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Meta-análisis - Web de Ferran Torres

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Preguntas básicasb<br />

<strong>Meta</strong>-an<br />

<strong>análisis</strong><br />

• ¿Qué es?<br />

• ¿Para qué sirve?<br />

• ¿Cómo se regula?<br />

• ¿Cómo se hace?<br />

• ¿Qué métodos?<br />

• ¿Cuándo?<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 1<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 2<br />

INDICE<br />

1. Definición<br />

2. Objetivos<br />

3. Antece<strong>de</strong>ntes históricos<br />

4. Protocolo y <strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> un meta-<br />

<strong>análisis</strong><br />

5. Estimadores <strong>de</strong>l tamaño o <strong>de</strong>l efecto<br />

6. Ejemplo <strong>de</strong> meta-an<br />

<strong>análisis</strong><br />

Definición<br />

El meta-an<br />

<strong>análisis</strong> es una revisión n sistemática<br />

tica <strong>de</strong> un<br />

gran númeron<br />

<strong>de</strong> estudios que utiliza métodos<br />

estadísticos<br />

sticos para combinar, sintetizar e integrar<br />

la información n <strong>de</strong> varios estudios in<strong>de</strong>pendientes<br />

que son consi<strong>de</strong>rados por el análista<br />

como<br />

“combinables”<br />

Adaptado <strong>de</strong>:<br />

- Glass GV. Primary and <strong>Meta</strong>-analysis of research. Educational Researcher 1976;5:3-8.<br />

- Huque MF. Experiences with meta-analysis in NDA submissions. Proc<br />

Biopharmaceutical Section of the American Statistical Association 1988;28-33.<br />

- Cook DJ, Sackett DL, Spitzer WO. Methodologic gui<strong>de</strong>lines for systematic<br />

reviews of randomized control trials in health care from the Potsdam<br />

consultation meta-analysis. J Clin Epi<strong>de</strong>miol 1995;48:168-71.<br />

- D’Agostino RB, Weintraub M. <strong>Meta</strong>-analysis: a method for sythesizing research.<br />

Clin Pharmacol Ther 1995; 58:605-616.<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 3<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 4<br />

Objetivos (1)<br />

El meta-an<br />

<strong>análisis</strong>, cuando se realiza <strong>de</strong> forma<br />

a<strong>de</strong>cuada, pue<strong>de</strong> ser utilizado para los siguientes<br />

propósitos:<br />

• Incrementar la potencia estadística stica <strong>de</strong> los<br />

resultados proce<strong>de</strong>ntes <strong>de</strong> múltiples m<br />

estudios<br />

individuales y posibilitar el <strong>análisis</strong> estadístico<br />

stico<br />

<strong>de</strong> subgrupos<br />

• Mejorar las estimaciones <strong>de</strong> la magnitud<br />

<strong>de</strong>l efecto<br />

• Resolver controversias cuando hay <strong>de</strong>sacuerdo<br />

entre los estudios.<br />

Objetivos (2)<br />

• Contestar nuevas preguntas que no se habían<br />

an<br />

planteado en los estudios individuales<br />

• Confirmar hipótesis que no se habían an podido<br />

confirmar en los estudios individuales<br />

• Elaborar nuevas hipótesis que <strong>de</strong>ben ser<br />

contrastadas en futuros estudios<br />

• Abrir nuevos caminos <strong>de</strong> investigación n o<br />

redirigir la investigación n en curso<br />

• Presentar el perfil <strong>de</strong> eficacia y seguridad<br />

<strong>de</strong> los fármacos. f<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 5<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 6<br />

1


Objetivos (3)<br />

• Obtención n <strong>de</strong> estimadores o parámetros para<br />

estudios <strong>de</strong> farmacoeconomía, , calidad <strong>de</strong> vida,<br />

etc.<br />

Adaptado <strong>de</strong>:<br />

- Fleiss JL, Gross A. <strong>Meta</strong>-analysis in epi<strong>de</strong>miology, with special<br />

reference to studies of association between exposure to<br />

environmental tobacco smoke and lung cancer: a critique.<br />

J Clin Epi<strong>de</strong>miol 1991; 127-139.<br />

OBJETIVOS<br />

Conclusión:<br />

n:<br />

– Ganancia en precisión<br />

– Comparación n crítica <strong>de</strong> los resultados<br />

– Diferencias en magnitud o sentido<br />

– Posibilidad <strong>de</strong> generalizar<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 7<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 8<br />

EVOLUCIÓN N DEL USO DEL MÉTODO M<br />

META-ANAL<br />

ANALÍTICO<br />

Período <strong>de</strong> tiempo Total Ratio articulos/mes<br />

EVOLUCIÓN N DEL USO DEL MÉTODO M<br />

META-ANAL<br />

ANALÍTICO<br />

Ratio articulos/mes<br />

1950-1959 1 0.008<br />

1960-1969 8 0.067<br />

1970-1979 18 0.150<br />

1980-1984 73 1.217<br />

1985-1989 333 5.550<br />

1990-1992 (Junio) 245 5.833<br />

1992 (Julio)-1995 1503 36.429<br />

40,000<br />

35,000<br />

30,000<br />

25,000<br />

20,000<br />

15,000<br />

10,000<br />

5,000<br />

0,000<br />

1950-<br />

1959<br />

1960-<br />

1969<br />

1970-<br />

1979<br />

1980-<br />

1984<br />

1985-<br />

1989<br />

Ratio articulos/mes<br />

1990-<br />

1992<br />

(Junio)<br />

1992<br />

(Julio)-<br />

1995<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 9<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 10<br />

CARACTERÍSTICAS<br />

Areas <strong>de</strong> aplicación<br />

Ciencias <strong>de</strong> la educación<br />

Psicología<br />

Biología<br />

Medicina<br />

Ciencias medio-ambientales<br />

Química<br />

Física<br />

Economía<br />

Etc...<br />

CARACTERÍSTICAS<br />

Problemas preliminares<br />

– Selección n <strong>de</strong> material<br />

Bibliografía<br />

– Búsqueda informatizada (Medline(<br />

Medline, Science Citacion In<strong>de</strong>x, , ...)<br />

– Búsqueda manual (Citas referenciadas, conferencias)<br />

– Lenguas extranjeras<br />

– Estudios presentados a conferencias y congresos<br />

– Calidad <strong>de</strong> los estudios<br />

– Diseños distintos (estudios <strong>de</strong> cohortes, caso-control, control, ...)<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 11<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 12<br />

2


CARACTERÍSTICAS<br />

Datos:<br />

– Tipos <strong>de</strong> medida <strong>de</strong> los efectos<br />

– Escalas <strong>de</strong> medida<br />

– Extensión n <strong>de</strong> la información<br />

Datos originales<br />

Estadísticos sticos <strong>de</strong> resumen<br />

Estimación n <strong>de</strong>l efecto y errores estándar<br />

Valores <strong>de</strong> significación<br />

CARACTERÍSTICAS<br />

Datos:<br />

– Toda la información, n, a excepción n <strong>de</strong> los<br />

datos originales, complica enormemente el<br />

ajuste por distinto factores <strong>de</strong> confusión<br />

potenciales<br />

Disponibilidad <strong>de</strong> los estudios: Sesgo<br />

<strong>de</strong> publicación<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 13<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 14<br />

CARACTERÍSTICAS<br />

No in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>ncia <strong>de</strong> los estudios<br />

– Tiempo: momento en que se realiza el<br />

estudio<br />

– Centro o investigador<br />

– Múltiple publicación n <strong>de</strong> los resultados<br />

– Mismos sujetos (en distintos estudios)<br />

Ventajas y limitaciones<br />

Ventajas<br />

Consi<strong>de</strong>ración n sistemática tica (evaluación n no<br />

sesgada)<br />

Cuantificación n <strong>de</strong> los resultados<br />

Aumento <strong>de</strong> precisión n <strong>de</strong> los resultados<br />

Mayor Mayor capacidad <strong>de</strong> estudiar efectos en<br />

subgrupos<br />

Mayor Mayor facilidad para evaluar las discrepancias<br />

entre estudios<br />

Mayor Mayor generalización n <strong>de</strong> las conclusiones<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 15<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 16<br />

Ventajas y limitaciones<br />

Limitaciones:<br />

La La calidad está limitada por los estudios<br />

individuales<br />

Dificultad para establecer los criterios <strong>de</strong> inclusión<br />

Sesgo Sesgo <strong>de</strong> selección n (publicación, lengua, calidad ...)<br />

Protocolo<br />

• Como en cualquier otro estudio, antes <strong>de</strong> iniciar un<br />

meta-an<br />

<strong>análisis</strong> se <strong>de</strong>be elaborar un protocolo completo<br />

y <strong>de</strong>tallado<br />

• El protocolo <strong>de</strong>bería a incluir como mínimo: m<br />

- Una <strong>de</strong>scripción n <strong>de</strong>tallada <strong>de</strong> los objetivos e hipótesis que<br />

se van a probar<br />

- Los criterios <strong>de</strong> inclusión n y exclusión n <strong>de</strong> los estudios<br />

- Los procedimientos que se utilizarán n para probar la<br />

homogeneidad <strong>de</strong> los tamaños <strong>de</strong> los efectos entre<br />

estudios<br />

- Los métodos m<br />

estadísticos sticos que se utilizarán n para estimar el<br />

tamaño o <strong>de</strong>l efecto global<br />

- Los métodos m<br />

que se utilizarán n para presentar y resumir<br />

los resultados<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 17<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 18<br />

3


Análisis <strong>de</strong> la heterogeneidad<br />

• Respuesta a la siguiente pregunta:<br />

¿SON COMBINABLES LOS ESTUDIOS?<br />

• Pruebas <strong>de</strong> homogeneidad <strong>de</strong> los resultados <strong>de</strong> los<br />

estudios individuales:<br />

- Prueba ji-cadrado<br />

Q <strong>de</strong> Cochran<br />

- Prueba ji-cuadrado <strong>de</strong> Breslow-Day<br />

• Las pruebas <strong>de</strong> homogeneidad tienen baja potencia<br />

para <strong>de</strong>tectar la heterogeneidad<br />

• Un valor p <strong>de</strong> la prueba <strong>de</strong> homogeneidad 0.10,<br />

sugiere heterogeneidad entre estudios y, por tanto,<br />

podría a no ser válido v<br />

combinar los estudios<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 19<br />

Egger et al. Systematic reviews in health care. London: BMJ books, 2001.<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 20<br />

Magnitud <strong>de</strong>l efecto (1)<br />

• Los métodos m<br />

estadísticos sticos utilizados para estimar<br />

el tamaño o <strong>de</strong>l efecto global <strong>de</strong> diferentes estudios<br />

se basan en Mo<strong>de</strong>los <strong>de</strong> Efectos Fijos y Efectos<br />

Aleatorios<br />

• Los Mo<strong>de</strong>los <strong>de</strong> Efectos Fijos asumen un efecto<br />

constante <strong>de</strong>l tratamiento entre estudios, es <strong>de</strong>cir,<br />

los tamaños <strong>de</strong> los efectos entre estudios son<br />

homogéneos o similares.<br />

- Los diferentes estudios pertenecen a una misma<br />

población<br />

- Consi<strong>de</strong>ran la variabilidad intra-estudio<br />

Magnitud <strong>de</strong>l efecto (2)<br />

• Los Mo<strong>de</strong>los <strong>de</strong> Efectos Aleatorios consi<strong>de</strong>ran que<br />

existe una variación n entre estudios<br />

- Los estudios provienen <strong>de</strong> poblaciones diferentes<br />

- Consi<strong>de</strong>ran la variabilidad intra e inter-estudio<br />

estudio<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 21<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 22<br />

Magnitud <strong>de</strong>l efecto (3)<br />

• Ninguno <strong>de</strong> los dos mo<strong>de</strong>los se pue<strong>de</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>rar<br />

“correcto”:<br />

- Si los estudios son homogéneos<br />

La elección n entre un mo<strong>de</strong>lo <strong>de</strong> efectos fijos<br />

y efectos aleatorios no es importante, ya que los<br />

resultados serán n idénticos<br />

- Si los estudios no son homogéneos<br />

Es más m s apropiado elegir un mo<strong>de</strong>lo <strong>de</strong> efectos<br />

aleatorios<br />

• Los mo<strong>de</strong>los <strong>de</strong> efectos fijos y efectos aleatorios<br />

utilizan diferentes métodos m<br />

estadísticos sticos para<br />

combinarlos resultados<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 23<br />

Magnitud <strong>de</strong>l efecto (4)<br />

Efectos fijos Efectos aleatorios<br />

Método Efecto Método Efecto<br />

V. Cualit. Mantel-Haenszel OR, RR DerSimonian-<br />

Laird<br />

Ratios y<br />

Diferencias<br />

Peto<br />

OR<br />

Basado en la<br />

varianza general<br />

Ratios y<br />

diferencias<br />

V. Cuantit. Diferencias<br />

tipificadas entre<br />

medias<br />

Cuantitativas<br />

Diferencias<br />

tipificadas<br />

entre medias<br />

Cuantitativas<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 24<br />

4


Unbiased Hedges’ g estimate<br />

Corrections for small sample size will be ma<strong>de</strong>.<br />

3<br />

= 1−<br />

4m<br />

−1<br />

μe − μc<br />

δ =<br />

σ<br />

m = n c<br />

+ ne<br />

− 2<br />

Effect size interpretation<br />

Since effect sizes are non-dimensional<br />

measurements (no units), some<br />

conventions have been proposed [1],[2] [2]:<br />

– small≈0.20,<br />

– medium≈0.50<br />

– large≈0.80<br />

J m<br />

⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 3<br />

( ) ⎟ ⎞<br />

d = g⎜1−<br />

⎟ = g<br />

⎜1−<br />

⎝ 4m<br />

−1⎠<br />

⎝ 4 n e<br />

+ n e<br />

− 9 ⎠<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 25<br />

– [1] Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral<br />

sciences (2nd ed.).<br />

Hillsdale, , NJ: Erlbaum.<br />

– [2] Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112,<br />

155-159.<br />

159.<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 26<br />

Análisis <strong>de</strong> sensibilidad (resumen)<br />

• Un <strong>análisis</strong> <strong>de</strong> sensibilidad evalúa a la<br />

estabilidad <strong>de</strong> las conclusiones <strong>de</strong> un <strong>análisis</strong><br />

según n las asunciones (supuestos) que se han<br />

realizado en el <strong>análisis</strong><br />

• Cuando una conclusión n permanece invariante<br />

al variar las asunciones <strong>de</strong>l <strong>análisis</strong>, se<br />

refuerza la confianza en la vali<strong>de</strong>z <strong>de</strong> las<br />

conclusiones <strong>de</strong>l <strong>análisis</strong><br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 27<br />

Análisis <strong>de</strong> sensibilidad (1)<br />

• Un <strong>análisis</strong> <strong>de</strong> sensibilidad evalúa a la estabilidad <strong>de</strong><br />

las conclusiones <strong>de</strong> un <strong>análisis</strong> según n las asunciones<br />

(supuestos) que se han realizado en el <strong>análisis</strong><br />

• Cuando una conclusión n permanece invariante al variar<br />

las asunciones <strong>de</strong>l <strong>análisis</strong>, se refuerza la confianza<br />

en la vali<strong>de</strong>z <strong>de</strong> las conclusiones <strong>de</strong>l <strong>análisis</strong><br />

• El <strong>análisis</strong> <strong>de</strong> sensibilidad permite i<strong>de</strong>ntificar las<br />

asunciones más m s críticas <strong>de</strong>l <strong>análisis</strong><br />

• Conocer las asunciones críticas <strong>de</strong> un <strong>análisis</strong> pue<strong>de</strong><br />

ser utilizado para formular las priorida<strong>de</strong>s para una<br />

futura investigación n enfocada a resolver el problema<br />

planteado en el <strong>análisis</strong><br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 28<br />

Análisis <strong>de</strong> sensibilidad (2)<br />

ANÁLISIS ASUNCIONES<br />

ANÁLISIS DE<br />

SENSIBILIDAD<br />

- Estim a c ió n d e la<br />

magnitud <strong>de</strong>l<br />

efecto global<br />

mediante un<br />

- La s m a g nitud e s<br />

d e lo s e fe c t o s d e<br />

lo s e st u d io s so n<br />

homogéneos o<br />

- Estimar la magnitud<br />

<strong>de</strong>l efecto global<br />

mediante un mo<strong>de</strong>lo<br />

<strong>de</strong> efectos aleatorios<br />

mo<strong>de</strong>lo <strong>de</strong> efectos<br />

fijos<br />

sim ila re s<br />

Si lo s re su lta d o s d e lo s d o s a n á lisis so n sim ila re s, la a su n c ió n d e l<br />

<strong>análisis</strong> es correcta<br />

La magnitud <strong>de</strong>l efecto global estimado es valido<br />

Si lo s re su lta d o s d e lo s d o s a n á lisis so n d ife re n te s, la a su n c ió n<br />

d e l a n á lisis n o e s c o rre c ta , e s d e c ir, la s m a g n itu d e s d e lo s<br />

e fe c t o s d e lo s e st u d io s n o so n h o m o g é n e o s<br />

La magnitud <strong>de</strong>l efecto global estimado podría no ser valido<br />

RELATIVE LIVE-BIRTH RATIO<br />

Análisis se sensibilidad (3)<br />

2.0<br />

1.8<br />

1.6<br />

1.4<br />

1.2<br />

1.0<br />

0.8<br />

0.6<br />

0.4<br />

0.2<br />

0.0<br />

FAVOURS CONTROL FAVOURS TREATMENT<br />

Homogeneity test<br />

P = 0.06 (0.10)<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 29<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 30<br />

5


Análisis <strong>de</strong> la correlación<br />

• Una correlación n significativa entre la magnitud<br />

<strong>de</strong>l efecto y el tamaño o <strong>de</strong> la muestra <strong>de</strong> los estudios<br />

indica que el tamaño o <strong>de</strong>l efecto <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>l tamaño<br />

<strong>de</strong>l estudio<br />

• Esta correlación n pue<strong>de</strong> indicar una verda<strong>de</strong>ra<br />

heterogeneidad entre estudios, fundamentalmente<br />

<strong>de</strong>bida a un diferente esfuerzo experimental entre<br />

estudios, es <strong>de</strong>cir, la rigurosidad <strong>de</strong>l estudio estaría<br />

en función n <strong>de</strong> su tamaño<br />

• En este caso podría a no ser valido el meta-an<br />

<strong>análisis</strong><br />

Análisis <strong>de</strong> la correlación<br />

ODDS RATIO<br />

2.4<br />

2.2<br />

2.0<br />

1.8<br />

1.6<br />

1.4<br />

1.2<br />

1.0<br />

0.8<br />

0.6<br />

0.4<br />

0.2<br />

CORRELATION BETWEEN THE EFFECT SIZE AND SAMPLE SIZE<br />

0.0<br />

100 140 180 220 260 300 340 380 420<br />

SAMPLE SIZE<br />

r 2 = 0.01<br />

b = 0.0009<br />

p = 0.70<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 31<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 32<br />

Análisis <strong>de</strong> la robustez<br />

Análisis <strong>de</strong>l sesgo <strong>de</strong> publicación n y/o<br />

inclusión n selectiva <strong>de</strong> estudios positivos (1)<br />

• Análisis <strong>de</strong>l sesgo <strong>de</strong> publicación n y/o inclusión<br />

selectiva <strong>de</strong> estudios positivos<br />

• Correlación n entre la magnitud <strong>de</strong>l efecto y<br />

el tamaño o muestral <strong>de</strong> los estudios.<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 33<br />

• La introducción n <strong>de</strong>l sesgo <strong>de</strong> publicación n y/o<br />

inclusión n selectiva <strong>de</strong> estudios positivos en un<br />

meta-an<br />

<strong>análisis</strong> se <strong>de</strong>be fundamentalmente a que:<br />

- La mayoría a <strong>de</strong> estudios publicados presentan<br />

resultados positivos significativos y una minoría<br />

muestran resultados negativos o no significativos<br />

- Hay una ten<strong>de</strong>ncia a seleccionar y, por tanto,<br />

incluir en el meta-an<br />

<strong>análisis</strong> los estudios o datos no<br />

publicados con resultados positivos significativos<br />

y a guardar los que muestran resultados<br />

negativos o no significativos<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 34<br />

Análisis <strong>de</strong>l sesgo <strong>de</strong> publicación n y/o inclusión<br />

selectiva <strong>de</strong> estudios positivos (2)<br />

RELATIVE LIVE-BIRTH RATIO<br />

PUBLISHED STUDIES VS UNPUBLISHED STUDIES<br />

1.8<br />

FAVOURS TREATMENT<br />

1.6<br />

1.4<br />

1.2<br />

1.0<br />

0.8<br />

0.6<br />

FAVOURS CONTROL<br />

0.4<br />

PUBLISHED UNPUBLISHED PUBLISHED PUBLISHED<br />

+ UNPUBLISHED + UNPUBLISHED<br />

Data from Jeng GT et al. JAMA 1995; 274:830-836<br />

DATA<br />

Análisis <strong>de</strong>l sesgo <strong>de</strong> publicación n y/o<br />

inclusión n selectiva <strong>de</strong> estudios positivos (3)<br />

Los métodos m<br />

utilizados para <strong>de</strong>tectar la introducción<br />

<strong>de</strong>l sesgo <strong>de</strong> publicación n en un meta-an<br />

<strong>análisis</strong> son:<br />

– Funnel plot<br />

– El <strong>análisis</strong> <strong>de</strong> la asimetria <strong>de</strong>l funnel plot<br />

Si el número n<br />

<strong>de</strong> estudios incluidos en el meta-an<br />

<strong>análisis</strong><br />

es pequeño, el funnel plot es poco útil. En este caso, el<br />

mejor método m<br />

es comparar el tamaño o <strong>de</strong>l efecto<br />

global entre los estudios publicados y no publicados<br />

En un meta-an<br />

<strong>análisis</strong> basado en todos los estudios<br />

originales, no es necesario analizar el sesgo <strong>de</strong><br />

publicación<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 35<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 36<br />

6


Funnel plot<br />

Funnel plot<br />

SAMPLE SIZE<br />

DEMONSTRATION OF FUNNEL PLOT<br />

220<br />

200<br />

180<br />

160<br />

140<br />

120<br />

100<br />

80<br />

60<br />

40<br />

20<br />

0<br />

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0<br />

ODDS RATIO<br />

Published<br />

Unpublished<br />

Overall OR<br />

SAMPLE SIZE<br />

DEMONSTRATION OF FUNNEL PLOT<br />

220<br />

200<br />

180<br />

160<br />

140<br />

120<br />

100<br />

80<br />

60<br />

40<br />

20<br />

0<br />

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2<br />

ODDS RATIO<br />

Published<br />

Overall OR<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 37<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 38<br />

Presentación n gráfica<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 39<br />

Conclusiones (1)<br />

1. El meta-an<br />

<strong>análisis</strong> es un herramienta valida y<br />

po<strong>de</strong>rosa para la síntesis s<br />

<strong>de</strong> la investigación<br />

siempre y cuando se aplique <strong>de</strong> forma a<strong>de</strong>cuada<br />

(justificación, protocolo, etc.)<br />

2. La utilización n no crítica <strong>de</strong>l meta-an<br />

<strong>análisis</strong> pue<strong>de</strong><br />

llevar a conclusiones erróneas. Las principales<br />

críticas que se realizan a un meta-an<br />

<strong>análisis</strong> son:<br />

- Sesgo <strong>de</strong> publicación n y/o inclusión n selectiva <strong>de</strong><br />

estudios positivos<br />

- Heterogeneidad entre estudios<br />

- Correlación n entre el tamaño o <strong>de</strong>l efecto y el<br />

tamaño o <strong>de</strong> la muestra<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 40<br />

Conclusiones (2)<br />

3. Únicamente cuando estos problemas son<br />

<strong>de</strong>bidamente consi<strong>de</strong>rados y analizados por<br />

medio <strong>de</strong>:<br />

- Análisis <strong>de</strong> la asimetría a <strong>de</strong>l funnel plot<br />

- Pruebas <strong>de</strong> homogeneidad<br />

- Análisis <strong>de</strong> la correlación n entre el<br />

tamaño o <strong>de</strong>l efecto y el tamaño o <strong>de</strong> la<br />

muestra <strong>de</strong> los estudios<br />

Es posible aplicar esta técnica t<br />

estadística<br />

stica<br />

para combinar los estudios <strong>de</strong> forma que los<br />

resultados globales sean científicamente<br />

validos<br />

<strong>Meta</strong>-an<br />

<strong>análisis</strong><br />

Ejemplo<br />

<strong>Ferran</strong> <strong>Torres</strong><br />

<strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 41<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 42<br />

7


Selection of studies<br />

Effects of plantago ovata<br />

husk on lipid metabolism.<br />

A meta-analysis<br />

analysis<br />

<br />

<br />

I<strong>de</strong>ntified 26 studies =>18 were valid<br />

according to the pre<strong>de</strong>fined criteria<br />

Exclu<strong>de</strong>d studies.<br />

– Most of them (7 of 8) insufficient information<br />

on <strong>de</strong>scriptive statistics to calculate the<br />

meta-analysis analysis estimates from those studies;<br />

– the other one was erroneously pre-selected<br />

since only insoluble fiber was used in that<br />

trial.<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 43<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 44<br />

<br />

<br />

Statistical issues on the results (1)<br />

Poor quality of information<br />

withdrawals and <strong>de</strong>scriptive results:<br />

Complete available <strong>de</strong>scriptive data, n, mean and<br />

dispersion (SD or SE), for the baseline subtracted effect<br />

was found only for one study (Williams 1995).<br />

– SD (or SE to <strong>de</strong>rive the SD):<br />

Estimated from baseline and final values by using<br />

correlation coefficients from other published data.<br />

If baseline or final SD not available: SD for the baseline<br />

difference was directly imputed from other published data.<br />

cross-over over <strong>de</strong>sign<br />

– Intrasubject correlation for the estimation of the SD of the<br />

treatment differences has been ignored for the cross-over<br />

over<br />

<strong>de</strong>sign because of (a) it was not available and (b) this is<br />

conservative since it leads to less significant results.<br />

<br />

Statistical issues on the results (2)<br />

Treatment arms<br />

2 per study except 1:<br />

– (MacMahon<br />

1998): The mentioned study was a<br />

three arm trial with a control group (n=74) and<br />

2 active doses of 7 G/d (n=101), and 10.5G/d<br />

(n=91).<br />

– Half the sample size of the control group (n=37;<br />

74/2) was used for the comparison between<br />

each active group.<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 45<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 46<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 47 2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 48<br />

8


Statistical issues on the results (3)<br />

Statistical issues on the results (3)<br />

<br />

Potential Publication Bias<br />

<br />

Heterogeneity and sensibility analysis<br />

– (a) The biggest studies have the lowest magnitu<strong>de</strong><br />

effect for Total Cholesterol, although the direction of<br />

the effect is positive for all of them.<br />

– (b) There are probably some unpublished small<br />

studies with negative results, although the bigger<br />

studies are positive.<br />

– (a) The biggest studies have the lowest magnitu<strong>de</strong> effect<br />

for Total Cholesterol, although the direction of the effect is<br />

positive for all of them.<br />

– (b) There are probably some unpublished small studies<br />

with negative results, although the bigger studies are<br />

positive.<br />

=><br />

– Pooled results too heterogeneous<br />

very cautious with the conclusions<br />

fixed effects not valid<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 49<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 50<br />

<strong>Meta</strong>-analysis analysis estimations<br />

Significant effect for<br />

– Total Cholesterol (p


Fiber vs Placebo effect in lipid reduction. HDL<br />

Hedges unbiased g, Random effects<br />

Fiber vs Placebo effect in lipid reduction. LDL<br />

Hedges unbiased g, Random effects<br />

Estimates with 95% confi<strong>de</strong>nce intervals<br />

Estimates with 95% confi<strong>de</strong>nce intervals<br />

Fiber<br />

Study<br />

n: mean(SD)<br />

ANDERSON 1988 13: -0.090(0.042)<br />

BELL 1989 40: 0.050(0.066)<br />

BELL 1990 19: -0.020(0.080)<br />

LEVIN 1990 30: 0.026(0.168)<br />

NEAL 1990 27: 0.060(0.168)<br />

ANDERSON 1991 27: -0.020(0.099)<br />

ANDERSON 1992 21: -0.020(0.057)<br />

EVERSON 1992 20: 0.026(0.100)<br />

SPRECHER 1993 59: -0.026(0.055)<br />

SPRECHERON 1993 20: -0.020(0.224)<br />

MACIEJKO 1994 18: 0.130(0.154)<br />

SUMMERBELL 1994 19: -0.010(0.070)<br />

WOLEVER 1994 18: -0.040(0.030)<br />

WILLIAMS 1995 26: 0.106(0.094)<br />

WEINGAND 1997 23: 0.055(0.168)<br />

RODRIGUEZ-MORAN 1998 62: 0.440(0.454)<br />

ANDERSON 1999 14: 0.005(0.168)<br />

Control<br />

n: mean(SD)<br />

13: -0.090(0.141)<br />

35: 0.030(0.058)<br />

19: -0.020(0.072)<br />

28: 0.078(0.168)<br />

27: 0.140(0.168)<br />

25: 0.000(0.072)<br />

23: -0.010(0.024)<br />

20: 0.000(0.094)<br />

59: -0.013(0.059)<br />

20: -0.040(0.134)<br />

18: 0.130(0.120)<br />

18: 0.070(0.085)<br />

18: 0.040(0.030)<br />

24: 0.039(0.031)<br />

23: -0.185(0.168)<br />

63: 0.078(0.044)<br />

15: 0.017(0.168)<br />

Fiber<br />

Study<br />

n: mean(SD)<br />

ANDERSON 1988 13: -0.840(0.264)<br />

BELL 1989 40: -0.310(0.081)<br />

BELL 1990 19: -0.160(0.100)<br />

LEVIN 1990 30: -0.337(0.224)<br />

NEAL 1990 27: -0.480(0.448)<br />

ANDERSON 1991 27: -0.590(0.283)<br />

ANDERSON 1992 21: -0.560(0.385)<br />

EVERSON 1992 20: -0.389(0.372)<br />

SPRECHER 1993 59: -0.332(0.096)<br />

SPRECHERON 1993 20: 0.040(0.358)<br />

MACIEJKO 1994 18: -1.090(0.216)<br />

SUMMERBELL 1994 19: -0.440(0.194)<br />

WOLEVER 1994 18: -0.260(0.016)<br />

WILLIAMS 1995 26: -0.613(0.093)<br />

WEINGAND 1997 23: -0.320(0.427)<br />

MACMAHON 1998 101: -0.630(0.427)<br />

MACMAHON 1998 91: -0.710(0.427)<br />

RODRIGUEZ-MORAN 1998 62: -0.725(0.427)<br />

ANDERSON 1999 14: -0.179(0.427)<br />

Control<br />

n: mean(SD)<br />

13: -0.110(0.321)<br />

35: 0.000(0.232)<br />

19: -0.140(0.252)<br />

28: -0.104(0.144)<br />

27: -0.140(0.523)<br />

25: -0.200(0.147)<br />

23: -0.130(0.211)<br />

20: -0.130(0.099)<br />

59: -0.057(0.200)<br />

20: -0.060(0.358)<br />

18: -0.850(0.941)<br />

18: -0.250(0.261)<br />

18: 0.280(0.316)<br />

24: -0.221(0.238)<br />

23: -0.020(0.427)<br />

37: -0.580(0.427)<br />

37: -0.580(0.427)<br />

63: -0.440(0.427)<br />

15: 0.281(0.427)<br />

Pooled(random effects)<br />

n=448<br />

n=456<br />

-0.03 ( -0.39 , 0.33 )<br />

Pooled(random effects)<br />

n=522<br />

n=648<br />

-1.02 ( -1.36 , -0.69 )<br />

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5<br />

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5<br />

Absolute Baseline Reduction<br />

Absolute Baseline Reduction<br />

Control better<br />

Fiber better<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 55<br />

Fiber better<br />

Control better<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 56<br />

Fiber vs Placebo effect in lipid reduction. LDL<br />

Hedges unbiased g, Fixed effects<br />

Fiber vs Placebo effect in lipid reduction. LDL<br />

Difference of means (mmol/L), Random effects<br />

Estimates with 95% confi<strong>de</strong>nce intervals<br />

Estimates with 95% confi<strong>de</strong>nce intervals<br />

Fiber<br />

Study<br />

n: mean(SD)<br />

ANDERSON 1988 13: -0.840(0.264)<br />

BELL 1989 40: -0.310(0.081)<br />

BELL 1990 19: -0.160(0.100)<br />

LEVIN 1990 30: -0.337(0.224)<br />

NEAL 1990 27: -0.480(0.448)<br />

ANDERSON 1991 27: -0.590(0.283)<br />

ANDERSON 1992 21: -0.560(0.385)<br />

EVERSON 1992 20: -0.389(0.372)<br />

SPRECHER 1993 59: -0.332(0.096)<br />

SPRECHERON 1993 20: 0.040(0.358)<br />

MACIEJKO 1994 18: -1.090(0.216)<br />

SUMMERBELL 1994 19: -0.440(0.194)<br />

WOLEVER 1994 18: -0.260(0.016)<br />

WILLIAMS 1995 26: -0.613(0.093)<br />

WEINGAND 1997 23: -0.320(0.427)<br />

MACMAHON 1998 101: -0.630(0.427)<br />

MACMAHON 1998 91: -0.710(0.427)<br />

RODRIGUEZ-MORAN 1998 62: -0.725(0.427)<br />

ANDERSON 1999 14: -0.179(0.427)<br />

Control<br />

n: mean(SD)<br />

13: -0.110(0.321)<br />

35: 0.000(0.232)<br />

19: -0.140(0.252)<br />

28: -0.104(0.144)<br />

27: -0.140(0.523)<br />

25: -0.200(0.147)<br />

23: -0.130(0.211)<br />

20: -0.130(0.099)<br />

59: -0.057(0.200)<br />

20: -0.060(0.358)<br />

18: -0.850(0.941)<br />

18: -0.250(0.261)<br />

18: 0.280(0.316)<br />

24: -0.221(0.238)<br />

23: -0.020(0.427)<br />

37: -0.580(0.427)<br />

37: -0.580(0.427)<br />

63: -0.440(0.427)<br />

15: 0.281(0.427)<br />

Fiber<br />

Study<br />

n: mean(SD)<br />

ANDERSON 1988 13: -0.840(0.264)<br />

BELL 1989 40: -0.310(0.081)<br />

BELL 1990 19: -0.160(0.100)<br />

LEVIN 1990 30: -0.337(0.224)<br />

NEAL 1990 27: -0.480(0.448)<br />

ANDERSON 1991 27: -0.590(0.283)<br />

ANDERSON 1992 21: -0.560(0.385)<br />

EVERSON 1992 20: -0.389(0.372)<br />

SPRECHER 1993 59: -0.332(0.096)<br />

SPRECHERON 1993 20: 0.040(0.358)<br />

MACIEJKO 1994 18: -1.090(0.216)<br />

SUMMERBELL 1994 19: -0.440(0.194)<br />

WOLEVER 1994 18: -0.260(0.016)<br />

WILLIAMS 1995 26: -0.613(0.093)<br />

WEINGAND 1997 23: -0.320(0.427)<br />

MACMAHON 1998 101: -0.630(0.427)<br />

MACMAHON 1998 91: -0.710(0.427)<br />

RODRIGUEZ-MORAN 1998 62: -0.725(0.427)<br />

ANDERSON 1999 14: -0.179(0.427)<br />

Control<br />

n: mean(SD)<br />

13: -0.110(0.321)<br />

35: 0.000(0.232)<br />

19: -0.140(0.252)<br />

28: -0.104(0.144)<br />

27: -0.140(0.523)<br />

25: -0.200(0.147)<br />

23: -0.130(0.211)<br />

20: -0.130(0.099)<br />

59: -0.057(0.200)<br />

20: -0.060(0.358)<br />

18: -0.850(0.941)<br />

18: -0.250(0.261)<br />

18: 0.280(0.316)<br />

24: -0.221(0.238)<br />

23: -0.020(0.427)<br />

37: -0.580(0.427)<br />

37: -0.580(0.427)<br />

63: -0.440(0.427)<br />

15: 0.281(0.427)<br />

Pooled(fixed effects)<br />

n=522<br />

n=648<br />

-0.88 ( -1.01 , -0.75 )<br />

Pooled(random effects)<br />

n=522<br />

n=648<br />

-0.28 ( -0.35 , -0.21 )<br />

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5<br />

-1.0 -0.7 -0.4 -0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9<br />

Absolute Baseline Reduction<br />

Absolute Baseline Reduction<br />

Fiber better<br />

Control better<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 57<br />

Fiber better<br />

Control better<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 58<br />

Fiber vs Placebo effect in lipid reduction. Triglyceri<strong>de</strong>s<br />

Hedges unbiased g, Random effects<br />

Fiber vs Placebo effect in lipid reduction. Triglyceri<strong>de</strong>s<br />

Hedges unbiased g, Fixed effects<br />

Estimates with 95% confi<strong>de</strong>nce intervals<br />

Estimates with 95% confi<strong>de</strong>nce intervals<br />

Study<br />

ANDERSON 1988<br />

Fiber<br />

n: mean(SD)<br />

13: -0.210(0.058)<br />

Control<br />

n: mean(SD)<br />

13: 0.190(0.479)<br />

Study<br />

ANDERSON 1988<br />

Fiber<br />

n: mean(SD)<br />

13: -0.210(0.058)<br />

Control<br />

n: mean(SD)<br />

13: 0.190(0.479)<br />

BELL 1989<br />

40: 0.030(0.302)<br />

35: -0.050(0.102)<br />

BELL 1989<br />

40: 0.030(0.302)<br />

35: -0.050(0.102)<br />

BELL 1990<br />

19: -0.135(0.214)<br />

19: 0.030(0.201)<br />

BELL 1990<br />

19: -0.135(0.214)<br />

19: 0.030(0.201)<br />

LEVIN 1990<br />

30: -0.011(0.320)<br />

28: 0.000(0.088)<br />

LEVIN 1990<br />

30: -0.011(0.320)<br />

28: 0.000(0.088)<br />

NEAL 1990<br />

27: -0.240(0.293)<br />

27: -0.140(0.313)<br />

NEAL 1990<br />

27: -0.240(0.293)<br />

27: -0.140(0.313)<br />

ANDERSON 1991<br />

27: 0.200(0.516)<br />

25: -0.120(0.185)<br />

ANDERSON 1991<br />

27: 0.200(0.516)<br />

25: -0.120(0.185)<br />

ANDERSON 1992<br />

21: 0.080(0.455)<br />

23: 0.300(0.791)<br />

ANDERSON 1992<br />

21: 0.080(0.455)<br />

23: 0.300(0.791)<br />

EVERSON 1992<br />

20: 0.102(0.630)<br />

20: 0.000(0.224)<br />

EVERSON 1992<br />

20: 0.102(0.630)<br />

20: 0.000(0.224)<br />

SPRECHER 1993<br />

59: 0.006(0.308)<br />

59: 0.150(0.345)<br />

SPRECHER 1993<br />

59: 0.006(0.308)<br />

59: 0.150(0.345)<br />

SPRECHERON 1993<br />

20: 0.240(0.805)<br />

20: 0.920(1.163)<br />

SPRECHERON 1993<br />

20: 0.240(0.805)<br />

20: 0.920(1.163)<br />

MACIEJKO 1994<br />

18: 0.450(1.008)<br />

18: 0.410(0.351)<br />

MACIEJKO 1994<br />

18: 0.450(1.008)<br />

18: 0.410(0.351)<br />

WILLIAMS 1995<br />

26: -0.142(0.249)<br />

24: -0.232(0.137)<br />

WILLIAMS 1995<br />

26: -0.142(0.249)<br />

24: -0.232(0.137)<br />

WEINGAND 1997<br />

23: 0.002(0.781)<br />

23: 0.002(0.781)<br />

WEINGAND 1997<br />

23: 0.002(0.781)<br />

23: 0.002(0.781)<br />

RODRIGUEZ-MORAN 1998<br />

62: -0.554(0.781)<br />

63: -0.181(0.781)<br />

RODRIGUEZ-MORAN 1998<br />

62: -0.554(0.781)<br />

63: -0.181(0.781)<br />

ANDERSON 1999<br />

14: 0.165(0.781)<br />

15: 0.342(0.781)<br />

ANDERSON 1999<br />

14: 0.165(0.781)<br />

15: 0.342(0.781)<br />

Pooled(random effects)<br />

n=412<br />

n=419<br />

-0.15 ( -0.39 , 0.09 )<br />

Pooled(fixed effects)<br />

n=412<br />

n=419<br />

-0.16 ( -0.30 , -0.02 )<br />

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5<br />

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5<br />

Absolute Baseline Reduction<br />

Absolute Baseline Reduction<br />

Fiber better<br />

Control better<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 59<br />

Fiber better<br />

Control better<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 60<br />

10


Study<br />

ANDERSON 1988<br />

BELL 1989<br />

BELL 1990<br />

LEVIN 1990<br />

NEAL 1990<br />

ANDERSON 1991<br />

ANDERSON 1992<br />

EVERSON 1992<br />

SPRECHER 1993<br />

SPRECHERON 1993<br />

MACIEJKO 1994<br />

WILLIAMS 1995<br />

WEINGAND 1997<br />

RODRIGUEZ-MORAN 1998<br />

ANDERSON 1999<br />

Fiber vs Placebo effect in lipid reduction. Triglyceri<strong>de</strong>s<br />

Difference of means (mmol/L), Random effects<br />

Fiber<br />

n: mean(SD)<br />

13: -0.210(0.058)<br />

40: 0.030(0.302)<br />

19: -0.135(0.214)<br />

30: -0.011(0.320)<br />

27: -0.240(0.293)<br />

27: 0.200(0.516)<br />

21: 0.080(0.455)<br />

20: 0.102(0.630)<br />

59: 0.006(0.308)<br />

20: 0.240(0.805)<br />

18: 0.450(1.008)<br />

26: -0.142(0.249)<br />

23: 0.002(0.781)<br />

62: -0.554(0.781)<br />

14: 0.165(0.781)<br />

Control<br />

n: mean(SD)<br />

13: 0.190(0.479)<br />

35: -0.050(0.102)<br />

19: 0.030(0.201)<br />

28: 0.000(0.088)<br />

27: -0.140(0.313)<br />

25: -0.120(0.185)<br />

23: 0.300(0.791)<br />

20: 0.000(0.224)<br />

59: 0.150(0.345)<br />

20: 0.920(1.163)<br />

18: 0.410(0.351)<br />

24: -0.232(0.137)<br />

23: 0.002(0.781)<br />

63: -0.181(0.781)<br />

15: 0.342(0.781)<br />

Estimates with 95% confi<strong>de</strong>nce intervals<br />

Subgroups<br />

SS with ES>1<br />

– Cholesterol and LDL<br />

fiber food supplement compound<br />

intake duration between 4 and 8 weeks<br />

daily doses >10G/d<br />

Mo<strong>de</strong>rate SS ES<br />

– >8 weeks regimens<br />

-0.7 cholesterol and -0.8 LDL<br />

SS with ES≈1<br />

– periods of study publication: no clear trend<br />

Pooled(random effects)<br />

n=412<br />

n=419<br />

-0.07 ( -0.16 , 0.03 )<br />

-1.0 -0.7 -0.4 -0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9<br />

Absolute Baseline Reduction<br />

Adult population: replication of the main pooled<br />

effect because only 2 studies on childhood.<br />

Fiber better<br />

Control better<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 61<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 62<br />

Group<br />

Cholesterol<br />

Hedges’ g<br />

estimator<br />

(random)<br />

95%<br />

Lower<br />

Limit<br />

95%<br />

Upper<br />

Limit<br />

P value<br />

Main pooled effect 0.000 -1.007 -1.311 -0.703<br />

Type of fiber<br />

Fiber food supplement compound 0.000 -1.134 -1.561 -0.707<br />

Diet or Cereals supplements 0.000 -0.869 -1.313 -0.426<br />

Duration of fiber Intake<br />

4 to 8 weeks 0.024 -0.672 -1.255 -0.088<br />

Daily dose<br />

< 5 G/d 0.939 -0.024 -0.644 0.596<br />

>= 5 to 10 G/d 0.005 -0.908 -1.542 -0.275<br />

>10 G/d 0.000 -1.123 -1.477 -0.769<br />

Population<br />

Non Adults 0.303 -0.786 -2.282 0.711<br />

Adults 0.000 -1.032 -1.350 -0.714<br />

Year of publication<br />

1988-1990 0.000 -1.807 -2.418 -1.196<br />

1991-1993 0.001 -0.786 -1.234 -0.338<br />

1994-1997 0.000 -0.971 -1.456 -0.486<br />

>=1998 0.016 -0.370 -0.673 -0.068<br />

Group<br />

LDL<br />

Hedges’ g<br />

estimator<br />

(random)<br />

95%<br />

Lower<br />

Limit<br />

95%<br />

Upper<br />

Limit<br />

P value<br />

Main pooled effect 0.000 -1.023 -1.356 -0.690<br />

Type of fiber<br />

Fiber food supplement compound 0.000 -1.191 -1.569 -0.813<br />

Diet or Cereals supplements 0.002 -0.833 -1.360 -0.306<br />

Duration of fiber Intake<br />

4 to 8 weeks 0.036 -0.765 -1.480 -0.051<br />

Daily dose<br />

< 5 G/d 0.389 0.274 -0.349 0.897<br />

>= 5 to 10 G/d 0.022 -0.950 -1.761 -0.139<br />

>10 G/d 0.000 -1.154 -1.457 -0.851<br />

Population<br />

Non Adults 0.441 -0.942 -3.338 1.454<br />

Adults 0.000 -1.029 -1.354 -0.704<br />

Year of publication<br />

1988-1990 0.001 -1.192 -1.891 -0.493<br />

1991-1993 0.003 -1.102 -1.834 -0.370<br />

1994-1997 0.001 -1.245 -2.008 -0.481<br />

>=1998 0.008 -0.453 -0.788 -0.118<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 63<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 64<br />

<strong>Meta</strong>-an<br />

<strong>análisis</strong><br />

Ejemplo<br />

<strong>Ferran</strong> <strong>Torres</strong><br />

<strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es<br />

Example<br />

Fleiss JL The statistical basis of meta-analysis.<br />

analysis.<br />

Statistical Methods in Medical research 1993; 2:<br />

121-145.<br />

145.<br />

Results of seven placebo-controlled controlled randomised<br />

studies of the effect of aspirin in preventing<br />

<strong>de</strong>ath after myocardial infarction<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 65<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 66<br />

11


Studies of aspirin in myocardial<br />

infarction<br />

Study<br />

<strong>de</strong>aths<br />

Total patients<br />

AAS Placebo AAS Placebo<br />

MRC-1 49 67 615 624<br />

CDP 44 64 758 771<br />

MRC-2 102 126 832 850<br />

GASP 32 38 317 309<br />

PARIS 85 104 810 812<br />

AMIS 246 219 2267 2257<br />

ISIS-2 1570 1720 8587 8600<br />

<strong>Meta</strong>-analysis of Aspirin trials<br />

Study OR 95% CI y=ln(OR) se{lnOR} w Prop weight<br />

MRC-1 0.72 0.49 1.06 -0.33 0.19 26.3 2.9%<br />

CDP 0.68 0.46 1.01 -0.38 0.20 25.1 2.8%<br />

MRC-2 0.80 0.61 1.06 -0.22 0.14 49.3 5.4%<br />

GASP 0.80 0.49 1.32 -0.22 0.25 15.6 1.7%<br />

PARIS 0.79 0.54 1.16 -0.23 0.19 27.1 3.0%<br />

AMIS 1.13 0.94 1.37 0.12 0.10 104.3 11.4%<br />

ISIS-2 0.90 0.83 0.97 -0.11 0.04 665.1 72.9%<br />

∑ w i<br />

y i<br />

= −99.3<br />

∑ wi<br />

= 910.8<br />

Pooled estimate of ln(OR) =<br />

− 99.3<br />

= −0.11<br />

910.8<br />

OR = 0.90 (0.84 0.96)<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 67<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 68<br />

Graphical representation<br />

Fixed OR = 0.90 (0.84 0.96)<br />

Study OR 95% CI y=ln(OR) se{lnOR} w Prop weight<br />

MRC-1 0.72 0.49 1.06 -0.33 0.19 26.3 2.9%<br />

CDP 0.68 0.46 1.01 -0.38 0.20 25.1 2.8%<br />

MRC-2 0.80 0.61 1.06 -0.22 0.14 49.3 5.4%<br />

GASP 0.80 0.49 1.32 -0.22 0.25 15.6 1.7%<br />

PARIS 0.79 0.54 1.16 -0.23 0.19 27.1 3.0%<br />

AMIS 1.13 0.94 1.37 0.12 0.10 104.3 11.4%<br />

ISIS-2 0.90 0.83 0.97 -0.11 0.04 665.1 72.9%<br />

Random OR= 0.88 95%CI : (0.77 ; 0.99)<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 69<br />

Study OR 95% CI y=ln(OR) var Prop weight<br />

MRC-1 0.72 0.46 1.10 -0.33 0.05 8.0%<br />

CDP 0.68 0.43 1.05 -0.38 0.05 8.0%<br />

MRC-2 0.80 0.57 1.12 -0.22 0.03 13.0%<br />

GASP 0.80 0.46 1.36 -0.22 0.07 5.0%<br />

PARIS 0.79 0.52 1.20 -0.23 0.05 9.0%<br />

AMIS 1.13 0.86 1.48 0.12 0.02 21.0%<br />

ISIS-2 0.90 0.72 1.10 -0.11 0.01 36.0%<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 70<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 71 2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 72<br />

12


10.4%-14.2% = 3.8%<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 73 2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 74<br />

<strong>Meta</strong>-an<br />

<strong>análisis</strong><br />

Normativas<br />

<strong>Ferran</strong> <strong>Torres</strong><br />

<strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 75<br />

Guias y Normativas<br />

ICH - E9: Statistical Principles for Clinical<br />

Trials Note for Guidance on Statistical<br />

Principles for Clinical Trials.<br />

CMP/ICH/363/96. September 1998<br />

CPMP/EWP/2330/99: Validity and<br />

Interpretation of Pooled Analyses, and one<br />

Pivotal study<br />

The Potsdam International Consultation on<br />

<strong>Meta</strong>-analysis analysis Potsdam, Germany, March 1994<br />

QUORUM. Statement. Lancet 1999; 354:<br />

1896-1900.<br />

1900.<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 76<br />

Potsdam International<br />

Cosultation<br />

• Journal of Clinical Epi<strong>de</strong>miology 1995; 48: 1-711<br />

• Cook DJ, Sackett DL, Spitzer WO. Methodologic<br />

gui<strong>de</strong>lines for systematic reviews of randomized<br />

control trials in health care from the Potsdam<br />

consultation meta-analysis<br />

analysis. . J Clin Epi<strong>de</strong>miol 1995;<br />

48:168-71.<br />

Describen los pasos que se <strong>de</strong>ben seguir en el<br />

<strong>de</strong>sarrollo <strong>de</strong> un meta-an<br />

<strong>análisis</strong> riguroso<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 77<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 78<br />

13


ICH Biostatistical gui<strong>de</strong>line<br />

”Individual clinical trials should always be large<br />

enough to satisfy their objectives.”<br />

”The<br />

use of meta-analytic analytic techniques to<br />

combine these estimates is often useful,<br />

because it allows a more precise estimate of<br />

the size of the treatment effects.”<br />

ICH Biostatistical gui<strong>de</strong>line<br />

”Un<strong>de</strong>r<br />

exceptional circumstances a meta-<br />

analytic approach may be the most<br />

appropriate way to, or the only way, , of<br />

providing sufficient overall evi<strong>de</strong>nce of<br />

efficacy ...”<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 79<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 80<br />

PtC on <strong>Meta</strong>-analyses<br />

analyses<br />

Acceptable regulatory purposes for meta analysis<br />

”… not to encourage applicants to rely on a<br />

submission where stand alone studies<br />

have been substituted by a meta-<br />

analysis of trials of ina<strong>de</strong>quate size.”<br />

To improve the precision of the estimate of<br />

efficacy<br />

To evaluate whether overall positive results<br />

are also seen in pre-specified subgroups<br />

To evaluate apparently conflicting results.<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 81<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 82<br />

Acceptable regulatory purposes for meta<br />

analysis<br />

To evaluate an additional efficacy outcome<br />

that requires more power than the individual<br />

trials can provi<strong>de</strong>.<br />

To evaluate safety in a subgroup, , or a rare<br />

event in all patients.<br />

Pre-specification<br />

specification: : <strong>Meta</strong>-analysis analysis protocol<br />

The objective of the analyis.<br />

Criteria for inclusion and exclusion of studies<br />

(study<br />

populations, study <strong>de</strong>sign, dosage,<br />

duration etc).<br />

Strategy for in<strong>de</strong>ntification of studies.<br />

Endpoints. . The <strong>de</strong>finitions set up for the<br />

individual studies should be followed.<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 83<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 84<br />

14


Pre-specification<br />

specification: : <strong>Meta</strong>-analysis analysis protocol<br />

Statistical methods. . P-value P<br />

more extreme<br />

than the conventional 0.05. Evaluation of<br />

hetreogeneity.<br />

Plan for evaluation of robustness.<br />

Demonstration of consistency in alternative<br />

analyses.<br />

Timing of the meta-analysis analysis protocol<br />

A retrospective specification should be<br />

avoi<strong>de</strong>d if possible.<br />

In retrospectively specified protocols the<br />

primary specifications and <strong>de</strong>finitions set up<br />

in the indivi-dual dual studies should be followed.<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 85<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 86<br />

Retrospective meta-analysis<br />

analysis<br />

May be acceptable if<br />

some studies clearly positive<br />

no major numerical interactions<br />

positive trend in inconclusive studies<br />

pooled CI well away from zero (or unity)<br />

selection bias unlikely<br />

robustness of the findings<br />

Selection of studies<br />

Obligation to submit all studies relevant to<br />

the claims ma<strong>de</strong>.<br />

Selection bias normally not a problem for new<br />

chemical entities.<br />

Selection bias in drug applications not specific<br />

to applications with a meta-analysis<br />

analysis<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 87<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 88<br />

Selection of studies<br />

Clinical relevance of pooled results<br />

Substantial risk for selection bias in<br />

applications wholly or partly relying on<br />

bibliographical data.<br />

The strategy for in<strong>de</strong>ntifying relevant<br />

studies should be presented together with a<br />

thorough discussion of a potential selection<br />

bias.<br />

Statistical significance vs clinical relevance.<br />

Emphasis on clinical judgement.<br />

Significant effects might be to small to<br />

result in a positive overall risk/benefit<br />

benefit.<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 89<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 90<br />

15


Heterogeneity and external validity<br />

Are the study populations sufficiently<br />

representative of a common target population<br />

(dosage, duration, severity etc)?<br />

Are there any reason to suspect a clinically<br />

relevant interaction?<br />

Suspected interactions and major clinical<br />

differences among the individual studies should be<br />

evaluated in alternative analyses.<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 91<br />

Pooled analyses of safety endpoints<br />

Less sophisticated pooling of data from<br />

variable sources.<br />

Strigent meta-analysis<br />

analysis for in <strong>de</strong>pth evaluation<br />

of safety signals from less reliable analyses.<br />

Special attention to the inclusion of studies<br />

that are likely to dilute potential negative<br />

effect.<br />

Intra-study comparisons a minimum<br />

requirement.<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 92<br />

ICH E9 Statistical principles for Clinical<br />

Trials, , 1998<br />

What is the crucial question?<br />

”The<br />

results of the confirmatory trial(s)<br />

should be robust.”<br />

”In<br />

some circumstances the weight of<br />

evi<strong>de</strong>nce from a single confirmatory<br />

trial may be sufficient.”<br />

Do we have enough studies?<br />

or<br />

Do we have enough data?<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 93<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 94<br />

Arguments for replication<br />

More than one study provi<strong>de</strong>s a broa<strong>de</strong>r basis<br />

for generalisation of the results.<br />

Protection against fraud<br />

Reduced risk for some hid<strong>de</strong>n systematic bias<br />

The general <strong>de</strong>mand for replication of<br />

scientific results<br />

Fundamental requirement on the phase<br />

III documentation<br />

A<strong>de</strong>quate and well-controlled<br />

data of good quality<br />

A sufficient number of patients,<br />

with a sufficient variety and disease conditions,<br />

collected by a sufficent number of investigators,<br />

<strong>de</strong>monstrating a positive risk/benefit<br />

in the inten<strong>de</strong>d<br />

population at the inten<strong>de</strong>d dose and manner of use.<br />

Minimum requirement: One controlled study with<br />

sta-tistically tistically compelling and clinically relevant<br />

results.<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 95<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 96<br />

16


Reasons to plan for more than one study<br />

Lack of pharmacological rationale<br />

A new pharmocological principle<br />

Phase I and phase II data limited or<br />

unconvincing<br />

A therapeutic area with a history of failed<br />

studies or failures to confirm seemingly<br />

convincing results<br />

Any other need to address additional<br />

questions in the phase III program<br />

Crucial issues in the one pivotal study situation<br />

Internal and external validity.<br />

Clinical relevance. . The treatment benefit<br />

must be large enough to be clinically<br />

relevant.<br />

Statistical significance. Passing the<br />

conventional 5% significance level is usually<br />

not sufficient.<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 97<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 98<br />

Crucial issues in the one pivotal study situation<br />

Data quality<br />

Internal consistency. Similar findings in<br />

pre-specified sub-populations and for<br />

different endpoints.<br />

Center effects.<br />

Plausibility of the hypothesis tested.<br />

Scientific advice on One confirmatory study<br />

Sponsors’ argument<br />

New/exten<strong>de</strong>d exten<strong>de</strong>d indication, pediatric indication<br />

New formulation<br />

Effects on survival<br />

Serious disease (e.g. cancer)<br />

Life-long disease without cure<br />

No therapy currently available<br />

Rare disease (orphan drug)<br />

One study in each of two indications<br />

Placebo controlled dose-finding<br />

study positive<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 99<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 100<br />

Conclusion on One Pivotal study<br />

There is no formal requirement to inclu<strong>de</strong> two<br />

or more pivotal studies in the phase III<br />

program.<br />

In most cases several studies is the most<br />

feasible way to provi<strong>de</strong> the data nee<strong>de</strong>d.<br />

In the exceptional event of a one pivotal<br />

study application, theis study has to be<br />

particularly compelling.<br />

2007 <strong>Ferran</strong>.<strong>Torres</strong>@uab.es 101<br />

17

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