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HLPF 

High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development 

Background Guide 

NHSMUN 

National High School Model United Nations 

New York City | March 04-07, 2015 

IMUNA 

International Model United Nations Association

NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL MODEL UNITED NATIONS 

The 41st Annual Conference • March 4 – March 7, 2015 

Shirley Wu 

Secretary-General 

Princeton University 

Dear Delegates, 

November 2014 

Lily O’Connell 

Director-General 

University of Pennsylvania 

Brody Duncan 

Conference Director 

McGill University 

Alec Guertin 

Director of Security 

University of California, 

Berkeley 

Jason Toney 

Chief of External Relations 

Bard College 

Laura Beltran-Rubio 

Chief of Staff 

Parsons The New School for 

Design 

Jinny Jung 

Under-Secretary General of 

Administrative Affairs 

University of Michigan 

Helen Robertson 

Under-Secretary General 

University of Virginia 

Joe Sherlock 


Bowdoin College 

Erin Corcoran 


Harvard University 

Costanza Cicero 


University of Bologna 

Alyssa Greenhouse 


Duke University 

Paula Kates 


Tufts University 

Welcome to NHSMUN 2015! I can’t believe that the conference is already approaching… 

time flies when you’re having fun! But actually, preparing for this conference has been a blast, 

especially because it comes with so much anticipation for when you all arrive in March. 

NHSMUN wouldn’t be the same without all of your hard working leading up to the 

conference, so you should all pat yourselves on the back right now. 

A few words about myself: I have been participating in NHSMUN since my freshman year of 

high school, which was in 2009. NHSMUN was such a valuable experience for me in high 

school that I couldn’t give it up upon my graduation, inspiring me to apply for an Assistant 

Director position at NHSMUN. After that it’s history; I was the Assistant Director on the UN 

Office on Drugs and Crime, then the Director of the Joint UN Programme on HIV/AIDS, 

and am now the Under-Secretary-General of the Standing and Functional Committees of the 

Economic and Social Council. I am out of breath just typing that title. 

Although Model UN is a huge part of my life, I also exist outside of simulated discussions of 

world issues. I am a junior at Harvard studying psychology, and hail from Bay Shore, NY. For 

extracurriculars, I am involved in a public service organization on campus that gives tours and 

organizes freshman orientation, I am very active in my sorority, and I also play club squash. I 

am an avid fan of books featuring dystopian societies and love triangles (Hunger Games, 

Twilight, Matched, etc.) and could go my whole life only eating cupcakes (probably not 

healthily, though). 

I am thrilled that you all have the opportunity to take part in the incredible committees we 

have to offer this year; you will most certainly not be disappointed. Also, as you prepare for 

the conference, do not forget that you have a wide variety of resources available to you. Your 

Directors, Assistant Directors, and I are more than willing to give advice on any aspect of the 

conference, so please do not hesitate to contact us. I am especially happy to help newer 

delegates who may not have a lot of Model UN experience, so if you are not sure what is 

expected in a position paper or do not know where to begin your research, please send me an 

email. There is no such thing as a stupid question! Everyone is new to Model UN at least once, 

and it is my job to make sure you have the best possible experience. 

I look forward to meeting you all in March! 

Best, 

Erin Corcoran 

Under-Secretary General, ECOSOC Standing Committees and Functional Commissions 

standfunc.nhsmun@imuna.org 

NHSMUN is a project of the International Model 

United Nations Association, Incorporated 

(IMUNA). IMUNA, a not-for-profit, all 

volunteer organization, is dedicated to furthering 

global issues education at the secondary school level.

NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL MODEL UNITED NATIONS 

The 41st Annual Conference • March 4 – March 7, 2015 

Shirley Wu 

Secretary-General 

Princeton University 

Dear Delegates, 

November 2014 


Director-General 

University of Pennsylvania 

Brody Duncan 

Conference Director 

McGill University 

Alec Guertin 

Director of Security 

University of California, 

Berkeley 

Jason Toney 

Chief of External Relations 

Bard College 

Laura Beltran-Rubio 

Chief of Staff 

Parsons The New School for 

Design 

Jinny Jung 

Under-Secretary General of 

Administrative Affairs 

University of Michigan 

Helen Robertson 


University of Virginia 

Joe Sherlock 


Bowdoin College 

Erin Corcoran 


Harvard University 

Costanza Cicero 


University of Bologna 

Alyssa Greenhouse 


Duke University 

It is my pleasure to welcome you to NHSMUN 2015 and especially to the High-Level Political 

Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF)! My name is María Silva-Chamat and I will be the 

director for HLPF. I cannot begin to tell you how excited I am for the opportunity to discuss 

two very challenging topics in our committee sessions. Both issues, Sustainable Access to Safe 

Drinking Water and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa and Access to Modern Energy in LDCs, 

have recently gained incredible social, political, and economic relevance and are now points of 

primary importance in the United Nations and on international agendas. The topics have 

multiple implications for global development and sustainability. 

I would like to take this opportunity to tell you a little bit about myself. I am a proud 

Colombian, living in Bogotá D.C. where I was born and raised. I am currently a third year law 

student of at the Universidad del Rosario. I am particularly interested in international law and 

human rights. I have been actively participating in Model UN conferences since 2007, having 

the chance to be a delegate several times, serving as the Director of various committees and, in 

2012, serving as the Secretary-General of my high school’s conference. In my downtime I 

study Italian, an activity I have been doing for the past seven years and one of my biggest 

passions. Besides that, I enjoy dancing, reading and travelling. As for NHSMUN, this is my 

third year on staff for this amazing conference, an experience that has forever changed my life. 

I wish you the best in your preparations, as it is the basis of the work you will develop during 

the upcoming HLPF session. These topics are fascinating, so I encourage you to research and 

be very curious about them. Feel free to contact me with any questions you may have, and I 

will be happy to help you. Also, don’t forget to follow our committee Twitter page, 

@NHSMUN_HLPF, to stay up-to-date on the current events of our committee and topics. I 

cannot wait to see you all in March. 

Good luck! 

María Silva-Chamat 

Director, High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development 

@NHSMUN_HLPF 

hlpf.nhsmun@imuna.org 

Paula Kates 


Tufts University 

NHSMUN is a project of the International Model 

United Nations Association, Incorporated 

(IMUNA). IMUNA, a not-for-profit, all 

volunteer organization, is dedicated to furthering 

global issues education at the secondary school level.

National High School Model United Nations 2015 

HLPF 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

A Note on the NHSMUN Difference .................................................................................................... 2! 

A Note on Research and Preparation ..................................................................................................... 4! 

Committee History ................................................................................................................................. 5! 

Simulation ............................................................................................................................................... 8! 

Topic A: Sustainable Access To Safe Drinking Water And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa ........... 10! 

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................. 10! 

History and Description of the Issue ........................................................................................................................ 10! 

The Situation in Sub-Saharan Africa .................................................................................................................... 10! 

Safe Drinking Water ................................................................................................................................................ 12! 

Sanitation ................................................................................................................................................................... 13! 

Sustainable Access to Water and Sanitation for Development ........................................................................ 15! 

Emerging Targets and challenges .......................................................................................................................... 18! 

Current Status ............................................................................................................................................................... 20! 

International Access Initiatives: Sanitation and Water for All and the Joint Monitoring Programme ...... 20! 

Sanitation Improvement: The Struggle to End Open Defecation ................................................................... 21! 

Bloc Analysis ................................................................................................................................................................. 23! 

Sub-Saharan African States .................................................................................................................................... 23! 

Other Developing States ........................................................................................................................................ 24! 

Developed States ..................................................................................................................................................... 25! 

Committee Mission ...................................................................................................................................................... 25! 

Topic B: Access To Modern Energy In LDCs ..................................................................................... 27! 

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................. 27! 

History and Description of the Issue ........................................................................................................................ 28! 

Modern Energy (ME).............................................................................................................................................. 28! 

Sustainable Development and the ME ................................................................................................................. 29! 

The situation in LDCs ............................................................................................................................................ 31! 

The Energy Situation in LDCs .............................................................................................................................. 33! 

Impact of lack of ME in LDCs ............................................................................................................................. 35! 

Implementation of Modern Energy ...................................................................................................................... 36! 

Current Status ............................................................................................................................................................... 38!


HLPF 

Sustainable Energy for All (SE4All) ..................................................................................................................... 39! 

Energy for All ........................................................................................................................................................... 40! 

Solar Power Plant in Burkina Faso ....................................................................................................................... 41! 

Ghana’s Energy Strategy ......................................................................................................................................... 41! 

Bloc Analysis ................................................................................................................................................................. 42! 

LDCs .......................................................................................................................................................................... 42! 

Other Developing Countries ................................................................................................................................. 43! 

Developed States ..................................................................................................................................................... 43! 

Committee Mission ...................................................................................................................................................... 44! 

Appendix A: List Of Countries In Sub-Saharan Africa ........................................................................ 45! 

Appendix B: List Of Least Developed Countries ................................................................................. 46! 

Research and Preparation Questions ................................................................................................... 47! 

Topic A .......................................................................................................................................................................... 47! 

Topic B .......................................................................................................................................................................... 47! 

Important Documents .......................................................................................................................... 48! 

Topic A .......................................................................................................................................................................... 48! 

Topic B .......................................................................................................................................................................... 48! 

Bibliography ......................................................................................................................................... 49! 

Committee History and Simulation ........................................................................................................................... 49! 

Topic A .......................................................................................................................................................................... 49! 

Topic B .......................................................................................................................................................................... 55! 

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HLPF 

A NOTE ON THE NHSMUN DIFFERENCE 

Esteemed Faculty and Delegates, 

Hello and welcome to NHSMUN 2015! My name is Lily O’Connell, and I am this year’s Director- 

General. I hope you are as excited as I am to experience the conference. Our staff has been working 

all year to ensure that you have an engaging, educational, and rewarding experience in committee. 

NHSMUN strives to assure that the quality of our debate and in-committee interaction is 

unmatched. NHSMUN focuses on the educational value of Model UN. We believe that the 

experiences in our committee rooms extend skills originally developed in the classroom, and prepare 

students to become future leaders. NHSMUN thrives on well-researched, realistic, and diplomatic 

debate. We are thrilled with the substantive program for NHSMUN 2015 and look forward to 

vibrant discussion and cooperation. 

NHSMUN Practices 

In order to fulfill our mission, our conference has adopted practices that are key to the continued 

tradition of excellence in our committees and the NHSMUN difference. 

NHSMUN prohibits the usage of personal electronics during committee in order to ensure that 

delegates do not gain an unfair advantage in debate. We feel strongly that the interpersonal 

connections made during debate are enhanced by face-to-face communication. Enforcing a strict no 

laptops policy also helps us to ensure that all our delegates have an equal opportunity to succeed in 

committee. 

The Dais is permitted a laptop for the purposes of communicating with respective Under-Secretary- 

Generals and other Senior Staff Members as well as attending to administrative needs. The Dais will 

only be limited to using their laptops for NHSMUN purposes, and the majority of their focus will be 

on the needs of the committee. In addition, we staff a dedicated team in our office to assist in typing 

and formatting draft resolutions and working papers so that committee time can be focused on 

discussion and compromise. 

An additional difference that delegates may notice about NHSMUN is the committee pacing. While 

each BG contains two topic selections, NHSMUN committees will strive to have a fruitful 

discussion on and produce resolutions on a single topic; prioritizing the quality of discussion over 

quantity of topics addressed. In order to respect the gravity of the issues being discussed at our 

conference as well as the intellect of our delegates, NHSMUN committees will focus on addressing 

one topic in-depth. BGs contain two topics in order to allow delegates to decide what problem 

ought to be prioritized, a valuable discussion in and of itself, and to safeguard against the possibility 

that an issue will be independently resolved before conference. 

NHSMUN uses a set of the Rules of Procedure that is standardized across all IMUNA-brand 

conferences. These rules provide a standardized system of operation that is easily translated across 

committee or conference lines. While the general structure and flow of committee will be familiar to 

any delegate who has previously participated in Model UN, there may be slight procedural 

differences from other conferences. All delegates are encouraged to review the Rules of Procedure 

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HLPF 

before attending the conference in the Delegate Preparation Guide and are welcome to direct 

questions to any member of NHSMUN Staff. 

While NHSMUN does distribute awards, we feel that it is crucial to de-emphasize their importance 

in comparison to the educational value of Model UN as an activity. NHSMUN seeks to reward 

delegations that excel in the arts of compromise and diplomacy. We always prioritize a dedication to 

teamwork over solitary achievement. Directors will judge delegates on their ability and willingness to 

cooperate with their peers while always maintaining an accurate representation of country policy. 

At the core of the NHSMUN philosophy is an emphasis on education and compromise. As such, 

we do not distribute awards to individual delegates, with the exception of committees where 

students represent their own separate delegation (ICJ and UNSC, for example). Instead, awards will 

be distributed to delegations that exhibit excellence across all committees. The awards system is 

standardized so as to give equal weight to delegations of all sizes. Awards will also be offered for 

schools that demonstrate excellence in research and preparation based on the position papers 

submitted by their delegates. Detailed information on the determination of awards at NHSMUN will 

be available in the Faculty Preparation Guide and online in November. 

As always, I welcome any questions or concerns about the substantive program at NHSMUN 2015 

and would be happy to discuss NHSMUN pedagogy with faculty or delegates. It is my sincerest 

hope that your experience at NHSMUN 2015 will be challenging and thought provoking. 

Best, 


Director-General, NHSMUN 2015 

dg.nhsmun@imuna.org 

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HLPF 

A NOTE ON RESEARCH AND PREPARATION 

Delegate preparation is paramount to a successful and exciting National High School Model United 

Nations 2015 Conference. We have provided this Background Guide to introduce the topics that 

will be discussed in your committee. These papers are designed to give you a description of the 

topics and the committee. This Guide is not intended to represent exhaustive research on every 

facet of the topics. We encourage and expect each delegate to fully explore the topics and be able to 

identify and analyze the intricacies of the issues. Delegates must be prepared to intelligently utilize 

their knowledge and apply it to their own country’s policy. You will find that your state has a unique 

position on the topics that cannot be substituted by the opinions of another state. 

The task of preparing and researching for the conference is challenging, but it can be interesting and 

rewarding. We have provided each school with a copy of the Delegation Preparation Guide. The 

Guide contains detailed instructions on how to write a position paper and how to effectively 

participate in committee sessions. The Guide also gives a synopsis of the types of research materials 

and resources available to you and where they can be found. 

An essential part of representing a state in an international body is the ability to articulate that state’s 

views in writing. Accordingly, it is the policy of NHSMUN to require each delegate (or doubledelegation 

team) to write position papers. The position papers should clearly outline the country’s 

policies on the topic areas to be discussed and what factors contribute to these policies. In addition, 

each paper must address the Research and Preparation questions at the end of the committee 

Background Guide. Most importantly, the paper must be written from the point of view of the 

country you are representing at NHSMUN 2015 and should articulate the policies you will 

espouse at the conference. All papers should be typed and double-spaced. The papers will be read by 

the director of each committee and returned at the start of the conference with brief comments and 

constructive advice. 

Each delegation is responsible for sending a copy of their papers to the Director-General via email 

on or before January 22, 2015. Please email the entire delegation’s papers at one time to 

papers.nhsmun@imuna.org. Complete instructions for online submissions may be found in the 

Delegate Preparation Guide and the Faculty Preparation Guide. If delegations are unable to submit 

an online version of their position papers, they should contact the Director-General 

(dg.nhsmun@imuna.org) as soon as possible to find an alternative form of submission. 

Delegations that do not submit position papers to directors or summary statements to the 

Director-General will be ineligible for awards. 

! 

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HLPF 

COMMITTEE HISTORY 

The concern for environmental and economic sustainability has not always been at the forefront of 

international agendas. It was not until the 1960s that the international community started to explore 

the relationship between economic development and environmental degradation due to alarming oil 

spills and loss of marine biodiversity. 1 Global environmental awareness continually gained political 

prominence and by 1972 it was officially addressed in an international conference. The UN 

Conference on Human Environment was the first global effort to place environmental concerns 

high on political agendas. 2 By 1992 the international community met in an unprecedented 

conference to discuss not only the environment but also development as a whole. The Earth 

Summit took place in Rio de Janeiro and resulted in a key document for development issues, the 

Agenda 21, which is a global plan of action for sustainable development. 3 However, the main 

outcome of the conference was the creation of the Commission on Sustainable Development 

(CSD), the first UN body on this subject. 4 

CSD was mandated to regularly review the progress and implementation of commitments such as 

the Agenda 21. It was responsible for promoting dialogue between states and building partnerships 

that integrated the three dimensions of sustainability. 5 Moreover, the Commission aimed to 

encourage the implementation of technology, finance, and capacity building in such partnerships for 

development. During its twenty years of operation, CSD was crucial in maintaining sustainable 

development’s high place in political and developmental agendas. 6 It was also innovative in keeping 

sustainable development under permanent review. 

Nevertheless, CSD was not as successful in attracting varied participation from all stakeholders and 

dimensions of sustainable development. The Commission was supposed to involve actors from the 

three major fields of sustainability: economy, society and environment. However, CSD turned into 

mainly an environmental forum as it attracted predominately environmental discussion, neglecting 

other aspects of its mandate. Furthermore, the Commission lacked consensus at the international 

level and did not have coordinated dialogues at regional and national levels. 7 These issues were 

addressed by the international community in the twenty-year review of the Earth Summit, the 

United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development Rio+20, in 2012. 

Seeing the need to further address global sustainability challenges and the numerous limitations of 

CSD, the High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF) was created in June 2012 

as a universal, intergovernmental forum to continue discussing the sustainability challenges the 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

1 “Sustainable Development,” News and Media Division of the United Nations Department of Public Information: Basic Facts About 

the United Nations (2011): 186-224. 

2 “High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development,” UN Sustainable Development Platform, last modified May 

2014, http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?menu=1556. 

3 “Sustainable Development.” 

4A/67/757, “Lessons Learned from the CSD,” 26 February 2013, accessed 10 June 2013, 

http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/67/757&Lang=E. 

5 Ibid. 

6 Ibid. 

7 Ibid. 

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HLPF 

world is facing. 8 HLPF “will build on the strengths, experiences, resources and inclusive 

participation modalities of CSD, and subsequently replace the Commission”. 9 Furthermore, HLPF 

will review progress and create strengthened global partnerships, providing grounded political 

leadership and advice. 10 

HLPF’s mandate is broad, since it encompasses all the generalities of current developmental 

challenges and sustainability issues. However, it was created to further develop CSD’s efforts. 

Therefore, HLPF is mandated to provide action-oriented political leadership on sustainable 

development matters, follow-up on development commitments and strategies, and integrate the 

societal, environmental, and economic dimensions of sustainability in a holistic and comprehensive 

vision. 11 Moreover, it serves as a regular and dynamic platform for intergovernmental dialogue and 

agenda-setting actions. 12 

HLPF is a unique UN body with several particularities. Unlike CSD, it encompasses all Member 

States of the United Nations and members of specialized agencies. Additionally, the Forum allows in 

its meetings and other side events representatives from major groups and other relevant 

stakeholders. 13 The Forum is mandated to meet every four years at the level of Heads of State and 

Government under the auspices of the General Assembly (GA). 14 This quadrennial meeting always 

results in a negotiated political declaration to be submitted for the consideration of the Assembly. 

Moreover, the Forum has a ministerial annual meeting sponsored by the Economic and Social 

Council (ECOSOC) and submit a declaration to be included in the report of the Council to the 

GA. 15 Since HLPF operates under the auspices of the General Assembly and ECOSOC, its rules of 

procedure vary. 

The history of HLPF is rather short since it was established in 2012. It has met once under GA 

auspices on 24 September 2013, and it is set to meet again from 30 June to 9 July 2014 under 

ECOSOC’s auspices. Nevertheless, the Forum has shown substantive efforts on key matters. As a 

result of the first meeting in 2013, the Forum has identified emerging challenges that are crucial for 

sustainable development currently. For instance, it recognized the importance of creating jobs that 

produce sustainable lifestyles and reduce inequality and poverty. The Forum highlighted the pressing 

need to address the effect of climate change on development and water, food, and energy security. 

Moreover, it agreed on the vital role the private sector has on financing and enhancing sustainable 

development. Finally, HLPF must further address the Post-2015 Agenda on Development. Since we 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

8 A/RES/66/288, “The Future We Want,” 27 July 2012, accessed 26 May 2014, 

http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=%20A/RES/66/288. 

9 A/RES/67/290, “Format And Organizational Aspects Of The High-Level Political Forum On Sustainable 

Development,” 9 July 2013, accessed 9 June 2014, 

http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/67/290&Lang=E. 

10 “High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development.” 

11 A/RES/66/288. 

12 Ibid. 

13 Ibid. 

14 Ibid. 

15 Ibid. 

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HLPF 

are approaching the 2015 Millennium Development Goals’ (MDG) target, the international 

community must focus on sustainable development goals to further enhance the MDGs results. 16 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

16 A/68/588, “Summary Of The First Meeting Of The High-Level Political Forum On Sustainable Development,” 13 

November 2013, accessed 9 June 2014, http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/68/588&Lang=E. 

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HLPF 

SIMULATION 

As members of the High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF), delegates will 

represent the viewpoints of their countries on sustainable development through debate on both 

topics. Sustainable development encompasses a wide range of matters, demanding great 

commitment from the delegates in HLPF. The discussion must comprise societal, environmental, 

and economic aspects to fulfill the Forum’s mandate. 

Upon arriving in committee, delegates will be introduced to the dais, consisting of the Director and 

the Assistant Director. The Director’s role is to conduct debate and facilitate collaboration among 

the delegates. The Director and the Assistant Director will also guide the delegates in all the 

substantive matters of the debate and simulation. The delegates’ role is to represent as faithfully as 

possible their respective countries’ positions regarding sustainable development and particularly on 

the two topics proposed for debate. Since the Forum’s mandate is so broad it is impossible for 

delegates to be prepared for every situation. Therefore, delegates should be prepared enough to 

respond to every situation according to their country’s policy. 

HLPF’s debate will be conducted according to normal parliamentary procedure, meaning that 

delegates’ first task will be setting the agenda and then moving onto substantive debate of the 

chosen topic. The substantive debate can be conducted in three forms: formal debate, unmoderated 

caucus, and moderated caucus. Formal debate consists of delegates adding themselves to the 

Speakers’ List, from which they will be recognized before the committee and will have a limited 

length of time to express their position and accept questions from other delegations. While the 

Speakers’ List is vital in starting the substantive debate, most of debate will be conducted through 

moderated and unmoderated caucuses. Moderated caucuses are very similar to the Speakers’ List 

since each delegate’s interventions will have a limited time. However, each caucus must have a 

specific topic to discuss, and delegates should make sure to adhere to the chosen topic. On the other 

hand, unmoderated caucuses involve suspending the formal rules of debate to informally discuss 

potential solutions and positions between the delegations. The unmoderated caucuses are the best 

time to write working papers and draft resolutions. 

Writing working papers and drafting resolutions are the final parts of the debate. Working papers 

consist of a set of ideas that have resulted from debate and discussion of the solutions and proposals 

throughout all the committee sessions. These will be voted as draft resolutions then presented to the 

General Assembly to be voted in the plenary session, hopefully passing as a UN resolution. 

Although this is a very important process, the vital part of debate is the negotiation and cooperation 

between delegates. The core of NHSMUN is in negotiation because it enables delegates to express 

their ideas and listen to their peers in an environment of respect, diplomacy, and education. 

Throughout all the committee sessions delegates must remain respectful of each other and 

remember to express their ideas with diplomacy and mindfulness of other opinions. Nevertheless, 

delegates should not sacrifice accurate policy for compromise. Delegates must stay on policy above 

all else, which is key for the delegates to successfully represent their respective countries and reach 

realistic solutions. Moreover, they must always conduct themselves with decorum and observe the 

rules of procedure. Finally, the debate should be comprehensive and educational. Do not be afraid 

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HLPF 

to propose innovative solutions and strategies. The issues you will be discussing are quite complex 

and require inventive initiatives to be addressed effectively. 

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HLPF 

TOPIC A: SUSTAINABLE ACCESS TO SAFE DRINKING 

WATER AND SANITATION IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 

INTRODUCTION 

In the past four decades the issue of sustainable development has gained significant political 

relevance, with the international community becoming aware of the growing need to reach 

sustainability at all levels. Despite the 2015 target of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) to 

agree on new and sustainable development targets, the challenges for development persist today and 

continue to grow in their complexity and effects. One of such challenges is the sustainable access to 

safe drinking water and sanitation, which would enable societies to increase their productivity, level 

of health, and economic activities. 17 While this target was to be achieved by 2015, it is expected to 

require three more decades to be met. 18 Additionally, 783 million people have no access to clean 

water and 2.5 more have no adequate sanitation, which are figures that call for urgent action to 

enhance these individuals’ development potential. 19 

Moreover, this issue has found difficulties in specific areas where development is particularly 

hindered. Such is the case of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), a complex region that experiences increased 

challenges to meet sustainable development goals and whose development is challenged by the lack 

of clean water. For instance, more than 300 million people of the 800 million people in SSA live in a 

water-scarce environment. This reflects the imminent need for the United Nations and the High 

Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF) to address the topic in this crucial time, 

for sustainable development. 

Furthermore, the topic has a tight connection with development since water access and sanitation 

improve human health, increase economic prosperity, and create equitable and resilient societies. 

Although it has been widely addressed by the UN through Agenda 21, the Johannesburg Plan of 

Implementation, and the MDGs, situations like Sub-Saharan Africa demand more political and 

effective action by the international community. 20 Therefore, this paper will analyze the 

particularities of the region and the basic concepts of sanitation and drinking water, including their 

correlation with development and sustainability, emerging challenges, and current status. 

HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION OF THE ISSUE 

The Situation in Sub-Saharan Africa 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

17A Post-2015 Global Goal for Water (New York: UN-Water, 2014), accessed 26 May 2014, 

http://www.unwater.org/fileadmin/user_upload/unwater_new/docs/Topics/UNWater_technical_advice_post_2015_ 

global_goal_ES_final_highres.pdf. 

18Rio 2012 Issues Brief (Rio de Janeiro: UNCSD, 2011), accessed 26 May 2014, 

http://www.uncsd2012.org/content/documents/231Water%20for%20posting.pdf. 

19 A Post-2015 Global Goal for Water. 

20 Ibid. 

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HLPF 

The part of Africa that lies south of the Sahara desert has been long known as Sub-Saharan Africa 

(SSA), a territory that gathers 52 countries that share a common history. 21 By 1910, almost all of 

SSA’s territories were under European colonial power and it was only in 1957 that the 

decolonization process began to free these territories. 22 Nevertheless, development did not follow 

decolonization as it was expected; on the contrary, these states faced complex institutional, political, 

and social conflicts which hindered their way to development. Secessionist movements, ethnic 

conflicts, corruption, and military governments were common within the SSA. 23 This led to 

developmental issues that still persist, creating more complex challenges for the region. 

SSA comprises a group of 52 developing countries, all of which face tremendous difficulties with 

development. 24 However, it remains a region with vast economic potential; it has great natural 

wealth, with diverse physical conditions and rich mineral deposits that have helped to sustain its 

growing population. 25 However, that wealth is “unevenly distributed, largely unexploited and has 

sometimes been a source of conflict.” 26 Moreover, it is a region with high rates of poverty and 

malnutrition. Between 1990 and 2002 the number of people living on less than USD one per day 

increased from 227 million to 303 million, which shows the deep growing inequalities and 

developmental conditions in SSA. 27 

Furthermore, the main economic activity, agriculture, is often hindered by the complex political, 

social, and economic contexts. These contexts have negatively affected the development status of 

the region since 60% of the population depends on agriculture, which accounted for 29% of the 

region’s total Gross Domestic Product (GDP) between 1998 and 2000. 28 Improved agricultural 

productivity positively impacts poverty and hunger; a 10% rise in productivity of small-scale 

agriculture causes around 7 million people to move above the ‘dollar-a-day poverty line.’ 29 Therefore, 

it is important to recognize the importance of agriculture in improving the conditions in SSA. 

Besides the existing challenges in SSA’s agricultural productivity, this region also experiences great 

degradation of water resources, despite its abundant natural resources. Erosion of the soil, 

watersheds, and wetlands is taking a toll on the region’s economic, societal, and environmental 

sustainability. 30 Although it possesses six of the world’s major river basins, SSA has great disparities 

in access to freshwater resources. It is expected that by 2025, thirteen states in the region will exhibit 

water distress and another ten will experience water scarcity. 31 This will have tremendous effects on 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

21 Zachary C. Tyler and Sucharita Gopal, Sub-Saharan Africa at a Crossroads: A Quantitative Analysis of Regional Development, 

(Boston: Boston University, 2010), accessed 29 June 2014, http://www.bu.edu/pardee/files/2010/04/Pardee-Paper-10- 

Regional-Development-in-SSA.pdf. 

22 Ibid. 

23 Ibid. 

24 “Composition of Macro Geographical (Continental) Regions, Geographical Sub-Regions, And Selected Economic and 

Other Groupings,” United Nations Statistics Division, last modified 31 Oct 2013, 

http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm#africa. 

25 Beverly D. McIntyre et al., Sub-Saharan Africa Report (Washington: International Assessment of Agricultural 

Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development, 2009), accessed 29 June 2014, 

http://www.unep.org/dewa/agassessment/reports/subglobal/Agriculture_at_a_Crossroads_Volume%20V_Sub- 

Saharan%20Africa_Subglobal_Report.pdf. 

26 Ibid. 

27 Ibid. 

28 Ibid. 

29 Ibid. 

30 Ibid. 

31 Ibid. 

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the region’s development since water scarcity widely impacts agriculture. All of SSA’s productivity 

and development will be hindered due to the fact that the agricultural sector is the biggest consumer 

of water resources, with 88% in 2002. 32 

Perhaps the most pressing matter regarding water resources in SSA is the low and unsteady progress 

towards the Millennium Development Goal of halving the proportion of the world’s population 

without sustainable access to safe drinking water and sanitation, also known as MDG target 7C. It is 

important to note that MDG target 7C encompasses both the access to water and access to sanitation, 

two similar but distinct concepts. MDGs are a set of development goals set in 2000 by the UN that 

target the main issues and challenges towards development. The MDGs’ deadline is 2015, at which 

point it calls upon the international community to assess the progress made in its different areas, and 

agree on a new set of sustainable development goals. Interestingly, while the world on average met 

MDG target 7C five years early by halving the population without access to improved water, SSA as 

a region still struggles to meet this deadline. 33 

Globally, 2.3 billion people gained access to clean drinking water and almost 2 billion gained access 

to improved sanitation since 1990. 34 Nevertheless, SSA houses 40% of the 748 million people that 

still live without improved drinking water. 35 Of the 2.5 billion people that do not have access to an 

improved sanitation facility, 644 million are in SSA. 36 And of the almost 2 billion people that gained 

access to sanitation since 1990, only 146 million lived in SSA. 37 In conclusion, most countries in the 

region are not on track to meet the MDG target for drinking water and sanitation. 38 Thus, this 

proves the precarious developmental status of SSA and the pressing need to address the issue 

effectively. 

Safe Drinking Water 

Access to safe drinking water means that people in their homes, schools, and health facilities have a 

piped drinking water connection on premises “inside the user’s dwelling, plot, or yard.” 39 This is the 

highest level of access to safe drinking water. Access to safe drinking water often involves simply 

improving water services such as with public taps, tube wells or boreholes, protected dug wells and 

springs, rainwater collection, or a hand pump. 40 It is vital for people and societies to develop to the 

point where they have suitable access to drinking water. It is a human right that every person is 

entitled to and it is the states’ obligation to provide basic access to safe drinking water with equity 

and fairness. 41 Moreover, sufficient access to this resource also necessitates that it is safely managed, 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

32 Ibid. 

33 “Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability,” UN, accessed 22 June 2014, 

http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/environ.shtml. 

34 Ibid. 

35 Ibid. 

36 Ibid. 

37 Ibid. 

38 Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water – 2014 Update (Geneva: World Health Organization and UNICEF, 2014), 

accessed 22 June 2014, http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP_report_2014_webEng.pdf. 

39 Glossary on the Human Right to Water and Sanitation, (Zaragoza: UNW-DPAC, 2012), accessed 23 June 2014, 

http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/pdf/hrw_glossary_eng.pdf. 

40 Ibid. 

41 The Human Right to Water and Sanitation Reader UN-Water Decade Programme on Advocacy and Communication (UNW-DPAC) 

(Zaragoza: United Nations Office to Support the International Decade for Action “Water for Life” 2005-2015, 2011), 

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which means that accessing it does not represent a danger or risk for the users. All in all, safe 

drinking water must meet the standards for consumption and other basic needs and must be 

provided safely, not only for people but also for the environment and the economy. 42 

The international community has been well aware of the need to provide safe access to water 

globally. Consequently, the progress towards this purpose has been steady and significant. This can 

be evidenced in the progress made from 1990 to 2012 and the achievement of the MDG target 7C 

specifically regarding water access. 43 By 1990 the global coverage of access to water stood at 76%. 

In 2012 it stood at 89%, which means that since 1990, 2.3 billion people gained access to an 

improved drinking water source. 44 Thanks to this steady progress, MDG target 7C, in regard to safedrinking 

water, was achieved by 2010, five years before the MDGs’ 2015 deadline. 45 

Despite the average raise in coverage, access to water is still not equitable. For instance, coverage 

only improved between 50-75% for 35 countries, 26 of which belong in SSA. This clearly displays 

how uneven the development processes are and how the regions’ preexisting vulnerabilities affect 

their progress towards development. 46 

As reported by the World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children’s Fund 

(UNICEF), SSA had little to no progress from 1990 to 2011. Piped water on premises showed no 

improvement, maintaining 15% coverage. While many in the region use other improved water 

sources that are not as reliable and safe as piped water, a significant number relies on unimproved 

sources and direct use of surface water. 47 Although reports show that 24% of SSA’s population 

gained access to an improved drinking water source from 2000 to 2012, the region is not on track to 

meet the MDG by 2015. 48 The main reason is a “low 1990 baseline” combined with a very high rate 

of population growth, exacerbating the difficulties to meet development targets. 49 

Sanitation 

Sanitation is the access to and use of wastewater and excreta facilities and other services. 50 This 

access should provide people with dignity, privacy, and a hygienic environment. These services 

include “the collection, transport, treatment, and disposal” of excreta, wastewater, and solid waste. 51 

In other words, sanitation means a complete sewage system in households, health facilities, and 

schools. This is the highest type of access to sanitation. Besides it there are sanitation services that 

aim for enhanced hygienic conditions. For instance, an improved sanitation facility is one that 

“hygienically separates human excreta from human contact” such as the use of a flush, septic tank, 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

accessed 22 June 2014, http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/pdf/05_2011_human_right_to_water_reader_eng.pdf; 

A/RES/64/292, “The Human Right to Water and Sanitation,” 28 July 2010, accessed 23 June 2014, 

http://www.un.org/es/comun/docs/?symbol=A/RES/64/292&lang=E. 


43 Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability; Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-Water – 2013 Update, (Geneva: World Health 

Organization and UNICEF, 2013), accessed 22 June 2014. 

44 Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water – 2014 Update. 

45 Ibid. 

46 Ibid. 

47 Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability; Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-Water – 2013 Update. 

48 Ibid. 


50 Glossary on the Human Right to Water and Sanitation. 

51 Ibid. 

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pit latrine, or a composting toilet. 52 Sanitation, like drinking water, is a right and is particularly 

connected to human dignity and quality of life. 53 Thus, it greatly impacts people’s lifestyles, 

livelihoods, and personal fulfillment. Additionally, it is a clear indicator of the developmental 

circumstances of the society and the state of other human rights. 

Sanitation is often conceived only as individual sanitation and hygiene, and access to toilets. 

However, a vital part of access to sanitation is solid waste management and disposal. 54 Solid waste is 

all materials discarded and produced by human activities. 55 There is municipal solid waste which is 

produced by the residential, industrial, commercial, and institutional activities, such as litter, garbage, 

and debris. 56 There is also special waste, such as hazardous waste, which is produced by construction 

and demolition, and liquid waste like wastewater. 57 The accurate management and disposal of this 

waste guarantees good public health, a healthy environment, and resilient cities and communities. 

Unfortunately, in SSA and many developing countries there is little to no solid waste management 

system in place. 

For instance, Nancy Wangari, a community health worker in one of Kenya’s slums, says that the 

threat of diseases “from poor sanitation is real.” 58 She says that both the improper disposal of waste 

and the lack of water put their lives at risk by causing cholera, typhoid, and many other illnesses. 59 

Moreover, the consequences are not only related to health or the environment; the economy pays a 

high toll as well. Maurice Omondi, a Kenyan resident, states that water vendors profit from people’s 

hardships. 60 Such abuse impoverishes the communities where people work and widens the income 

gap between the poor without water and sanitation, and the rich with access to these resources. 

Additionally, in these areas, people must dispose of their solid waste in plastic bags or risk the sewer 

lines emptying themselves in the streets, resulting in unhygienic situations. 61 This lack of appropriate 

waste disposal threatens the wellbeing of communities and towns and could even transform viable 

cities and areas into slums. 62 Therefore, municipal waste disposal is a critical part of sanitation. It is 

vital for communities and states to envision the most sustainable options to properly dispose of 

their wastes. 

According to the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nation’s Children’s Fund 

(UNICEF), 2.5 billion people globally do not have access to improved sanitation facilities. Of those 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

52 Ibid. 

53 A/RES/64/292. 

54 “KENYA: Poor Sanitation Brings Misery to Slums,” IRINnews, 7 September 2010, accessed 8 August 2014, 

http://www.irinnews.org/Report/90593/KENYA-Poor-sanitation-brings-misery-to-slums. 

55 Gary Davidson, Waste Management Practices: Literature Review (Halifax: Dalhousie University, 2011), accessed 8 August 

2014, 

http://www.dal.ca/content/dam/dalhousie/pdf/sustainability/Waste%20Management%20Literature%20Review%20Fi 

nal%20June%202011%20(1.49%20MB).pdf. 

56 Ibid. 

57 Ibid. 

58 “KENYA: Poor Sanitation Brings Misery to Slums.” 

59 Ibid. 

60 Ibid. 

61 Ibid. 

62 Urban Catastrophes: The Wat/San Dimension (London: Humanitarian Futures Programme, King’s College London, 

2009), accessed 8 August 2014, http://www.humanitarianfutures.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Humanitarian- 

Crisis-Drivers-of-the-Future-Urban-Catastrophes-the-WatSan-Dimension.pdf. 

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2.5 billion, 784 million people use a public or shared facility with other households; 732 million 

people have access to facilities that do not meet hygiene standards and the other billion practice 

open defecation. In other words, they have no sanitation at all. 63 Among the world regions with the 

lowest rates of coverage, SSA ranks the second lowest in terms of progress. 64 From 1990 to 2012, 

there was only a 6% change, leaving SSA currently with just 30% coverage in sanitation. 65 That 

means that only 147 million people in SSA gained access to improved sanitation services from 1990 

to 2012, while in China alone 623 million people experienced improvements in that same time 

span. 66 These are alarming numbers that show the deep developmental inequities and challenges of 

the region. Consequently, SSA is not on track to meet the MDG 7C, as 36 of the 69 countries that 

were not on track in 2012 are located in SSA. 67 Thus, the world as a whole will not be able to meet 

the sanitation MDG target either, falling short by over half a billion people. 68 

These discouraging figures show the urgent need to address the topic, especially since one billion 

people practice open defecation, which is severely unhygienic. It is thus the most pressing issue to 

address at the moment, with the international community unable to meet the MDG target until this 

aspect and the many others are addressed. 

Sustainable Access to Water and Sanitation for Development 

As it has been mentioned above, simply providing running water and toilet facilities does not 

constitute sustainable access to safe-drinking water and sanitation. That is the mere beginning of a 

process of development for people, societies, and states. The reason why it is so important to reach 

sustainable access to these two services is their great interconnection with development; without 

such access, development can be neither sustainable nor sustained. 

For at least a millennium, water has been the main vehicle for development. Sources of 

water conditioned the places where peoples settled, as well as the economic activities they pursued 

and ultimately, their survival. Today water plays an even more important role due to poverty, the 

increasing spread of water-related diseases, water scarcity, contamination, and climate change, 

making water vital for current sustainable development. To better understand the relationship 

between water, sanitation, and sustainable development it is important to understand what the 

concept of sustainability entails. It is generally agreed that sustainable development indicates 

inclusive economic growth that favors not only society, but the environment as well. 69 Therefore, in 

order to be sustainable, development should always focus on these three aspects of access, 

sanitation, and sustainability. 70 Finding a way to improve access to drinking water and sanitation 

should be addressed with these three elements in mind. For instance, in the economic field, 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 


64 Ibid. 

65 Ibid. 

66 Ibid. 

67 Ibid. 

68 Ibid. 

69 Tracey Strange et al., Sustainable Development. Linking Economy, Society, Environment (Paris: Organisation for Economic 

Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2008). Accessed 15 July 2013. http://www.oecdilibrary.org/docserver/download/0108121e.pdf?expires=1373922182&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=9E12E4440 

A3314119ECF3D349794C5DD. 

70 Ibid. 

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sustainability entails the appropriate use of available resources to achieve enduring and positive 

economic outcomes. This means taking advantage of and appropriately using the natural, economic, 

and human resources SSA has available. Since SSA is considered to be an economically developing 

region, access to drinking water and sanitation should be provided with the additional goal of 

positively impacting SSA’s economic growth. Therefore, that requires perceiving water and 

sanitation as tools for economic development, in addition to their more traditional definitions as 

human rights and basic services that must be provided. 

But how are water and sanitation tools for economic development? It may seem contradictory, but 

providing safe drinking water and sanitation brings more economic benefits than not providing 

them at all. The lack of sanitation and safe drinking water results in a loss of USD 260 billion 

annually in developing countries. 71 Providing water and sanitation can result in enhanced economic 

growth and development, as these services have the potential to earn enough revenue to operate 

facilities and even produce extra earnings for the investor. 72 For example, “for every dollar invested 

on sanitation and water, there is a five-dollar return and possible economic gains from universal 

sanitation and water are an estimated USD 170 billion USD per year.” 73 This return on investment 

for water services is more easily recovered than those from other services. Even the poor are willing 

to pay for such an important resource. In the slums of Lima, Peru, the poor paid three times more 

per month for 23 liters per capita per day from vendors, compared with the relatively wealthy, who 

used 152 liters per capita per day from the piped system. 74 Moreover, sustainable access to water and 

sanitation would stimulate the development of household commercial activities, small businesses 

and industries, and shops, among others. 75 This would result in enhanced employment, productivity, 

and ultimately more income. 76 

On the other hand, societal sustainability is a key element that is often neglected. It encompasses the 

well-being of societies, good living standards, education, and social integration for endurable 

development processes. 77 It is a vital aspect since it is human capital that primarily drives the 

economy and development as a whole; reliable access to water and sanitation enables people to have 

dignified living conditions and increases their opportunities to improve their quality of life, greatly 

improving people’s health and wellbeing. This results in more resilient and reliable societies, with 

strengthened productive capacity and developmental drive and potential. 78 Hence, people have more 

opportunities and a higher chance to lead the lives they envision, which ultimately is the core of all 

human rights. 79 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

71 “United Nations Millennium Development Goals,” United Nations, accessed 21 July 2014, 

http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/endopendefecation.shtml. 

72 D.A. Okun, “The Value of Water Supply and Sanitation in Development: An Assessment,” American Journal of Public 

Health 78, no. 11 (1988): 1463–67, accessed 30 June 2014, 

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1350240/pdf/amjph00250-0077.pdf. 

73 “About,” SWA, accessed 22 July 2014, http://sanitationandwaterforall.org/about. 

74 T.B. Adrianzen and G.G. Graham, ‘The High Cost Of Being Poor-Water,’ Arch Environ Health 28, (1974): 312-315. 

75 Okun, “The Value of Water Supply and Sanitation in Development: An Assessment.” 

76 Ibid. 

77 Strange et al., Sustainable Development. Linking Economy, Society, Environment. 


79 Ibid. 

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For instance, water and sanitation are vital for healthy societies. It is estimated that two children die 

every two and a half minutes from diseases related to open defecation. 80 Furthermore, diarrhea, 

caused by contaminated water and waste, is the third biggest killer of children in SSA. 81 Appropriate 

water and sanitation services prevent the spread of the bacteria that cause diarrhea and control many 

other related fatal diseases. Additionally, they improve hygiene, reducing scabies and other skin 

diseases. 82 By reducing the risk of these diseases in general, pregnant women are less likely to 

contract them, thus decreasing the rates of child-mother mortality as well. Providing water and 

sanitation also contributes to the preparation of safe food, which has been proven to prevent 

malnutrition and enhance the population’s nutritional status. 83 

Water and sanitation also play a key role in closing the gender gap and the empowerment of women. 

Providing safe-drinking water would release women and girls from the heavy and time-consuming 

burden of carrying water from distant sources. 84 Providing water is primarily the responsibility of 

women, and so their lives are further affected by precarious water systems. 85 In fact, they spend two 

to five hours daily carrying water in lesser developed areas, reducing their education and productive 

time. 86 They are also responsible for caring for their children, who are often affected by diarrheal 

diseases. Hence, it is extraordinarily difficult for women to function as caring mothers or wives as 

well as lead fulfilling lives if they are busy providing water on a daily basis. Providing safe drinking 

water will enable women to spend that considerable amount of time on leading more productive and 

accomplished lives, on educating their children and, more importantly, themselves. It would 

empower them to take a more notable role in society and development. 

Providing sanitation will undoubtedly bring great benefits for societal development. One billion 

people have no choice but to defecate outside, onto the ground and in public. 87 This is highly 

degrading, let alone risky. It is an undignified method that increases the spread of disease and 

diminishes people’s dignity. This impacts all aspects of daily life. How can an individual have a job, a 

dignified house, and an accomplished life if he or she does not have access to a shower, a toilet, or a 

sink? How can individuals practice their rights if they have no hygienic way of disposing waste? For 

instance, in developing countries most girls drop out of school once they enter puberty because 

there are no toilets at school and thus no privacy. 88 Most women are forced to wait until nighttime 

to defecate for the little privacy it provides and are hence more prone to sexual harassment and 

violence. 89 Thus it is vital to provide sanitation in order to give people opportunities, as well as 

dignified and fulfilling lives. 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

80 “United Nations Millennium Development Goals.” 

81 “About,” SWA. 


83 Torun B, Environmental And Educational Interventions Against Diarrhea In Guatemala (New York: Plenum Press, 1983). 


85 Institute of Medicine (US) Roundtable on Environmental Health Sciences, Research and Medicine, Achieving Water and 

Sanitation Services for Health in Developing Countries (Washington D.C.: National Academies Press, 2009), accessed 21 July 

2014, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK50770/. 

86 J. Briscoe, “Water and Health: Selective Primary Health Care Revisited,” American Journal of Public Health No. 74 

(1984):1009-1013. 

87 “United Nations Millennium Development Goals.” 

88 Ibid. 

89 Ibid. 

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Additionally, both water and sanitation would strengthen community organization since they would 

require the involvement of the entire neighborhood and town in their planning, construction, 

operation, and maintenance. 90 This would stimulate local initiatives that would assure the facilities’ 

performance and would make possible a wide range of amenities. For instance, it would promote 

public drinking fountains, swimming pools, and animal watering troughs, which would create 

amiable environments for societal development. 

All of this would enable the material realization of every individual’s right to lead a dignified life. If 

occupants of SSA have at least improved access to water and sanitation, their range of opportunities 

widens. Water and sanitation could uncover SSA’s development potential. People would truly be 

able to exercise their rights since their basic needs are safely provided. New business and economic 

opportunities could be created; women would have more time to improve themselves, to study, and 

build their families. Public health would be better, and children would have more chances of 

reaching adulthood. All of this would lead to more just and fair societies and states, ultimately 

reducing the inequalities between different groups of society, closing income and gender gaps, and 

beginning to tackle exclusion. 

And finally, environmental sustainability consists of the access to natural resources, such as water, 

without presenting a threat to the environment’s stability and preservation. It refers to the 

appropriate use of a territory’s natural and ecological resources, including water, fauna, flora, and 

land, for development. 91 In other words, employing environmentally sound techniques of supplying 

water and sanitation is the key to environmental sustainability. Currently, 1.1 million liters of human 

excrement enter the River Ganges per minute, thus contaminating a clean water source and turning 

it into the only sewage system of the regional population. 92 This generates unimaginable 

consequences for ecosystems and natural resources, and can reflect the crisis in SSA since SSA 

suffers from similar practices. If such an abuse of water and sanitation continue to affect the 

environment, the expected water crisis in SSA will be greater in magnitude and scope. Therefore, the 

provision of water and sanitation must consist at least of improved services in order to reduce the 

environmental impact. Otherwise, unimproved water resources and sanitation services would mean 

an aggravation of harmful exploitation of water resources and an enhancement of the bad practices 

of waste disposal that are rampant today. 

Again, it is not only a duty of the states to provide basic water and sanitation; it goes far beyond that. 

Providing sustainable access to safe drinking water and sanitation, if looked at as a tool and 

opportunity for development, could help SSA to develop beyond providing just basic services and 

into the world of economic and social success. 

Emerging Targets and challenges 

Given the political momentum that surrounds the 2015 MDG deadline and the projections for the 

future, it is imperative for the international community to address some of the newest emerging 

challenges regarding water and sanitation. Primarily, for the years to come after 2015 it is vital to 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 


91 Strange et al., Sustainable Development. Linking Economy, Society, Environment. 


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address the safe management of services, since precarious access to water and sanitation is not 

sufficient for true development and sustainability. 

To do so, governments must substantially increase their activity and execution of wide-ranging 

political strategies that guarantee dignified, sufficient, and complete access to water sources and 

sanitation services. It is key that in this critical time for development states become more politically 

engaged in initiatives that not only provide resources but also ensure the sustainability of 

development in all areas. 

Governments must focus on two other emerging challenges: monitoring and financing. The first 

one is key now, because the Post-2015 target demands that measures go further towards more 

specific aspects, such as personal hygiene. Therefore, monitoring requires ‘renewed efforts to collect 

high-quality data that fill the current data gaps and enable states to closely supervise their political 

initiatives and strategies.’ 93 Financing is also a vital aspect of sustainability. Since SSA is a developing 

region with such complex development and economic circumstances, it is crucial for governments 

to establish stable partnerships with other states and stakeholders. To that purpose, states must 

analyze the different cooperation mechanisms that exist for adequate financing and execution of 

different strategies. These mechanisms should be selected according to SSA’s economic conditions 

and the specific needs of the region in terms of water and sanitation. 

The cooperation mechanisms used to implement these changes are varied. Among the most used 

methods are North-South partnerships, involving cooperation between developed and developing 

states both for consultation as well as financing through loans and other similar strategies. There is 

South-South cooperation as well, a mechanism where two developing states form a partnership to 

transfer technology, share mutual experiences, and improve infrastructure networking. This 

mechanism suits SSA since it enables states with similar developmental characteristics to 

communicate with one another and share cost figures and outcomes in development matters. 

Another type of cooperation mechanism is Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). FDI is a form of 

investment that establishes a lasting interest in a foreign enterprise or a different country by a 

different resident enterprise or stakeholder of one country, called the direct investor. 94 However, this 

type of investment still requires favorable economic policies and situations in the receiving country 

in order to foster an appropriate environment for foreign investors and guarantee a stable flow of 

resources. 95 FDI involves various stakeholders which often originate from the private sector, which 

may be more economically capable and thus more willing to provide economic resources to finance 

the political strategies that intend to provide sufficient water and sanitation in SSA. 96 

Additionally, there are Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs), long-term arrangements between the 

government of a state and a private partner in which the private stakeholder provides a public 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

93 Ibid. 

94 FDI in Figures (Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2013), accessed 13 August 2013, 

http://www.oecd.org/daf/inv/investment-policy/FDIinFiguresJuly2013.pdf, 8. 

95 Ibid. 

96 Robert Read, "Foreign direct investment in small island developing states," Journal of International Development 20, No. 4 

(May 2008): 502-525, accessed 10 July 2013, 

http://web.ebscohost.com.ez.urosario.edu.co/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=230ef499-e7b3-48c7-ba3b- 

9e3529f26761%40sessionmgr11&vid=2&hid=24. 

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service and assumes some operational and managerial functions. 97 This cooperation mechanism may 

guarantee a reliable provision of public services to sponsor and stimulate steady sustainable 

development. PPPs have been used in many other countries in the past with some success. 2,858 

projects worldwide were planned, financed, and executed through PPPs, showing its favorable 

record on development and economic progress. 98 For example, between 1985 and 2009 in Latin 

America, considered a developing region, 523 PPPs were planned and funded. These PPPs targeted 

rails, roads, water facilities, and more, proving this mechanism’s sustained popularity. 99 This has the 

potential to result in beneficial circumstances for SSA. A significant provision of water and 

sanitation services can be financed partially by the private sector, ensuring economic reliability and 

possibly high quality of services. 

Such strategies and partnerships are very common nowadays and play a key role in development. 

Currently there is a partnership called Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) that involves many of 

the elements mentioned above. This strategy is an independent multi-donor partnership managed by 

the World Bank to support severely impoverished people as they strive to gain access to sustainable 

water and sanitation. WSP works directly with ‘client governments’ to support and promote good 

practices and capacity building. WSP exemplifies another independent effort to enhance the political 

drive towards sanitation and safe drinking water. It shows how working directly with governments 

by providing consultation and advice can generate further political action, and result in the 

successful implementation of strategies. Although this is not a new initiative since it was created in 

1978, it is key to broadcast successful approaches and initiatives so that they can later be 

replicated. 100 Additionally, analyzing how such measures could be improved and altered to best meet 

the needs of SSA will be a key aspect of debate. 

CURRENT STATUS 

The topic of sustainable access to drinking water and sanitation has gained international relevance in 

the past couple of years as the world approaches the 2015 deadline of the MDGs. 2015 represents 

not only the achievements in several areas of development, but it is also a reminder of the challenges 

that are left and the development that has yet to be achieved. The recent updates on this topic are 

mostly related to the Post-2015 Agenda and the challenges that come along with it. 

International Access Initiatives: Sanitation and Water for All and the Joint Monitoring 

Programme 

One of the most wide-raging initiatives nowadays regarding this topic is Sanitation and Water for All 

(SWA), a global partnership that gathers over 90 developing countries’ governments, donors, and 

other stakeholders. 101 Its mission is to accelerate political leadership and actions aiming for a 

common universal conception of water and sanitation. This program provides an occasion for 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

97 From Lessons to Principles for the use of Public-Private Partnerships (Luxemburg: OECD, 2011), accessed 22 Aug 2013, 

http://www.oecd.org/gov/budgeting/48144872.pdf, 2. 

98 Ibid. 

99 Ibid, 7. 

100 “About,” WSP, accessed 21 July 2014, http://www.wsp.org/about. 

101 “About,” SWA. 

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countries to communicate, raise awareness on the topic, and encourage political action on existing 

and new strategies. 102 

SWA holds a high-level meeting every two years and gathers over 120 partners in a special annual 

partnership meeting. The 2013 partnership meeting, which took place in November, resulted in 379 

agreements made by the partners to tackle the barriers hindering access to water and sanitation for 

all. 103 The 2013 Annual report cites a number of these commitments including the African Regional 

Workshop on the Implementation of the 2014 GLAAS (the UN-Water Global Analysis and 

Assessment of Sanitation and Drinking-Water). Held in Burkina Faso, this workshop enabled the 

robust data collection among the African region regarding sanitation and water access. This data will 

then be used to craft the goals and commitments of these states for the next SWA meeting. 104 

Another notable national accomplishment was the 2014 World Water Week in Stockholm that 

focused this year’s event on providing information to the community on the goals and commitments 

for the SWA initiative in Sweden as well as showcasing various innovations in meeting this with an 

“SWA Market-place.” 105 These initiatives and the overall movement shows the political momentum 

the topic is gaining and the international community’s response. It evidences what the world needs 

to do in order to effectively address the topic: enhance political commitment and guidance. It is thus 

an example of the ever-growing need to face water and sanitation issues. 

These initiatives are heightened with additional research from programs such as the Joint 

Monitoring Programme (JNP), developed by WHO and UNICEF, is a joint effort “to address the 

monitoring challenges in the run up to the MDG’s 2015 deadline and beyond that.” 106 Through its 

comprehensive annual reports, JMP aims to accelerate the progress to achieve universal access to 

water and sanitation by 2025. Moreover, it intends to become the reliable and trusted source of 

global, national, and local data on the matter, which is a vital aspect of the topic. 107 Access to 

updated data on the topic is key to having a realistic grasp of the current situation and needs 

regarding water and sanitation. 

Sanitation Improvement: The Struggle to End Open Defecation 

“End Open Defecation” is a sanitation campaign that was launched on 28 May 2014 by Deputy 

Secretary-General Jan Eliasson as part of his call to action on the current sanitation crisis. 108 

According to Eliasson, sanitation-related diseases cause more deaths than AIDS, meningitis, and 

tuberculosis “combined in any given year.” 109 The campaign tries to raise awareness on the 

exorbitant rates of open defecation even today in the 21st century. It also seeks to expose how the 

sanitation crisis works, since it remains barely understood and thus generally neglected. This recent 

strategy is an example of how to take advantage of the current political momentum on the topic. It 

tries to spread the word of the alarming situation of global sanitation, generate more political 

commitment, and thus, hopefully, actual results. 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

102 Ibid. 

103 Ibid. 

104 “Annual Report 2013,” Sanitation and Water for All, 2013, Accessed 8 Oct 2014. 

105 Ibid. 

106 “About the JMP,” Wssinfo, accessed 21 July 2014, http://www.wssinfo.org/about-the-jmp/mission-objectives/. 

107 Ibid. 

108 “United Nations Millennium Development Goals,” UN. 

109 Ibid. 

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The reason why open defecation has been a relevant topic recently is the severe conditions that 

some countries now face because of the lack of basic sanitation. India is one of those states. 

Although India is not a SSA country, its situation with regards to sanitation can be very useful as a 

parallel to give a glimpse of what the topic demands in any country. India is a developing nation, 

with a huge population and a severe sanitation problem. 110 As many other countries have, India 

recognized that greater political drive is needed to tackle the issue and promote development. In 

fact, Narendra Modi, India’s Prime Minister, says that building toilets is a top priority now. 111 This is 

a logical move since more than 73% of rural India practices open defecation. 112 Moreover, from the 

one billion people in the world who lack sanitation, India holds 600 million within its borders. 113 

This concerning figure is worsened by the rapidly growing Indian population. It causes water and 

sanitation diseases to spread faster, and causes mother-child health deficiencies as well as 

malnutrition and mortality rates to increase. Moreover, the economic cost that the lack of sanitation 

generates is estimated to be greater than the price of its solution. 114 

The renewed political commitment to the matter is obvious. The Indian government announced 

that 5.2 million toilets will be built by September and allocated this month’s budget to set a goal to 

end open defecation by 2019. 115 However, building toilets with sewage access will not be enough to 

end the sanitation crisis that India faces; in many cultures, open defecation is often encouraged over 

using toilets or latrines. 116 Thus, providing toilets will only be effective if people actually use them. 

Therefore, governments need to build a better education program of water and sanitation usage 

through campaigns and public policies. 117 It requires a greater political drive to promote the effective 

use of sanitation facilities and to start implementing a hygienic culture. For instance, some media 

campaigns that aim to create a culture of hygiene and sanitation have begun to be implemented. In 

May 2014, the UN introduced a new Sesame Street Muppet called Raya whose role is ‘to engage 

children with important messages about proper latrine use and sanitation throughout Bangladesh, 

India and Nigeria.’ 118 Through this educational campaign, the UN and its partners aim to address 

these communities’ habits and start promoting safer water and sanitation usage. 

The UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF) is headed in a similar direction and launched Mr. Poo, as part of 

the Poo2Loo initiative, to encourage Indians to actually use installed latrines. 119 This approach is 

necessitated by the widespread phenomenon in many developing countries, like India, where latrines 

are abandoned or used as storage because “people are not convinced that it is a good idea to use a 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

110 “The Final Frontier,” The Economist, July 2014, http://www.economist.com/news/asia/21607837-fixing-dreadfulsanitation-india-requires-not-just-building-lavatories-also-changing. 

111 Ibid. 

112 Ibid. 

113 Ibid. 

114 Ibid. 

115 Ibid. 

116 Ibid. 

117 Ibid. 

118 “UN / OPEN DEFECATION,” UNifeed, last modified 28 May 2014, 

http://www.unmultimedia.org/tv/unifeed/2014/05/un-open-defecation/. 

119 Olivia Yallop, “Meet Mr. Poo, the Star of India’s Public Sanitation Campaign,” 23 April 2014, accessed 23 July 2014, 

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/10780448/Meet-Mr-Poo-the-star-of-Indias-public-sanitationcampaign.html. 

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latrine.” 120 This case shows that for an effective water and sanitation program, states need to go 

beyond building piped drinking water connections, treatment plants, and toilets connected to a 

sewage system. Providing the infrastructure will be useless if countries do not understand the 

importance of their use, maintenance, and continued performance of the facilities. For actual effects 

on development, and in order to promote a culture around water and sanitation, governments must 

involve the community in all the stages of the process, as the Indian case shows. Only when the 

community gets involved in the “planning, construction, operation, and maintenance” of the 

pipelines and sewages will water and sanitation truly be provided. 121 

BLOC ANALYSIS 

Although this topic focuses specifically on a particular region, the solutions conceived to tackle this 

issue involve the whole international community. Every state plays an important part in crafting 

effective proposals, which assure the sustained and sustainable development of SSA through 

sustainable access to water and sanitation. Thus, to guarantee the effectiveness of the strategies, 

states must work together, while being aware of each other’s different policies and viewpoints. 

Moreover, addressing the water and sanitation crisis in SSA would ultimately benefit other countries. 

Providing effective solutions for this issue would enable the region to reap the full benefits of its 

development potential, contributing to a more equal global development process and more 

equitable, fair, and productive societies. 

However, countries will find contention when discussing how exactly SSA’s states will bring water 

and sanitation to its people. Questions like who would fund the investments, how they would do so, 

and how SSA would guarantee suitable conditions for such investments may arise and will be crucial 

for debate. 

Sub-Saharan African States 

This group of states comprises the core of the issue. Thus, their cooperation and disposition to craft 

realistic solutions is key to effectively addressing the topic. Since they are the countries that directly 

face the developmental challenges regarding water and sanitation, it is their mission to be willing to 

engage in comprehensive strategies that guarantee long-term sustainability. Hence, they will be 

leading the discussion around crafting wide-ranging partnerships and other cooperation mechanisms 

that ensure their sustainable access to water and sanitation and consequently a sustained 

development. 

Therefore, the SSA states will aim for regional and interregional partnerships that assure more 

coordination and coherence in the execution and effectiveness of the strategies. Regional 

partnerships would enable the SSA states to build strong, long-term cooperation networks with 

other regions that share common traits, which would be beneficial for both regions’ development. 

Nonetheless, SSA countries must be aware of their vulnerabilities and limitations. Therefore, this 

bloc of countries must be very realistic when developing solutions and strategies, keeping in mind 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

120 “One Billion People Still Practise Open Defecation, Endangering Public Health: UN,” Huffington Post, 8 May 2014, 

accessed 23 July 2014, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/05/08/one-billion-open-defecation_n_5289049.html. 


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that they must tackle water and sanitation while contributing to their own integral development. It is 

their duty to be aware of their own situation and reflect that in the solutions the Forum crafts. These 

limitations also include economic restrictions, as many will be unable to fund massive changes and 

will thus need to form partnerships with more developed countries or focus on less economically 

reliant solutions. 

Additionally, they will be willing to cooperate and engage in comprehensive strategies with other 

states because no country alone can tackle a complex issue like this one, let alone a state immersed in 

such a particular development context. Therefore, these countries will highly support strategies that 

involve foreign investment and resources to finance the construction of pipelines and sewage 

systems. Since SSA’s economic capacity is greatly reduced at the moment, it needs foreign resources 

to fund the infrastructure’s construction, management, and maintenance. For this purpose this bloc 

would be willing to engage in partnerships such as North-South, PPPs, and FDI which involve 

economic cooperation with more developed countries. These three mechanisms would enable SSA 

to have a steady flow of funding to sustain the economic effort being made to provide water and 

sanitation. 

On the other hand, SSA states will be open to cooperate with countries with similarly low 

development rates to theirs, through South-South cooperation. They will promote partnerships not 

only with other developing countries but also within SSA itself. Since they share similar development 

characteristics, this bloc will likely embrace those partnerships to tackle common issues like lack of 

governance and consultation. This would likely ease economic burden, strengthen political relations, 

and generate more political engagement in the region to encourage water and sanitation initiatives. 

These states will find contention with the other blocs when discussing how economically dependent 

SSA’s countries should be on external resources. Due to SSA’s precarious financial situation, the 

states in this bloc will likely be pushing for strong external economic and political contributions. 

However, many other member states will be opposed to this and defend the idea that SSA should 

solve the issue internally with its own resources. Therefore, SSA countries must be willing to 

negotiate balanced conditions for the partnerships that supply their water needs while 

simultaneously guaranteeing stability for the investors and partners. 

Other Developing States 

Other developing nations are crucial for the successful development of solutions and strategies. 

They are the strategic partners for SSA countries, and so should be willing to cooperate and engage 

in favorable development strategies that are beneficial for all. Since they share common 

development characteristics and experience similar challenges, long-term and stable partnerships 

between them would likely yield benefits for both sides. This group of countries should take 

advantage of their position and seize these partnerships as an opportunity for their own 

development as well. 

They will be willing to enrich the debate with their own experiences and cases and contribute to the 

crafting of realistic solutions where they can also derive benefit. This would involve promoting 

South-South cooperation and long-tern regional and interregional partnerships with SSA to tackle 

common aspects of water and sanitation issues. They will likely encourage building endurable 

cooperation networks with SSA where they can exchange technology, strategies, and consultation. 

Additionally, these countries will be interested in using those networks to work specifically towards 

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the enhancement of MDGs’ results and the strengthening of political governance in the region in 

order to raise political commitment and awareness of the benefits of water and sanitation. Finally, 

this group of countries is key in the execution of the political strategies and the oversight of the 

entire process. 

This bloc will find a contention in the fact that they are developing countries as well and, similarly to 

SSA, face water and sanitation issues. Therefore, they might disagree on whether the partnerships 

should focus exclusively on SSA but should also bring reciprocal benefits to them. 

Developed States 

This group of countries comprises the rest of the international community. Their development 

status gives them enhanced capacity to help SSA and contribute to sustainable development as 

HLPF’s mandate intends. These states are vital to achieve the goals of this committee since they 

possess the necessary amount of economic and governance capacity to help SSA work towards 

sustainable water and sanitation. Furthermore, helping SSA is an opportunity for developed 

countries to economically benefit and contribute to global development and well-being. 

The main areas where their assistance is key are consulting, monitoring, and financing. Since these 

states enjoy a high level of development, they have sufficient experience to guide SSA toward 

sustainability as HLPF anticipates. Despite their different economies and political contexts, all of 

these developed states have experience, which can contribute to the integral development of such a 

depressed region as SSA. According to their different policies and circumstances, these states must 

decide upon the most suitable mechanisms to help. They should highly encourage North-South 

cooperation, since this mechanism would help SSA’s situation and would highly benefit developed 

states economically and politically. 

Just like the other two blocs of countries, this group should be willing to cooperate with their 

experience, governance capacity, and economic resources. They must be aware that, without 

considerable economic help from experienced and developed countries, SSA cannot overcome the 

shortfalls in water and sanitation and are thus hindered from developing effectively. Nevertheless, 

this bloc may find contention when discussing how SSA is going to foster favorable political, social, 

and economic conditions to encourage the developed states’ contributions. They will push for a 

reciprocal effort made by SSA to guarantee stable conditions for the foreign partners and their 

capital. 

COMMITTEE MISSION 

The complexity of SSA’s development situation creates a challenge for the Forum. To successfully 

address the topic, HLPF must be aware of the region’s multiple vulnerabilities in terms of the 

environment, political governance, and the economy. Firstly, the Forum should always keep 

sustainable development as a whole in mind. Thus, proposals and solutions should aim to cover the 

societal, environmental, and economic nuances and effects of sustainable access to safe drinking 

water and sanitation. 

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Moreover, according to HLPF’s mandate, the solutions must be politically oriented and aim to 

achieve concrete actions towards sustainable development. 122 This means that the proposals should 

not concentrate only on the infrastructural or technical aspects of providing safe drinking water and 

sanitation in SSA, or only emphasize the benefits for health and the environment. On the contrary, 

delegates should always tailor the debate and proposals towards a comprehensive view of the topic. 

The discussion should always tie back to sustainable development and produce executive and actionoriented 

strategies. Therefore, the strategies should enable the accurate implementation of safely 

managed services and infrastructure, as well as their effective usage, monitoring, and long-term 

sustainability. Addressing this issue requires a coordinated effort that aims for the continuous and 

progressive execution of wide-ranging solutions. Delegates must bear in mind that for solutions to 

be successful, their working papers and draft resolutions should comprise realistic financing and 

cooperation mechanisms which enable the region better access to water and sanitation while 

contributing to its development. 

! 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

122 A/RES/67/290, “Format and Organizational Aspects of The High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable 

Development,” 9 July 2013, accessed 9 June 2014, 


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TOPIC B: ACCESS TO MODERN ENERGY IN LDCS 

INTRODUCTION 

Over the past 40 years the international community has engaged in several efforts to ensure 

sustainable development for all. But despite the world’s commitment to development, there are 

particular challenges that still hinder the process towards sustainability. One of the most pressing 

challenges nowadays is achieving global access to Modern Energy (ME), since 1.4 billion people 

have no access to electricity and 3 billion others still rely on solid fuels to supply their basic needs. 123 

This matter particularly hinders global sustainable development because it negatively impacts the 

environment, public health, economic productivity, and business sustainability. 124 ME means 

providing sustainable sources of clean, reliable, and affordable energy for basic cooking, heating, 

lighting, communications, and mechanical power necessities in the forms of electricity, gas, and 

power. 125 Access to this type of energy is crucial because its effects are transformational. Providing 

adequate energy sources for cooking, heating, refrigerating, lighting, and communicating will 

facilitate the operation of businesses, schools, health clinics, and sanitation facilities. Consequently 

this will generate more income and opportunities, which lead to development. 126 

Although minimal energy access is an issue that affects multiple regions, it is particularly acute in the 

Least Developed Countries (LDCs) because of their additional economic and developmental 

vulnerabilities. 127 Therefore, the particular conditions of the LDCs and the pressing need of 

effectively addressing their hindered development falls under the mandate of the newly established 

High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF). Furthermore, the United Nations 

has named the topic as a top political priority by declaring the decade of 2014-2024 the UN Decade 

of Sustainable Energy for All, which focuses on renewability, accessibility, and efficiency. 128 This 

initiative states that global modern energy access is possible by 2030 and will yield benefits beyond 

those for the environment. Specifically, it will improve people’s health and agricultural productivity. 

It will also empower women, create business and employment opportunities, and enable individuals 

to lead more productive lives. 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

123 Sustainable Energy for All – A Global Action Agenda (New York: High-Level Group on Sustainable Energy, 2012), 

accessed 22 April 2014, http://www.se4all.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/SEFA-Action-Agenda-Final.pdf. 

124 Ibid. 

125 Energy for a Sustainable Future (New York: AGECC, 2010), accessed 22 May 2014, 

http://www.un.org/wcm/webdav/site/climatechange/shared/Documents/AGECC%20summary%20report%5B1%5 

D.pdf. 

126 Sustainable Energy for All – A Global Action Agenda. 

127“Energy Access,” UN-Energy Knowledge Network, accessed 22 May 2014, http://www.unenergy.org/cluster/energy_access; 

“United Nations Decade of Sustainable Energy for All (UN-SE4ALL 2014 -2024) 

begins with Asia Regional Launch,” Sustainable Energy For All, last modified 5 February 2014, 

http://www.se4all.org/2014/02/05/united-nations-decade-sustainable-energy-un-se4all-2014-2024-begins-asia-regionallaunch/. 

128 A/RES/67/215, “Promotion of New and Renewable Sources of Energy,” 20 March 2013, accessed 22 May 2014, 

http://www.se4all.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/GA-resolution-A-67-215-SE4ALL-DECADE.pdf; Sustainable 

Energy for All – A Global Action Agenda. 

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This topic allows for an appealing discussion for delegates, with a broad range of perspectives 

regarding the best ways to ensure sustainable development through the accessibility of ME in the 

LDCs. This paper will analyze the main aspects of access to modern energy, the LDCs’ particular 

burdens, modern energy solutions, and the current developments of the topic. 

HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION OF THE ISSUE 

Modern Energy (ME) 

To understand properly what ME can do for the LDCs, it is vital to know what ME is. ME is 

defined as the provision of sustainable sources of clean, reliable and affordable energy for the 

purposes listed above. 129 These sources include electricity, improved fuels and gas, and other 

alternative sources of power like solar, hydro, and wind energy. Therefore, access to energy affects 

every aspect of our lives. 

A life without access to any source of energy “is a life of drudgery.” 130 When people lack access to 

energy their efforts to earn a living, go to school, cook, and communicate are more laborious and 

distressing than is necessary. For instance, stay-at-home mothers and wives who lack electricity and 

natural gas for their stoves must restrict their tasks to daylight and spend considerable time 

collecting wood and charcoal to utilize their cooking stoves and fireplaces. This is not only 

inefficient, but also dangerous. Rosa, a housewife in Kenya, explained “getting energy for cooking 

and lighting is a daily worry.” 131 Her situation is so critical that she only cooks for her family once a 

day, in the evening. After the fire and the food are gone, they have to go to bed since there is no 

lighting or power. 132 There are many people living across the LDCs that find themselves in similar 

circumstances, if not worse, to Rosa’s. The time people spend collecting wood could be spent 

working, studying, learning, raising children, and cooking more efficiently. 133 Having light after 

sunset enables people to be productive at night, a luxury those in LDCs rarely see. In sum, having 

modern energy enables people to have the basic conditions necessary to lead a productive and 

fulfilling life, opening many doors for development. 

In addition, it is important to note the positive impact on the environment and these individuals’ 

health. Not relying on wood and other solid fuels like biomass and charcoal to cook would reduce 

the toll on trees and the environment. 134 Moreover, it would reduce the in-house pollution and 

smoke produced by wood cook-stoves and oil lamps, saving lives and improving health. 135 Mamdhur 

in Nepal says that getting electric lighting in his village was a significant relief. 136 He has more time to 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

129 Energy for a Sustainable Future. 

130 Poor People’s Energy Outlook 2013 - Energy for Community Services (Rugby: Practical Action Publishing, 2013), accessed 26 

July 2014, http://cdn1.practicalaction.org/5/1/513f47d0-1950-4f85-a40f-191d0ae4f5bb.pdf. 

131 “Poor People’s Energy Outlook 2014 - Energy Access -Practical Action,” accessed 18 August 2014, 

http://practicalaction.org/ppeo2014. 

132 Ibid. 

133“Total Energy Access,” PracticalAction.org, accessed 23 July 2014, http://practicalaction.org/totalenergyaccess. 

134 Ibid. 

135 Ibid. 

136 “Poor People’s Energy Outlook 2010 | Energy Access | Practical Action,” accessed 18 Aug 2014, 

http://practicalaction.org/poor-peoples-energy-outlook-2010. 

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spend with his children and they no longer have to “breathe in the smoke from the kerosene lamp 

that used to hurt their lungs.” 137 He explained that for his family, finally the dark has turned to 

light. 138 

Despite all the benefits access to modern energy represents, even today in a globalized world, “two 

in every five people still rely on wood, charcoal, or animal waste to cook their food, and one in five 

people lack electricity.” 139 These figures are unacceptable and unjust, and continue to widen the 

inequalities that create poverty and underdevelopment. Lack of energy is thus an obstacle for 

sustainable development, which is why ME is indeed crucial. 

Sustainable Development and the ME 

Modern energy has been on the international agenda for over a decade and its importance has only 

increased with time. Despite all the efforts made by the international community, the process has 

been very slow and consequences have started to take their toll on the weakest states. 140 Thus, the 

international community has progressively realized the multiple effects of ME in sustainable 

development. 

The negative impacts of limited access to energy on the economy, environment, and society are 

wide-ranging, especially when it comes to sustainable development. ME, if effectively addressed by 

LDC governments, can be a commanding force of development for those countries. In order to 

understand the effects of ME on LDCs’ development, it is important to analyze first the concept of 

sustainable development. It is generally agreed that sustainable development is inclusive economic 

growth that favors not only society, but the environment as well. 141 Therefore, in order to be 

sustainable, development should always focus on all of these aspects. 142 

For instance, in the economic field, sustainability entails the appropriate use of available resources 

to achieve enduring and positive economic outcomes. That means taking advantage of and 

appropriately using the natural, economic, and human resources that LDCs possess in order to 

provide energy. Targeting this aspect is crucial since LDCs face unique challenges towards displaying 

sustained levels of economic development. Given the fact that LDCs have such low economic 

development and thus little economic resources, they rely heavily on external capital flows which 

play a key role in their developing economies. To address LDCs’ economic deficit and at the same 

time provide ME effectively, there are multiple cooperation and financing mechanisms. One of 

those methods is the Official Development Assistance (ODA), developed by the Organization for 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

137 Ibid. 

138 Ibid. 

139 Poor People’s Energy Outlook 2013 - Energy for Community Services. 

140 Gwénaëlle Legros et al., The Energy Access Situation In Developing Countries. A Review Focusing on the Least Developed 

Countries and Sub-Saharan Africa (New York: UNDP, 2009), accessed 7 July 2014, 

http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/Environment%20and%20Energy/Sustainable%20Energy/energyaccess-situation-in-developing-countries.pdf. 

141 Tracey Strange and Anne Bayley, Sustainable Development. Linking Economy, Society, Environment (Paris: Organisation for 

Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2008), accessed 15 July 2013, http://www.oecdilibrary.org/docserver/download/0108121e.pdf?expires=1373922182&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=9E12E4440 

A3314119ECF3D349794C5DD. 

142 Ibid. 

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Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), which consists of economic aid to countries in 

special economic situations aimed exclusively at their development and progress. 143 

ODA can be very beneficial for developing countries in general, and especially for LDCs, as it would 

represent a steady and stable income meant only for developmental purposes. ODA recipients have 

to be on the Development Assistance Committee List of ODA, a reduced group of countries that 

are eligible for this economic aid. Given the development characteristics of LDCs, all of them are 

included in this list and through the years they have benefited greatly from ODA. 144 ODA would be 

a very useful method for LDCs to finance ME. It represents a secure and steady flow of resources 

that should be aimed to their development. Therefore, it acts as a secured and stable budget that 

would effectively enable LDCs to start building infrastructure and providing energy services. 

Another mechanism is Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). FDI is a form of investment that 

establishes a lasting interest in a foreign enterprise or a different country by a resident enterprise or 

stakeholder of one country, called the direct investor. 145 This type of investment demands favorable 

economic policies in the recipient country in order to foster a sufficient environment for foreign 

investors and assure a steady flow of money. 146 FDI involves participation from various stakeholders 

that often originate from the private sector, meaning they are more able to provide the necessary 

financial assistance to implement new policies and practices for development. 147 

Financially investing in development is vital for effectively addressing the topic, which is why in 

addition to ODA and FDI, Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) are important political tools. 148 PPPs 

are long-term agreements between the government of a country and a private partner, in which the 

private stakeholder provides a public service and assumes some operational and managerial 

responsibilities of the service, facility, or project. 149 This method may ensure a reliable delivery of 

public services that promotes a steady sustainable development. PPPs have been widely used in 

many countries in the past three decades with a high rate of success and implementation, especially 

in developing countries. This is proven through the total number of PPP deals executed in Latin 

America from 1985 to 2009, a region composed mostly of developing states. This region planned 

and funded 523 PPPs regarding the construction and management of roads, rails, water facilities, 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

143 Is it ODA? (Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2008), accessed 13 August 2013, 

http://www.oecd.org/dac/stats/34086975.pdf. 

144 DAC List of ODA Recipients-Effective for Reporting on 2012 and 2013 Flows (Paris: OECD, 2013), accessed 2 Sept 2014, 

http://www.oecd.org/dac/stats/DAC%20List%20used%20for%202012%20and%202013%20flows.pdf. 

145 FDI in Figures (Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2013), accessed 13 August 2013, 

http://www.oecd.org/daf/inv/investment-policy/FDIinFiguresJuly2013.pdf, 8. 

146 Ibid. 

147 Robert Read, "Foreign Direct Investment in Small Island Developing States," Journal of International Development 20, 

No. 4 (May 2008): 502-525, accessed 10 July 2013, 

http://web.ebscohost.com.ez.urosario.edu.co/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=230ef499-e7b3-48c7-ba3b- 

9e3529f26761%40sessionmgr11&vid=2&hid=24. 

148 A/RES/63/239, ‘‘Resolution adopted by the General Assembly. Doha Declaration on Financing for Development: 

outcome document of the Follow-up International Conference on Financing for Development to Review the 

Implementation of the Monterrey Consensus,’’ 19 March 2009, accessed 7 July 2013, http://daccess-ddsny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N08/485/13/PDF/N0848513.pdf?OpenElement. 

149 From Lessons to Principles for the use of Public-Private Partnerships (Luxemburg: OECD, 2011), accessed 22 August 2013, 

http://www.oecd.org/gov/budgeting/48144872.pdf, 2. 

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and other buildings, proving the sustained success PPPs have had over the time. 150 In addition, the 

favorability of PPPs on development can be wide-ranging; 2,858 projects world-wide were planned, 

financed, and executed through PPPs, showing their influence and wide-scale application. 

On the other hand, societal sustainability is a key element that is often neglected. It encompasses the 

well-being of societies, good living standards, education, and social integration for endurable 

development processes. 151 It is a vital aspect of the process since it is human capital that primarily 

drives the economy and development as a whole. Here the connection with development is even 

stronger than the one with economic sustainability; reliable access to ME enables people to have 

dignified living conditions and increases their opportunities to improve their life quality, greatly 

improving health and well-being. This results in more resilient and reliable societies, with 

strengthened productive capacity and developmental drive and potential. 152 Hence, people have 

more opportunities and a higher chance to lead the lives they envision, which ultimately is the core 

of all human rights. 153 Additionally, ME would strengthen community organization since it would 

require the involvement of the community in the planning, construction, operation, and 

maintenance of the services for their successful use. 154 This would stimulate local initiatives which 

involve the community in providing ME. For instance, involving locals in the socialization of new 

energy services like electricity or improved cooking stoves would guarantee the effective use of ME 

and their incorporation into people’s lives. This would assure the facilities’ performance and would 

make a wide range of amenities possible, thus creating amiable environments for societal 

development and resilience. 

Finally, environmental sustainability consists of access to natural resources, like water and wood, 

without representing a threat to the environment’s stability and preservation. It means the 

“maintenance of the natural capital” and the appropriate use of a territory’s natural and ecological 

resources including water, fauna, flora, and land. 155 

The situation in LDCs 

The lack of ME is an issue that affects almost every country in the world. Nonetheless, there are 

groups of countries that face a particularly challenging situation in terms of energy sources. 

Commonly, the developing countries are the ones that struggle the most with this topic because of 

their development characteristics. Their hardships with regards to ME are enhanced by their limited 

economic resources, as well as the lack of governance and resiliency. Among the developing 

countries there is a group of states whose difficulties in terms of ME are particularly alarming. This 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

150 Ibid, 7. 

151 Strange and Bayley, Sustainable Development. Linking Economy, Society, and Environment. 

152 A Post-2015 Global Goal for Water (New York: UN-Water, 2014), accessed 26 May 2014, 

http://www.unwater.org/fileadmin/user_upload/unwater_new/docs/Topics/UNWater_technical_advice_post_2015_ 

global_goal_ES_final_highres.pdf. 

153 Ibid. 

154 D.A. Okun, “The Value of Water Supply and Sanitation in Development: An Assessment,” American Journal of Public 

Health 78, no. 11 (1988): 1463–67, accessed 30 June 2014, 


155 Robert Goodland, “The Concept of Environmental Sustainability,” Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, no. 26 

(1995): 1-24, accessed 25 August 2014, http://are.berkeley.edu/courses/ARE298/Readings/goodland.pdf. 

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group is comprised of the Least Developed Countries (LDCs), which are the most vulnerable states 

of the international community. 

The LDCs are the “poorest and weakest portion” of the international community. 156 There are 

currently 48 countries that account for 880 million people but contribute less than 2% to the global 

Gross Domestic Product. 157 Thus, they have the lowest rates of socio-economic development, 

meaning that their citizens’ incomes are very low, the social inequalities are very wide, and their 

productivity is small. These countries have a reduced capacity to develop themselves economically 

and socially, since they have few economic resources and poorly governed societies. These 

characteristics represent greater obstacles for the development of LDCs than ones other states may 

have. These states thus face unique challenges towards development and call for international aid 

and cooperation to tackle such issues. 

LDCs are not like other developing states. It is a classification that gathers the most impoverished 

countries which also have greater-than-usual development problems. The LDC classification was 

officially created in 1971 by the UN General Assembly (GA) in order to raise awareness and 

encourage assistance for the most disadvantaged members of the organization. 158 Moreover, the 

category was established specifically to be able to create special measures to further aid these states 

and stop the high-paced deterioration of their economies and societies. 159 Not every developing 

country is considered an LDC; only the countries that possess specific criteria are eligible for 

inclusion on the list. Furthermore, only the GA has the power to include countries on the list, with 

the countries’ approval and with their best interests in mind in order to help them receive better aid 

for their development. 160 Inclusion on the LDC list opens a wide range of special economic 

measures for them to achieve development. Since the establishment of the LDC category the 

international community has targeted considerable efforts towards helping the LDCs graduate from 

the list and achieve adequate levels of development. Despite this, the list has increased by 23 

countries since its creation, and many of the states are far from achieving development. 161 Their 

vulnerabilities still endure today and call for greater political actions to overcome them. 

LDCs’ have several vulnerabilities, which represent the main criteria for inclusion on the list. For 

instance, LDCs have very low adult literacy rates and reduced secondary school enrollment. 162 These 

countries are low-income, as shown in their low Gross National Income per capita index. 

Furthermore, LDCs face great instability in agriculture and trade of goods and services, which 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

156 “About LDCs,” UN Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and the 

Small Island Developing States, accessed 12 July 2014, http://unohrlls.org/about-ldcs/. 

157 Ibid. 

158 Ibid. 

159 Ibid. 

160 E/RES/2012/32, “Resolution adopted by the Economic and Social Council. Report of the Committee for 

Development Policy on its Fourteenth Session,” 18 September 2012, accessed 15 July 2014, 

http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=E/RES/2012/32&Lang=E; A/RES/67/136, “Inclusion of 

South Sudan in the List of LDCs,” 7 March 2013, accessed 15 July 2014, 

http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/policy/cdp/ARES67136_en.pdf. 

161 “About LDCs,” UN-OHRLLS. 

162 “The Criteria for Identifying Least Developed Countries,” Development Policy and Analysis Division, last modified August 

2013, accessed 15 July 2014, http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/policy/cdp/ldc/ldc_definitions.shtml. 

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reflects in their high malnutrition and child mortality rates. 163 All of these indicators demonstrate the 

low socio-economic development of these countries, caused by their evident “weak human and 

institutional capacities.” 164 Although some of these characteristics are present in other developing 

countries, LDCs are not ordinary developing states. LDCs are considered such because their rates of 

underdevelopment are at such severe levels that they need special assistance to grow or advance. 

The lack of governance and strong institutions in these countries cause great income disparities and 

uneven wealth distribution. This ultimately exacerbates poverty, corruption, and political instability, 

which hinders the development potential of these countries. As a result, LDCs are often immersed 

in external or internal conflicts, have undiversified and low-resilience economies, are susceptible to 

external shocks, and are highly dependent on external markets. 165 This causes the LDCs to have very 

low “management capacity, weaknesses in program design and implementation, chronic external 

deficits, high debt burdens, and heavy dependence on external financing, all of which have kept 

LDCs in a poverty trap.” 166 This poverty trap only heightens the difficulties faced with acquiring 

sustainable and modern forms of energy. As such, the Forum is faced with the task of not only 

providing this energy, but addressing the unique qualities of these states and the increased problems 

they face regarding ME access. 

The Energy Situation in LDCs 

Due to the multiple weaknesses of LDCs, their path towards development is particularly challenging. 

They not only have to reach development in general, but they have to do it sustainably, despite their 

multiple vulnerabilities. One of the most pressing challenges LDCs face nowadays, and one of the 

main factors hindering their development, is their precarious access to energy and their use of nonrenewable 

resources. This issue is often neglected since the governments and people of these 

countries are not aware of the great damages that non-renewable resources produce and the 

advantages that ME may bring. Therefore, the governments of the LDCs must provide improved 

awareness of ME in order to improve their development progress. 

This challenge is particularly pressing in LDCs given their vulnerabilities and the very low prevalence 

of access to ME sources. For instance, in LDCs 79% of people lack access to electricity and 91% do 

not have access to modern fuels. 167 Additionally, only 6% of the people in LDCs that still use 

traditional biomass and wood for cooking have access to improved efficiency cooking stoves. 168 

Their energy is not modern since the majority of the people do not have electricity and lack 

pipelines, natural gas, and lighting. The reality of LDCs is that most households have rudimentary 

cooking stoves that need biomass, wood, or charcoal to cook, thus causing a great amount of 

pollution and smoke. LDCs’ homes lack lighting and depend on gasoline lamps, candles, fire, or 

suffer in darkness. Houses lack the electricity to even turn on cooling or heating devices like fans, 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

163 Ibid. 

164 “About LDCs,” UN-OHRLLS. 

165 Ibid. 

166 Ibid. 

167 Gwénaëlle Legros et al., The Energy Access Situation In Developing Countries. A Review Focusing on the Least Developed 

Countries and Sub-Saharan Africa. 

168 Ibid. 

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TVs, and radios. Moreover, they do not have freezers or refrigerators to hygienically store their 

food. 169 

The vast majority of people in LDCs must work where there is no electricity, no lighting, no cooling, 

and no communication networks. 170 They earn their living only through manual labor since they 

have no machines to optimize their work. This hinders their productivity and economic capacity. 

They cannot work at night, which is inefficient and makes products more expensive and less 

diversified. Moreover, since they cannot communicate via Internet or telephone, all business and 

trade must be done through direct travel, which is more expensive and laborious. If businesses had 

connection to Internet networks, transactions and operation would be faster, safer, and cheaper, 

which would generate more utility and profit. It would enable business to engage in wider 

production and trade activities, which ultimately would enhance their development potential. 

Because of all of the reasons stated above, having no electronic access in businesses makes the entire 

process slower and more tedious, hindering productivity and raising prices. 171 ME would provide 

dignified and more prosperous lives for people, helping them to develop the lives they envision. 

The community as a whole is further affected by precarious electricity sources, which virtually 

paralyze a society’s development. For instance, health care facilities in these countries are very 

unreliable since there is often no lighting or electricity. Hence, all medical procedures must be 

performed during the day. In addition, medicine cannot be stored properly since there is no 

electricity for refrigerators. Testing procedures are slow and unreliable, and the rate of infection is 

high since there is no way to sterilize the equipment. 172 The situation also adversely affects the ability 

of the medical staff to provide preventative care. As a result, almost every surgery is an emergency 

since existing conditions cannot be detected beforehand due to the lack of electronic equipment and 

machines. In addition, most procedures must wait until the power generator is turned on, which 

takes precious time that could save many lives. 173 In fact, around “1 billion people use health services 

without electricity,” a number made even more alarming by the fact that providing access to these 

services is not only possible, but within reach if the necessary changes are made by the international 

community. 174 

Finally, ME would enable citizens of these countries to have extended school hours, as well as 

access to evening education and homework, which would raise the overall literacy rate and improve 

their chances of leading prosperous and fulfilling lives. 175 Ms. Reque, a teacher in rural Bolivia, says 

that she works in conditions that are the same as a few centuries ago due to the lack of energy. 176 She 

states “the quality of life is low when teachers work in schools with no power” as the “situation of 

unease and discomfort is constant.” 177 Providing ME in schools would allow more people to have 

access to education. Teachers would have the possibility to access improved teaching materials such 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

169 “Total Energy Access,” PracticalAction.org. 

169 Ibid. 

170 Ibid. 


173 Ibid. 


175 Ibid. 

176 “Poor People’s Energy Outlook 2013 | Energy Access | Practical Action,” accessed 18 August 2014, 

http://practicalaction.org/ppeo2013. 

177 Ibid. 

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as computers and information through the Internet, and students would have enhanced learning 

hours, tools, and skills. 178 Moreover, it would bring street lighting, which would encourage “safety, 

school attendance, and enable economic activity.” 179 Overall, ME would open the door to literacy 

and education, allowing people to have the basic conditions to exercise their rights and have an 

accomplished life. 

Impact of lack of ME in LDCs 

Now that the concept of sustainable development is clear, it is important to analyze the impact that 

the lack of ME causes in LDCs. For instance, in LDCs, more than 50% of all deaths attributed to 

lung disease, lung cancer, and pneumonia are caused by solid fuel use such as burning wood, 

charcoal, or biomass for cooking. 180 Annually, “2 million people die from diseases caused by indoor 

smoke – more than deaths from malaria.” 181 According to the United Nations Development 

Programme (UNDP), given the large burden and impact these diseases have on society, access to 

modern energy in LDCs has considerable potential to improve general health and reach the 

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). 182 

Moreover, the gas emissions from burning solid fuels in open fires and traditional stoves have great 

global warming effects due to the incomplete combustion of carbon fuel. 183 Thus, providing ME 

sources and infrastructure will guarantee combustion efficiency, reduce the quantity of harmful 

emissions, and minimize the associated health and environmental risks. Furthermore, promoting 

ME would “open up possibilities for using carbon finance to help reduce the cost to the poor of 

accessing clean household energy services.” 184 

Additionally, the lack of access to ME implies a great reduction of a country’s development as it 

limits human rights and freedom. Human rights are the basic faculties and capacities that people 

have for the sole reason of being human, and human rights seek the full realization and development 

of an individual. Human rights aim to protect people’s dignity and their right to live a fulfilled life. If 

a person lacks electric power and lighting, and lack energy to go to school, read, cook, and work, 

virtually every human right is harmed. Therefore, the lack of ME decreases people’s ability to live a 

dignified life with full account of their rights and freedoms. As people must rely on unsafe sources 

of energy for the most basic human needs and activities, the chances of leading a productive life are 

slim. Furthermore, lack of energy access affects literacy, since school activities are limited to sunlight 

hours. The number of students who can attend school is limited and there is no opportunity for 

homework. Thus, this diminishes the quality of education and the number of people who could be 

educated. 185 Over 291 million children go to primary schools without access to any electricity. 186 

Access to energy would also serve to empower girls and women, as it would enable them to spend 

less time collecting solid fuels and manipulating traditional energy devices, allowing them to use that 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 


179 Ibid. 



182 Ibid. 

183 Ibid. 

184 Ibid. 

185 Ibid. 

186 Ibid. 

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time for productive activities. It would also allow them to lead healthier lives without the risk of 

pollution and dangerous lung diseases. 187 

Providing more reliable access to ME sources would also improve the services of health care 

facilities, enabling higher quality health services and ultimately reducing mortality rates. ME would 

promote healthier practices for storing and cooking food and safer ways of heating and lighting 

households and businesses. Overall, people would be healthier and thus more productive. In fact, 

the economy would benefit from energy access because it would enable states to rely less on solely 

agriculture and begin to diversify the markets and services, creating jobs, opportunities, trade, and 

thus progress and development. 188 

Implementation of Modern Energy 

ME requires the implementation of infrastructure and technology to allow energy access to 

households, businesses, schools, and hospitals. It demands gas pipelines, connections to an electric 

grid, power generating centers and stations, and off-grid electric sources like solar panels among 

others. Such needs require a concerted effort by governments to use the cooperation and financing 

mechanisms in an efficient and effective manner. 189 Therefore, LDCs should focus on building 

infrastructure and implementing modern energy services to replace the precarious options that are 

currently available. 

The main areas where infrastructure must be provided are in lighting, cooking, and 

telecommunications. 190 Providing modern energy options for these activities encompasses a wide 

variety of services. For lighting, people must currently use oil and kerosene lamps, which have 

several negative effects that have already been discussed. ME options for providing light in houses, 

buildings, schools, and hospitals range from grid electricity to off-grid services. The most common 

option is grid extension, through which communities can connect to power using an extension of 

the existing transmission and distribution infrastructure of local grids. 191 This would be an 

appropriate solution for towns and communities that actually have transmission and distribution 

infrastructure nearby, even if it may currently be unreliable. For the majority of the people in LDCs, 

however, the closest transmission and distribution infrastructure is too far, resulting in grid 

extension that would be too expensive or simply unavailable. 

Therefore, towns that have power-generating centers nearby can connect to those grids and 

distribute the power to smaller energy generating infrastructures in surrounding communities. 192 

Nevertheless, this could still be unrealistic for many in LDCs. Hence, the best option for developing 

communities in terms of lighting and electricity is viewed as off-grid access. This kind focuses on a 

“single point of demand” and generates energy capacity only for that site. 193 This refers typically to 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

187 Ibid. 

188 Sustainable Energy for All – A Global Action Agenda. 

189 Energizing the Least Developed Countries to Achieve the Millennium Development Goals: The Challenges and Opportunities of 

Globalization (New York City: UNDP, 2007), accessed 17 August 2014, 

http://unohrlls.org/UserFiles/File/LDC%20Documents/Turkey/Energy.pdf. 

190 Ibid. 


192 Ibid. 

193 Ibid. 

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when solar, hydro, and wind systems, in which the energy of the sun, the movement of water, and 

the power of wind, respectively, are transformed into electricity by a special technology. 194 This 

would not only effectively provide lighting to the households connected to it but would also be a 

renewable resource with no impact on the environment or people’s health. This would consequently 

enable people to light their rooms and have electric devices for refrigeration, cooling, heating, and 

even recreation. Regarding telecommunication, off-grid energy is also an effective source for the 

reasons listed above. Solar, hydro, and wind generated power, as discussed, would enable isolated 

communities to connect to the Internet, have phone services, TV signals, and radio reception. 195 

This, as discussed above, would improve education, businesses, and overall productivity. 

People in LDCs currently use unimproved stoves that work on biomass such as wood and charcoal, 

which continues to take a great toll on the environment and public health. The ME solution would 

be distribution of improved cook stoves and completely modern cook stoves that work on natural 

gas or Liquefied Petroleum (LP) gas. 196 An improved cook stove is usually the best option for people 

who are too far away from or are unable to pay for LP or natural gas. These stoves are usually made 

of bricks, adobe, or ideally metal, and still use wood or fuels but burn them more efficiently and 

safely. 197 These stoves “double or triple the thermal efficiency of traditional fuels, reduce the harmful 

effect of poor ventilation, and may also provide some co-heating.” 198 Moreover, these stoves are 

inexpensive and would be a good alternative for rural areas that are severely impoverished and 

neglected. 199 

Natural gas and LP gas are both found naturally in deep underground reserves and are considered 

the cleanest fossil fuels with regards to their effect on the environment. 200 Therefore, they are the 

safest sources of energy for cooking. Natural gas is provided through pipelines that connect to every 

house and facility through a main pipeline that distributes the gas. These pipelines are connected to 

special stoves that receive the gas directly. LP gas is provided in individual cylinders that are 

distributed to households and then connect directly to the stove. However, these options have high 

operating costs as opposed to traditional fuels, which is why they are more suitable for households 

that already make financial payments for energy, such as buying charcoal. 201 Therefore, this option 

would be appropriate for urban and semi-urban areas where people are most likely to pay for energy 

services. 202 Hence, governments would have to provide improved cook stoves in rural areas and aim 

to provide urban and semi-urban zones with gas pipelines and accompanying stoves. Nevertheless, 

not all governments are able to provide these on their own. It is when LDCs implement the 

cooperation and financing mechanisms such as PPPs, ODA, and FDI, that they can provide access 

to such services. 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

194 Energizing the Least Developed Countries to Achieve the Millennium Development Goals: The Challenges and Opportunities of 

Globalization. 


196 Ibid. 

197 Ibid. 

198 Ibid. 

199 Ibid. 


201 Ibid. 

202 Ibid. 

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All of these ME solutions would be possible through the implementation of the financing and 

cooperation mechanisms discussed above. Partnerships and strategies are the means through which 

ME can reach people. They would define the financing, building, operation, and management of the 

energy services and the stakeholders who would be involved. Nevertheless, if the partnerships only 

focus on building infrastructure and giving away improved cook stoves, ME will not be achieved. 

Building infrastructure and providing technology is only the beginning of the process, which is why 

states must make sure that these measures are especially effective and the knowledge is sustainable. 

The way to ensure the effectiveness of the ME infrastructure and technology is supervising the 

planning, implementation, usage, and management of the services as well as involving the relevant 

communities. It is clear that the governments of LDCs are not capable of physically providing the 

energy services themselves because it would be simply too expensive for these states. Therefore they 

should delegate the technical aspects to private specialized stakeholders that have the means to be 

effective. The specialized stakeholders are companies, NGOs, or agencies that have the technical 

expertise to advise and conduct the highly specific activities that LDC governments cannot do on 

their own. Since these activities need special knowledge and skills, the stakeholders could be experts 

on energy sources, energy infrastructure, and operations. Nevertheless, this does not mean that the 

states will not or should not be involved in the provision of ME. Energy is a public service and thus, 

states are obligated to supervise their provision and guarantee the appropriate supply. Hence, 

governments should be present in all stages of the process, from planning and implementation to 

usage and management. 

However, the state’s supervision alone is not enough. The community that will be receiving energy 

must be involved in the process. LDCs must be aware that the affected communities are accustomed 

to using wood and not having power or lighting. As a result, the shift to ME will not be easy at the 

local level. It may be a challenge to even convince people that it is better to use ME than their 

previous methods of deriving energy. Therefore, governments must involve community leaders in all 

the stages of the process and implement the changes through educational campaigns. This way, the 

advances in ME will be created from within the community and the people will see it as something 

progressive and important. If people get involved, the plans and initiatives will be suitable for the 

community’s needs and characteristics, which raises the probability that ME services will actually be 

used. Involving the people would be the ultimate strategy for ensuring true implementation of ME 

in LDCs. 

CURRENT STATUS 

This topic has progressively gained importance and prominence through the years, especially in the 

last decade. The reason for its growing relevance is the widening of the development gap and the 

grave energy crisis the world has entered. Additionally, the world is approaching the MDGs deadline 

in 2015, which has made the international community realize the impact that ME has on 

development. MDGs are the set of goals that target crucial aspects of development and were 

intended to be met in 2015. It is because of the international community’s commitment to the 2015 

deadline that the topic has gained relevance and attention. 

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Sustainable Energy for All (SE4All) 

Due to the inadequate status of the international community currently with regards to global energy 

access and development, the UN has decided to encourage greater political action by promoting 

Sustainable Energy for All (SE4All). This initiative intends to raise international awareness and 

produce greater political commitment to transform global energy systems. 203 The initiative started 

by declaring 2012 as the International Year of SE4All. During this year, the UN emphasized the 

importance of ME services in developing countries in reducing poverty, closing the income gap, and 

improving the living conditions of millions of people. 204 The International Year of SE4All was 

widely embraced, and following its completion the UN declared the 2014-2024 decade as the 

Decade of SE4All in an effort to build upon the political support gained in 2012 and guarantee a 

coherent approach to the energy issue. 205 This decade will focus on encouraging the renewability, 

universal access, and efficiency of energy by 2030 as UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon 

proposed. 206 

Particularly, this decade “calls upon governments to take further action” and mobilize economic 

resources, technology, and capacity. 207 This portrays the greater need for enhanced political efforts 

which promote and execute such initiatives effectively. Additionally, the resolution that declares the 

Decade of SE4All stresses the need for other stakeholders to get involved and work with 

governments towards accurate financing and management of modern energy services. Other 

stakeholders like private companies, NGOs, independent initiatives, and members of the vulnerable 

communities, should have a say in the construction of ME policies and its later implementation. 

They should contribute to and enrich the policies with economic resources, technical knowledge, 

and personal experience accordingly. 

More recently, on 4 June 2014 the first SE4All Forum took place in New York, US. It assessed the 

progress on sustainable energy since the Rio+20 Conference in 2012, showing good cases, best 

practices, and building new commitments for the next decade on ME. 208 During the forum the three 

goals of the SE4All initiative were reinforced: access, efficiency, and renewability. 209 The forum 

overall emphasized the need to bring “partners together, looking holistically at energy issues and 

giving everyone a voice.” 210 The forum especially highlighted the need to establish a durable, “longterm 

institutional framework for sustainable energy partnerships” and define the legal aspects of it, 

as well as its financing and endorsement. 211 This forum is an example of a political, action-oriented 

event that aims to enhance the political drive regarding ME. This type of initiative is ideal for 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

203 Sustainable Energy for All-A Framework for Action (New York: High-Level Group on Sustainable Energy, 2012), accessed 

22 April 2014, 

http://www.se4all.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/SE_for_All_-_Framework_for_Action_FINAL.pdf. 

204 A/RES/65/151, “International Year of Sustainable Energy for All,” 16 Feb 2011, accessed 22 May 2014, 

http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/65/151. 

205 Ibid. 

206 Sustainable Energy for All – A Framework for Action. 

207 A/RES/65/151. 

208 “Sustainable Energy for All Forum,” UN-Energy, 5 May 2014, accessed 26 July 2014, http://www.unenergy.org/stories/10948-sustainable-energy-for-all-forum. 

209 Summary of the First Sustainable Energy for All Forum (Winnipeg: International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2014), 

accessed 3 August 2014, http://www.iisd.ca/download/pdf/sd/crsvol181num7e.pdf. 

210 Ibid. 

211 Ibid. 

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HLPF’s mission since it would increase political commitment to the topic and thus public policies 

that can promote ME internally in these states. Moreover, it will enhance political action at an 

international level, which will ultimately stimulate independent partnerships and strategies that will 

reach a greater number of people. 

Besides the SE4All initiative, there are a few other developments that demonstrate the relevance of 

addressing this topic. For instance, the World Energy Outlook 2013 is a comprehensive report 

developed by the International Energy Agency (IEA) that analyzes the yearly status of energy 

resources in the world. Last year this report studied how the energy market will evolve, stating that 

by 2035 the global energy demand will have increased significantly. However, this rate can be 

modified and influenced by governments and so it is important to address the topic on a national 

level. 212 Moreover, the report found that traditional and non-renewable sources of energy accounted 

for USD 544 billion in fossil fuel subsidies in 2012, which is an exorbitant quantity that proves the 

need for renewable energy sources. 213 Furthermore, according to the IEA, universal access to energy 

by 2030 could be reached with an increase of only 3% of global investment on energy 

infrastructure. 214 This evidences how a coordinated effort in addressing energy access could mean a 

tremendous forward step towards global energy access. 215 

Energy for All 

Along with the growth of international awareness for ME, many independent initiatives have 

surfaced. These emerging strategies show good practices and set standards for the difficult duty of 

addressing ME. For instance, there is Energy for All, a partnership founded by energy-related 

organizations, which aims to support energy access initiatives at all scales. 216 Energy for All believes 

that energy poverty is one of the most pressing matters in the current era and requires solutions at 

every level. The partnership endorses “everything from global finance to village-level technologies, 

acknowledging the importance of all stakeholders.” 217 This partnership was created by the Asian 

Development Bank in 2008 in order to craft a platform for cooperation, innovation, and project 

development. 218 It focuses primarily on the Asia-Pacific region, which contains the largest share of 

people in the world without access to ME. 

The work of the partnership has been quite impressive. It has gathered a number of key stakeholders 

in terms of finance, government, and NGOs to “drive action towards providing energy access to 

100 million people in Asia and the Pacific by 2015.” 219 This partnership is an example of the type of 

solutions that ME requires. Since development has to be sustainable, the solutions should promote 

the development of all sectors, scales, and levels. The Energy for All partnership is well aware of 

that. It encourages the cooperation and dialogue between all stakeholders from all economic sectors, 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

212 World Energy Outlook 2013 Factsheet. How Will Global Energy Markets Evolve To 2035? (Paris: IEA, 2013), accessed 7 July 

2014, http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/media/weowebsite/factsheets/WEO2013_Factsheets.pdf. 

213 Ibid. 

214 Sustainable Energy for All – A Framework for Action. 

215 Ibid. 

216 “Energy for All,” EnergyForAll, accessed 26 July 2014, http://www.energyforall.info/about/energy-for-all. 

217 Ibid. 

218 Ibid. 

219 Ibid. 

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and promotes solutions “from top-down and bottom-up.” 220 This shows how the actual situation of 

ME worldwide calls for innovative solutions that involve all kinds of actors and levels of 

development, as well as solutions that are inclusive and far-reaching. 

Solar Power Plant in Burkina Faso 

Despite the multiple high-level and political developments, those efforts would be pointless if the 

awareness towards ME did not result in concrete actions in the LDCs. The momentum the topic has 

gained is being reflected at the government level, but only for some. For instance, Burkina Faso, a 

LDC in Africa, signed an investment support agreement with the Canadian independent renewable 

energy power producer, Windiga Energy. 221 Thanks to this agreement, the country’s first solar power 

plant will be built by 2015 and become the largest solar station in Sub-Saharan Africa. 222 Once it 

begins operating it will help Burkina Faso meet its energy needs and boost its development. It will 

also promote local jobs by employing around 150 people in the construction process alone. 223 

This project also involves other stakeholders like the African Development Bank and the Emerging 

Africa Infrastructure Fund to contribute to financing and funding sustainability. Other stakeholders 

include Siemens Energy Smart Generation Solutions, the company selected to build and operate the 

plant, in an attempt to delegate the provision of the energy service for a quality delivery. 224 

What Burkina Faso’s government has crafted can be very effective for LDCs in solving their energy 

constraints. Since they have weak economies and lack strong governments, these countries need to 

seek help from capable investors like foreign governments and private companies. In this case, they 

partnered with the Canadian government and an energy-specialized company, which provided 

necessary expertise. 225 Moreover, since Burkina Faso has very little capacity to appropriately provide 

the energy services, it hired a private company to operate the facility and guarantee the provision of 

energy. As for financing and funding, the government involved regional funds and banks, which 

would ensure a steady flow of money for the project and the economic sustainability of the power 

plant. Initiatives like these are very beneficial not only for the LDC’s energy needs but also for its 

development constraints and economic particularities. 

Ghana’s Energy Strategy 

Although Ghana is not catalogued strictly as an LDC, it is a developing country that, as many others 

in Africa, faces energy poverty. Despite the energy issues and its development limitations, the 

country has put into action several campaigns which set a good example of how to face current 

energy challenges. For instance, in November 2012 it became the first country to embrace the UN 

Sustainable Energy for All (SE4All) initiative through its National Action Plan, a concrete set of 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

220 Ibid. 

221 “Windiga Energy to Develop First Solar Power Plant in Burkina Faso, Africa,” Renewable Energy Focus, 5 August 2014, 

accessed 17 August 2014, http://www.renewableenergyfocus.com/view/39613/windiga-energy-to-develop-first-solarpower-plant-in-burkina-faso-africa/. 

222 Ibid. 

223 Ibid. 

224 Ibid. 

225 Ibid. 

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policies that translated political efforts into results. 226 Since 6,660 Ghanaians die annually from 

exposure to unimproved cooking stoves, the country established a public-private partnership with 

the UN foundation Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves to achieve clean and efficient household 

cooking alternatives. 227 The Ghanaian policies represent an example of “country-led action that will 

advance the objectives of SE4All.” 228 Their efforts show that in order to adequately supply and use 

ME, international political awareness is not enough. Ghana realized that and instead created a legal 

framework for renewable energy that provides a solid path for energy services. 

Moreover, Ghana was aware of its financial limitations and that it cannot physically provide the 

energy services itself. The government knew that it could only supervise the provision of energy 

through an alliance with a private stakeholder that had the resources and the operational capacity. In 

order to achieve this, it engaged in a public-private partnership with the Global Alliance for Clean 

Cookstoves, an independent foundation that can physically supply energy to Ghanaians. This way, 

the funding and management of the initiative lay in the private hands and the supervision lay in the 

government. Ghana therefore provides a model that LDCs can look to when implementing their 

own policies, as such initiatives prove to be appropriate for the situation in LDCs. They not only 

take into account the countries’ limitations but are also effective for their energy needs. 

BLOC ANALYSIS 

Although this topic focuses on one specific group of countries, it demands a coordinated effort on 

behalf of the whole international community in order to successfully address it. Every country and 

region is crucial for providing adequate political solutions that not only benefit LDCs but also 

contribute to global development. Each country plays an important role in the access to modern 

energy and should enrich the discussion with their different positions. 

LDCs 

The LDCs comprise the group of states that have the lowest levels of socio-economic development 

and ME access. Thus, they are the main focus of the topic and play a vital role in successfully 

addressing it. These countries will lead a significant part of the discussion and pace the debate 

according to their energy needs, development status, and economic and political capacity. 

The LDCs should bear in mind their vulnerabilities and build solutions accordingly. Therefore, this 

group of countries should oversee that the solutions and proposals are consistent with their energy 

needs, effective for promoting development, and are overall realistic. Moreover, they should 

acknowledge that as a result of their status as LDCs they cannot tackle the issue by themselves. 

Consequently, this bloc will be willing to engage in long-term regional and interregional 

partnerships. This will create and strengthen valuable bonds of cooperation between the LDCs and 

other countries or regions for sustained progress towards ME. Hence, they will be open to building 

strategic cooperation networks that ensure stable and sustainable development in LDCs and their 

cooperation partners. However, these cooperation strategies should not be limited to any particular 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

226 “Gov’t Sets Ambitious Energy Targets,” GhanaWeb, 4 August 2014, accessed 17 August 2014, 

http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=319726. 

227 Ibid. 

228 Ibid. 

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HLPF 

region; partnerships should involve the whole international community according to the different 

economic capacities and development statuses of the partners involved. Thus, LDCs should take 

advantage of the South-South cooperation mechanisms, which seek to establish cooperation 

networks between two developing states. This mechanism will be useful promoting generalized and 

steady development in similar regions. North-South cooperation, between a developed and a 

developing state, could also contribute with expertise, funding, and monitoring to the LDCs. This 

would assure economic sustainability and good governance of the strategies. 

This bloc will focus primarily on trying to secure monetary foreign aid since these countries do not 

have the economic solvency to bear proposed strategies alone. Here the contention will center on 

how the LDCs would provide favorable economic and political situations to appropriately foster 

foreign aid. They should be aware that they are the ones that are responsible for keeping the 

cooperation strategies stable, guaranteeing the accurate investment of money and other resources, 

and supervising the operation and effectiveness of programs. 

Other Developing Countries 

Although they are not the main focus of the issue, this bloc shares several development 

characteristics with the LDCs. Namely, while they are still developing, they are not categorized as 

LDCs because their development rates are not as low. This gives them a key role in the debate 

because they are able to share their country’s experiences with a similar situation. Thus, they are vital 

for obtaining positive outcomes for the solutions. Therefore, this group of countries should be 

willing to engage in wide-ranging partnerships with LDCs that focus on technology transfer, good 

governance, cooperation, and consultation. These states should see the cooperation mechanisms as 

an opportunity to enhance their development too, while contributing to LDCs’ development 

through access to energy. Moreover, they should enrich the debate with their experience and good 

practices promoting South-South cooperation and other mechanisms to enhance the political 

governance in LDCs and monitoring of the strategies set forth. However, these states should not 

only seek economic development in these partnerships, but also encourage a comprehensive view of 

ME and development itself. Through their proposals and arguments these states should promote the 

continued execution of the strategies, in order to achieve a sustained and steady development. 

Nevertheless, these are also developing countries that struggle with energy poverty themselves. 

Hence, the point of contention will be how to contribute to LDCs’ ME and achieve their own 

energy goals at the same time. These countries should consider how they could help LDCs without 

damaging their own economies. Moreover, they should discuss how the financing will be distributed. 

This bloc could reach a contention point when discussing whether the developing countries would 

have to contribute economically to the partnerships with the LDCs, or whether LDCs should rely 

entirely on private and international economic aid from developed states. Delegates representing 

developing states will have to keep all of these considerations in mind. 

Developed States 

This group, as the other two, plays an important role in the effectiveness of the proposals of this 

committee. These countries have the advantage of having high levels of development and thus, good 

governance and economic capacity. These should be the main areas where developed states aid 

LDCs, since their capacity to assist them is advanced and stable. Therefore, many countries in this 

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HLPF 

bloc will be willing to create economic cooperation partnerships that focus mainly on financing 

infrastructure and technology for providing modern energy in LDCs. This bloc should be open to 

contributing advisory and consultation mechanisms that enhance the political governance and 

capacity of the LDCs. Since they have achieved development already, they have the management 

and political capacity to help LDCs in improving these areas as well. These partnerships of course 

should represent an economic benefit for the developed states. These countries should not lose sight 

of their own policies and situations. On the contrary, they should work with the methods and 

mechanisms that best suit their positions. In that way they will enhance LDCs while benefiting 

themselves. 

However, the point of contention with these states will be how LDCs would ensure favorable 

economic conditions for their investment and financing. This bloc should explore how they would 

verify the reliability of LDCs’ partnerships and assess whether the suggested solutions would actually 

have positive consequences for themselves. This bloc should wonder how their economic 

cooperation would be spent efficiently and effectively. Therefore, these states will focus on 

negotiating the conditions in which the partnerships would take place, to ensure their effectiveness, 

profit, and reliability. 

COMMITTEE MISSION 

HLPF faces quite a particular challenge since the situation of LDCs is so complex and demanding. 

In order to effectively address the topic the Forum must be aware at all times of the multiple 

vulnerabilities of LDCs and how those influence their development status and capacity. Hence, 

delegates must acknowledge the limitations LDCs have in terms of governance and funding and 

should reflect these in their proposals and solutions. Nevertheless, solutions should still 

comprehensively address the needs of LDCs in energy access and development. Moreover, HLPF 

should always conceive sustainable development broadly. This means that delegates should target 

their solutions with the environmental, societal, and economic aspects of sustainable development in 

mind. They should include in their proposals and positions all aspects of modern energy, such as 

infrastructure, technology, monitoring, usage, environmental impact, and financing. Additionally, 

HLPF should constantly tie back all the discussions to development as a whole and avoid singularly 

delving into isolated aspects. 

Furthermore, according to the Forum mandate, the solutions proposed by HLPF should be 

politically oriented and encourage concrete strategies towards sustainability. This implies that the 

solutions should foster an inclusive view of energy access in LDCs. Thus, they should not only 

cover the infrastructural and technological aspects of providing modern energy. On the contrary, the 

solutions must aim for long-term strategies with sustainable execution and progress. Therefore, 

delegates should focus on initiatives that target development fully. 

Finally, no country alone can address this issue effectively. The topic calls upon great willingness to 

engage in comprehensive strategies that benefit global development. The states must be willing to 

create executive strategies that ensure long-term sustainability of energy provision, their sustained 

execution, monitoring, and usage. However, these solutions should still be realistic and mindful of 

the LDCs’ limitations and needs. 

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HLPF 

APPENDIX A: LIST OF COUNTRIES IN SUB-SAHARAN 

AFRICA 229 

1. Burundi 

2. Comoros 

3. Djibouti 

4. Eritrea 

5. Ethiopia 

6. Kenya 

7. Madagascar 

8. Malawi 

9. Mauritius 

10. Mayotte 

11. Mozambique 

12. Réunion 

13. Rwanda 

14. Seychelles 

15. Somalia 

16. South Sudan 

17. Uganda 

18. United Republic of Tanzania 

19. Zambia 

20. Zimbabwe 

21. Angola 

22. Cameroon 

23. Central African Republic 

24. Chad 

25. Congo 

26. Democratic Republic of the Congo 

27. Equatorial Guinea 

28. Gabon 

29. Sao Tome and Principe 

30. Sudan 

31. Botswana 

32. Lesotho 

33. Namibia 

34. South Africa 

35. Swaziland 

36. Benin 

37. Burkina Faso 

38. Cabo Verde 

39. Cote d'Ivoire 

40. Gambia 

41. Ghana 

42. Guinea 

43. Guinea-Bissau 

44. Liberia 

45. Mali 

46. Mauritania 

47. Niger 

48. Nigeria 

49. Saint Helena 

50. Senegal 

51. Sierra Leone 

52. Togo 

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

229 “Composition of Macro Geographical (Continental) Regions, Geographical Sub-Regions, and Selected Economic and 

Other Groupings,” United Nations Statistics Division, last modified 31 Oct 2013, 

http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm#africa. 

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HLPF 

APPENDIX B: LIST OF LEAST DEVELOPED COUNTRIES 

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HLPF 

RESEARCH AND PREPARATION QUESTIONS 

As mentioned in the Note on Research and Preparation, delegates must answer each of these questions in their position papers. 

TOPIC A 

1. Is your country located in SSA? If not, where is it located? Is your country a developing or 

developed state? What are the geographic particularities of the region in which it is located? 

2. If your country is in SSA, what is its status regarding water and sanitation coverage? Is open 

defecation a common practice? Are there any improved services of water and sanitation? 

3. Independent of its location, what can your country do for the SSA situation? Can it 

contribute economically, technologically, or politically? 

4. Are there any existing programs that target water and sanitation in your country? What is the 

government’s position towards the matter? 

5. Is your country willing to engage in partnerships and strategies with other countries 

regarding the water and sanitation situation in SSA? If so, what are the most suitable 

cooperation mechanisms for your country? Has your country implemented any before? 

6. What can HLPF do to help SSA achieve sustainable access to water and sanitation? What 

can the rest of the international community do? 

7. What can be done to enhance political action regarding the topic? 

8. What would your country include in the solutions and proposals? 

TOPIC B 

1. Is your country an LDC? If so, why are the particularities of its development status? If not, is 

it a developing or developed country? 

2. To what extent does your country have energy access? How many people have access to 

electricity and modern fuels? 

3. What is your country’s situation with regards to MDGs? Is it on track to meet them? Does it 

embrace sustainable development and its policies? 

4. Are there any initiatives in your country that promote safe, reliable, and sustainable energy? 

5. What would your country’s capacity be to engage in partnerships to promote modern energy 

access in LDCs? 

6. Would your country be willing to engage in international strategies to cooperate with LDCs 

for global development? 

7. How could your country help guarantee sustainable access to modern energy in LDCs? What 

would your country propose? How would you plan to achieve it? 

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HLPF 

IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS 

TOPIC A 

A/RES/64/292. “The Human Right to Water and Sanitation.” 28 July 2010. Accessed 23 June 2014. 


This resolution adopted by the UN General Assembly recognizes the human right to safe drinking water and 

sanitation and calls upon states to cooperate in financing and building capacity to provide safe, clean, and sustainable 

drinking water and sanitation for all. 

A/RES/65/153. “Follow-up to the International Year of Sanitation, 2008.” 20 December 2010. 

Accessed 23 June 2014. http://sanitationdrive2015.org/wpcontent/uploads/2013/03/5YD-Resolution.pdf. 

This resolution adopted the Five-Year-Drive to 2015 regarding sustainable sanitation, which aims to mobilize the 

states’ political will, as well as financial and technological resources. It targets firmly open defecation, sanitation 

promotion, and other vital issues in the topic. 

A/RES/66/288. “Resolution adopted by the General Assembly, The Future We Want.” 11 

September 2012. Accessed 4 July 2013. 


This resolution adopts the outcome document of the Conference on Sustainable Developments Rio +20 of 2012 in 

which several recommendations are given to address properly the issue of sustainability in the future. It creates the 

HLPF. 

TOPIC B 

A/RES/65/151. “International Year of Sustainable Energy for All.” 16 February 2011. Accessed 22 

May 2014. http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/65/151. 

This GA resolution declares the International Year of Sustainable Energy for All, exposing the growing need to 

address the topic and the political prominence it has recently gained. 

A/RES/67/215. “Promotion of New and Renewable Sources of Energy.” 20 March 2013. Accessed 

22 May 2014. http://www.se4all.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/GA-resolution-A-67- 

215-SE4ALL-DECADE.pdf. 

This resolution declares the UN Decade of Sustainable Energy for All, which shows the accelerating pace of 

international awareness towards the topic and the political momentum to effectively address it. 

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HLPF 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

COMMITTEE HISTORY AND SIMULATION 

A/67/757. “Lessons Learned from the CSD.” 26 February 2013. Accessed 10 June 2013. 


This document prepared by the UN Secretary-General analyzes the achievements of the CSD and its limitations in 

order to provide an accurate framework for the new HLPF. 

A/68/588. “Summary of the First Meeting of the High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable 

Development.” 13 November 2013. Accessed 9 June 2014. 


This document summarizes the main topics and issues addressed at the first meeting of HLPF in 2013 and some 

topics that should be addressed in this year’s meeting. 

A/RES/66/288. “The Future We Want.” 27 July 2012. Accessed 26 May 2014. 


This resolution adopts the outcome document of the Conference on Sustainable Development Rio +20 of 2012 in 

which several recommendations are given to properly address the issue of sustainability in the future. It creates HLPF. 

A/RES/67/290. “Format and Organizational Aspects of the High-Level Political Forum on 

Sustainable Development,” 9 July 2013. Accessed 9 June 2014. 


This resolution specifies the format and organization of HLPF, as well as its specific mandate and meeting 

specifications. 

“Basic Facts about the United Nations.” News and Media Division of the United Nations Department of 

Public Information. New York: 2011. Accessed June 10 2014. 

http://issuu.com/unpublications/docs/basicfacts. 

This report gives an overview of the UN system, including its organs, committees, and main topics addressed by the 

UN. Among those is sustainable development. 

“High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development.” UN Sustainable Development Platform. Last 

modified May 2014. http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?menu=1556. 

This web site contains all the information regarding the recently created HLPF, as well as its documents, resources, 

and mandate. 

TOPIC A 

UN Sources 

A/CONF.216/16. “Report of the UN Conference on Sustainable Development.” 22 June 2012. 

Accessed May 18 2014. http://www.uncsd2012.org/content/documents/814UNCSD 

REPORT final revs.pdf. 

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HLPF 

This conference report of the UNCSD reflects the thoughts and agreements made in Rio+20, which identifies the 

water and sanitation problem as important and provides a background for political action. 

A Post-2015 Global Goal for Water. New York: UN-Water, 2014. Accessed 26 May 2014. 

http://www.unwater.org/fileadmin/user_upload/unwater_new/docs/Topics/UNWater_technical_ 

advice_post_2015_global_goal_ES_final_highres.pdf. 

This technical report identifies the challenges that need to be targeted in the post-2015 development agenda and the 

Sustainable Development Goals. 

A/RES/64/292. “The Human Right to Water and Sanitation.” 28 July 2010. Accessed 23 June 2014. 


This resolution adopted by the UN General Assembly recognizes the human right to safe drinking water and 

sanitation and calls upon the States to cooperate in financing and building capacity to provide safe, clean, and 

sustainable drinking water and sanitation for all. 

A/RES/65/153. “Follow-up to the International Year of Sanitation, 2008.” 20 December 2010. 

Accessed 23 June 2014. http://sanitationdrive2015.org/wpcontent/uploads/2013/03/5YD-Resolution.pdf. 

This resolution adopted the Five-Year-Drive to 2015 regarding sustainable sanitation, which aims to mobilize the 

states’ political will as well as financial and technological resources. It targets firmly open defecation, sanitation 

promotion, and other vital issues in the topic. 

A/RES/66/288. “Resolution adopted by the General Assembly, The Future We Want.” 11 

September 2012. Accessed 4 July 2013. 


This resolution adopts the outcome document of the Conference on Sustainable Developments Rio +20 of 2012 in 

which several recommendations are given to address properly the issue of sustainability in the future. It creates HLPF. 

Other Sources 

“About.” SWA. Accessed 22 July 2014. http://sanitationandwaterforall.org/about. 

This website contains the primary information about the global partnership SWA. It summarizes its main activities, 

actors and outcomes. 

“About.” WSP. Accessed 21 July 2014. http://www.wsp.org/about. 

This web site explains the mission of the WSP as a multi-donor partnership to promote dialogue, cooperation and 

successful approaches regarding water and sanitation. 

“About the JMP.” Wssinfo. Accessed 21 July 2014. http://www.wssinfo.org/about-the-jmp/missionobjectives/. 

This webpage summarizes the main aspects and information regarding the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water 

Supply and Sanitation, created by WHO and UNICEF. The programme focuses on monitoring the challenges ahead 

of 2015 and gathers important data and figures. 

Adrianzen, T.B. and G.G. Graham. “The High Cost of Being Poor-Water.” Arch Environ Health 28, 

(1974): 312-315. 

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HLPF 

This article explains how the lack of access to water and sanitation represents considerable expenses that could be 

avoided if these services are effectively provided. 

“Annual Report 2013.” Sanitation and Water for All, 2013. Accessed 8 Oct 2014. 

http://sanitationandwaterforall.org/news/swa-annual-report-2013-now-available. 

Provides the status of the SWA program following 2013 as well as the work that is to be done for 2014 and the 

years to come. 

Briscoe, J. “Water and Health: Selective Primary Health Care Revisited.” American Journal of Public 

Health No. 74 (1984):1009-1013. 

This article explores how the implementation of water and sanitation could have a positive effect on primary health care 

in developing states. It examines cost-effectiveness calculations and how it is preferable to include water and sanitation 

in the health care services. 

“Composition of Macro Geographical (Continental) Regions, Geographical Sub-Regions, and 

Selected Economic And Other Groupings.” United Nations Statistics Division. Last modified 31 

Octtober 2013. http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm#africa. 

This website lists the different groupings and regions of the world selected for geographical and economic reasons. 

Davidson, Gary. Waste Management Practices: Literature Review. Halifax: Dalhousie University, 2011. 

Accessed 8 August 2014. 

http://www.dal.ca/content/dam/dalhousie/pdf/sustainability/Waste%20Management%20 

Literature%20Review%20Final%20June%202011%20(1.49%20MB).pdf. 

This document gives a simple view of the basic aspects of solid waste and its best management practices. 

Drinking Water Equity, Safety and Sustainability. Thematic report on Drinking Water 2011. Geneva: WHO 

and UNICEF, 2011. Accessed 22 June 2014. 

http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/report_wash_low.pdf. 

This report, as part of WHO and UNICEF’s Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation, 

explores the challenges in water access, the growing disparities, and the sustainability and safety of water services. 

FDI in Figures. Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2013. Accessed 

13 August 2013. http://www.oecd.org/daf/inv/investmentpolicy/FDIinFiguresJuly2013.pdf 

. 

This OECD report makes full account of the main aspects of FDI and provides several statistics that expose its 

success over the past three decades. 

From Lessons to Principles for the Use of Public-Private Partnerships. Luxemburg: OECD, 2011. Accessed 22 

Aug 2013. http://www.oecd.org/gov/budgeting/48144872.pdf, 2. 

This report explains the principles of PPPs and some successful cases over the years. 

Gadgil, Ashok. “Drinking Water in Developing Countries.” Annual Review of Energy and the 

Environment 23. (1998): 253-286. Accessed 23 June 2014. 

http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.energy.23.1.253. 

This article explores the problem of sanitation and safe water access in the developing world. It covers issues such as 

financing and technology. 

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HLPF 

Glossary on the Human Right to Water and Sanitation. Zaragoza: UNW-DPAC, 2012. Accessed 23 June 

2014. http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/pdf/hrw_glossary_eng.pdf. 

This brief glossary is very useful to understand the basic terms of the right to water and sanitation. 

“Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability.” Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-Water – 2013 

Update. Geneva: World Health Organization and UNICEF, 2013. Accessed 22 June 2014. 

This website breaks down the seventh MDGs into its three sub-goals. The second one focuses specifically on water and 

sanitation and shows the main achievements that have been made thus far. 

“High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development.” UN Sustainable Development Platform. Last 

modified May 2014. http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?menu=1556. 

This website explains HLPF’s mandate, its mission, and further information on its creation and first meetings. 

Institute of Medicine (US) Roundtable on Environmental Health Sciences, Research and Medicine. 

Achieving Water and Sanitation Services for Health in Developing Countries. Washington D.C.: 

National Academies Press, 2009. Accessed 21 July 2014. 

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK50770/. 

This document presents the different challenges that developing states face regarding water and sanitation in health 

services. 

“KENYA: Poor Sanitation Brings Misery to Slums.” IRINnews. 7 September 2010. Accessed 8 

August 2014. http://www.irinnews.org/Report/90593/KENYA-Poor-sanitation-bringsmisery-to-slums. 

This article analyzes the problematic situation in Kenya regarding poor sanitation. It gathers real stories and scientific 

data that prove the great negative effects that poor sanitation causes on people, health, environment, economy, and the 

community. 

McIntyre, Beverly, Hans R. Herren, Judi Wakhungu, Robert T. Watson. Sub-Saharan Africa Report. 

Washington: International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology 

for Development, 2009. Accessed 29 June 2014. 

http://www.unep.org/dewa/agassessment/reports/subglobal/Agriculture_at_a_Crossroads 

_Volume%20V_Sub-Saharan%20Africa_Subglobal_Report.pdf. 

This report analyses the main agricultural stress that SSA faces and the production, distribution and consumption 

systems and patterns. 

Okun, D.A. “The Value of Water Supply and Sanitation in Development: An Assessment.” American 

Journal of Public Health 78, no. 11 (1988): 1463–67. Accessed 30 June 2014. 


This article analyzes the main effects of water and sanitation in development. It regards its consequences on health, 

environment, economy, and community live. 

On the right track. Good Practices In Realising The Rights To Water And Sanitation. New York: Human 

Rights Council, 2012. Accessed 23 June 2014. http://bit.ly/OyvUhT. 

This special report gathers a considerable number of case studies and guidelines in order to stimulate good practices and 

methods regarding sanitation and safe-drinking water. 

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HLPF 

“One Billion People Still Practise Open Defecation, Endangering Public Health: UN.” Huffington 

Post. 8 May 2014. Accessed 8 August 2014. 

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/05/08/one-billion-opendefecation_n_5289049.html. 

The article overviews the issue of open defecation and how people that have access to basic sanitation do not use it 

because they are not convinced that it is a good idea. 

Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water – 2013 Update. Geneva: World Health Organization and 

UNICEF, 2013. Accessed 22 June 2014, 

This source explores the main water supply trends in the world, assesses the global progress on the WASH targets and 

provides an analysis of the upcoming challenges. 

Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water – 2014 Update. Geneva: World Health Organization and 

UNICEF, 2014. Accessed 22 June 2014, 

http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP_report_2014_webEng.pdf 

This report analyzes the progress made globally regarding safe-drinking water and sanitation. It particularly 

emphasizes on the emerging challenges as the world approaches the 2015 target of the Millennium Development Goals. 

Read, Robert. "Foreign Direct Investment In Small Island Developing States." Journal Of International 

Development 20, No. 4 (May 2008): 502-525. Accessed 10 July 2013. 

http://web.ebscohost.com.ez.urosario.edu.co/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=230ef499- 

e7b3-48c7-ba3b-9e3529f26761%40sessionmgr11&vid=2&hid=24. 

This article focuses exclusively on the application of FDI in SIDS, its experiences, and its challenges. 

“Rio 2012 Issues Brief.” UN Commission on Sustainable Development. Rio de Janeiro: UNCSD, 

2011. Accessed May 26 2014. 

http://www.uncsd2012.org/content/documents/231Water%20for%20posting.pdf. 

This document summarizes the international efforts that have been made in the past by the UN system regarding the 

water and sanitation problem and how in the Rio+20 conference it was supposed to be addressed. 

Sanitation Drive to 2015-Planners Guide. New York: UN-Water, 2012. Accessed 23 June 2013. 

http://sanitationdrive2015.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/PlannersGuide-V4b.pdf. 

This report explores the sanitation drive to 2015, the year of the MDG target. It covers the main themes and includes 

several case studies. 

Strange, Tracey and Anne Bayley. Sustainable Development. Linking Economy, Society, Environment. Paris: 

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OECD, 2008. Accessed 15 July 

2013. http://www.oecdilibrary.org/docserver/download/0108121e.pdf?expires=1373922182&id=id&accname=gue 

st&checksum=9E12E4440A3314119ECF3D349794C5DD. 

This report provides an overview of sustainability in general, its basic aspects and its main components: society, 

economy, and environment. 

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HLPF 

The Equitable Access Score-card: Supporting Policy Processes To Achieve The Human Right To Water And 

Sanitation. New York: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), 2013. 

Accessed 22 June 2014. 

http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/water/publications/PWH_equitable_access/1 

324456_ECE_MP_WP_8_Web_Interactif_ENG.pdf. 

This report provides politically oriented guidance for governments to establish a set of standards on water and 

sanitation and particularly target the inequity that lies beneath it. 

“The Final Frontier.” The Economist. 19 July 2014. Accessed 20 July 2014. 

http://www.economist.com/news/asia/21607837-fixing-dreadful-sanitation-india-requiresnot-just-building-lavatories-also-changing. 

This article explores how it is not enough to build lavatories and toilets in India to provide basic sanitation. It is very 

emphatic on how governments need to change habits in order to fix the sanitation problems. 

The Human Right to Water and Sanitation Reader UN-Water Decade Programme on Advocacy and 

Communication (UNW-DPAC). Zaragoza: United Nations Office to Support the International 

Decade for Action ‘Water for Life’ 2005-2015, 2011. Accessed 22 June 2014. 

http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/pdf/05_2011_human_right_to_water_reader_eng.p 

df. 

This brief reader intends to familiarize people with the right to water and sanitation. It summarizes the history and 

development of this right and the roles of the different stakeholders. 

Torun, B. Environmental And Educational Interventions Against Diarrhea In Guatemala. New York: Plenum 

Press, 1983. 

This research studies the correlation between the improvements in water and sanitation services and the favorable 

impact that may have on diarrheal diseases and malnutrition. 

Tyler, C., Zachary and Sucharita Gopal. Sub-Saharan Africa at a Crossroads: A Quantitative Analysis of 

Regional Development. Boston: Boston University, 2010. Accessed 29 June 2014. 

http://www.bu.edu/pardee/files/2010/04/Pardee-Paper-10-Regional-Development-in- 

SSA.pdf. 

This document analyses how the development status of SSA places the region at a crossroads. It goes over the main 

characteristics of the region and the historic trends that impact development. 

“UN / OPEN DEFECATION.” UNifeed. 28 May 2014. 

http://www.unmultimedia.org/tv/unifeed/2014/05/un-open-defecation/. 

This website registers the launch of the UN campaign with Sesame Street to promote sanitation habits among kids in 

India, Bangladesh and Nigeria. 

“United Nations Millennium Development Goals.” UN. Accessed 21 July 2014. 

http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/endopendefecation.shtml. 

This UN website gathers the information regarding its new campaign to end open defecation. It shows statistics, 

statements and some additional resources that complement the initiative. 

“Urban Catastrophes: The Wat/San Dimension.” (London: Humanitarian Futures Programme, 

King’s College London, 2009.) Accessed 8 August 2014. 

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HLPF 

http://www.humanitarianfutures.org/wp- content/uploads/2013/06/Humanitarian-Crisis- 

Drivers-of-the-Future-Urban-Catastrophes-the-WatSan-Dimension.pdf. 

This document analyzes the effects that poor sanitation and lack of drinking water can affect the urban centers, 

dynamics, and turn them into impoverished slums and communities. 

Yallop, Olivia. “Meet Mr Poo, the Star of India’s Public Sanitation Campaign.” 23 April 2014. 

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/10780448/Meet-Mr-Poo-the-starof-Indias-public-sanitation-campaign.html. 

This article register the UNICEF launch of Mr Poo, as part of a campaign in India to promote basic sanitation and 

good hygiene habits 

TOPIC B 

UN Sources 

A/RES/63/239. ‘‘Resolution adopted by the General Assembly. Doha Declaration on Financing for 

Development: outcome document of the Follow-up International Conference on Financing 

for Development to Review the Implementation of the Monterrey Consensus.’’ 19 March 

2009. Accessed 7 July 2013. http://daccess-ddsny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N08/485/13/PDF/N0848513.pdf?OpenElement. 

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