved without ‘burden shifting’ to other
impact categories.

Shortform
Presenters
PATHWAYS TO
GREENING GLOBAL
MARKETS
ALCAS

Dr Wahidul Biswas
Senior Lecturer, Curtin University
Co Author - Mrs Deborah Engelbrecht, PhD Candidate and Research Assistant, Curtin University.
A life cycle assessment of annual, fertilised perennial and unfertilised perennial pastures
The livestock industry contributes significantly to Australia’s greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions profile. Perennial
pastures are considered to be more economically and environmentally sustainable system than annual
pastures. Despite these facts, GHG emissions from the production of beef are considerably higher than other
products. Therefore, this research aims to assess the GHG from beef production from three different pasture
systems in Western Australia.
A life cycle assessment (LCA) has been carried out to determine the greenhouse gas emissions from the
production of one kilogram of carcass beef from annual, fertilised perennial and unfertilised perennial
pastures. The system boundary of the LCA life cycle assessment mainly considers two stages: pre-farm and onfarm.
Beef production from the fertilised perennial pasture produce more GHG emissions than that from the
annual and unfertilised perennial pastures. Enteric emissions accounted for a significant portion of GHG
emissions from both types of pastures considered.
Dr Philippa Brock
Leader, Life Cycle Assessment, Department of Primary Industries
Co Authors - Mr Douglas Alcock, Livestock Officer, Department of Primary Industries, Mr Patrick Madden,
Senior Economist, Department of Primary Industries.
Overcoming methodological dilemmas when calculating greenhouse gas emissions for wool
production: the application of LCA.
A single-issue LCA was conducted to determine the greenhouse gas emissions profile and carbon footprint of
19 micron wool produced in the Yass Region (NSW). Total emissions were found to be 24.9 kg CO2-e per kg of
greasy wool at the farm gate, based on a 4941 breeding ewe enterprise on 1000 ha, with a total greasy wool
yield of 65.32 tonnes per annum. The co-products included 1474 tonnes sheep meat as liveweight from
wethers and cull ewes plus 978 maiden ewes sold off-farm.
The relative contribution of different components of the production system was determined. Direct emissions
of methane on-farm (86% of total) was the dominant emission, followed by nitrous oxide emitted from animal
wastes directly (5%) and indirectly (5%), and decomposition of pasture residue (1%). Only 2% of total
emissions were embodied in farm inputs, including fertiliser. Enteric methane production was calculated using
five recognised methods and results were found to vary by 27%. As these differences are primarily driven by
feed intake, we are exploring opportunities to obtain field data for this attribute. Calculated emissions for wool
production changed substantially, under an economic allocation method, by changing the enterprise emphasis
from wool to meat production (41% decrease) and by changing wool price (29% variability), fibre diameter
(23% variability) and fleece weight (11% variability).

Given the dramatic difference in allocated emissions between wool and meat focussed enterprises, simple
subtraction of emissions determined for a meat-dominant enterprise as with a systems expansion allocation
method, effectively reduces emissions allocated to wool to that of a meat-dominant enterprise. As enterprise
profitability is heavily reliant on co-production, reduced demand for wool will result in substitution of meat
with that from other sources, with uncertain market connections. Therefore, we undertake economic
allocation. We present data about variability and discuss assumptions, to enable ongoing development of
robust livestock LCAs.
Annette Cowie
Director, Rural Climate Solutions, University of New England
Co Author - Brendan George, Lukas Van Zwieten.
Biomass for bioenergy or biochar: USING LCA to assess which delivers greater climate benefits
Pyrolysis produces renewable energy products (syngas and bio-oil) and a solid that can be used as a soil
amendment - known as biochar. Biochar can improve plant growth and reduce fertiliser requirements. It can
contribute to climate change mitigation through delayed decomposition of biomass: biochar is estimated to
remain in soil for centuries to millennia. Furthermore, biochar can reduce nitrous oxide emissions from soil.
To determine the net climate change impact of converting biomass to biochar, and contrast this with
alternative uses for biomass, the whole life cycle of the alternative systems must be considered.
A Life cycle assessment (LCA) approach was used to assess the GHG emissions and sequestration across the
biochar life cycle, including fossil fuel use in harvesting, processing, transport and application of biochar;
indirect emissions such as from fertilizer manufacture; changes in soil and biomass carbon stocks; emissions of
N2O and CH4 as well as CO2. The net impact of biochar was determined by comparison with the applicable
reference system, representing the conventional soil amendment, use of the biomass, and energy system. The
greatest emissions reduction was estimated as 3.2 kg CO2-e per kg biochar, for poultry litter biochar made at
550°C applied to maize. Use of greenwaste for biochar had lower net benefit compared with other biochars,
and may increase emissions if the biomass would otherwise have been deposited in landfill, where little
decomposition occurs, and if the methane generated was captured and used for electricity generation.
However, if the landfill had no methane capture, then use for biochar was preferable. If the alternative fate of
greenwaste was mulch or burning, then utilisation for biochar gave a strong advantage. Biochars made at
higher temperature gave greater benefit than lower temperature biochars, due to their greater stability and
higher syngas yield during pyrolysis.
The wide variation in results between biochars and target crops, and the great sensitivity to the assumptions
for the reference case, mean that LCA studies should be conducted for each situation in which biochar is being
considered.

Ms Felicity Denham
PhD student, Centre of Excellence Science Seafood Health
Co Authors - Dr Janet Howieson, Senior Research Fellow, Centre of Excellence Science Seafood Health,
Dr Wahidul Biswas, Postgraduate Programme Coordinator and Senior Lecturer, Sustainable Engineering Group.
Environmental Impact of a finfish supply chain in Western Australia: analysis, interventions and
opportunities
Australian seafood supply chains (from harvest through to retail outlets) are under pressure from consumers
and other groups to improve their environmental impact. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a useful tool to
measure the environmental impacts of seafood supply chains and identify potential areas of improvement.
The current research which applied LCA to assess the carbon footprint of wild caught Saddletail Snapper trawl
harvested in an isolated area in Western Australia will be discussed. The research involved product either
filleted locally for a regional retail store and nearby mining towns, or as whole fish transported to a Perth retail
outlet. Although LCA research has been done, tropical fish trawled in Western Australia differ from existing
trawling operations LCAs (e.g. Spain and Norway) as the warmer waters require stringent temperature control
and harvesting in remote locations entail long transport chains from harvest to port and through to Perth. The
supply chain of the current research consisted of three main stages: harvesting, sorting and processing. The
harvest stage includes the on-boat and trawling processes, sorting the catch into species, cooling and storing
the fish, and unloading. The processing stage includes packing and filleting before the wholesale and retail
stage. LCA identified “hotspots” from the aforementioned stages of the seafood supply chain.
Diesel combustion has the greatest impact in the harvesting stage whereas processing and retail both emit
refrigeration gases and require a large quantity of electricity for ice manufacturing to keep the fish at a
constant temperature. Mitigation strategies were identified and modelled for potential improvements in the
environmental impact of the chain measured. Aligned with the LCA were quality and economic analyses to
ensure the proposed mitigation strategies are also analysed for the potential impact on product quality,
profitability and supply.
Mr Tim Edwards
CEO, Australian Refrigeration Association
The Need For LCA / EPD Use In The HVAC&R industry
It is well recognised that HVAC&R plays a key role in the environmental impact of the built environment. This
understanding does not give rise to sufficient understanding or action. We will show how HVAC&R is
responsible for about 11% of national emissions, how this could be reduced by 50% within ten years and the
barriers to making it happen.
We will canvass the progress being made in Australia and world wide to offer solution. We will discuss the
many issues that cause the HVAC&R industry to fail to address the opportunities for improvement. We will
recommend the use of LCA / EPD in then HVAC&R industry and we will recommend the development of a
product stewardship structure of the industry.

Dr Andréa Franco Pereira
Professor, Department of Architectural and Urban Technology, School of Architecture,
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais – UFMG
Co Author - Dr Alfredo Jefferson Oliveira, Professor, Department of Arts, Pontifícia Universidade Católica - PUC-
Rio.
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of lychee crop in Sul de Minas, Brazil
This study provides results of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of the lychee (Litchi chinesis) crop in production
in Sul de Minas, Brazil. Currently, litchi cultivation in Brazil covers an estimated area of 1000-2000 hectares.
The State of São Paulo is the largest producer accounting for about 70% of production, followed by Minas
Gerais and Paraná.
The results presented herein were obtained from the LCA, using GaBi 4.0 software from the inventory which
includes production of lychee and its distribution logistics, with reference to the period of a crop, i.e. one year.
The scope of the analysis includes the step of obtaining the fruit in the orchard (fungicide and herbicide
application, mowing, fertilization and irrigation), as well as the stages of harvesting, packaging, distribution
and consumption. The data input and output were calculated from the functional unit corresponding to a
production of 970 trees in one year.
This analysis is part of research conducted by the producer, whose main objective is to understand the limits
and possibilities of obtaining indicators of social impact in order to allow assessment of the socioenvironmental
consequences, gains and losses of lychee culture during its life cycle. The research intends to
identify critical points in the process during which action can be taken that seeks to mitigate negative impacts,
so that the environmental gains achieved can be disseminated to consumers, and demonstrate the importance
of sustainable market action deployed into production.
Dr Anthony Halog
Lecturer, University of Queensland
Life Cycle Sustainability Analysis of Biofuel Supply Chains
Towards developing an integrated decision support system (DSS) suite of tools that accounts for multistakeholders’
interests in assessing biofuel system’s sustainability, this paper proposes how to address the
grand challenges in evaluating the sustainability of biofuels via life cycle and integrated sustainability modeling
and analysis with consideration to temporal and spatial dimensions.
This work suggests approaches, frameworks, methods and tools that can be used to respond to the challenges
of analyzing the sustainability implications of biomass-based products. Specific grand challenges related to
biofuels have already been addressed in disaggregated and piecemeal fashion in several papers in various
disciplines. However, there is a need to integrate the methodologies systematically and computationally to
obtain comprehensive results (i.e. critical indicators and metrics) that are useful to different stakeholders and
can support decisions and policies in public and private sectors.

Thus, our one grand challenge is to effectively integrate our existing methods and synthesize our results with
regard to the triple dimensions of sustainability and to infer relevant and critical information either to support
or not the bioeconomy development (i.e. whether or not to invest in biofuels, bioenergy and bioproducts). Life
cycle sustainability analysis contributes to an ongoing process that organizes both information and the process
of prioritizing information needs.
Dr Nawshad Haque
Scientist, CSIRO
Co Author - Mr Terry Norgate, Principal Research Engineer, CSIRO.
Life cycle based greenhouse gas emission estimation of various mining methods
Mining is an important economic activity in Australia. However, detailed assessments of greenhouse gas
emissions from various types of mining methods such as open-cut, underground, heap leaching and in-situ
leaching are limited in the literature. For this reason, CSIRO is undertaking LCA of mining methods in greater
detail than previously considered. The major metallic mineral commodities of interest in Australia are iron ore,
bauxite, copper, gold and nickel. The greenhouse gas emissions for the extraction of these metals using various
mining methods have been estimated using life cycle assessment methodology and are presented in this
paper. Specific case study results will be presented, particularly for the newer mining methods. For example,
in-situ leaching (ISL) is a chemical method of recovering useful minerals directly from underground ore bodies
which is referred to as ‘solution mining’. ISL is commonly used for uranium mining, accounting about 36% of
global production.
The main benefits are claimed as to be a lower impact in terms of visual disturbances and lower energy use,
cost, environmental emissions compared with conventional open-cut or underground mining methods and
potential utilisation of lower grade resources. However, there is a lack of reported studies on the assessment
of environmental impacts of ISL, particularly the life cycle-based greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The SimaPro
LCA software was used to estimate the GHG footprint of the ISL of uranium, gold and copper. The total GHG
emission from uranium ISL was estimated to be 38 kg CO2e/kg uranium U3O8 concentrate (yellowcake), 902
kg CO2e/troy oz gold, and 4.8 t CO2e/t Cu for the ore grades assumed in the study. These results are compared
with conventional mining methods where applicable.
Mr Richard Hamber
Australian Window Association
Building Products Life Cycle Inventory (BP LCI) - Progress and Next Steps
LCA data available internationally is typically not based on consistent methodology – each sector adopting an
approach that plays to the industry’s strengths. When selecting between competing specifications for building
design, incompatible base data may lead to erroneous conclusions. The Building Products Innovation Council
(BPIC) is the peak body for the producers of building materials in Australia. Assisted by joint funding from
AusIndustry, BPIC developed the BP LCI as its contribution to AusLCI. BP LCI provides a robust, “level playing
field” basis for conducting LCA for construction in Australia including: • Cross-sector consensus agreed

methodology, for data collection and impact assessment • 121 generic average Australian building product
unit processes • Multi-stakeholder environmental impact weightings from 11 different cities providing a
consistent way of interpreting LCA’s • A Protocol for the correct and appropriate use of BP LCI Since
publication in June 2010, BP LCI data has been used: • For LCA based materials credits in the Australian Green
Infrastructure Council’s (AGIC) Infrastructure Sustainability (IS) rating tool. • For the ANZ Transport Authorities
Greenhouse Group (TAGG) greenhouse footprint assessment of alternative road constructions (Carbon
Gauge). • To benchmark National Standards for Australian ecolabels and EPD’s – Masonry Products, Windows
and Roofing Systems in progress; Pipework, Carpet and Flooring systems coming soon • For ENVEST Au LCA
design tool developments Next steps for BP LCI may include: • Further refinement and update of the BP LCI
website and the published datasets • Development of fully modeled ILCD and Ecospold compatible datasets
for sale to LCA practitioners • Advocacy for the adoption of BP LCI compliant credits within Green Star, NABERS
and regulation • Workshops to assist practitioners to use BP LCI compliant with the methodologies and
Protocol • Additional datasets, especially for fit-out • Coordination with ALCAS (LCANZ) and National
Standards
Mr Richard Haynes
Systems Development and Operations Manager, eTool
The eTool Product Roadmap
Building rating systems are proliferating as more people inform themselves and demand sustainability. Much
debate ensues over the relative merits of the many different approaches being employed to measure
sustainability. Similarly, the definition of “sustainable” is now being scrutinised by the public who are on the
lookout for greenwashing.
Within this environment, the integrity and power of LCA to enable truly sustainable outcomes is being
recognised. Indeed, the well-established building rating bodies are implementing LCA into their methods
rapidly whilst the European Committee for Standardisation is specifying LCA as the method for measuring the
sustainability of buildings. Investigation into how LCA may be integrated into building codes is being
conducted, whilst environmental footprint labelling trials are occurring in numerous countries for consumer
goods. The pathways to large scale implementation of LCA in building design have been laid. Meeting this
demand and ensuring the users of LCA tools enjoy the experience now becomes the challenge for LCA tool
developers.
Mrs Mahsa Karimpour
phD Student, University of South Australia
Co Authors - Dr Frank Bruno, Senior Research Fellow, Barbara Hardy Institute, Dr Martin Belusko, Research
Fellow, Barbara Hardy Institute.
Minimisation of life cycle energy of Australian homes
Each year residential buildings make up a large percentage (20-40%) of total energy consumption in developed
countries. This is why lot of studies focusing on decreasing energy consumptions in buildings. This research

aims to develop a life cycle energy model for residential houses in Australia and then optimise it to minimize
whole life cycle energy.
There are many studies about methods to reduce operational energy in the literature. However, not enough
work about embodied energy has been done. Regarding to climate conditions in Australia embodied energy
has larger proportion from total life cycle energy in residential buildings compare to dwellings in Europe. Cold
winters in Europe have a strong effect on operational energy in houses in that area which is not happening in
Australia.
Therefore, in this study along with focusing on operational energy there will be a particular emphasis on
embodied energy and techniques to minimize this energy in houses in Australia. For developing this model,
different climate zones in Australia as well as a number of typical residential buildings will be examined. Also,
different sources of building materials are considered in studying embodied energy of local and imported
building products. AusLCI and BPIC LCI will be used for the datasets of Australian building products. In addition,
Ecoinvent and other data from literature will be used for imported materials. Different heating and cooling
systems and passive designs regarding to their impact on energy payback period and embodied and
operational energy in buildings will be studied as well to achieve a feasible design for minimum life cycle
energy buildings.
Dr Paul Koltun
Senior/Research Scientist, CSIRO
Co Author - Prof. Miron Bekker, Prof .of Mathematics, University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown.
Optimisation of forest rotation cycles
An approach to optimise duration of the forest rotation cycle on established forest plantation is proposed.
Such approach allows mathematically accurate evaluation of the cycle duration depending on defined goal:
maximisation of CO2 uptake by the forest or maximisation of the forest growers gains taking into account tax
on carbon emissions, quantity of grown wood, interest rate for selling wood biomass, selling price, etc. It is
shown that estimation of the optimal duration of the forest rotation cycle can be done on the basis of a few
known empirical parameters.
Developed approach is illustrated on few examples for pine forest growth in Australia. The optimal duration of
the forest rotation cycles have been estimated for some defined goals. The length of rotations cycles are 7 and
15 years if the goal is maximisation of CO2 sequestration from the atmosphere without and with taking into
account GHG emissions from one per cycle forest management operations, respectively. The same example
leads to the optimal cycle of 17 years if goal is maximisation of the gain for forest growers. If an interest rate
for selling wood biomass or quality of wood is also taken into account then the optimal duration of the forest
rotation cycle is changed to approximately 14 or 10 years, respectively.

Mr Joe Lane
Research Scientist, University of Queensland
Co Authors - Prof Paul Lant, Head of School, Chemical Engineering, University of Queensland, Prof Mark
Huijbregts, Professor of Integrated Environmental Assessment, Radboud Universty Nijmegen, Netherlands.
Life-cycle toxicity modelling in the Australian context
Toxicity modelling has long been a high profile component of the Life-cycle Assessment methodology.
Research efforts in recent years have identified a number of substantial improvements that will increase the
fidelity of available LCA toxicity models. The majority of these support the ongoing regionalisation of LCA
impact assessment, and are therefore of particular relevance in the Australian context. Australia’s unique
combination of geo-physical, climatic and demographic factors make it difficult for globally-generic impact
models to provide results that hold much relevance for Australian decision makers.
The USES-LCA toxicity model has been disaggregated into distinct urban, regional and remote compartments;
so as to better represent the highly heterogeneous population distribution on the Australian continent. This
has a significant effect on the calculation of human exposure to airshed emissions, demonstrating the
importance of choosing an appropriate level of spatial resolution when using simplified box models for this
purpose. The modified fate and exposure factors were combined with an estimate of Australia-wide airshed
emissions, identifying a number of industry sectors that might be responsible for particularly high levels of
human health hazard as a result of chemical pollution. Additional modifications were made to improve the
modelling of freshwater and terrestrial ecotoxicity in the Australian version of USES-LCA - incorporating the
most recent science on metals speciation, and providing the flexibility to take different methodological
approaches to pesticide effect modelling. The model was then applied to estimates of chemical emissions to
terrestrial and aquatic landscapes across the country, generated using the best available data from a wide
variety of sources. The results illustrate the importance of both these methodological developments, and
highlight the need for more robust and consistent data collection on emissions to land and water.
Ms Sue McAvoy
PhD Student, University of Queensland
Working Title: Using LCA to assess the impact of climate change policy on Red Meat Processing
This paper presents work in progress on a thesis that uses partial life cycle assessment (LCA) as part of an
investigation to assess the effectiveness of the federal government's climate change policy. It focuses on red
meat processing (RMP), which is a trade-exposed industry falling outside of the emissions intensive cut-offs for
direct assistance. Australia’s largest RMP Company will be used as a case study.
It will test whether the Australian carbon accounting framework, legislation and associated regulations, which
collectively underpin the carbon tax policy, will enable the “activity” of red meat processing to lower its carbon
footprint and remain competitive. The research responds to a concern that Australia’s Red Meat Processors
are price takers of a world commodity price that is non-carbon inclusive and must compete globally with
international processors who are either not subject to a carbon tax or are adequately shielded. Two
methodologies will support this research – LCA and systems dynamics. Firstly, the partial LCA will measure the

carbon footprint of the abattoir process (with a functional unit of 1 tonne of HSCW), “before” and “after” the
company’s response to climate change policy.
This will test the success of the Clean Energy Legislation as a policy mechanism promoting the adoption of
mitigation strategies that lower the company’s overall carbon footprints and transition them to low carbon
technologies. It will also provide a reliable carbon footprint to potentially assist the processor in making
informed decisions about practice changes and proposed mitigation projects. Secondly, the systems dynamics
approach will complement the LCA by simulating the potential impacts of the government’s choice of policy on
the competitiveness of red meat processing. This paper will describe a novel application of LCA for assessing
the implications of government policy on business activities. While the work presented focuses on the
Australian meat industry, the approach could also be applied to other business activities.
Miss Caoilinn Murphy
Project Engineer, FSA Consulting
Co Authors - Mr Stephen Wiedemann, Senior Agricultural Scientist, FSA Consulting, Mr Eugene McGahan,
Principle Consultant, FSA Consulting.
Consumptive and stress weighted water use in Australian conventional and alternative breeder
and grower/finisher pork systems
Worldwide, there is increasing concern about the sustainability of water use in agriculture. At present, there is
a distinct lack of robust studies focussing on water consumption and scarcity in Australian agriculture.
This “cradle to farm gate” study is the first analysis of consumptive and stress weighted water use for
Australian pork using a LCA approach. Five supply chains were investigated, consisting of a single large piggery
(>5000 sows) or a cluster of smaller piggeries (100-1000 sows) in a given location. The supply chains were
located in south-eastern Queensland, southern NSW and Western Australia. Three housing systems with
different levels of water use for manure management were investigated: conventional housing with effluent
flushing, housing on deep litter and outdoor housing. Consumptive water use ranged from 34.5 L / kg LW (WA
outdoor-deep litter) to 150.5 L / kg LW (QLD large conventional). This was primarily influenced by housing
type, the inclusion of irrigated feed products in the diet and losses associated with the water supply system.
The QLD large conventional piggery combined all three factors, with evaporation from the water supply
contributing 33% of overall water use. To compare differences in water use by housing type, the effect of
water supply system and irrigated feed products were removed. Outdoor breeding compared to conventional
breeding showed that water consumption decreased by 24% using the outdoor system. Compared to deep
litter, conventional growing-finishing required 64% more water, which was attributed to differences in
cleaning water requirements. Stress weighted water use was analysed for conventional breeding and ranged
between 3.1 (WA) and 148.7 (NSW) L H2O-e / LW. For all piggeries except NSW, water use expressed on a
stress-weighted basis was considerably lower than consumptive water use, with the most noticeable change
for the QLD supply chain, highlighting the importance of region for assessing the impact of water use.

Miss Aurelie Perrin
CIRAD, UPR Hortsys, Elsa team
Co Authors - Mitchell Burns, UPR Hortsys, Elsa team Cirad, Philippe Roux, UMR ITAP, Elsa team, Irstea,
Claudine Basset-Mens, Elsa team Cirad
Do the current life cycle inventory (LCI) methods adequately account for the life of a pesticide in
horticultural production systems? A review.
Two concerns arise from the use of pesticides in horticulture: the occurrence of their residues in fresh produce
and the potential for the contamination of non-target ecosystems. Pesticides therefore require special
attention in horticultural Life Cycle Assessments (LCAs). Through a conceptual assessment of the life of a
pesticide, we present critical analyses of the horticultural LCA case studies and emission estimation methods.
These critical analyses identified that the system boundaries of the reviewed case studies were typically not
clearly defined with respect to classical LCA definitions. Unclear boundary definitions were identified to also
have implications for the methods used for estimating the emissions of pesticides or impacts (LCIA), which is
consistent with a previous review. The methods that are available for estimating the emissions of pesticides
showed the PestLCI model (Birkved and Hauschild 2006; Dijkman et al. 2012) to be the most comprehensive in
theory.
However, though this model exhibited the greatest complexity, it requires a large dataset and lacked scope for
application in horticultural greenhouses. The latter was an important consideration when selecting a relevant
pesticide emissions model for harmonised comparisons in LCA for horticultural products. We present the
results from this critical review and propose further steps to improving the transparency and feasibility in
applying relevant pesticide emission techniques in contrasted horticultural cropping situations.
Birkved M, Hauschild MZ (2006) PestLCI - A model for estimating field emissions of pesticides in agricultural
LCA. Ecological Modelling 198 (3-4):433-451. doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2006.05.035
Dijkman TJ, Birkved M, Hauschild MZ (2012) PestLCI 2.0: a second generation model for estimating emissions
of pesticides from arable land in LCA. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 17 (8):973-986.
doi:10.1007/s11367-012-0439-2
Ms Julie Sandilands
Solution Manager, PE INTERNATIONAL
Co Authors - Dr Markus Reuter, Director - Technology Management, Outotec Oyj, Dr Antti Roine, Senior
Research Metallurgist, Outotec Oyj.
Metals production sustainability and lifecycle evaluations
For new designs of metallurgical plants and processes it is very important to get a “real time” sustainability
assessment and life cycle evaluation during the design phase to avoid arising cost at a later stage because of
not considered environmental impacts during production. Outotec and PE INTERNATIONAL AG developed a
new software interface for this purpose, based on extensive research in this field. In the presentation the

advantages and benefits of such a “real time” LCA for the design of a selected copper plant will be shown in
comparison to the world average LCA dataset developed from the industry association.
The integration of LCA and plant and process design allows users to develop product and process modelling
simulations and scenarios using a life cycle perspective. In addition, Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEM)
and businesses will be able to plan their operations and make material decisions based on the sustainability
and life cycle information of current and future metal manufacturing scenarios and their environmental
impacts. This will help to lower the environmental footprint of these products and production facilities.
Outotec’s HSC Chemistry software is designed for various process simulation and modelling applications. HSC
consist of 24 calculation modules and 12 extensive databases.
These tools help to design technically viable and effective processes. These process models give the initial data
for the process design, engineering and automation. The new solution will make possible to develop industrial
ecosystems, which are based on sustainable recycling and fruitful symbiosis between the processes, plants and
whole society.
Miss Helene Sterzik
PhD Student, Massey University
Co Authors - Associate Professor Sarah McLaren, Associate Professor, Massey University, Professor Jim Jones,
Professor, Massey University.
The Carbon Footprint of Biochar Systems: an Absolute Contribution to Climate-Change Mitigation
Biochar is charcoal used for application into soils to store carbon and to improve soil functions. Since the
carbon in biochar can take hundreds or thousands of years to decompose, the incorporation of biochar into
soils is being promoted as a climate-change mitigation strategy. Furthermore, the recovery of by-products,
syngas and bio-oil, for fossil fuel substitution offers additional opportunities to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions. Since biomass resources are limited, the trade-offs associated with alternative end uses of biomass
need to be explored using a system expansion perspective, particularly when considering policy options to
encourage or discourage the production and use of biochar.
The goals of this carbon footprint study are: 1) to compare reference scenarios with future alternative
management scenarios for three biomass feedstocks selected as case studies (prunings from apple orchards,
logging residues, and cereal straw); and 2) to inform policymakers on the best use of biomass to mitigate
climate change. The functional unit is ‘the management of one tonne of fresh biomass’. The alternative
scenarios considered in each case study, however, deliver additional functions (e.g. energy production and soil
quality).
Therefore, system boundaries have been expanded for each reference scenario to include background
processes required to achieve the functions provided by each scenario under analysis. The results of the
carbon footprint of three biochar systems will be presented in relation to alternative biomass management
options.
This comparative assessment is different from the approach taken in existing carbon footprint studies of
biochar as the climate-change mitigation potential of biochar is recognised as one alternative use amongst
others, and with consequences for other activities in the economy.

Dr Daniel Tan
Senior Lecturer, University of Sydney
Co Authors - Dr Philippa Brock, Leader, Life Cycle Assessment, Department of Primary Industries, Dr Nilantha
Hulugalle, Principal Research Scientist, Department of Primary Industries.
Life cycle assessment of cotton-corn farming systems in the Namoi Valley
LCA is an approach which is commonly applied to identify the process through which greenhouse gas
emissions arise from agricultural production systems. It has been applied to determine pre-field and in-field
emissions associated with individual practices and inputs. Greenhouse emissions were determined for the
lifecycle of different cotton and corn production systems in the Namoi Valley, Australia.
A “cradle-to-gate” analysis was conducted which considered all the impacts from growing a crop (e.g.,
fertiliser, crop establishment and maintenance) based on data from four co-operating growers in the lower
Namoi (two dryland, two irrigated) and a long term experiment at the Australian Cotton Research Institute
(ACRI) at Myall Vale. Actual crop history records were obtained by interviewing farmers face-to-face with a
pre-developed questionnaire to gather the necessary crop information such as crop rotations, machinery use
for the crop, products and rates used for the crop in selected fields.
These data formed the basis for introducing upstream data about the production of inputs and calculated data
about in-field emissions to enable analysis using the computer software Simapro. Greenhouse gas emissions
averaged 0.34 kg CO2-e for the production of 1 kg of cotton lint and seed for both irrigated and dryland cotton
and 0.33 kg CO2-e for the production of 1 kg of corn. The emissions profile for irrigated cotton and corn grown
in rotation included N2O directly from fertilisers (35.3%), production of fertilisers (14%), CO2 emissions from
the use of nitrogenous fertilisers (11.6%), N2O emissions indirectly via leaching (7.2%), N2O emissions via
volatilisation and indirectly from fertiliser re-deposition (3.8%), CO2 emissions from on-farm combustion
(7.8%) and irrigation (9.2%). The emissions are dominated by the production and use of nitrogenous fertilisers,
at 72% for cotton and 65% for corn. Replacing these fertilisers with biologically fixed N using a legume-based
system may reduce these emissions.
Dr Pep Turner
Ecologist, School of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Tasmania
Co Authors -
Accounting for biodiversity in Life Cycle Impact Assessments of forestry and agricultural systems
There are currently no globally appropriate means of assessing biodiversity within the LCA framework. A new
project is under way to test a new method proposed to address the issue of accounting for biodiversity
impacts in LCA. The approach relies on literature review and expert opinions through a series of questions
which aim to encapsulate the main issues relating to biodiversity within a disturbance impact framework.
This project will test the applicability of this model using two forest industry case studies (native and
plantation forestry) and a case study from the agricultural sector (cropping). Using a series of quantitative

questions, biodiversity impacts are estimated for each taxonomic group (e.g. flora, mammals, diurnal birds,
frogs and invertebrates) and then scaled to an overall biodiversity measure.
In this talk we will provide some background on the proposed method, outline the current project and some
preliminary results based on an initial literature review and a survey of ecologists to refine proposed questions
to be addressed by the method.
Dr Mingjia Yan
Project Engineer, FSA Consulting
Co Authors - Prof Nick Holden, University College Dublin, Mr Stephen Wiedemann, Agricultural scientist, FSA
Consulting.
Life Cycle Assessment of Irish milk production
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is an assessment tool for evaluating the environmental performance of products
through their whole life cycle (i.e. production, use, disposal or recycling). In recent years, LCA has been applied
to milk production worldwide, with the LCA interpretation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions also being
referred to as carbon footprinting.
The objective of this paper was to summarize the results of a PhD study on (1) evaluating existing LCAs of milk
production in Europe and finding the mainstream approaches, major contributors to impacts, and suggestion
of mitigations; (2) analysing the effect of sward management tactics on the CF of Irish milk production at a
research farmlet and (3) analysing the effect of farm management strategies on carbon footprint and land use
for milk production in commercial farms with a twelve-month farm survey. It was found that direct comparison
of milk LCAs was difficult due to technical issues, arbitrary choices and inconsistent assumptions. At the
research farmlet scale, the clover based sward had 11 to 26% lower carbon footprint compared with the
fertilizer based sward.
At commercial farms, milk output per cow, allocation between milk and live weight export were found to be
important factors for carbon footprint. Fertilizer N rate, milk output per cow and allocation between milk and
live weight export were influential on land use, and effective sward management of clover appeared to lower
the carbon footprint but increased direct (on-farm) land use. The experience gained through the above
research is expected to provide useful knowledge to agricultural LCAs in Australia.