Enhancing metaphoric awareness in specialised reading
Enhancing metaphoric awareness in specialised reading
Enhancing metaphoric awareness in specialised reading
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PERGAMON<br />
English for Speci_c Purposes<br />
08 "1999# 026Ð036<br />
<strong>Enhanc<strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>metaphoric</strong> <strong>awareness</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>specialised</strong><br />
read<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Frank Boers<br />
Universite Libre de Bruxelles\ CP 009\ Av[ F[D[ Roosevelt 49\ B!0949 Brussels\ Belgium<br />
Abstract<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> question addressed <strong>in</strong> this article is whether it is worthwhile to refer to the literal<br />
sense or orig<strong>in</strong> of an unfamiliar _gurative expression as it is encountered by a language learner<br />
<strong>in</strong> her:his <strong>specialised</strong> read<strong>in</strong>g[ To answer this question\ Cognitive Semantic tools were applied<br />
to read<strong>in</strong>g economic discourse[ The hypothesis that an enhanced <strong>metaphoric</strong> <strong>awareness</strong> on the<br />
part of language learners can be bene_cial to their <strong>specialised</strong> read<strong>in</strong>g was put to the test <strong>in</strong> a<br />
small!scale experiment[ Þ 1999 The American University[ Published by Elsevier Science Ltd[<br />
All rights reserved[<br />
Keywords] Introduction*Cognitive Semantics and Metaphor<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the paradigm of Cognitive Semantics "Johnson\ 0876^ Lako}\ 0876#\<br />
metaphor is a fundamental cognitive ability that allows us to talk and th<strong>in</strong>k about<br />
abstract concepts and phenomena[ Certa<strong>in</strong> metaphors are so deeply entrenched <strong>in</strong><br />
human thought that they have been called metaphors we live by "Lako} + Johnson\<br />
0879# or conceptual metaphors "Lako}\ 0876#[ These conceptual metaphors are<br />
re~ected <strong>in</strong> conventional _gurative language[ Here are some examples of conceptual<br />
metaphors "<strong>in</strong> capitals# and their <strong>in</strong>stantiations <strong>in</strong> everyday language "<strong>in</strong> italics#]<br />
MORE IS UP^ LESS IS DOWN "e[g[\ An IQ of over 049#\ HIGH STATUS IS UP^<br />
LOW STATUS IS DOWN "e[g[\ Climb<strong>in</strong>` the academic ladder#\ HAPPY IS UP^<br />
UNHAPPY IS DOWN "e[g[\ Cheer up;#\ TIME IS A PATH "e[g[\ Look ahead and<br />
leave the past beh<strong>in</strong>d you#\ and so on[ Evidently\ <strong>in</strong> this framework\ metaphor is no<br />
longer considered merely as an ornamental device that is restricted to literature and<br />
Address correspondence to] Universite Libre de Bruxelles\ CP 009\ Av[ F[D[ Roosevelt 49\ B!0949<br />
Brussels\ Belgium[<br />
E!mail address] fboersÝulb[ac[be[l<br />
9778!3895:99:,19[99¦9[99 Þ 1999 The American University[ Published by Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights<br />
reserved[<br />
PII] S 9 7 7 8 ! 3 8 9 5 " 8 7 # 9 9 9 0 6 ! 8
027<br />
F[ Boers : En`lish for Speci_c Purposes 08 "1999# 026Ð036<br />
poetry[ In fact\ most novel or {{creative|| metaphors are further extensions of estab!<br />
lished ones "Lako} + Turner\ 0878^ Gibbs\ 0881#[ As most _gurative expressions <strong>in</strong><br />
everyday language have become conventional\ however\ we are rarely aware of their<br />
<strong>metaphoric</strong>al nature[ In this article we shall explore some of the potential bene_ts of<br />
an enhanced <strong>metaphoric</strong> <strong>awareness</strong> on the part of the language learner[<br />
Metaphor <strong>in</strong> economic discourse<br />
If the discussion of abstract doma<strong>in</strong>s of experience requires the use of _gurative<br />
language\ then this will also hold for the doma<strong>in</strong> of economics[ Indeed\ economic<br />
discourse conta<strong>in</strong>s numerous _gurative expressions] tariffs and quota are trade<br />
barriers\ money transfers constitute cash~ow\ employees are human capital or human<br />
resources\ new small _rms are ~ed`l<strong>in</strong>` companies\ _rms may collapse\ banks may<br />
s<strong>in</strong>k\ stockmarkets may crash\ economic forecasts may be `loomy\ currencies may be<br />
weak\ stron` or stable\ and so on "Henderson\ 0875^ McCloskey\ 0875^ Mason\ 0889^<br />
Boers + Demecheleer\ 0884\ 0886#[ We understand economic processes through a<br />
variety of metaphors\ and every metaphor highlights some aspects of the {{target||\<br />
but leaves the other aspects <strong>in</strong> the dark[ Moreover\ the {{logic|| associated with the<br />
{{source|| is generally preserved <strong>in</strong> the <strong>metaphoric</strong>al understand<strong>in</strong>g of the {{target||<br />
"Lako}\ 0889#[ As a result\ metaphors can easily be exploited for reasons of per!<br />
suasion] describ<strong>in</strong>g an economic recession as a tunnel\ for example\ may lead us to<br />
expect better times ahead "the light at the end of the tunnel#\ describ<strong>in</strong>g public debt<br />
as a burden may lead us to accept new taxes to reduce the weight\ and so on "Boers\<br />
0886a#[<br />
Diverse _gurative expressions encountered <strong>in</strong> economic discourse can often be<br />
traced back to a s<strong>in</strong>gle source doma<strong>in</strong> "see Figures 0Ð2#[ As with other conceptual<br />
metaphors\ each carries over its proper {{logic||[ Each highlights some aspects of<br />
economic processes\ but leaves other aspects <strong>in</strong> the dark[ Describ<strong>in</strong>g socio!economic<br />
processes <strong>in</strong> terms of mach<strong>in</strong>es and mechanisms\ for example\ may leave the<br />
impression that these are under control and fully predictable\ unlike human behaviour[<br />
A conception of socio!economic processes <strong>in</strong> terms of health care and _tness can be<br />
used by employers to argue <strong>in</strong> favour of slimm<strong>in</strong>` their companies "i[e[\ reduc<strong>in</strong>g their<br />
Mechanisms & Mach<strong>in</strong>es<br />
, the exchange-rate mechanism , f<strong>in</strong>e-tun<strong>in</strong>g economic growth<br />
, f<strong>in</strong>ancial <strong>in</strong>struments , economic t<strong>in</strong>ker<strong>in</strong>g<br />
macroeconomic tools<br />
, the economy is sputter<strong>in</strong>g<br />
, the economy is overheat<strong>in</strong>g , the monetary lever has rusted<br />
, tighten<strong>in</strong>g the screws on the , to overhaul the system<br />
economy<br />
, to dismantle a company<br />
Figure 0[ Phrases related to the <strong>metaphoric</strong> theme of mechanisms and mach<strong>in</strong>es "encountered <strong>in</strong> The<br />
Economist#[
F[ Boers : En`lish for Speci_c Purposes 08 "1999# 026Ð036 028<br />
Health & Fitness<br />
, economic sclerosis , a f<strong>in</strong>ancial haemorrhage<br />
, arthritic labour markets , anaemic <strong>in</strong>dustries<br />
, healthy firms , the right economic prescription<br />
, sickly companies , the best economic medic<strong>in</strong>e<br />
, addictive subsidies , the market cure<br />
, state support is a palliative , symptoms of a corporate disease<br />
, f<strong>in</strong>ancial hypochondria , nurse a firm back to health<br />
, <strong>in</strong>flataholics , surgery that costs jobs<br />
, endemic <strong>in</strong>flation , amputations of departments<br />
, a chronic deficit , economic recovery<br />
, an acute shortage , slimm<strong>in</strong>g flabby workforces<br />
, a f<strong>in</strong>ancial <strong>in</strong>jection<br />
Figure 1[ Phrases related to the <strong>metaphoric</strong> theme of health and _tness "encountered <strong>in</strong> The Economist#[<br />
Fight<strong>in</strong>g & Warfare<br />
, economic arm-twist<strong>in</strong>g , conquer<strong>in</strong>g the market<br />
, the fight for market share , break<strong>in</strong>g ranks with one’s associates<br />
, to combat fraud , keep<strong>in</strong>g shoulder to shoulder<br />
, a take-over battle , trade war<br />
, retaliation aga<strong>in</strong>st US exports , trad<strong>in</strong>g truce<br />
, <strong>in</strong>vad<strong>in</strong>g new markets , a price war<br />
Figure 2[ Phrases related to the <strong>metaphoric</strong> theme of _ght<strong>in</strong>g and warfare "encountered <strong>in</strong> The Economist#[<br />
workforce#[ Fight<strong>in</strong>g and warfare metaphors can be used by employers to call for<br />
extra sacri_ces on the part of their employees or for protectionist measures on the<br />
part of the government[ Experimental research has shown that exposure to certa<strong>in</strong><br />
metaphors can <strong>in</strong>deed have a profound e}ect on people|s reason<strong>in</strong>g about abstract<br />
phenomena "e[g[\ Gentner + Gentner\ 0872#[ Also with respect to the socio!economic<br />
doma<strong>in</strong>\ it has been shown that subjects| problem solv<strong>in</strong>g strategies are guided by the<br />
_gurative language they are confronted with "Boers\ 0886b#[ Describ<strong>in</strong>g economic<br />
competition <strong>in</strong> terms of rac<strong>in</strong>g\ for example\ nurtures di}erent thought patterns from<br />
those used describ<strong>in</strong>g economic competition <strong>in</strong> terms of _ght<strong>in</strong>g[<br />
Cognitive Semantics and ELT<br />
In Cognitive Semantics\ multi!word expressions "idioms\ collocations\ etc[#\ are<br />
treated as central to the language "Langacker\ 0876\ 0880#[ This view clearly supports<br />
recent calls <strong>in</strong> applied l<strong>in</strong>guistics for a more central place for collocations and other<br />
multi!word expressions <strong>in</strong> language learn<strong>in</strong>g "e[g[\ Cowie\ 0877^ Lewis\ 0882^ Natt<strong>in</strong>ger<br />
+ DeCarrico 0881#[
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F[ Boers : En`lish for Speci_c Purposes 08 "1999# 026Ð036<br />
Be<strong>in</strong>g a fairly new paradigm\ Cognitive Semantics and its tools have only recently<br />
been <strong>in</strong>troduced to the _eld of English language teach<strong>in</strong>g[ So far the ma<strong>in</strong> area of<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest has been vocabulary acquisition "e[g[\ Hatch + Brown\ 0884^ Lazar\ 0885^<br />
Deignan\ Gabrys + Solska\ 0886#\ especially the teach<strong>in</strong>g of prepositions\ phrasal<br />
verbs and idioms "e[g[\ L<strong>in</strong>dstromberg\ 0885^ Kovecses + Szabo\ 0885^ Boers +<br />
Demecheleer\ 0887#[<br />
One of the next possible steps could be to <strong>in</strong>troduce Cognitive Semantic <strong>in</strong>sights to<br />
the _eld of ESP[ The present paper explores ways <strong>in</strong> which students can cope better<br />
with the <strong>specialised</strong> read<strong>in</strong>g of economic discourse[ The vehicle proposed is an<br />
enhanced <strong>metaphoric</strong> <strong>awareness</strong> on the part of the language learner[ One simple way<br />
of rais<strong>in</strong>g learners| <strong>metaphoric</strong> <strong>awareness</strong> is to draw their attention to the source<br />
doma<strong>in</strong> or to the orig<strong>in</strong> of unfamiliar _gurative expressions as they encounter these<br />
<strong>in</strong> their <strong>specialised</strong> read<strong>in</strong>g[ The proposed strategy is not self!evident\ as teachers<br />
may feel this k<strong>in</strong>d of "additional# explanation to be too time!consum<strong>in</strong>g and:or too<br />
distract<strong>in</strong>g[ Obviously\ the usefulness of a given method depends on the objectives of<br />
the read<strong>in</strong>g task at hand[ The method proposed here is clearly meant for <strong>in</strong>!depth<br />
read<strong>in</strong>g rather than {{skimm<strong>in</strong>g|| or {{scann<strong>in</strong>g|| activities[<br />
Henderson "0875# also proposes to raise students| <strong>awareness</strong> of the role of meta!<br />
phors <strong>in</strong> theory construction and question formulation <strong>in</strong> economics as a social<br />
science[ Help<strong>in</strong>g economics students to recognise the metaphors beh<strong>in</strong>d commonly<br />
accepted economic models and encourag<strong>in</strong>g them to adopt alternative <strong>metaphoric</strong>al<br />
perspectives may foster a question<strong>in</strong>g attitude[<br />
Metaphoric <strong>awareness</strong> and author op<strong>in</strong>ion<br />
As we have seen\ various metaphors are usually available to describe a s<strong>in</strong>gle<br />
economic scenario[ Economic competition\ for <strong>in</strong>stance\ can be described <strong>in</strong> terms of<br />
warfare "e[g[\ the battle for market share# or <strong>in</strong> terms of rac<strong>in</strong>g "e[g[\ the race for market<br />
share#[ The former conception may highlight the need for _nancial discipl<strong>in</strong>e and<br />
hard sales techniques\ while the latter may highlight the importance of R + D and<br />
<strong>in</strong>novation "Boers\ 0886b#[<br />
If diverse _gurative expressions are available to an author to describe a given socio!<br />
economic reality\ then her:his choice may re~ect her:his conception of that reality[ In<br />
other words\ the choice of _gurative expressions may re~ect the author|s op<strong>in</strong>ion<br />
about the issues under discussion[ Therefore\ an understand<strong>in</strong>g of the <strong>in</strong>ferences and<br />
value judgements associated with a _gurative expression may help students recognise<br />
the author|s po<strong>in</strong>t of view[ This requires an enhanced <strong>metaphoric</strong> <strong>awareness</strong>\ which<br />
may be achieved simply by draw<strong>in</strong>g students| attention to the source doma<strong>in</strong> or orig<strong>in</strong><br />
of the _gurative expression[<br />
The hypothesis that enhanced <strong>metaphoric</strong> <strong>awareness</strong> can facilitate certa<strong>in</strong> aspects<br />
of <strong>in</strong>!depth read<strong>in</strong>g comprehension was put to the test <strong>in</strong> a small!scale experiment[<br />
Subjects were French!speak<strong>in</strong>g university students of bus<strong>in</strong>ess and economics at<br />
Universite Libre de Bruxelles[ One of the objectives of the English course of these<br />
students is for them to be able to read and discuss articles <strong>in</strong> The Economist and The
F[ Boers : En`lish for Speci_c Purposes 08 "1999# 026Ð036 030<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ancial Times[ In order to do this\ they need to be able to cope with a register of<br />
socio!economic discourse that is rather <strong>specialised</strong> but at the same time fairly popular<br />
"and often argumentative#[ The use of metaphors <strong>in</strong> this type of journalistic discourse<br />
serves many di}erent purposes and may o}er a greater l<strong>in</strong>guistic variety than would be<br />
expected from the use of metaphors <strong>in</strong> more technical economic registers "<strong>specialised</strong><br />
research articles or text books on economics#[<br />
Eighty!_ve subjects participated <strong>in</strong> the experiment[ They were given the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
"constructed# text "see Figure 3#]<br />
The text was constructed for the purposes of the experiment around the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
conventional _gurative expressions] "i# overcom<strong>in</strong>` a hurdle^ "ii# bail<strong>in</strong>` out^ "iii# wean!<br />
<strong>in</strong>` off^ "iv# shift<strong>in</strong>` tack^ and "v# weed<strong>in</strong>` out[ These expressions were chosen for<br />
various reasons] "i# they are authentic expressions encountered <strong>in</strong> The Economist^ "ii#<br />
they are low frequency items\ so our students were not likely to be familiar with them^<br />
Figure 3[ Text used <strong>in</strong> the experiment[
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F[ Boers : En`lish for Speci_c Purposes 08 "1999# 026Ð036<br />
and "iii# they have no direct one!to!one French equivalents "e[g[\ weed out#\ or the<br />
French equivalents are not normally used <strong>in</strong> the same context "e[g[\ wean off #\ or the<br />
French equivalents lack the same connotations or <strong>in</strong>ferences "e[g[\ bail out#[<br />
The mean<strong>in</strong>g of the expressions was expla<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> a glossary added to the text[ For<br />
28 subjects "the control group# this glossary gave explanations of the _gurative sense<br />
<strong>in</strong> the context of economics]<br />
hurdle]<br />
"here# di.culty\ problem<br />
bail out]<br />
"here# help\ rescue from _nancial di.culties\ give<br />
subsidies<br />
wean off]<br />
"here# disengage\ make <strong>in</strong>dependent<br />
shift tack]<br />
"here# change policy<br />
weed out]<br />
"here# remove\ get rid of<br />
For the other 35 students "the experimental group#\ the glossary gave explanations of<br />
the expressions solely <strong>in</strong> terms of the source doma<strong>in</strong>\ i[e[\ their literal usage]<br />
hurdle]<br />
frame to be jumped over <strong>in</strong> athletics<br />
bail out]<br />
try to keep a s<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g boat a~oat by throw<strong>in</strong>g out<br />
water with buckets<br />
wean off]<br />
gradually stop breastfeed<strong>in</strong>g a baby<br />
shift tack]<br />
turn a ship around so the w<strong>in</strong>d is caught on the<br />
other side of the sails<br />
weed out]<br />
pull out unwanted wild plants<br />
Subjects were given 04 m<strong>in</strong> to read and study the text as preparation for a com!<br />
prehension test "before which they were to hand <strong>in</strong> the text#[ The test consisted of a<br />
list of statements about the text[ The subjects were asked whether they agreed that<br />
the statements were <strong>in</strong> accordance with the contents of the text[ For every item their<br />
task was to tick YES\ NO or DON|T KNOW[ Most items <strong>in</strong> the test were meant to<br />
measure {{general|| comprehension "e[g[\ It is already clear what the outcome of the<br />
summit will be#[ These items posed problems for neither the control group nor the<br />
experimental group[ Both groups were on a par with respect to general comprehension[<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce these test items also related to the _gurative expressions <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the text\<br />
the test results so far suggest that students <strong>in</strong> the experimental group were quite<br />
capable of <strong>in</strong>terpret<strong>in</strong>g the _gurative usage of the expressions\ even though only their<br />
literal sense had been expla<strong>in</strong>ed to them[ In other words\ given su.cient context\<br />
students managed to make the extension from literal to _gurative sense themselves[<br />
Two items <strong>in</strong> the test were related to the expressions bail<strong>in</strong>` out and wean<strong>in</strong>` off<br />
and to the author|s op<strong>in</strong>ion about state subsidies[ Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the {{logic|| of the<br />
source doma<strong>in</strong>s of bail<strong>in</strong>` out and wean<strong>in</strong>` off\ subsidies can only be a temporary<br />
solution "throw<strong>in</strong>g water out of a s<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g boat does not mend any holes\ and breast!<br />
feed<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>fant can last only until it needs solid food#[ When confronted with<br />
statements concern<strong>in</strong>g the author|s op<strong>in</strong>ion about state subsidies\ subjects <strong>in</strong> the<br />
control group typically ticked DON|T KNOW[ In the experimental group "i[e[\ those<br />
who had received explanations of the literal senses only# the majority decided that the<br />
author was aga<strong>in</strong>st subsidies[ The di}erence between the scores of both groups proved
F[ Boers : En`lish for Speci_c Purposes 08 "1999# 026Ð036 032<br />
statistically highly signi_cant "P ³ 9[990\ us<strong>in</strong>g a chi square test#[ These _nd<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
suggest that students are capable of transferr<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>ference patterns and value<br />
judgements associated with the source doma<strong>in</strong> of an expression to its <strong>metaphoric</strong><br />
extension[ This ability can facilitate recognition of the author|s op<strong>in</strong>ion[<br />
Metaphoric <strong>awareness</strong> and vocabulary retention<br />
A second stage of the experiment was meant to measure the e}ect of enhanced<br />
<strong>metaphoric</strong> <strong>awareness</strong> on the retention of unfamiliar _gurative expressions[ Three<br />
days after their read<strong>in</strong>g comprehension test\ 64 subjects were given the follow<strong>in</strong>g gap<br />
_ll exercise\ constructed around the same _ve idioms "see Figure 4#]<br />
The subjects <strong>in</strong> the experimental group turned out to be more likely that the others<br />
"P 9[92\ us<strong>in</strong>g a chi square test# to reproduce at least one of the targeted _gurative<br />
expressions[ "There appeared to be no di}erences between the scores for the <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
items] all gaps appeared equally di.cult[# These test results suggest that enhanced<br />
<strong>metaphoric</strong> <strong>awareness</strong> may contribute to the retention of _gurative expressions <strong>in</strong> an<br />
ESP context[ Whether this bene_t is solely due to the strategy of rais<strong>in</strong>g <strong>metaphoric</strong><br />
<strong>awareness</strong> itself\ or to the fact that this strategy presumably takes more cognitive<br />
e}ort\ or both\ rema<strong>in</strong>s a matter of speculation[<br />
However\ s<strong>in</strong>ce there is a tight relationship between cognitive e}ort and retention<br />
"e[g[\ Natt<strong>in</strong>ger\ 0877#\ enhanc<strong>in</strong>g language learners| <strong>metaphoric</strong> <strong>awareness</strong> could at<br />
least be exploited as a channel for that <strong>in</strong>creased cognitive e}ort[ Aga<strong>in</strong>\ of course\<br />
the particular objectives of the read<strong>in</strong>g task at hand and considerations of time may<br />
need to be weighed aga<strong>in</strong>st the potential bene_ts of the approach[<br />
Some additional perspectives<br />
When applied systematically\ a strategy of enhanced <strong>metaphoric</strong> <strong>awareness</strong> may<br />
o}er an additional or alternative framework for the organisation of _gurative lexis[<br />
As we have seen\ idioms and other _gurative expressions do not constitute isolated<br />
lexical units that defy analysis[ Instead\ various _gurative expressions constitute<br />
clusters around a s<strong>in</strong>gle source doma<strong>in</strong>[ For example\ bail<strong>in</strong>` out and shift<strong>in</strong>` tack can<br />
be grouped under a {{nautical|| source doma<strong>in</strong> along with various other expressions[<br />
Likewise\ weed<strong>in</strong>` out belongs to a cluster of expressions around the theme of gard!<br />
en<strong>in</strong>g "see Figures 5 and 6#[<br />
This type of lexical organisation "which could be taken as an alternative k<strong>in</strong>d of<br />
semantic _eld approach# may be especially bene_cial when the given <strong>metaphoric</strong><br />
themes are more common and more productive <strong>in</strong> English than <strong>in</strong> the students| native<br />
language[ The above <strong>metaphoric</strong> themes of sail<strong>in</strong>g and garden<strong>in</strong>g\ for example\ occur<br />
more frequently <strong>in</strong> English than <strong>in</strong> French popular socio!economic discourse "Boers<br />
+ Demecheleer\ 0886#[<br />
It is not uncommon for authors to use a metaphor consistently throughout a text
033<br />
F[ Boers : En`lish for Speci_c Purposes 08 "1999# 026Ð036<br />
Figure 4[ Gap _ll test used <strong>in</strong> the experiment[<br />
for reasons of lexical cohesion or coherence[ In such cases\ an enhanced <strong>awareness</strong> of<br />
those <strong>metaphoric</strong> theme"s# may facilitate text comprehension too[<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally\ an enhanced <strong>metaphoric</strong> <strong>awareness</strong> may provide students with a new<br />
critical perspective on economic "and other# {{scienti_c|| models and a new l<strong>in</strong>e of<br />
defence aga<strong>in</strong>st argumentative discourse <strong>in</strong> general[ Students could be taught to
F[ Boers : En`lish for Speci_c Purposes 08 "1999# 026Ð036 034<br />
Ships & Sail<strong>in</strong>g<br />
, stay on course , a sense of drift <strong>in</strong> our policies<br />
, be blown off course , a capsiz<strong>in</strong>g bank<br />
, chart the right course , keep<strong>in</strong>g the company afloat<br />
, to steer the company <strong>in</strong> the right , to rock the boat<br />
direction<br />
, to stave off the competition<br />
, the firm is <strong>in</strong> the doldrums aga<strong>in</strong> , a safe haven for <strong>in</strong>vestments<br />
Figure 5[ Phrases related to the <strong>metaphoric</strong> theme of ships and sail<strong>in</strong>g "encountered <strong>in</strong> The Economiss#[<br />
Plants & Garden<strong>in</strong>g<br />
, flourish<strong>in</strong>g companies , it sows uncerta<strong>in</strong>ty<br />
, wither<strong>in</strong>g plants , prun<strong>in</strong>g costs<br />
, the roots of this thorny problem , trimm<strong>in</strong>g expenditures<br />
run deep<br />
, root<strong>in</strong>g out fraud<br />
, it carries the seeds of the next , dense tangles of regulation<br />
recession<br />
, thickets of bureaucracy<br />
Figure 6[ Phrases related to the <strong>metaphoric</strong> theme of plants and garden<strong>in</strong>g "encountered <strong>in</strong> The Economist#[<br />
question the validity of the metaphors they encounter by ask<strong>in</strong>g them to list ways <strong>in</strong><br />
which a given target doma<strong>in</strong> "e[g[\ economics# is NOT like the presented source<br />
doma<strong>in</strong>[ For example\ students| attention could be drawn to the fact that the ECON!<br />
OMIC COMPETITION IS RACING metaphor builds on a {{loose|| analogy\ s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
<strong>in</strong> economics there does not seem to be a _nish l<strong>in</strong>e\ etc[ Students could be made<br />
aware of the {{loose|| analogy <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the ECONOMIES ARE MACHINES<br />
metaphor by highlight<strong>in</strong>g the unpredictable nature of human behaviour\ and so on[<br />
Conclusions<br />
Is it worthwhile to draw students| attention to the source doma<strong>in</strong> or orig<strong>in</strong> of the<br />
_gurative expressions they come across <strong>in</strong> their <strong>specialised</strong> read<strong>in</strong>g< While acknowl!<br />
edg<strong>in</strong>g the need to take various parameters <strong>in</strong>to account\ the answer given here is yes[<br />
I have argued <strong>in</strong> favour of enhanc<strong>in</strong>g language learners| <strong>metaphoric</strong> <strong>awareness</strong>\ i[e[\<br />
their <strong>awareness</strong> of the source doma<strong>in</strong> of _gurative expressions and its associated<br />
<strong>in</strong>ference patterns[ Means of achiev<strong>in</strong>g this <strong>in</strong>clude explicit reference to the literal<br />
sense or orig<strong>in</strong>\ group<strong>in</strong>g _gurative expressions under their source doma<strong>in</strong>s\ and<br />
question<strong>in</strong>g the validity of the underly<strong>in</strong>g analogies[<br />
A small!scale experiment exam<strong>in</strong>ed the e}ect of expla<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g only the literal sense of<br />
certa<strong>in</strong> English _gurative expressions <strong>in</strong> socio!economic discourse[ The results suggest<br />
that an enhanced <strong>metaphoric</strong> <strong>awareness</strong> may help students to "i# recognise the <strong>in</strong>fer!
035<br />
F[ Boers : En`lish for Speci_c Purposes 08 "1999# 026Ð036<br />
ence patterns associated with given _gurative expressions and "ii# to remember unfam!<br />
iliar _gurative expressions[<br />
References<br />
Boers\ F[ "0886a#[ Health\ _tness and mobility <strong>in</strong> a free market ideology[ In J[P[ van Noppen + M[ Maufort<br />
"Eds#\ Voices of power] Co!operation and con~ict <strong>in</strong> En`lish lan`ua`e and literatures "pp[ 78Ð85#[ Liege]<br />
Liege Language and Literature[<br />
Boers\ F[ "0886b#[ No pa<strong>in</strong>\ no ga<strong>in</strong>] A test for cognitive semantics< Metaphor + Symbol\ 01"3#\ 120Ð130[<br />
Boers\ F[\ + Demecheleer\ M[ "0884#[ Travellers\ patients and warriors <strong>in</strong> English\ Dutch and French<br />
economic discourse[ Revue bel`e de philolo`ie et d|histoire\ 62\ 562Ð581[<br />
Boers\ F[\ + Demecheleer\ M[ "0886#[ A few <strong>metaphoric</strong>al models <strong>in</strong> "Western# economic discourse[ In<br />
W[A[ Liebert\ G[ Redeker + L[ Waugh "Eds#\ Discourse and perspective <strong>in</strong> co`nitive l<strong>in</strong>`uistics "pp[ 004Ð<br />
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Boers\ F[\ + Demecheller\ M[ "0887#[ A cognitive semantic approach to teach<strong>in</strong>g prepositions[ En`lish<br />
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Author note*Frank Boers teaches English at the Universite Libre de Bruxelles and at the University of<br />
Antwerp[ His research <strong>in</strong>terests <strong>in</strong>clude lexical semantics\ conceptual metaphor\ and the <strong>in</strong>troduction of<br />
cognitive semantics to the _eld of language teach<strong>in</strong>g[