Plant Health, Climate Change and Trade - TradeMark Southern Africa

1 

SPS, climate change and trade 

A literature review on the possible effects on plants pests and diseases and the trade 

in plants and plant products and the likely impact of climate change on trade in plants 

and plant products within the tripartite region (EAC-COMESA-SADC) 

COP 17 negotiations – Durban 

7 th December 2011 

Marianna Theyse 

TMSA, in support of the COMESA-EAC-SADC Tripartite, commissioned this paper for 

the COP17 Climate Change Conference in Durban, 2011 

Executive Summary 

The effects of climate change on the patterns of plant pest and disease dispersal is 

potentially huge and largely unanticipated. These effects include the direct consequences of 

emerging crop pests and diseases as well as indirect effects on agricultural productivity and 

trade. 

National regulatory systems in the Tripartite Region (COMESA, EAC and SADC Free Trade 

Area) are therefore increasingly challenged to manage existing and new phytosanitary risks. 

Several examples of climate change induced pest and disease outbreaks that impacted on 

food security and resulted in economic losses of US$ billion in the region are provided in this 

brief. 

It is crucial to understand the link between climate change and phytosanitary risks as 

strengthening of phytosanitary systems can help to mitigate the negative effects of climate 

change on crop production and thereby enhance food security and support safe agricultural 

trade. Considerable further investments in research will be needed to improve our 

understanding of the potential risks and to develop appropriate risk management 

technologies and measures. Furthermore, the gap between phytosanitary research and 

policy making must be bridged to develop the necessary adaptive capacities and strategies 

that will enable vulnerable countries to manage emerging phytosanitary risks. 

Care should be taken that phytosanitary risks are integrated in the broad spectrum of climate 

change implications when preparing risk management strategies. At farm-level, climatesmart 

agriculture offers some unique opportunities to tackle food security issues that arise 

with changing or emerging plant pest and disease risks. At regulatory level, national 

phytosanitary systems must be capable to detect emerging plant pest and disease risks as 

early as possible and be prepared to promptly respond to these risks. 

Regional Economic Communities play an important coordinating role to create awareness 

and facilitate information exchange and regional cooperation to address emerging risks 

posed by trans-boundary pests and diseases. Regional research and development projects 

such as surveillance and training of national phytosanitary experts are needed to strengthen 

national phytosanitary capacities. 

COP 17 -‐ Trademark Climate change impact on phytosanitary risks

2 

1. Statement of the issue 

Determining adaptive strategies for the Tripartite Region (COMESA, EAC and SADC Free 

Trade Area) to respond to the impact of Climate Change on the resilience of plant pests and 

diseases that affect African agri-business and the likely necessity for increased 

phytosanitary standards and capacities to combat the spread of new phytosanitary risks. 

2. Introduction 

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) states that substantial changes in 

average temperatures and rainfall will take place as a result of changing and intensifying 

human activities and consumption pattern and will increase the frequency and magnitude of 

extreme weather events. Research on the effects of climate change on agriculture have 

mostly focused on the how abiotic factors such as temperature, humidity and Co2 levels will 

affect crop production but the effects of climate change on biotic factors such as weeds, pest 

and diseases have not received much attention. 

Climate change is however, already impacting on phytosanitary systems as recent studies 

by the World Bank, the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations, the 

Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) and others indicate. It is 

expected that the impact of climate change on the capacity of phytosanitary systems will 

increase in future. 

Research studies have been undertaken to determine the effect of climate change on the 

prevalence and dispersion potential of pests and diseases, the increase of new disease 

outbreaks and the development of adaptive plant health strategies to control risks associated 

with trans-boundary pests and diseases in developing countries. Studies indicate that the 

effect of climate change on phytosanitary risks are likely to be greater in the tropics and in 

areas of significant water stress in Africa. The question to pursue is not whether climate 

change will result in new phytosanitary risks but rather what the type, scale and tempo of the 

changes in phytosanitary risk will be and how they will subsequently impact on food security 

and agricultural trade. 

Globalization, population growth, ecosystem diversity and resilience, pollution, land and 

water use, atmospheric composition, host-pest interactions and changing agricultural trade 

patterns are all interdependent and interact with climate change as contributing factors to 

increase and change the occurrence of plant pests and diseases that may negatively affect 

crop production, market access and maintenance. National phytosanitary systems are 

therefore continuously challenged to manage the complex and changing phytosanitary risks 

associated with crop production and trade. 

Various policies and institutions exist that manage phytosanitary problems around the world. 

Most policies are developed and implemented at national level and are based on 

international standards and regulations. The International Plant Protection Convention 

(IPPC) is acknowledged by the World Trade Organisation's Agreement on the Application of 

Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (WTO SPS Agreement) as the international standard 

setting organisation plant health. The quality of national SPS policies and the capacity of 


3 

national SPS systems to implement policies vary among countries and will affect countries' 

ability to deal with new SPS risks created by climate change. 

3. The impact of climate change on phytosanitary risks 

The relationship between climate, plants and plant pests and diseases can be explained by 

the "disease triangle" as changes in CO2 concentration in the atmosphere, seasonality, 

temperature and rainfall threatens to change world patterns of comparative advantage in 

crop production by creating new ecological niches that will affect crop production and alter 

the distribution, incidence and intensity of plant pests and diseases. 

Temperature can affect critical stages (e.g. survival between seasons or reproduction rate) 

in the life cycle of plant pests and pathogens that cause plant disease. Changes in 

temperature and humidity may affect the susceptibility of host plants and therefore lower 

plant resistance to emerging pests or it may have an effect on the development of fungal 

and bacterial diseases. Furthermore, higher CO2 levels may increase the competition 

pressure between weeds and crops, the abundance of certain pathogens, such as rusts, or 

may increase foliar density and leaf wetness that makes infection by fungal pathogens more 

likely. 

The emergence of unexpected pests and diseases that occur because of changing climatic 

conditions have been observed when new vectors, selection and recombination of disease 

genotypes occur, when plant species and varieties mix, and when pests and vectors are 

introduced without their natural enemies. 

Climatic conditions have been drivers of the evolution of many migratory systems as 

migratory pests exploit seasonal changes and weather conditions that may assist or hamper 

their dispersal. Migratory pests such as locusts and the African armyworm are unusual 

because they undergo density-dependant phase changes from solitary to gregarious and are 

dependent on temperature, rain and vegetation. When there is sufficient rain, migrations will 

take the insects to patches of green vegetation for feeding and to habitats humid enough for 

them to lay eggs. Studies indicate that migration patterns are changing with current changes 

in temperature and humidity. Altered wind patterns may also contribute to the changes in the 

spread of wind-borne pests and diseases. 

Many plant species are adapted to specific habitats that occupy a narrow range along 

altitudinal and latitudinal climatic gradients. As temperatures increase an upward migration 

of plant communities and their associated pests and disease vectors occur at high-altitude 

locations such as the East African highlands. Any increase in the frequency or severity of 

extreme weather conditions such as droughts, heat waves, windstorms or floods may also 

disrupt the predator-prey relationships that normally keep pest populations in check. 

4. The likely impact of new phytosanitary risks on trade 

Aflatoxins are mycotoxins that cause developmental and immune system suppression, 

cancer, and death and pose serious health risks for humans and animals in Africa. Changes 

in temperature and humidity may predispose host crops such as maize and groundnuts to 

aflatoxin contamination because of altered crop development and by affecting insects that 


4 

create wounds on which aflatoxin-producing fungi proliferate. According to the FAO, 25 

percent of world food crops are affected with aflatoxin and countries situated within 40 

degrees latitude of the equator are most at risk. Aflatoxin contamination is widespread and 

often acute in Sub-Saharan Africa where maize production is significant as livestock feed 

and as a staple food that accounts for 42 percent of all cereal crops in the region. 

Groundnuts is an important cash crop in the region that are largely controlled by women. 

Because of food safety regulations that aim to reduce human exposure to aflatoxins, crop 

contamination cause significant economic losses along the supply chain. A World Bank 

study estimates an annual loss of US$670 million to African food exporters from attempting 

to meet the EU health regulation on aflatoxin. 

In April 2004, rural Kenya experienced one of the world's largest documented aflatoxicosis 

outbreaks resulting in 317 cases and 125 deaths. The source of the outbreak was linked to 

home grown maize harvested in February during unseasonably early rains and stored under 

wet conditions conducive to fungal growth. Contaminated maize entered the market 

distribution system when local farmers sold a portion of their household stores to market 

vendors. Market maize was found to be a significant source of continued exposure to 

aflatoxin long after contaminated household stores were consumed or discarded. This 

means that the potential role of the market system in sustaining exposure must be 

considered when public health assessments on aflatoxin outbreaks are done. The outbreak 

in Kenya occurred during a time of regional and national food shortages due to prolonged 

drought and crop failure. Immediate response efforts mainly focused on food replacement 

and relief whilst the need for a comprehensive food safety programme was realised. 

Several research studies and projects have since been done, or are in progress, to test preharvest 

and post-harvest technologies and good agricultural practices that may reduce the 

aflatoxin risk in African agriculture. The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) 

is leading a project that was initiated in 2009, to analyze the impact and possible control 

measures of aflatoxin contamination on the livelihoods and health of people in Kenya and 

Mali. This project has been launched in conjunction with the International Maize and Wheat 

Improvement Center (CIMMYT), International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid 

Tropics (ICRISAT), University of Pittsburgh, Uniformed Services University of the Health 

Sciences, Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Institut d’Economie Rurale (Mali), 

ACDI/VOCA, and the East African Grains Council. Research to date shows that a variety of 

field management practices, chemical control, biological control, postharvest practices and 

timely harvesting may reduce aflatoxin development and/or contamination. However, 

efficient monitoring and surveillance with cost-effective sampling and analytical methods is 

needed in the region. COMESA is involved in the development of a Partnership for Aflatoxin 

Control in Africa (PACA) that will aim to support the implementation of cost-effective aflatoxin 

management programs and technologies, focusing on entire value chains to ensure a holistic and 

integrated approach for aflatoxin control. Better understanding of the potential impact of 

climate change will allow development of improved management procedures, better 

allocation of monitoring efforts, and adjustment of agronomic practices in anticipation of 

global climate change to reduce the risk of aflatoxin contamination. Public education and 

awareness is considered to play an important role to sensitize the population on aflatoxin 

risk and its management. 


5 

Stem rust (black), stripe rust (yellow) and leaf rust (brown) are the most economically 

damaging diseases affecting wheat production and recently there has been an escalation in 

the threat posed by both stem and stripe rust. Several variants are now recognized and the 

emergence of the Ug99 races in East Africa transformed stem rust from a disease largely 

under control into a significant global threat. It was first reported in Uganda in 1999 and is 

now also present in Ethiopia, Kenya, South Africa, the Sudan and Zimbabwe. This disease 

is capable of yield losses of between 10 - 70 percent depending on inoculum pressure and 

environmental conditions and is spread over long distances via wind-borne spores. In South 

Africa, the spread of wheat stripe rust has been linked to changes in rainfall patterns. In 

Kenya wet and misty conditions, following successive rainfall seasons since November 

2009, are making Ug99 even harder to control. The subsequent use of fungicides have 

been estimated to increase production costs by 40 percent with most impact on small-scale 

farmers that are responsible for 80 percent of wheat production in the country. 

In 2010 the FAO launched a website "SPORE” that aims to provide up-to-date information 

on the status of wheat stem rust, monitor important new strains of the disease and 

synthesize and provide easy access to reliable data on a global scale. Although the Ug99 

pathogen is not seed-borne, there is still potential for introduction with plant debris or as 

seed contaminant when germ-plasm or wheat grain is imported for consumption and 

quarantine measures such as sampling and testing may be required. Countries will need to 

take pre-emptive action with sustained investment in research, surveillance, a strategies for 

crop diversity, and policies to encourage farmers to adopt disease-resistant crop varieties. 

Experts propose a framework development for regional surveillance with primary target 

regions being major wheat producers in Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, and Eritrea) with 

support from international scientists for training and data management. The East Africa 

program under the Borlaug Global Rust Initiative (BGRI) aims to minimize scale and scope of 

stem rust epidemics in Kenya and Ethiopia by means of monitoring (screening) and control, and 

to prevent that new virulent and dangerous forms originating from this region leave East Africa. 

Cassava is considered by experts to be a highly resistant crop that can endure high 

temperatures and drought and therefore has significant potential in African agriculture 

threatened by the effects of climate change. However, a major constraint to cassava 

production is the emergence of new pests and diseases that can be attributed to climate 

change. In Africa, whiteflies are causing direct damage to crops and indirect damage as 

they are vectors of Cassava Brown Streak Disease (CBSD) and Cassava Mosaic Disease 

(CMD). CBSD has been reported to cause up to 80 percent yield losses in East Africa and 

occurs along the coast of East Africa, in an area extending from Kenya south to the Zambezi 

River in Mozambique, and along the shores of Lake Malawi in Malawi and Tanzania, but not 

along the shoreline in Mozambique. Angola is suggested to be a probable area to find the 

disease, due to cultural and economic ties to Mozambique. In 2007, a study by the 

International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) projected that at least 40 million people 

have been affected by CBSD in Tanzania with annual losses of US$50 million. CMD has 

been reported in all countries in Africa and affects domestic cassava and wild hosts. Studies 

on CMD in 1990 by Fauquet and Fragette, and in 2009 by Patil and Fauguet, estimate yield 

losses of up to 50% on average in Africa, with annual economic losses of US$ 1.9-2.7 billion 

in East and Central Africa. In Rwanda, surveillance conducted by the National Agricultural 

Research Institute in 2010 showed a 15.7 percent rate of infection of CBSD on local cassava 

varieties and 36.9 percent in improved varieties. 


6 

A study done in 2011 by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) indicates a 

high potential for combined outbreaks of whitefly, green mite, CMD and CBSD in Africa's Rift 

Valley that could lead to a collapse in production and ultimately threaten food security in the 

region. Scientists are working on the development of cassava varieties that are resistant to 

whitefly, green mite and CMD. Further studies in taxonomy and dispersal patterns of the 

disease vectors are required on local, landscape and regional scales to determine 

appropriate early warning and management strategies and policies that would control the 

pest and disease distribution to unaffected areas. Scientists have monitored the spread of 

CMD and CBSD in central and East Africa for several years but costs have been high and 

annual visits to the region barely kept pace with the spread. And so the Digital Early 

Warning Network (DEWN) was established and piloted in Tanzania. Farmer groups were 

involved and information received was used to generate maps and allow research teams to 

concentrate mitigation efforts in areas where new outbreaks occurred. In 2010 it was 

decided to expand the project to Rwanda. 

The movement of plant propagation material used in agricultural research, crop 

diversification, food production and commercial trade pose significant phytosanitary risks. 

New pests and disease may easily result in outbreaks of epidemic proportions when 

introduced into areas where there is no resistance or competition. In the 1970's the cassava 

green mite was accidentally introduced into Africa and spread to almost all cassava 

producing regions resulting in losses of 30-50 percent. In 1993 a biological control agent 

from Latin America was introduced to assist in its control. The accidental introduction of 

bunchy top virus affected more than 3000ha banana production in Malawi and completely 

destroyed production in Nkhota, Khota and Nkhatabay. Therefore national plant protection 

organisations have developed strict risk based phytosanitary measures that include visual 

inspection during active growth, virus-indexing, blotter testing and sedimentation essays for 

seeds, to prevent the introduction of pests and diseases by means of propagation material. 

True seeds and in-vitro propagation material are considered expensive but also the safest 

phytosanitary management options for exchange of propagating material. In 2007, the 

Great Lakes Cassava Initiative (GLCI) was implemented to ensure plant health of 

propagating material in Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania 

and Uganda, especially in the light of recent pandemics of CBSD. 

The prevalence and spread of fruit flies in Africa will alter considerably because of climate 

change and will result in corresponding changes in phytosanitary regulations, intra-regional 

and international trade opportunities. Fruit flies are one of the world's most devastating fruit 

and vegetable pests and cause millions of US$ losses in crop production each year. In Africa 

there are several species that attack crops and wild hosts. Since its first detection in Kenya 

in 2003, the fruit fly Bactrocera invadens has spread to at least 27 countries in Africa and 

became a major pest of economic and quarantine concern. It is known to attack at least 46 

host plants, including many indigenous plant species and commercially grown crops such as 

mango, guava, pumpkin, melon, tomato, citrus and cashew nuts. Equatorial climates in 

Africa are considered most suitable for the establishment of B. invadens. The introduction 

and establishment of this fruit fly can severely impact on sustainable agriculture and rural 

livelihoods, as well as access to export markets because of its quarantine status in other 

countries. The detection of B. invadens in Mozambique, northern Namibia and Zambia 

resulted in the suspension of all host plant exports to South Africa. And for the same reason, 


7 

South Africa has strict import requirements for horticulture products destined from East 

Africa. Horticulture Exporters from Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda have failed to 

access the SA lucrative market because of the fruit fly problem. This highlights the necessity 

to establish the extent and status of invasive flies , the implementation of surveys and 

monitoring together with the private sector, for the establishment of Pest Free Areas (PFAs) 

and Areas of Low Pest Prevalence (ALPPs) and research into the biology, ecology and 

appropriate post harvest treatments to mitigate the effects of this pest in the Tripartite 

Region. 

Technical support for fruit fly projects in the African region is mainly provided though the 

International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) which is administered by the FAO, the 

World Bank and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA); Agriculture and Plant 

Health Inspection Service (APHIS) and Foreign Agriculture Service (FAS). The Centre of 

Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) in Kenya is providing fruit fly taxonomy training and 

involved with several research projects on fruit fly control and management. The Citrus 

Research International (CRI) funded a project by ICIPE on cold sterilisation for B. invadens 

on citrus and other projects for treatments on avocado and mango are underway. 

Migratory pests patterns are expected to change as a results of the impact of climate 

change. For example, more winter rain in recession areas such as North Africa and the 

Sahel may provide better breeding conditions that may trigger more locust outbreaks. 

Swarming locusts may move downwind so that convergent winds may take them to areas 

with higher rainfall. In some cases, such as the northward movement across the Sahara in 

autumn, prevailing north-easterly winds would blow insects back in the "wrong" direction but 

locusts have adapted not to take off under such conditions, possible because the northeasterly 

winds are too cold. In SADC the Information Core for Southern Africa Migratory 

Pests ICOSAMP was established as a central point of migrant pest information for all SADC 

countries, a ‘peer-to-peer’ network of information officers and control operators and a 

standardized regional reporting system with the aim to enhance technical co-operation & 

sharing of research information in the region. 

5. The impact of climate change on phytosanitary risk management 

At farm level, climate change may result in extended growing seasons that will subsequently 

affect the implementation and duration of crop protection practices. In many developing 

countries extension services are unable to provide adequate crop protection services to 

farmers and climate change is likely to exacerbate the problem by increasing the need for 

crop protection. Biological control practices will be affected as bio-control agents are 

generally sensitive to environmental variation or extremes. Chemical management practices 

will also be affected during higher winter temperatures when more generations or higher 

pest populations occur and the frequency of pesticide use is increased or during periods of 

higher rainfall when contact fungicides are washed out. Subsequently, agricultural input 

costs will increase and more negative impacts on the environment is expected. 

In 2008, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) adopted a 

new System-wide Program on Integrated Pest Management (SP-IPM) with the aim of 

improving the adaptation of IPM to climate change. The programme includes research and 

outreach programs on crop pest and disease management by pulling together the individual 


8 

strengths and expertise of several CGIAR centers and their partners and then disseminating 

and promoting IPM information so it can be integrated in National Action Plans. It advocates 

and raises awareness on IPM with emphasis on adaptation to climate change, agro-eco 

system resilience and food safety. It also provides training and decision support tools on 

IPM. 

At a regulatory level, climate change may affect the pest risk analysis (PRA) process which 

informs phytosanitary decision making in accordance with the World Trade Organisation's 

Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (WTO SPS 

Agreement). The PRA process provides the technical justification for countries to implement 

phytosanitary measures that should be least trade restrictive but will prevent the introduction 

of new pests into their territories. When determining the introduction potential and 

quarantine status of pests and diseases risk assessors must take into consideration the 

impact of climate change on (i) pest and host distribution ranges (ii) establishment potential 

of potential pests (iii) phenological cycles of plants and (iv) synchronization between plants 

and their associated pests. This means that risk assessments will continually have to be reevaluated 

and updated as climate conditions continue to change. New uncertainties that 

affects the PRA process because of the effects of climate change may intensify perceptions 

of phytosanitary threats and subsequently influence the regulatory decision-making process 

in such a way that it would negatively impact on trade. 

Risk assessment and climate change were discussed at the third annual meeting of the 

Commission on Phytosanitary Measures (CPM) of the IPPC in 2008 and it was concluded 

that risk assessment should incorporate climate change models but some members 

cautioned against its use because of unwanted effects on phytosanitary regulations due to 

the uncertainties in the predictions of climatic models. Further concerns relating to risk 

assessment procedures that do not yet adequately address certain aspects of climate 

change such as the shifting of natural ranges of individual species. The use of climate 

change models in pest risk assessment was also discussed at a meeting on pest risk 

assessment organised by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in 2007. 

During an FAO expert consultation on Climate-Related Trans-boundary Pests and Diseases, 

in 2008, the weak management of trans-boundary movements of pests and diseases in 

developing countries was identified as a challenge to global food and agricultural production 

and is likely to increase with the impact of climate change. 

Phytosanitary capacity building challenges exist at prevention, eradication and containment/ 

management levels with containment being the most costly option and prevention usually 

being the most cost effective option. Prevention include early warning systems consisting of 

forecasting, early detection, early control and research. Border control is also essential to 

prevention and a part of the risk management system that are often subject to trade 

disputes. 

The FAO’s Emergency Prevention System for Trans-boundary Animal and Plant Pests and 

Diseases (EMPRES) provides for international plant pest and disease reporting but national 

diagnostic and reporting capacity constraints exists. Furthermore, concerns regarding the 

impact of disease reporting on trade may limit countries' willingness to report new pest or 

disease outbreaks. Few developing countries have early warning systems that can 


9 

undertake such tasks. The FAO has proposed building regional early warning systems as an 

alternative to inadequate national systems. 

Many countries have insufficient resources, and lack appropriate regulatory frameworks and 

adequate phytosanitary capacities to apply control measures at production level, conduct 

risk assessment, surveillance and monitoring, border control and inspections, and provide 

diagnostic services and effective information management. These challenges are likely to 

increase as climate change intensify the demands for improved phytosanitary management 

at national, regional and global level. 

6. Adaptation strategies to address the impact of climate change on 

phytosanitary systems 

Several initiatives to develop adaptation strategies to address the impact of climate change 

on agriculture exist such as the Climate for Development in Africa Programme (ClimDev). In 

2008 the German Government funded another research programme focused on "Adaptation 

of African agriculture to climate change". 

Five international research institutes (i.e. the International Potato Centre (CIP), the 

International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), the International 

Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) 

and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI)), two German universities and a 

German research centre are involved in this programme that aims at building local capacity 

and using local knowledge through active involvement of non-governmental organizations, 

farmer associations and national agricultural research centres. However, many of these 

initiatives do not specifically relate to phytosanitary risks and special attention should be paid 

to integrate these risks in the development of climate change adaptation strategies. Wellintegrated 

adaptation strategies requires effective performing institutions and interinstitutional 

cooperation, especially where overlapping mandates of government entities may 

lead to conflicts and slow responses. 

The EU released a White Paper on the Adaption to Climate Change in 2009 that sets out a 

framework to enhance EU resilience to the impacts of climate change and was supported by 

working documents to highlight five key priority actions in the areas of human, animal and 

plant health. In North America several programmes address the impact of climate change 

on phytosanitary risks but no comprehensive framework exists. In Australia such research is 

done through the Australian Bio-security Cooperative Research Centre that reflects the ''one 

health'' concept. 

To assist developing countries in formulating policies to adapt to climate change in different 

fields, three funds have been set up: (i) the Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF); (ii) the 

Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) under the United Nations Framework Convention on 

Climate Change (UNFCCC); and (iii) the Adaptation Fund (AF) under the Kyoto Protocol. 

Another potential funding scheme to develop National Adaptation Action Plans (NAPA's) is 

the Global Environment Facility (GEF) Trust Fund's Strategic Priority for Adaptation (SPA). 

Agriculture is one of the priority areas in the development of NAPA's but little attention has 

so far been paid to include adaptation strategies specifically for emerging phytosanitary 

risks. 


10 

The following adaptive phytosanitary strategies are proposed as technical and policy 

responses to climate change for the Tripartite Region: 

6.1. Strengthening national phytosanitary systems 

Climate change will bring new challenges in phytosanitary risk management that will require 

competent phytosanitary authorities and coherent regulatory frameworks. Policy options that 

bridge the gap between pure scientific knowledge and practical solutions will be key to 

effective adaptation strategies. 

Core capacity building in risk analysis, monitoring and surveillance, diagnostic services and 

rapid diagnostic tools, inspections and border control, emergency preparedness and 

response will be crucial in enabling developing countries to effectively manage new 

phytosanitary risks that may occur as a result of climate change. 

Improving access to international pest data bases and development of regional information 

exchange mechanisms that include distribution of pests and diseases and correlated 

ecological conditions including climate will assist in risk assessment, surveillance and control 

activities. 

6.2. Improving early warning systems 

Develop and ensure effective use of pest-monitoring and rapid response plans, participatory 

investigation, interception techniques, new screening technologies, forecasting and early 

warning networks. 

Surveillance monitors various aspects such as epidemiological, ecological and economic 

data to verify emergence of new markets, new trade channels, trade volumes and types of 

commodities. Risk-based surveillance in areas and places where pest introduction potential 

is high, such as ports of entry, will provide a focused means of early detection and thereby 

save resources. 

Developing and improving information networks for early warning systems is crucial and may 

be more cost-effective when done at a regional level whilst building on those of existing 

specialist institutions. The development of a notifications database of new pest outbreaks 

and interceptions in the region can be useful tools in developing early warning systems and 

informing risk management decisions. Open-source information that is provided in real-time 

is therefore needed to strengthen national and regional data and allow decision makers 

additional time for planning and appropriate response actions. 

Developing early warning expertise and training of field workers on aspects such as 

sampling and trapping techniques and identification of exotic pests is required. 

6.3. Strengthening research 

Climate change may have positive, negative or no impact on individual plant pests and 

diseases. A better understanding of the ecology of pests and their hosts, the correlations 

between them, and climate and impact modelling is necessary to predict the potential 


11 

reaction of pests and diseases on climate change. Research is therefore needed to obtain 

base-line information on different pest or disease systems, improve risk assessment 

capacities and to close the knowledge gaps that exist. 

Taxonomic research and the development of diagnostic capabilities will be needed to 

promptly identify newly introduced species and thereby improve early warning and rapid 

response systems. 

More research in pre-harvest and post-harvest pest management and technologies (eg. 

development of resistant hosts or cultivars that are specifically adapted to changing climatic 

conditions, invasive weed control, chemical control, proper transportation and packaging, 

etc.) is needed to deal with climate induced changes in phytosanitary risks. Improving 

adaptive pest control strategies will alleviate the pressure on regulatory systems and 

contribute to sustainable production and enhance food security as long as it is accompanied 

by measures to ensure that producers have access to these new improved technologies. 

Indigenous knowledge on how to deal with climate changes and pest risks should not be 

overlooked but incorporated in the research approaches and policy action plans. Structured 

engagements between all stakeholders including farmers, researchers and policy makers 

will assist in collaborative learning processes to better deal with the impacts of climate 

change. 

6.4. Improving phytosanitary decision-making 

Decision-making frameworks that are flexible enough to incorporate new knowledge when it 

becomes available and that consider costs and benefits of different risk management 

strategies are necessary to support prioritisation and improve resource allocation. Existing 

knowledge gaps must be bridged and effective linkages between research and policymaking 

should be developed. 

6.5. Including climate change implications in standard-setting and implementation 

New knowledge on the impact of climate change should be considered and incorporated 

during risk assessment and risk management activities. National and regional standards, 

guidelines and codes of practice should be revised accordingly. 

6.6. Identifying and implementing environmentally friendly phytosanitary measures 

The use of some phytosanitary control measures, eg. methyl bromide, contributes to climate 

change and should be avoided when alternative and equivalent measures are available 

whilst more research is required to find suitable replacement technologies. 

6.7. Educating stakeholders 

The linkages between climate change and phytosanitary risks must be considered and 

awareness among all stakeholders, including policy-makers, phytosanitary experts, the 

private sector and general public, must be increased to enhance countries' capacity to 

respond to new phytosanitary risks. 


12 

6.8. Focusing on Interdisciplinary approaches 

Environmental health, human, animal and plant health and food safety are interrelated, and 

connected to other global change factors such as globalization and technological changes. 

The "One World One Health'' model as described by the Wildlife Conservation Society 

(WCS) provides a framework for a more coordinated and holistic approach. 

Interagency coordination and collaboration in countries should be enhanced e.g. through 

joint research, investigation of risks, training, etc. to ensure efficient control efforts. 

6.9. Mainstreaming adaptation in development cooperation and SPS capacity building. 

Ministers responsible for Agriculture and representatives of Countries present at the African 

Ministerial Conference on Climate–Smart Agriculture “Africa: A Call to Action" , called on the 

African Union and other partners to mainstream climate change principles into the 

Comprehensive African Agricultural Development Programme (CAADP) and to further 

support the implementation of the AUC-‐NEPAD Agriculture and Climate Change Adaptation-‐ 

Mitigation Framework. 

The World Bank's World Development report 2010 focused on the impact of climate change 

on development. The report states that poverty reduction and sustainable development 

remains core global priorities but climate change must be addressed as it threatens 

development goals with most impact on poor countries and poor people. The reports urges 

countries to act now and act together and to adapt development policies that are climate 

sensitive and not postpone mitigation in developing countries as such approaches could 

double mitigation costs later. Early action is therefore needed to identify and scale up best 

practice for climate-‐smart agriculture, to build capacity and experience, and to help clarify 

future choices. 

A study done by the World Bank in Mozambique found that integrating adaptation measures 

across all sectors and institutional levels is important to safeguard existing and future 

development progress in light of climate change. The study identified organisational barriers 

and opportunities for mainstreaming adaptation into development assistance. It states that 

government plays an important role to improve institutional coordination and integration of 

cross-cutting issues, including phytosanitary concerns and food security, into development 

planning. However, specialists in environmental units across all relevant sector institutions 

are needed to identify and develop adaptation strategies and to strengthen organisational 

capacity to address climate change risks and improve the network for awareness. 

Mainstreaming adaptation in development cooperation and phytosanitary capacity building 

will require efforts to raise awareness about the implications of climate change for SPS risks, 

and the benefits of SPS capacity building for adaptation as well as trade and development. 

6.10. Forming public-private partnerships and the role of the public sector 

Institutional weaknesses of the National Plant Protection Organisations (NPPO's) in 

developing and least developed countries were explicitly recognized during the incorporation 

of the World Trade Organization's Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures into 


13 

the overall establishment of the WTO in 1994. Many of these weaknesses still persist 

despite significant efforts to address capacity problems. Strong public private partnerships 

can assist to overcome some of these weaknesses. 

A good example is the National Exotic Fruit Fly Surveillance Programme that are being 

conducted by the South African Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF): 

Directorate Plant Health as a collaborative approach between the South African government, 

affected fruit industries and research institutes. The project was started in January 2006, 

when a network of fruit fly traps was set up as an early warning system to detect exotic fruit 

flies, such as Bactrocera invadens, also known as the Invader fruit fly. The South African 

fruit industry was recognised as a key role player to assist with the surveillance. 

Subsequently, Citrus Research International (CRI), Citrus Growers' Association (CGA), the 

Deciduous Fruit Producers Trust (DFPT/Hortgro), the South African Table Grape Industry 

(SATI) and the Subtropical Growers Association became more intensely part of the official 

national exotic fruit fly detection survey. A National Steering Committee, that included 

representatives from affected industries, was established by DAFF to coordinate and 

communicate activities related to the surveillance programme. The Steering Committee 

developed a National Action Plan for Bactrocera invadens surveillance, containment and 

eradication that was implemented in South Africa and made available for use to other 

countries in the region. The Action Plan contains a survey protocol, quarantine and 

eradication procedures, information management guidelines and highlights stockpiling 

as an important aspect of preparedness. This early warning system paid off in 2010 

when South Africa experienced the first detections of Bactrocera invadens in the 

Limpopo Province and outbreaks were successfully contained and eradicated. In 

anticipation of potential future trade implications for fruit exports to countries such as the 

United States, trapping efforts were extended in the 2011/12 citrus production season to 

include all exporting production units in the citrus industry. It is anticipated that these 

trapping requirements for export will be further expanded to other potentially affected 

industries in South Africa. 

6.11. Developing regional initiatives and the role of EAC, COMESA and SADC 

Regional coordination will be required to effectively deal with trans-boundary pests and 

diseases such as fruit flies. The development of regional surveillance programmes and pest 

information systems will support inadequate national capacities. However, functional 

national surveillance systems may be used as building blocks for such regional systems. 

SADC, EAC and COMESA should compile information on areas of phytosanitary expertise in 

different Member States for sharing in order to encourage the exchange of knowledge within 

the region. This is especially important to save time and costs as successfully implemented 

or completed initiatives may provide insight into practical considerations (lessons learnt) that 

should be included into planning of new and similar initiatives in other areas or countries. 

Regional SPS committees provide ideal platforms to facilitate information exchange, 

harmonisation and cooperation amongst members. 

A STDF report published in 2010, states that the expansion of regional consciousness and 

the establishment of Regional Economic Communities (REC's) ''carry the potential for an 


14 

improved approach on SPS matters''. It analysed regional SPS policy frameworks, including 

those of COMESA, EAC and SADC, and warns against using WTO SPS language out of 

context in these regional frameworks that could create confusion, raise legal concerns, and 

in extreme cases raises the questions of the utility of such frameworks. It therefore 

recommends that existing SPS policy frameworks should be carefully reviewed in terms of 

their practical utility, to eliminate any duplication or contradiction with regard to the WTO 

SPS Agreement. 

The report further encourages active participation in of REC's in meetings of International 

Standard Setting Organisations (ISSO's) and the WTO SPS Committee as experience 

shows that such participation facilitates the task of Member States. The report also 

recommends that " REC's should promote regional and national coordination by taking the 

lead in organizing systematic preparation meetings of technical experts in advance of 

important ISSOs meetings and, whenever possible, develop continental/regional common 

positions on matters of common interest''. 

COMESA, EAC and SADC should also put a strong accent on the need for the creation or 

strengthening of existing national SPS Committees and increase awareness of SPS issues 

at political and general public levels. Training may be provided for officials who attend or 

participate in these national or regional SPS Committees. Capacity-building efforts should be 

focused on demand-driven activities, that are identified through capacity evaluations, and 

should involve all relevant stakeholders. 

By using the various existing transparency tools developed by the WTO SPS Committee 

instead of duplicating systems for the publication and notification of SPS measures, 

unnecessary administrative burdens may be avoided. COMESA, EAC and SADC may 

assist members by receiving, screening and disseminating WTO SPS notifications of interest 

to the region. 


“

Plant Health, Climate Change and Trade - TradeMark Southern Africa

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?