2006-7 annual report - Nature Conservation Foundation

2006-7 

annual report 

nature conservation foundation 

science for conservation

2006-7 

annual report 

ij 


science for conservation

i CONTENTS j 

Foreword 1 

Doctoral Programme 3 

High Altitude Landscapes 5 

East Himalayan Rainforests 13 

Western Ghats Rainforests 25 

Deciduous Forests 35 

Oceans and Coasts 41 

Primates 45 

Annual Meeting 49 

FEMDIG 50 

Publications 51 

Financial Statement 56 

Board of Advisors 58 

Acknowledgements 59 

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i FOREWORD j 

In October of 2006, NCF completed 10 years of its 

formal existence. This has been a fascinating journey 

for us, and at the outset, we would like to express our 

deep sense of gratitude to all friends and supporters 

who have stood by us and supported our work. 

Our research during the year ranged from 

understanding the ecology of spiders to developing 

techniques to monitor elephants. Research projects 

spanned efforts to understand the survival needs of 

endangered species to quantifying human dependence 

on natural resources. Understanding human-wildlife 

relationships and conflicts remained an important 

focal area of research. NCF, in collaboration with other 

institutions, also expanded its research horizon by 

conducting studies on conservation genetics, including 

identification of elusive species through molecular 

genetics, and understanding species evolutionary 

origins. 

Field conservation work over the last year 

encompassed, as always, a diversity of initiatives, from 

running schools and healthcare programmes as part 

of community-based wildlife conservation efforts, 

to running local livestock insurance programmes to 

offset economic losses due to livestock predation by 

snow leopards and wolves. Educational products were 

developed and conservation education and awareness 

programmes were conducted for audiences ranging 

from Himalayan school children on the one hand to 

workers and managers in tea estates on the other. 

Our policy development work with the central 

and Himalayan state governments to initiate a national 

programme for conservation of the snow leopard and 

other Himalayan wildlife, to be called Project Snow 

Leopard, has seen major advances, and we are hopeful 

that the Project will be initiated in the upcoming fiscal 

year. 

The PhD programme of NCF has seen its first 

batch of students beginning to register. Several new 

researchers and people have joined NCF during the year. 

We feel particularly privileged that Dr. A. J. T. Johnsingh, 

one of India’s foremost conservation scientists, 

joined hands with NCF as our full-time Distinguished 

Wildlife Biologist. We have also been very fortunate 

to have entered into a partnership with the Nadathur 

Conservation Trust to jointly promote conservation 

and research in India. The NCT has come in with both 

resources as well as new ideas, and there are exciting 

times ahead for us and our research and conservation 

work. 

Dr. Charudutt Mishra 

Executive Director and Trustee 

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annual 

report 

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i DOCTORAL PROGRAMMEj 

We at NCF believe that science plays a crucial role to 

help address and understand conservation-related issues 

that arise in the world around us. We also believe 

that the solution to most of the wildlife-related issues 

across the world lies in encompassing various other 

disciplines that go beyond pure science. While the philosophy 

at NCF for the last decade has been to bridge 

the gap between on-ground conservation and science, 

we have come to realise that, despite growing efforts, 

the scientific foundations of many conservation problems 

and solutions remain shaky and there is often a 

disconnect between science and practise. To expand 

the reach and effect of our programmes, NCF decided to 

initiate a doctoral programme with a formal affiliation 

with the Manipal University, Manipal (formally known 

as the Manipal Academy of Higher Education, MAHE) 

that will award the candidate the degree of Doctor of 

Philosophy. 

The programme will combine innovative coursework, 

personal mentorship, and field research to help 

the student develop a high level of independence in 

designing and implementing research projects. Potential 

projects which have tangible conservation outputs 

will be strongly encouraged. Potential students who 

would like to register for the NCF PhD programme will 

be assessed based on their CV, with a brief statement 

of purpose, and a presentation or interaction session 

to judge the merit of the candidate and their conservation 

commitment. Courses in flexible format in relevant 

fields will be offered at NCF and these will be required 

to be taken by students as part of their PhD requirements. 

The NCF PhD programme will help the student 

develop various skills to help them develop high quality 

and original scientific research and this will encompass 

a whole range of activities from the development of research 

proposals, review and appraisal of research in 

the relevant field, oral presentation skills, assimilation 

of knowledge through coursework, field and laboratory 

skills, regular evaluation of progress, preparation of 

thesis and original research publications, communication 

and outreach skills, in an atmosphere that aims to 

foster academic interactions and creativity. In accordance 

with the stipulations of the Manipal University, 

the duration of a PhD will be from three to six years. 

Coursework for the programme is designed keeping in 

mind the diverse backgrounds and differing research 

focus of the students. The curriculum aims to be comprehensive 

while promoting academic rigour and facilitating 

creative learning. 

Current Students 

Rohit Naniwadekar – Multiple-scale analysis of species-environment relationships: factors governing distributions 

of three hornbill species in Arunachal Pradesh, India: PhD Guide: Dr. Aparajita Datta 

Jiffy James – Establishing the identity of muntjac specimens from Arunachal Pradesh through DNA analysis. PhD 

Guide: Dr. Aparajita Datta 

Debapriyo Chakraborty – Primate genetics: Molecular studies on the taxonomy, phylogeography, population 

genetics, behaviour, ecology and conservation of Indian macaques. PhD Guide: Dr. Anindya Sinha 

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3

P from top: A herd of bharal; children’s book on snow leopard; 

national workshop on Project Snow Leopard in progress; 

markhor amidst snow and cliffs.

i HIGH ALTITUDE LANDSCAPESj 

Our programme in the high-altitudes of Himalaya 

and Trans-Himalaya addresses various types of 

human-wildlife conflicts, including, livestock grazing 

and associated rangeland degradation and wildlife 

extinctions, livestock losses to wild carnivores. Led 

by Charudutt Mishra and several collaborators, 

it also undertakes ecological studies aimed at 

recovery and conservation of threatened and newlydiscovered 

species. A significant facet of the highaltitude 

programme is to strengthen communitybased 

conservation initiatives through education and 

outreach. 

Conservation of the Tibetan gazelle Procapra picticaudata 

The Tibetan gazelle Procapra picticaudata is on the 

verge of extinction in India with less than 100 individuals 

left in the Hanle Valley of eastern Ladakh. Based on 

our research programme led by Yash Veer Bhatnagar, 

on the ecology of the last remaining population of the 

Tibetan gazelle in Ladakh, we started working with the 

local nomadic herders to protect the species. 

The Tibetan gazelle is endemic to the Tibetan plateau. 

During the early 20 th century, it was distributed over a 

range of c. 20,000 km2 in Ladakh, India. Although its 

global conservation status is believed to be secure, our 

surveys initiated since 2000 found that the gazelle’s 

population in Ladakh has undergone precipitous declines. 

Today, c. 50 – 100 individuals survive precariously 

in an area of c. 100 km2 in eastern Ladakh. Population 

declines have also been reported from Tibet, which 

remains its stronghold. Local extinction of the gazelle in 

Ladakh is imminent unless active population and habitat 

management are undertaken. Management measures, 

however, are stymied by the lack of understanding 

of the gazelle’s ecology and the causes for its decline. 

Our recent studies in Ladakh establish that past hunting, 

particularly in the aftermath of the Indo-Chinese 

war in 1962, and continued disturbance and habitat 

degradation associated with excessive livestock grazing 

are the main anthropogenic factors that caused the gazelle’s 

decline. Our studies have also generated an understanding 

of the important biotic and abiotic habitat 

correlates of the gazelle’s distribution, and the land use 

and socio-economy of pastoral communities that share 

the gazelle’s range. Based on our research results, the 

contours of an in situ species recovery programme for 

the Tibetan gazelle have been drawn. After a series of 

meetings with nomadic Changpa herders, government 

departments, and other stakeholders, an agreement 

was arrived at wherein, in return for our payment of 

grazing fees for their use of alternate pastures, the nomads 

agreed to curtail grazing and resource use in the 

most important part of the gazelle habitat. The village 

reserve has been established and we have started monitoring 

the Tibetan gazelle population in the region. The 

size of the reserve is initially small, and we plan to continue 

our work with the community to increase it. This 

is a first step towards a species recovery programme for 

the Tibetan gazelle. Success or lessons from this program 

will not only benefit this gazelle population, but 

also the other species recovery programs in the region. 



5

Conservation education in the Indian Himalaya 

There is a general lack of awareness among citizens 

about the unique and threatened wildlife of India’s 

high altitude areas. Led by Pranav Trivedi, we are 

now in the process of implementing the conservation 

education strategy that has identified the main threats 

to Himalayan wildlife, the human groups responsible 

for those threats, and the target groups for various 

aspects of the education programme. 

Several activities and products are being developed 

as per the priorities already identified in the strategy. 

Some of the products that have already been brought 

out include a storybook for children (above 10 years) 

titled Nono, the Snow Leopard and a set of four posters. 

The latter were chosen from paintings made by about 

350 children representing 10 schools of Spiti valley. 

Complimentary copies of these products have been 

sent to over 60 institutions and individuals involved in 

the fields of wildlife conservation, research, and education. 

We are also in the process of distributing copies to 

schools in Spiti. Several copies of the book have been 

ordered by individuals and institutions, including the 

State Forest Department of Himachal Pradesh. We are 

now in the process of making this book available to a 

larger audience through book stores and local youth 

groups (in Spiti and Ladakh). 

As part of improving nature interpretation skills 

of local youth, an outdoor module was conducted during 

July 2006 for eight youth of Kibber village. The process 

included hands-on learning in the outdoors and its 

application in simulated conditions. The oral feedback 

indicated that the module generated interest among all 

the participants. The simulation interpretation exercise 

showed that the youth retained and applied the learning 

in conducting a nature trail. They also showed a desire 

for further learning. To strengthen this process and 

as an aid to the Guest House to be set up for communitybased 

tourism, we intend to conduct two more workshops 

of this kind this year. To communicate the results 

of the education strategy, we are also in the process of 

finalising the draft of a research paper to be sent to a 

reputed journal. 

A pilot conservation education effort involving 

formation of Nature Clubs in 20 schools, establishment 

of Youth Awareness Clubs in 10 villages/village clusters 

and orientation/training of school teachers and local 

youth to conduct various awareness and conservation 

activities is under way. Several products are also under 

development for this programme. The above initiatives 

are helping strengthen the ongoing conservation efforts 

in the Spiti region. Besides, the modules and products 

would also be used in other high altitude regions of the 

Indian Himalaya. 

Assisting Himalayan neighbours in snow leopard conservation 

Central Asia’s highlands and its associated wildlife is 

spread across 12 countries, several of which are our 

neighbours. It is timely that a concerted effort to conserve 

this common heritage is initiated. Led by Yash 

Veer Bhatnagar, we are now in the process of assisting 

Bhutan in developing science-based conservation programmes, 

tailored for the Himalayan kingdom. 

We were approached by the Nature Conservation Division, 

Royal Government of Bhutan and WWF-Bhutan 

to assist in an overall conservation programme for the 

Himalayan high altitudes. We agreed to a collaborative 

programme to assist them in (i) catalysing a conserva- 

tion policy along the lines of Project Snow Leopard for 

Bhutan, (ii) capacity enhancement of wildlife managers 

and research students, and (iii) a detailed study on 

snow leopards and prey species. 

We conducted a workshop in Thimphu to initiate 

the process of capacity building and knowledge 

sharing. Laboratory (conservation genetics and diet 

analysis techniques) and field training courses (snow 

leopard and other wildlife monitoring) for Bhutanese 

wildlife managers is planned later in the year in partnership 

with our colleagues and collaborating institutions. 

6 



Project Snow Leopard 

Over the last four years, NCF has been working with the 

governments of Himalayan states to formulate a conservation 

strategy and action plan called ‘Project Snow 

Leopard.’ This project, led by Yash Veer Bhatnagar, 

made significant progress during the last year. 

In July 2006, we conducted a national workshop on 

Project Snow Leopard in collaboration with the Jammu 

and Kashmir Department of Wildlife Conservation, 

which saw the participation of the Central and all five 

Himalayan State Governments, as well as various research 

and conservation institutions, and was chaired 

by the Union Minister of Environment and Forests of the 

Government of India. A report was immediately completed 

and published, and appropriate efforts ensured 

that the Central Government designated a committee 

for drafting the document that also included NCF. We 

have subsequently drafted the national Strategy and Action 

Plan document, which is about to be finalized with 

inputs from the MoEF’s Drafting Committee. During the 

year, we also drafted proposals on behalf of the Central 

government for Project Snow Leopard to be included 

for funding for the ongoing 11th 5 year plan of India’s 

Planning Commission, as well as for possible funding by 

the GEF. 

We are now hopeful that our several years of effort 

to catalyse an appropriate conservation policy for 

the higher Himalaya will finally result in the initiation 

of Project Snow Leopard from 1 April 2008 (the new 

fiscal year). The Central Ministry of Environment and 

Forests has in principle agreed to the contents of the 

Strategy and Action Plan we have drafted (which is for 

a knowledge based and participatory conservation programme 

that fully involves local Himalayan communities 

in conservation efforts), and also agreed for a special 

allocation of 3% of its total budget for Project Snow 

Leopard. 

Village reserves 

Under its efforts to promote community based conservation, 

NCF has been working closely with the villages 

of Kibber and Chichim in Spiti to protect two areas as 

‘village reserves’ since 1999’. Led by Charudutt Mishra, 

these reserves continued to be protected and the recovery 

of wildlife populations was monitored. 

Community-based conservation efforts are important 

in areas where multiple use of natural resources, by 

humans and wildlife, is unavoidable. In a pioneering 

experiment, started seven years ago, NCF established a 

village reserve in collaboration with the village council 

of Kibber, Spiti. All grazing by livestock was curtailed 

and the villagers were compensated for the lost grazing. 

The recovery of wildlife has constantly been monitored. 

Encouraged by the results, this reserve has subsequently 

been expanded to include adjoining areas, 

and a second reserve has been established in the neighbouring 

village of Chichim. The two village reserves totalling 

c. 20 km2 continued to be protected. 

The larger village reserve continues to serve 

as habitat for one of the highest density wild ungulate 

(bharal) populations in the region. The areas are seeing 

high use by the snow leopard and at least three individual 

snow leopards have been repeatedly seen around 

the reserve. Our efforts have led to complete curtailment 

of the risk of retaliatory killing of wild carnivores 

from the region. 

We continued data collection on trends in livestock 

and wild prey populations and extent of livestock 

depredation as part of our monitoring programme. 



7

Livestock insurance programme 

Understanding the ecological and social dimensions of 

human-wildlife conflict is a major part of NCF’s work. 

Based on previous research, NCF has been successfully 

running an insurance programme for livestock in Spiti, 

which was subsequently expanded to Ladakh. Led by 

Charudutt Mishra, this programme entered its fifth 

year in Kibber. 

The livestock insurance programme in Spiti entered its 

fifth year, and the programme in four of the five villages 

became self sustaining this year, which means that it 

will no longer need to be subsidized with conservation 

funds being provided by us. 116 herding families in 5 

villages continued to participate, and a few more remaining 

families have expressed a desire to join hands 

with the programme. 

The programme initiated with four villages of 

Ladakh last year was taken forward through close association 

with the village councils and members of the 

insurance committee. This work builds on our earlier 

research on human-carnivore conflicts in the region. 

The main method involved regular meetings and interactions. 

The programme has successfully completed 

almost one year in Ladakh, and the annual meeting for 

disbursement of compensation claims is planned for 

June 2007. A small group of village women trained by 

us continued to produce and market woollen handicrafts 

in the district centre of Leh. 

Conservation of Pir Panjal Markhor 

The Pir Panjal Markhor, Capra falconeri, is a globally 

threatened species. Our earlier work established that 

small populations of it still exist in parts of Kashmir and 

required urgent conservation attention. Led by Riyaz 

Ahmed, we have been researching the ecology of this 

little-known species. 

Field work was initiated in May 2006 on the Kashmir 

markhor, led by Riyaz Ahmed in collaboration with the 

Wildlife Trust of India, New Delhi. Information on the 

species’ status, distribution, ecology and threats has 

been obtained. First-time data on the important aspects 

of markhor have been collected and synthesized 

that will help in the conservation of the species in the 

Kajinag range and the rest of Kashmir. There are c. 100 

markhor in the Limber-Lacchipora area with distinct 

seasonal ranges. The females and young occur in secure 

steep and rugged valleys year round, especially in 

summer after parturition, while the adult males spread 

out wider and use higher and more disturbed areas. 

We hope to model markhor selection at fine levels of 

environmental variables and suggest other potential 

areas for the species. Information from the project is 

also being provided to the wildlife managers, who have 

expressed willingness to use the project personnel in 

drafting their management plan. 

One constraint is that the study area is right 

along the disputed boundary between India and Pakistan 

with frequent skirmishes between the army and 

militants. This puts the field crew in danger and also 

necessitates good liaison with the army. 

Variation in herbivore density and diversity 

Led by Tsewang Namgail, this project attempts to understand 

the mechanisms causing variation in density 

and diversity of wild herbivores across the Trans-Himalayan 

landscape, both ecological and anthropogenic. 

Spatial data on current distribution of mountain ungulates 

has been collected from several watershed catchments 

across Ladakh. At a finer scale, niche relations 

of the Ladakh urial, an endangered wild sheep, is being 

modelled in relation to other sympatric species, including 

livestock, along the Indus catchment. 

8 



Lead role in designing the ‘biodiversity conservation & rural livelihoods improvement 

programme’ of the MoEF & World Bank (Through the PEACE Institute, New Delhi) 

BCRLIP is a nationwide effort by the MoEF to design 

meaningful and robust conservation plans for seven 

identified landscapes of the country. Based on a request 

by the PEACE Institute, New Delhi, Yash Veer Bhatnagar 

led the effort in the Changthang Landscape (addressed 

as the Upper Indus Landscape - UIL) 

The UIL covers an area of over 20,000 km2 and involves 

nomadic pastoral tribals, the Changpas and Tibetan 

refugees. The aim of the programme was to identify 

areas of important wildlife value, field assessments 

regarding socioeconomy, institutional structures, legal 

dimensions that can strengthen and streamline conservation 

in the area. Yash Veer Bhatnagar provided inputs 

at all stages of the programme and the Indicative Plan 

produced has been appreciated by the Wildlife Department, 

World Bank and others involved. The project also 

organized study tour for Wildlife Staff from Changthang 

in southern India. 

Team 

• Team leaders: Charudutt Mishra, Yash Veer Bhatnagar, Pranav Trivedi 

• Collaborators: Dr. M. D. Madhusudan, NCF 

• Research Scholars: Sumanta Bagchi (Syracuse University); Tsewang Namgail (Wageningen University); Riyaz 

Ahmad (WTI, New Delhi) 

• Research Affiliates: Nabam Gama 

• Field coordinators: Tandup (Sushil) Dorje (Spiti); Karma Sonam (Ladakh) 

• Field staff: Tanzin Thinley, Kalzang Gurmed, Rinchen Tobgey, Nawang Tandup Dorje Chhewang (Spiti) 

• Artwork: Maya Ramaswamy 

• Design and Production: Pavithra Sankaran 

• Whitley Fund for Nature, UK 

• Prince Bernhard Foundation, The Netherlands 

• Ford Foundation, India 

• Wildlife Conservation Society, USA 

• Rufford Foundation, UK 

• National Science Foundation, USA 

• Syracuse University and SUNY-ECF, USA 

• Chicago Zoological Society, USA 

• Royal Government of Bhutan & WWF-Bhutan 

• Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF), India 

• MoEF through the Peace Institute, India 

Funding agencies 



9

• Resource Ecology Group, Wageningen University, The Netherlands 

• Wildlife Trust of India, New Delhi 

• Syracuse University, Syracuse 

• Arunachal Pradesh Forest Department 

• SFRI & Department of Wildlife Protection, Jammu & Kashmir 

• National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore 

• Dr. Uma Ramakrishnan, NCBS, Bangalore 

• Kibber Youth Council 

Collaborations and Partnerships 

• Village councils of Kibber, Chichim, Gete, Tashigang and Kee in Himachal Pradesh; and Gya, Lato, Rumtse, and 

Sasoma in Ladakh 

• Union Ministry of Environment and Forests and various Himalayan state governments 

• Peace Institute, New Delhi 

• WWF-Bhutan and the Nature Conservation Division, Royal Government of Bhutan 

• Dr. J. L. Fox, University of Tromsø, Norway 

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10 





11

P from left: Wreathed Hornbills in flight; a leg-hold 

trap for mammals; skin of a black muntjac; Lisu school 

children in Namdapha; field surveys and monitoring by 

Lisus in Namdapha.

i EAST HIMALAYAN RAINFORESTS j 

In the rainforests of Arunachal Pradesh, we have established 

a conservation program with the aim of reducing 

hunting by local communities by addressing their 

socio-economic needs. Research has focused on understanding 

socio-economic needs and the drivers of hunting. 

We have set up long-term monitoring of hornbills 

and mammal populations at two sites, to enable evaluation 

of the effectiveness of conservation interventions 

in bringing about wildlife recovery. We have undertaken 

interventions in health care, primary education, rural 

energy and sponsored alternate livelihood options. 

Conservation education and advocacy are also important 

components. Other work has focused on assessing 

change in forest cover due to human use and unravelling 

the identity of ‘new’ muntjacs through genetic analysis. 

Several students and collaborators are involved in various 

aspects of the program led by Aparajita Datta. 

Hornbills and tribal communities: wildlife conservation in Arunachal Pradesh 

Three species of hornbills (Great Hornbill, Wreathed 

Hornbill, Oriental Pied Hornbill) occur in the foothill 

forests of Pakke WLS, while the globally endangered 

Rufous-necked Hornbill is restricted to higher areas. In 

Pakke, nesting commences in mid-March and is over by 

July. Prior research (1997-2005) had estimated nesting 

densities of all three species to be 1 nest/km 2 . Hornbills 

in the area are primarily dependent on a single tree species 

(Tetrameles nudiflora) for nesting, with 85% (n = 

55) of nests on this species, and the remaining on Ailanthus 

grandis; both these are emergent softwood species 

and occur in foothill forest which is the main nesting 

habitat for hornbills. 

The earlier study had documented high overlap 

in nest species and nesting habitat used by the three 

hornbill species. However, structural characteristics 

were important in determining nest site selection and 

the main parameters that differentiated nest characteristics 

of the three species were cavity size and nest tree 

size. No direct competition for nests or nest takeovers 

was noted during 1997-2000. However, between 1995 

and 2000, large-scale deforestation in adjoining areas 

of Assam resulted in loss of crucial nesting habitat. 

From 2003, when the monitoring program was initiated, 

we observed inspection and use of ‘sub-optimal’ 

nest cavities that were never used earlier. Instances of 

interference competition for nest sites between hornbill 

species are being observed from 2003. In the last 

three years, several instances of nest takeovers have 

been recorded indicating a shortage of nesting sites in 

the area due to the considerable loss of foothill forests 

over the last 10 years. 

There is also considerable turnover of nest sites. 

Sixty-three percent of nests known from earlier are no 

longer in use, while 20% have been lost to felling. All 

nest trees (11) cut down were in the adjoining reserve 

forests of Assam. Sometimes, an inactive nest is re-used 

after a gap of 1-3 years. A nest tree can become inactive 

due to occupation by monitor lizards, cavity shrinkage 

and human disturbance during nesting. 

The total known nest trees are 55 (22 of Great 

hornbill, 21 of Wreathed hornbill, and 12 of Oriental 

pied hornbill), of which 44 are currently standing. Twenty-four 

new nests have been found between 2004 and 

2006. Forty-six nests were monitored in 2006, of which 

2 were cut down in Papum Reserve Forest. The number 

of active nests was 32 (14 GH, 11 WH and 7 OPH) and 

chicks fledged successfully in 28 nests (87% success). 

Eleven new nests were discovered (6 of Great hornbill, 



13

Table 1. Long-term monitoring (1998-2006) of hornbill nests in Pakke: total nest trees, number monitored, active nests and 

successful nests and nest tree loss/takeovers. Data for 1997 is not shown as only two nests were monitored in that year. 

1998 1999 2000 2003 2004 2005 2006 

Known trees 19 21 22 23 34 40 46 

Monitored 19 16 17 9 29 36 46 

Active 16 8 11 6 22 21 32 

% Active 84 50 65 67 76 58 70 

Success 13 8 11 6 NM 13 28 

% Success 81 100 100 100 NM 62 87.5 

Trees cut/fallen 3 2 0 0 1 0 2 

Nest takeover 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 

4 of Wreathed hornbill and 1 Oriental Pied hornbill) in 

the 2006 breeding season. The percentage of nests that 

were active was high in most years (65-84%), except 

for 1999 and 2005 when nesting was initiated in only 

50-58% of nest trees (Table 1). There was poor nonfig 

fruit availability in the breeding season of 1999 that 

may have resulted in lower nesting. Phenological data is 

currently not available; therefore the reasons for lower 

nesting in 2005 cannot be elucidated. 

Roost sites 

Hornbills in the area roost communally, although the 

phenomenon is more pronounced in the non-breeding 

season. The Great hornbills (60+) roost communally 

only in the non-breeding season. The Wreathed hornbills 

are seen in the largest numbers (100+) and roost 

communally throughout the year. Both single species 

roosts and mixed-species communal roosts are seen. 

Mixed species roosts have only been seen in the nonbreeding 

season. Counts have been made at dusk at 5-6 

roost sites over the last 7 years. A particular roost site 

may be used only for a few days at a time or up to 3 

months. 

One of the roosting sites (mainly of the Wreathed 

hornbill) is on the Assam side of the inter-state boundary. 

They use this roost site every year in August-November 

and sporadically in much smaller numbers at other 

times. Floods and erosion have caused loss of crucial 

roost trees and there is increased human disturbance. 

However, the site is still being used by Wreathed hornbills. 

In 2005, we made recommendations to the Assam 

Forest Department on measures to protect this crucial 

roosting site. The known hornbill roosts continued to 

14 



be in use despite increased human disturbance at some 

roost sites, although the Great hornbill has not been observed 

using one roost site since 1999. 

Hornbills (mainly the Wreathed hornbill) arriving 

at the roost can be classified according to age and 

sex. Immediately after the end of the breeding season in 

August-September, this enables an estimation of population 

recruitment as juveniles accompany the parent 

birds to roost sites. Based on roost counts over 3 years, 

it appears that at least 13-23% of the population is of 

juvenile/subadult birds. On a single day roost count, at 

least 32-37 juvenile birds were seen every year immediately 

after the breeding season. 

Hornbill population monitoring 

We compared the encounter rates for hornbills with 

data from a study in 1995-96 that used several of the 

same trails in the sanctuary. There appears to be a marginal 

decline in encounter rates for all the three hornbill 

species in 2005-06. Although rigorous comparisons 

cannot be made, Great Hornbill abundance was relatively 

higher (0.5/km) in 1995-96, while Wreathed and 

Oriental Pied Hornbill encounter rates remain similar 

after 10 years. Great Hornbill numbers may have possibly 

declined in the area due to the considerable loss of 

nesting habitat in the foothill forests in the last 5 years. 

We also examined whether there was any variation 

in hornbill abundance over the months in the area. 

Monthly monitoring of hornbill abundance over 2 years 

has shown considerable local fluctuations in abundance 

possibly related to seasonal variations in fruit availability. 

Overall hornbill abundance peaks in the area at the

start of the breeding season (February-March). It appears 

that Wreathed hornbills are not resident or are 

present in very low numbers during the winter months 

with only 13 sightings between October and January 

(non-breeding season), while in the breeding season 

(February to May) there were more sightings (25). Encounter 

rates were low in the months of October and 

November, with no Wreathed hornbills seen in December-January. 

Wreathed hornbills re-appeared in the 

area again at the commencement of the breeding season 

in February. Wreathed Hornbills appear to be seminomadic 

and move into higher areas during periods of 

fruit scarcity. Great Hornbill abundance does not vary 

seasonally and they are resident throughout the year in 

lowland forests. 

Establishing baselines: long-term monitoring of threatened wildlife with local communities in 

two important protected areas in Arunachal Pradesh, north-east India 

The monitoring of wildlife populations is an important 

component of a wildlife conservation program. In the 

Namdapha National Park, the single largest threat is 

hunting by humans: therefore our efforts focused on 

establishing the impacts of hunting on wildlife populations. 

We targeted species known to be most affected by 

hunting —terrestrial mammals and large birds (pheasants 

and hornbills)—for monitoring. We aim to use this 

research to assess our community-based conservation 

initiatives: we expect that a reduction in hunting within 

Namdapha National Park will result in recovery of animal 

populations. The current estimates will serve as a 

baseline for future comparisons. We also monitor similar 

faunal groups in Pakke Wildlife Sanctuary in order 

to make spatial comparisons between two of the most 

important PAs in Arunachal Pradesh. 

We set up a wildlife monitoring system with 

trained local villagers (tribal ex-hunters) at Pakke WLS 

and Namdapha NP, two important Protected Areas in 

Arunachal Pradesh that are both tiger reserves. Camera 

trapping to record species richness and relative abundance 

for species threatened by hunting was established. 

For the first time systematic monitoring protocols using 

camera traps have been used in Protected Areas in 

North-east India. Seven field staff (4 in Namdapha, 3 in 

Pakke) from local communities (tribal ex-hunters) have 

been trained and assist in the field monitoring effort. In 

addition, 2 graduate students, 1 volunteer, and 8 other 

tribal youth were involved in the 3 month field monitoring 

effort in Namdapha this year. 

Wildlife monitoring in Pakke WLS & TR 

Trail monitoring in Pakke WLS 

A total of 11 trails were marked and walked an average 

of 8 times with 182 km walked between 2004 and 

2006 in which 18 species were observed, including four 

ungulate species, three primate species, four squirrel 

species, three pheasant and three hornbill species. The 

encounter rates are summarized in Table 1. 

Camera trap surveys in Pakke WLS 

The number of mammal species in key faunal groups is 

reported to be 45, while through our surveys, direct and 

indirect evidence for 34 were recorded. In Pakke, pilot 

camera trap surveys were conducted sporadically between 

Dec 2005 and May 2006 and September - October 

2006 with a total trapping effort of 231 trap nights 

that resulted in photo captures for 14 larger mammal 

species. 

Wildlife monitoring in Namdapha NP & TR 

The number of large mammal species in key faunal 

groups is reported to be 56 in Namdapha. We recorded 

21 of these on camera traps, while 27 others were recorded 

by other methods or reliable evidence. No direct 

or indirect recent evidence could be found for 8 species. 

Although no evidence for tiger and elephant presence 

was found in winter 2006-07, we include them as still 

present based on indirect evidence seen in 2004-06. 

In the first year (winter 2005-06) with 10 camera 

trap units, we had a limited sampling effort of 364 trap 

nights at Namdapha. In winter 2006-07, a large-scale 

camera trapping survey was carried out in the 1,985 

km 2 Namdapha National Park. Our intensive study area 

of 1200 km 2 encompassed the moist evergreen forests 

below 2000 m of the park. A uniform grid (3 x 3 km) 

was imposed on a map of the area. Of the 130 grids covering 

the study area, a random selection of 80 grids was 

made. With only 16 km of motorable road, all field work 

was carried out on foot. Given logistic difficulties in the 

hilly terrain, limitations of time, manpower and equipment, 

sampling was carried out between October 2006 



15

and January 2007 in 40 of the initially selected 80 grids 

covering 30% of the study area. We surveyed terrestrial 

mammal species using 42 passive infra-red camera trap 

units. In each of 40 sampled grids, two or three camera 

traps were deployed. Traps were deployed along animal 

trails, streambeds, wallows and ridgelines, in locations 

with evidence of animal movement. We recorded the 

GPS location, altitude and other habitat parameters at 

each trap site. Our highly skilled Lisu trackers assisted 

in identifying suitable locations for deploying camera 

traps. The traps were operational for 24 hours a day, and 

were removed after 15 days. The total camera trapping 

effort was >1,600 trap nights. However, we used 1537 

trap-days of data for analysis, after deducting trap-days 

where cameras malfunctioned and where the film was 

finished before the end of a 15-day sampling session. 

Twenty-five species of mammals were recorded 

(Table 2) including 10 rare, endangered or little-known 

species. Twelve carnivore species (7 rare or littleknown) 

recorded through camera trapping including 

the Clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), Asiatic Black 

bear (Ursus thibetanus) Malayan sun bear (Helarctos 

malayanus), Marbled cat (Pardofelis marmorata), Golden 

cat (Catopuma temmincki), Leopard cat (Prionailurus 

bengalensis), Crab-eating mongoose (Herpestes urva), 

Large Indian civet (Viverra zibetha), Himalayan palm 

civet (Paguma larvata), Common palm civet (Paradox- 

Table 1. Species and group encounter rates from trail walks in the Pakke WLS. 

Species 

Encounter rate 

(Detections/km) 

Group 

Encounter rate 

(Detections/km) 

Barking deer Muntiacus muntjak 0.10±0.03 Ungulates 0.31 

Sambar Cervus unicolor 0.01±0.01 

Wild pig Sus scrofa 0.16±0.06 

Gaur Bos gaurus 0.03±0.03 

Elephant Elephas maximus 0.20±0.08 - - 

Rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta 0.45±0.28* Primates 0.78* 

Assamese macaque Macaca assamensis 0.22±0.18* 

Capped langur Trachypithecus pileatus 0.11±0.07* 

Himalayan striped squirrel Tamiops macclellandi 0.04±0.02 Squirrels 0.55 

Hoary-bellied squirrel Callosciurus pygerythrus 0.08±0.03 

Red-bellied squirrel Callosciurus erythraeus 0.29±0.08 

Malayan giant squirrel Ratufa bicolor 0.14±0.05 

Red jungle fowl Gallus gallus 0.36±0.12 Pheasants 0.46 

Kaleej pheasant Lophura leucomelanos 0.07±0.03 

Peacock pheasant Polyplectron bicalcaratum 0.04±0.03 

Oriental pied hornbill Anthracoceros albirostris 0.11±0.04 Hornbills 0.69 

Wreathed hornbill Aceros undulatus 0.35±0.09 

Great hornbill Buceros bicornis 0.23±0.05 

*indicates encounter rates of troops 

16 



Table 2. Number of photos and relative abundance indices for species on camera traps in Namdapha NP (Oct 2006-Dec 2007). 

Species Total photos Independent photos RAI1 RAI2 

Stump-tailed macaque Macaca arctoides 40 40 38 2.60 

Capped langur Trachypithecus pileatus 2 1 1537 0.06 

Sambar Cervus unicolor 3 3 512 0.19 

Muntjacs Muntiacus muntjak & M. crinifrons? 121 71 22 4.62 

Wild pig Sus scrofa 7 3 512 0.19 

Malayan Sun bear Helarctos malayanus 3 1 1537 0.06 

Clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa 2 2 768 0.13 

Marbled cat Pardofelis marmorata 2 2 768 0.13 

Golden cat Catopuma temmincki 4 4 384 0.26 

Leopard cat Prionailurus bengalensis 11 6 256 0.39 

Ferret badger Melogale sp. 5 4 384 0.26 

Yellow-throated marten Martes flavigula 10 5 307 0.32 

Large Indian civet Viverra zibetha 12 11 140 0.72 

Common palm civet Paradoxurus hermaphroditus 11 4 384 0.26 

Himalayan palm civet Paguma larvata 5 5 307 0.32 

Crab-eating mongoose Herpestes urva 4 2 768 0.13 

White-tailed mole Parascaptor leucura 1 1 1537 0.06 

Asiatic brush-tailed porcupine Atherurus macrourus 23 17 90 1.11 

Himalayan crestless porcupine Hystrix brachyura 29 21 73 1.37 

Squirrels Dremomys sp. & Callosciurus sp. 3 3 512 0.19 

Malay tree shrew Tupaia belangeri 1 1 1537 0.06 

Rats 40 20 77 1.3 

Unknown mammals 4 4 384 0.26 

Kalij pheasant Lophura leucomelanos 57 25 27 3.71 

Grey peacock pheasant Polyplectron bicalcaratum 29 11 53 1.89 

RAI1: Number of days required to get single photo capture, RAI2: Number of photos per 100 trap-days 

urus hermaphroditus) and Chinese or Small-toothed 

Ferret-badger (Melogale moschata). These are among 

the first photographic evidences of these species at 

project sites, and some have hitherto never been photographed 

in the wild in India. Other rare or little-known 

species recorded included the Himalayan Crestless porcupine 

(Hystrix brachyura), the Brush-tailed porcupine 

(Atherurus macrourus) and the Stump-tailed macaque 

(Macaca arctoides). Seventeen bird species (including 2 

pheasant and two partridge species) were also recorded. 

Only 3 ungulate species were captured on camera 

traps, with barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak) being relatively 

more abundant than sambar (Cervus unicolor) 

or wild pig (Sus scrofa). 

There were no detections of tigers, leopards and 

wild dog on camera traps, the three major predators of 

large ungulate prey in Namdapha despite the high effort 

of 2,000 trap nights (both years combined). The 

only large carnivores detected through camera trapping 

were the clouded leopard and the Malayan sun bear. Indirect 

signs of tiger were also not seen during this win- 



17

ter survey in Namdapha. In contrast, Pakke WLS where 

there is less hunting and better protection, tiger signs 

(pugmarks, scats) are commonly encountered. In addition, 

there were no detections of large herbivore species 

such as Asian elephant, gaur or serow. 

We obtained an average of 23 mammal pictures 

per 100 days in Namdapha. Barking deer was the 

most abundant, followed by Stump-tailed macaque and 

Himalayan crestless porcupine based on camera trapping 

records in Namdapha. With the exception of Indian 

muntjac and some smaller mammals, encounter rates 

of the target species were far lower at Namdapha compared 

to reports from other sites in south-east Asia, 

while several larger species were not recorded at all in 

Namdapha. 

Trail walks, and systematic line transects are 

used in many places to estimate animal densities. In 

Namdapha National Park, however, over 23 trails totalling 

an effort of roughly 42 km between 2005 and 

2007, there was just one sighting of a terrestrial mammal: 

barking deer was seen once and its calls were 

heard on four occasions. The species encountered during 

transects were arboreal mammals – four species 

of squirrels and five species of primates (hoolock gibbon, 

capped langur, Assamese macaque, stump-tailed 

macaque and rhesus macaque) –hornbills, pheasants 

and partridges. Due to very low numbers of sightings of 

species, we summarize and report the encounter rates 

(no. per km) of species groups (Table 3). 

Pilot surveys in Namdapha from 2004-2005 and 

prior work (only 17 detections in 740 km walked) suggested 

that standard methods for density estimation of 

ungulate species could not be used because of poor detectability 

and low abundance of ungulates. The pellet 

and track survey also established very low abundance 

of ungulates in Namdapha. Five species of large ungulates 

were detected in pellet and track plots, however, 

only 35 pellet groups were detected in 22 of 387 plots. 

While barking deer tracks were detected in 100% of the 

sampled grids, sambar tracks were detected in 81% of 

grids, wild pig in 50% of grids, gaur in 18% of grids and 

serow in 5% of grids. 

We chose the occupancy framework for generating 

baselines of ungulate species that are targeted by 

hunting for long-term monitoring of changes in occupancy 

of ungulates in response to reduction in hunting 

pressures. Occupancy analyses using pellet data and 

covariate data on habitat and disturbance variables, 

indicated that occupancy estimates were high for Indian 

muntjac Muntiacus muntjak (1) and sambar Cervus 

unicolor (0.8) and they seem to be unaffected by disturbance. 

Occupancy estimates of gaur Bos gaurus (0.24) 

and wild pig Sus scrofa (0.45) were low and they were 

negatively affected by disturbance. The occupancy estimates 

of all three large species that are important prey 

of the tiger are low in comparison to a better protected 

site in south-east Asia. Results indicate that even occupancy 

models may have limited applicability in tracking 

positive changes in the status of species (such as sambar 

and barking deer) that are not abundant, yet are 

widespread. Population estimation methods need to be 

developed for terrestrial mammals that can be used to 

track changes in population status. 

We have mobilized the community in taking a 

stand against hunting and effecting changes in hunting 

levels. We also record instances of hunting activity 

and evidences of hunting in Namdapha through direct 

evidence or information from local project staff and 

the community. Although hunting levels have declined 

among the community, there are still instances of hunting 

inside the Namdapha NP by a few from the community, 

other tribes and outsiders coming in from neighbouring 

Myanmar. We have suggested ways to involve 

and employ the community in park protection to local 

and national forest protection authorities. 

Table 3. Encounter rates of faunal groups in Namdapha NP. 

Species group Detections (encounter rate, no./km) Sightings (encounter rate, no./km) 

Primates 28 (0.67) 19 (0.45) 

Ungulates 4 (0.01) 1 (0.02) 

Squirrels 14 (0.33) 15 (0.36) 

Hornbills 13 (0.31) 7 (0.17) 

Pheasants and partridges 7 (0.17) 5 (0.12) 

18 



Mapping forest cover change in Namdapha and the surrounding landscape 

Analysis of satellite imageries of the park to understand 

changes in forest cover is underway. We have used over 

700 GPS locations to enable habitat classification. We 

are comparing changes at two levels, a) at a landscape 

level for Namdapha and surrounding areas over 30 

years and b), analysis of the scale of clearing and degradation 

by settlements in the park between 1997 and 

2006. We obtained images from the area (28.5 m resolution) 

for 1999 (soon after settlements came up) and 

2005 (current) and initial analysis of these two images 

is complete. Preliminary results suggest that about 3% 

Conservation education and advocacy 

of the park area is currently affected by settlements/ 

cultivation/temporary habitation and degraded forests 

due to human impact, while 1% of the park area is 

under settlements and cultivation. In terms of area affected, 

about 45 km 2 in the park appears to be affected 

by human use, with 16 km 2 under settlements/cultivation/human 

habitation. A proper comparison with the 

1999 image can occur only after all classification and 

verification is completed. 

We are using educational material produced since 2003 

for conservation education, in partnership with several 

regional and local NGOs and individuals for wider 

dissemination. On-site activities at project sites with 

schoolchildren in 9 schools included hornbill painting 

competitions, slide and film shows, games and activities, 

poster reading sessions. At one site, these programs are 

being conducted in local schools with assistance from 

tribal youth from a local NGO. Relevant conservation 

education material produced by other organizations 

is also disseminated in these schools. We have written 

and developed an environment and nature activity and 

handbook specifically for tribal schoolchildren in villages 

around the two project sites with a supplementary 

guide book for teachers. Final artwork is awaited, and 

content is under revision. An educational audio-visual 

CD introducing children to the wonders of the forests 

and wildlife of Arunachal Pradesh through the eyes and 

voice of a reformed tribal hunter is being produced. 

However production has been delayed somewhat and 

it should be completed by July 2007. We are developing 

wildlife alphabet cards for primary schoolchildren, 

a set of mammal posters for Namdapha, and an antihunting 

poster to discourage buying and selling of wild 

meat and wild meat products. Design and production is 

underway and expected to be completed by July 2007. 

Repeated advocacy with forest, state and central 

authorities is resulting in changing negative attitudes 

to Lisus and helping in decision-making that were long 

pending. This year, the authorities have held several 

meetings and were to conduct a land survey in an area 

suggested by NCF (and agreed on by the district administration 

and the community) for resettlement outside 

the park. However, lack of coordination by the authorities 

resulted in postponement and delay in this survey. 

The idea of a community (Lisu) protection force for the 

park has also been mooted. 

In July 2006, Aparajita Datta, was also appointed 

a member of the State Wildlife Advisory Board for Arunachal 

as a representative from the Nature Conservation 

Foundation. This forum provides an opportunity to 

highlight conservation problems and suggest solutions. 

The Board is chaired by the state’s Chief Minister and 

in the first meeting in December 2006 a quick solution 

to the relocation issue has been urged and agreed on. A 

visit was planned in April 2007 with the Chief Wildlife 

Warden of the state, however this was cancelled due to 

other engagements of the Chief Wildlife Warden. A visit 

and meeting is now planned for July-August 2007. However, 

the park is still beset by problems of poor management 

and poor enforcement and protection by local 

authorities and an early solution will depend on greater 

co-operation between local park authorities and district 

administration. 

Community welfare interventions: health care and education 

Our community health care program initiated from 

2003 has improved through partnership with a health 

care NGO since last year. This year, a qualified doctor 

spent two months in the villages carrying out medical 

check-ups and treatment and conducted an eight-day 

training program for 22 village youth on diagnosis, 

treatment of common diseases, basic hygiene, family 

planning etc. She also evaluated the medicinal require- 



19

ments and suggested improvements. A report on community 

health care issues and recommendations on improvement 

of health care in the area has been prepared 

for submission to the state health authorities and health 

care NGOs. We also plan to conduct a family planning 

camp with local doctors in late 2007 based on requests 

from villagers. 

We had set up five kindergarten schools in the 

Lisu villages in and around Namdapha in 2003, which 

now provide better education for over 500 children 

now. The schools are run and managed by local youth 

and village community leaders and parents. This year, 

the community demonstrated their support and commitment 

by building a proper school. This year, all the 

teachers attended a 10 day training program on better 

quality teaching by teachers from Katha, a national educational 

NGO. The villagers have established linkages 

with this NGO that will result in inputs for quality education 

and more employment for village youth. We have 

also provided a computer for the village and continue 

providing educational material for the schools. 

Livelihoods for the Lisu 

Baseline data on socio-economic conditions, land-use 

patterns and other important parameters in all Lisu villages 

inside and outside the park were collected in 2005 

and 2006. This has resulted in a better understanding 

of community needs and problems and in identifying 

possible areas for interventions. Given the lack of employment 

options and market access in a remote area, 

we identified some points of intervention to help augment 

incomes in the community. Meetings in three villages 

were conducted with women to discuss the potential 

and scope for augmenting vegetable production in 

home gardens for household consumption and income. 

The women have also pledged to take a stand against 

hunting in their community. Initial assistance has been 

provided for purchase and supply of vegetable seeds. In 

meetings in April 2007 to discuss possible viable livelihood 

options, community leaders expressed the need 

for starting a piggery to meet consumption and income 

needs. After several discussions, a plan was worked 

out by which beneficiaries would be identified and modalities 

of the scheme worked out. This would involve 

contributions in the form of labour and manpower by 

the community and financial assistance in initial investments 

by NCF for starting the piggery. The actual establishment 

will commence in September-October 2007 

after the rainy season. We are also assisting one village 

(of 40 households) in establishing linkages to external 

markets for sale of handicrafts. We have contacted organizations 

in Guwahati and Delhi to help promote Lisu 

handicrafts. Samples and product pictures and descriptions 

have been provided to two commercial enterprises 

and some individuals. The initial effort has resulted 

in generating supplementary cash income for several 

families amounting to about $600. Financial support 

was also provided to a partner tribal NGO near the Namdapha 

NP to help establish and set up a tribal handicraft 

shop to help augment income for villagers and generate 

awareness among the locals and outside tourists about 

Namdapha and its importance. The shop has been built 

and will open for the winter tourist season. 

Muntjac mysteries: establishing the identity of muntjac specimens through DNA analysis 

20 



Recent biological exploration in the Eastern Himalaya 

biodiversity hotspot has resulted in the discovery of 

muntjac species (genus Muntiacus) previously unknown 

from the area. One of these, the leaf deer (M. putaoensis) 

a species new to science, was first described from 

northern Myanmar. It was subsequently found to occur 

in eastern Arunachal Pradesh during a survey in 2003. 

Confirmation was based on morphometric analyses of 

two skulls collected from local hunters. The discovery 

doubled the size of its known east-west range, which 

is significant for a newly-discovered and poorly understood 

species. However, ambiguity remained regarding 

several other partial skulls and dried skin samples collected 

during subsequent surveys. The sympatric occurrence 

of the Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak further 

complicates species identification based primarily on 

morphometry. In order to conclusively determine species 

identity, we conducted molecular genetic analyses 

of skull and skin specimens that were potentially of the 

Indian muntjac M. muntjak, the only muntjac hitherto 

known from the area. We developed molecular genetic 

analyses that can unambiguously identify muntjac species. 

In this project, we tested and applied our methods 

to unknown skin samples to confirm the occurrence of 

the leaf deer in Arunachal Pradesh. Our study also confirmed 

that five samples were of the black muntjac M.

crinifrons, a species previously known only from eastern 

China. A comparison of genetic variation between 

the Chinese and Indian black muntjacs revealed high 

population subdivision. Phylogenetic analyses revealed 

that the Indian population is reciprocally monophyletic 

with the Chinese population, and given genetic differences 

and current geographical isolation between these 

populations, the Indian population should possibly be 

considered a separate evolutionarily significant unit. 

Apart from its isolation, this population deserves special 

conservation importance because it faces extinction 

threat due to subsistence hunting. Finally, we used 

our samples and genetic data from three mitochondrial 

markers to establish phylogenetic affinities between 

these samples and other extant members of the Muntiacus 

genus. Our studies confirmed the occurrence of two 

other muntjac species in a region earlier believed to 

harbour only the Indian muntjac. Our approach, which 

combined the use of specific primers and phylogenetic 

analyses, revealed the importance of interdisciplinary 

methods in elucidating cryptic biodiversity in unexplored 

and species-rich areas like north-east India. 

Hunting practices by indigenous people in Arunachal Pradesh, a biodiversity hotspot 

Arunachal Pradesh is unique for not only its rich natural 

heritage but also for its social and cultural heritage. 

Apart from being located in a biodiversity hotspot, it 

is home to 26 major indigenous communities. These 

communities are dependent on forests and wildlife for 

food, medicine, ritual and customs. Although hunting 

is widespread throughout the state, there is a lack of 

understanding of its extent, ecological impacts, and its 

socio-cultural aspects. 

Hunting has a significant impact on wildlife 

throughout the world, leading to decline in populations 

and sometimes driving species to extinction. The lack 

of a scientific understanding of hunting in Arunachal 

Pradesh remains a serious lacuna, hampering the designing 

of appropriate, culturally sensitive conservation 

strategies. 

This project aims to gain an informed understanding 

of wildlife hunting by tribal communities in 

Arunachal Pradesh that will help in developing imaginative 

and innovative conservation strategies. 

The objectives of the project are (1) to determine 

the range of species hunted, hunter motivations, hunting 

practices and patterns (2) to determine the impacts 

of hunting on key mammalian and avifaunal groups and 

(3) to document people’s attitudes towards wildlife 

conservation and ways of reducing their dependence 

on wildlife resources. 

In the initial survey, data for the first objective 

was collected with a rapid survey of some of the dominant 

tribes in three districts (the Miju Mishmi, Meyor, 

Monpa and the Nishi). Field work was carried out for 

five months starting from January 2006. Data on hunting 

patterns and practices were collected through extensive 

interviews using questionnaires and informal 

discussions with hunter households, key informants 

and other villagers. Information on hunting could be 

easily obtained from a majority of respondents except 

in a few villages that were close to towns. Villagers 

usually talked without any reluctance and took pride 

in sharing the information on hunting which is part of 

their culture. 

There was widespread hunting of wildlife 

throughout the districts visited with 33 mammal species 

being hunted. Although food was cited as the main 

reason for hunting, rituals played a vital role in motivating 

hunting among animistic tribes. The consumption 

of wild meat was most common in Miju Mishmi villages 

in Lohit and Anjaw. Domestic meat is viewed as a reserve 

resource which is required for sacrifices during 

rituals or kept for sale. Wild meat on the other hand is 

regarded as a resource which is freely available in the 

forests and can be procured any time. In general, people 

reported that they prefer wild meat, despite 90% consumption 

of domestic meat. 

Three types of hunters were documented during 

the study. First, are the specialist hunters who target 

particular species such as musk deer, black bear 

and takin. These hunters undertake long treks, camp in 

the forest for several days and return only after some 

success. The second type are the opportunistic hunters 

who are more generalist in hunting animals. They 

undertake one-day trips and get whatever they capture 

and trips are mostly in nearby forests. The third category 

of hunters are the ritualistic hunters. The hunting 

trips are carried out only for gathering wild meat to be 

given as bride price. Religion appeared to be important 



21

in determining levels of hunting, with animistic tribes 

hunting more than Buddhist tribes. Hunting of species 

such as musk deer, takin and black bear was common 

among the Meyor who knew the high market value of 

animal products such as musk pods and bear gall bladder 

and reported selling these in towns. 

The number of active hunters and levels of hunting 

were higher in remote villages compared to villages 

that had road access and were closer to towns. Remote 

villages have few alternate employment opportunities 

compared to villages closer to towns and people have 

more free time to go hunting. The level of awareness 

was low in the region except in Nishi villages around 

the Pakke Tiger Reserve (East Kameng) and among the 

Monpa in Tawang, where people were aware of wildlife 

laws against hunting and reported lower levels of hunting. 

The survey also documented a variety of indigenous 

traps and snares, the economic value of animal species 

and products, the ritual significance and use of certain 

species and taboos related to hunting 

Linking rural energy and nature conservation in a tribal village in Arunachal Pradesh 

One village was selected last year to provide alternate 

rural energy options (solar power for lighting, fuel-efficient 

cooking stoves and water heating gadgets) primarily 

to reduce the high dependence on forests for fuelwood 

and also to improve quality of life for the villagers. 

This has generated tremendous goodwill among the villagers 

and they reiterated their no-hunting pledges in 

meetings this year. The project has been approved by 

the Department of Science & Technology and work is 

expected to commence later this year. 

Team 

• Project investigator: Aparajita Datta 

• Collaborators: Dr. Harini Nagendra, ATREE; Phupla Singpho, SEACOW; Dr. Uma Ramakrishnan, NCBS; Dr. M. D. 

Madhusudan, NCF; Nandita Hazarika, Ecosystems-India 

• Research Affiliates: Rohit Naniwadekar, M. O. Anand, Somajita Paul, Vena Kapoor, Meghna Krishadas, Jiffy James 

Vadakkan, Ambika Aiyadurai 

• Field staff: Late Taya Tayum, Narayan Mogar, Rasham Barra, Kumar Tayum (all in Pakke TR); Akhi Nathany, 

Duchaye Yobin, Ngwa-akhi Yobin, Shekhar Subba, Khichaye Yobin (in Namdapha TR); 

• Other programme staff: Joshua Yobin, Phuyohey Yobin, Ngwashosey Yobin, Yumaphu Yobin, Selisa Yobin, Tsiyosa 

Yobin, Selifa Yobin 





• Ford Foundation, New Delhi 

• Disney Wildlife Conservation Fund, USA (Wildlife Conservation Society, USA) 

• Katha, New Delhi 

• Individual donors: Nicholas Thompson, Ravi Subramanian 

22 



Collaborations and Partnerships with Institutions and Individuals 

• Katha, New Delhi 

• Ecosystems-India, Guwahati 

• Society for Environmental Awareness and Conservation of Wildlife, Miao, Arunachal Pradesh (SEACOW, a local 

tribal NGO in Namdapha) 

• Dr. Harini Nagendra, GIS and remote sensing expert, Ashoka Trust for Environment and Education, Bangalore 

(ATREE) 

• Dr. Uma Ramakrishnan, National Centre for Biological Sciences, Bangalore 

• Imperial College, London 

i j 



23

P from left: An Elaeocarpus munronii sapling 

planted in 2003, three years later; the ‘step-ear’ 

herd near Valparai; Psechrus torvus a spider of 

relatively undisturbed rainforest; Srinivasan of 

Koomati village illustrating the use of pegs on a 

tree trunk to collect honey.

i WESTERN GHATS RAINFORESTS j 

Through research and action, NCF’s rainforest programme 

attempts to understand and ameliorate the 

consequences of historical fragmentation and conversion 

of tropical rainforest in the southern Western 

Ghats. Ecological research on plant and animal communities, 

restoration of degraded areas, and documentation 

and mitigation of human-wildlife conflict, are major 

themes in this programme led by Divya Mudappa, 

T. R. Shankar Raman, and M. Ananda Kumar. Activities 

over the last year included formation of a new partnership 

for rainforest restoration and native shade tree use 

in plantations, restoration of new areas, research on 

invasive plants, spiders, arboreal mammals, and Asian 

elephants, and a study on livelihood and resource use 

patterns of tribal communities in rainforests of the Anamalai 

hills. 

Fixing fragmented forests: ecological restoration of degraded rainforests 

The goal of this project is to evolve strategies for the 

conservation of the degraded tropical rainforests of the 

Western Ghats by ecological restoration in fragmented 

landscapes and by contributing to the development of 

sustainable plantation agricultural practices that aid in 

conservation of native biological diversity. The project 

is led by Divya Mudappa & Shankar Raman based at 

the NCF Rainforest Restoration Research Station in 

Valparai. 

Launched in a small way in 2000, this project aims to 

bring more degraded rainforest areas with high biological 

diversity potential into restoration and conservation 

efforts as refuges and corridors in the fragmented landscape 

of the Anamalai hills, an important conservation 

region in India. Over the years, it has emphasised research 

and monitoring, training of conservation professionals, 

building local capacity for restoration, conservation 

education, dissemination of results in scientific 

forums and popular media, and identifying livelihood 

and resource-use patterns of local people and involving 

them in conservation efforts. 

The 220 km² Valparai plateau in the Anamalai 

hills is a region of tea and coffee plantations with around 

40 rainforest fragments. Here, we built partnerships 

with local land-owning plantation companies for identification 

and protection of remnant rainforest patches, 

restoration of degraded areas, and use of native rainforest 

tree species as shade trees in plantations. This went 

hand-in-hand with research on select plants and animal 

groups, human-elephant conflict and mitigation studies, 

and conservation awareness-building. 

We continued our partnerships for restoration 

and conservation with Parry Agro Industries Ltd into 

2007. Our partnership with Hindustan Lever Ltd ended 

with the sale of the company in early 2006; however, 

we successfully continued the programme by initiating 

contact and a fresh partnership with the new company, 

Tea Estates India Ltd. Our MoU with the Bombay Burmah 

Trading Corporation Ltd ended late last year, although 

activities with them continue (we are currently 

exploring the renewal of the partnership, aimed mainly 

at the use of indigenous rainforest trees as shade trees 

in plantations). In addition, our programme also expanded 

through a new partnership with Tata Coffee Ltd 

a major plantation company in the area, with a relatively 

strong corporate social and environmental record. 

Tata Coffee owns large areas of cardamom and coffee 

plantation, besides tea plantations. Within their estates, 

we have identified through field surveys 15 rainforest 

fragments ranging in size from 1 ha to 67 ha, which are 



25

now in the process of being protected and prepared for 

restoration efforts from 2007 onwards. 

Over the last few years, we have planted 11,582 

saplings of over 120 rainforest tree and liana species 

covering an area of around 9 ha in 4 fragments. In addition, 

around 7,700 saplings of around 50 species are 

being used as shade trees in tea, coffee, and vanilla 

plantations. Around 2,400 rainforest tree and liana saplings 

were planted in restoration sites in 2006, besides 

around 1,500 as future shade trees in plantations. The 

area of the fragments targeted for restoration is around 

135 ha and there are encouraging signs of recovery 

within restoration plots and in a wider area within 

these protected sites, although some problems such 

as tree and sapling cutting for fuel-wood continue in a 

couple of sites. 

Regular photographic and survival monitoring 

of plots continued in 2006. The results of survival 

monitoring indicate an average sapling survival of 60% 

(range: 34 – 90%) after 2 years across all restoration 

plots. These results were analysed and included in a 

manuscript which has been accepted for publication 

in the leading international journal Restoration Ecology. 

Retaining regenerating native species during weed 

clearing operations was crucial for rapid re-establishment 

of a first layer of canopy to shade-out weeds and 

enhance survival of shade-tolerant rainforest seedlings. 

The recovery of vegetation in these sites is also clearly 

evidenced from the photographic documentation of 

restoration sites. 

Training and workshops are a regular part of 

our programme; among these, three important meetings/workshops 

held over the last year are indicated in 

the table below. 

The rainforest restoration programme has had 

a steady stream of visitors since its inception, with a 

distinct increase noted in recent years. In an assessment 

made this year, we found that we have had at least 

251 recorded visitors from 50 institutions spanning 11 

countries. Around 100 visitors were in 2006. Most visitors 

spend between 1 and 14 days in Valparai, visiting 

the nursery and restoration sites, watching wildlife, and 

learning about our conservation activities. Some have 

specifically come for training in these activities. Over 

half the visitors were students and lay persons, while 

a significant portion of the remainder were managers, 

government officers, scientists, and conservationists. 

This centre, under development in a building 

provided by Parry Agro Industries Ltd, will have three 

themed rooms: habitats, biodiversity, and conservation, 

with posters containing photographs and educational 

information in English and Tamil. Over 15 nature photographers 

have donated c. 200 stunning images and 

over 50 beautifully-designed posters are being prepared. 

Conservation issues and ecosystem functions 

are going to be brought to life are paintings by a reputed 

wildlife artist, Maya Ramaswamy. Library material and 

educational films about nature are also available and 

we anticipate the opening of this Centre in 2007. 

Interaction meeting Discussion points Participants 

Meeting and field visit regarding 

rainforest corridor, 10 May 2006, 

18 May 2006 

Workshop on Restoration and 

conservation action in Indira 

Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil 

Nadu Forest Department, 7 

November 2006, Valparai 

State-level workshop on Ecological 

Restoration of Degraded 

Ecosystems organised with Tamil 

Nadu Forest Department and 

UNDP Post-tsunami Environment 

Initiative, 19 Dec 2006, Chennai 

Corridor connecting two fragments 

and Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary 

Workshop and field visit to nursery 

and restoration sites (manual in 

English and Tamil produced). Followup 

: assisting Forest Department with 

nursery and selection of sites for joint 

implementation of restoration. 

15 technical presentations, and panel 

discussions (Annexure 6). Minutes of 

the Workshop have been prepared and 

follow-up initiated with Tamil Nadu 

Forest Department. 

Managers from 5 plantation 

companies, Forest Department 

officials, NCF scientist 

Conservator of Forests 

(Coimbatore), Wildlife Warden 

(IGWLS), range officers and 

field staff of the Indira Gandhi 

Wildlife Sanctuary. 

The workshop had over 80 

participants including 3 PCCFs, 

Conservators, and DFOs of TN 

Forest Department, scientists, 

students, & conservationists. 

26 



Number of visitors to the rainforest restoration and research programme at Valparai, Anamalai hills. 

A heady brew: invasive coffee and other non-indigenous weeds in tropical rainforest fragments 

Globally, the threat of invasive species to natural ecosystems 

along with habitat loss forms two of the greatest 

threats to conservation of biological diversity. In the 

Western Ghats, where rainforests are often surrounded 

by plantations, many invasive weeds, including coffee 

have spread into forest patches. This study by Atul A. 

Joshi assessed the effects of edges and forest structure 

on the occurrence and abundance of non-indigenous 

species. 

Tropical rainforests in the Western Ghats of India, 

biological diversity hotspot in India, have historically 

been fragmented and much of these fragments are 

now surrounded by plantation crops of non-indigenous 

species such as coffee, Eucalyptus, and tea. Many nonindigenous 

plant species now occur in some rainforest 

fragments of the Western Ghats, including coffee (Arabica: 

Coffea arabica and Robusta: C. canephora) and others 

such as Lantana camara, Eupatorium glandulosum, 

and Maesopsis eminii. 

Four rainforest fragments in the Valparai plateau 

of the southern Western Ghats, varying in degree 

of disturbance and area were selected for this study 

that formed Atul’s MSc dissertation from the Forest Research 

Institute, Dehradun. All the fragments have coffee 

plantation adjacent to at least one of their edges. In 

each fragment, vegetation was sampled systematically 

and uniformly using quadrats distributed along replicate 

line transects. We also measured various forest 

structural variables such as canopy cover and basal 

area in these quadrats. 

The results showed that the coffee variety that 

was grown in adjoining plantations (Arabica or Robusta) 

was correspondingly more abundant inside fragments. 

Both coffee species showed a clear decline in 

stem density of from edge (0 m) to interior (250 m). 

The factors probably responsible for this pattern are 

propagule pressure of adjoining plantations, edge effects, 

and seed dispersal by animals. Stem density of 

Arabica coffee was higher in more disturbed fragments 

and less in relatively undisturbed forest fragments. But 

Robusta coffee showed higher stem density in disturbed 

as well as undisturbed forests fragments. In general, invasive 

plant species shows decrease in density with the 

increase in canopy cover and decrease in level of disturbance. 

But coffee, especially Robusta coffee, in some 

of the study fragments showed increase in density with 

increase in canopy cover and was less affected by the 

level of disturbance. This indicates the potential threat 

of coffee invasion even in closed-canopy rainforests. 

In addition, a negative relationship between Robusta 

coffee and native shrub density indicates the potential 

threat to native biological diversity of the rainforest 

fragments. 

Unlike coffee, other non-indigenous species 

were virtually absent in undisturbed large fragments 

and showed no clear edge-interior pattern. Their abundance 

was related to forest structural variables such as 

canopy cover. Disturbances that open the canopy such 

as creation of roads, fire-lines, and power-lines, or treefelling 

for fuel-wood or timber extraction can thus lead 

to invasions by these species into tropical rainforests. 



27

Survival of mammal populations in rainforest fragments 

Assessing the conservation value of rainforest fragments 

on lands outside protected areas, such as private 

lands, is gaining increasing attention in global conservation 

priorities. NCF, in a study by Hari Sridhar, examined 

mammal populations in tropical rainforest fragments 

and assessed their status through comparisons 

with earlier studies. 

The study estimated mammal densities using linetransect 

sampling, in five protected rainforest patches 

within the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and four 

private rainforest fragments on the Valparai plateau. As 

many as 24 out of 28 mammal species recorded in protected 

rainforests, also persisted in fragments on private 

land. Comparisons between fragments and sanctuary 

sites showed that 8 out of 10 species evaluated 

maintained similar densities in these two strata (see 

figure). 

The lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus), an 

endangered Western Ghats endemic, achieved much 

higher density and average troop sizes in the private 

fragments compared to the sanctuary. Densities in fragments 

(total number of individuals divided by fragment 

area) could have however been artificially inflated because 

all species also use larger areas around the fragments 

to forage or move through—a sort of artificial 

‘compression’ effect. Nevertheless, the persistence of 

most mammals in fragments can be attributed to low 

hunting pressure, the ability to use surrounding plantations, 

lowered predation pressures, and increased food 

availability in and around fragments for terrestrial and 

arboreal mammals. For example, fruit trees such as jackfruit 

and shade trees in coffee plantations around frag- 

ments provide leaves and fruits for arboreal mammals 

such as Indian giant squirrels and lion-tailed macaques. 

The relatively degraded private fragments also contain 

grass and secondary vegetation used by ungulates such 

as gaur and barking deer. 

We then examined what habitat parameters 

were best correlates or predictors of the arboreal mammal 

densities. Across sites, these turned out to be different 

for different species. Indian giant squirrel (Ratufa 

indica) abundance was negatively correlated to canopy 

overlap, lion-tailed macaque abundance was negatively 

correlated to patch area and canopy overlap, while Nilgiri 

langur (Trachypithecus johnii) abundance showed 

no significant correlates and was similar across most 

sites. 

Comparison with estimates from earlier studies 

showed that the densities of all three arboreal mammal 

species have increased in the last decade, especially in 

the private fragments. The persistence and increase in 

abundance of mammals in private fragments can be attributed 

to a number of reasons—proximity to large 

contiguous forests that have remained largely protected 

for over a century, low hunting pressure, species’ 

ability to use matrix habitats, lack of predators, and 

high food availability. The relative importance of each 

of these needs investigation. While the persistence of 

mammals in private fragments is encouraging, effects 

of high densities due to the effects of fragmentation or 

‘compression’ on long-term population dynamics, behavioural 

changes, and social organization also needs 

to be looked into. 

28 

Mammal densities in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (IGWLS) and in fragments on private lands. (Bars = 95% C. I.). 



Hanging by a thread: persistence of spider communities in tropical rainforest fragments 

This study by Vena Kapoor examined the community 

structure and patterns of diversity of spiders in disturbed 

rainforest fragments and shade-coffee plantations 

in comparison with continued rainforests in the 

Anamalai Hills of the Western Ghats. One of the aims of 

the project was to identify species or groups that may 

serve as indicators of habitat quality. 

Studies looking at the effects of tropical forest 

fragmentation and disturbance have tended to focus 

on vertebrate groups particularly birds and mammals, 

and plants. There has been little research on invertebrates 

despite their extraordinary diversity in tropical 

rainforests. Spiders are a group of invertebrate predators 

in tropical ecosystems that are known to be sensitive 

indicators of environmental change. They have an 

added advantage of being conspicuous and amenable 

to techniques of observation that are relatively cheap, 

easily deployable, and replicable, making them a group 

suitable for statistical comparisons, and monitoring of 

sites or habitats. Furthermore, their predatory habits, 

short life cycles, varied dispersal systems, and sensitivity 

to change in vegetation structure make spiders good 

ecological indicators. 

For the study, we selected 10 rainforest fragments 

ranging in size from 11 ha to 2,600 ha under 

varying levels of degradation within the Indira Gandhi 

Wildlife Sanctuary and private lands of the Valparai plateau, 

and two shade-coffee plantation sites. Spider were 

sampled using visual searches along time-constrained 

belt transects between January and May 2005. Within 

a total sampled area of 5.76 ha, we recorded 4,565 individual 

spiders (4,300 detections) belonging to 156 

morpho-species within 21 families and 8 functional 

groups (based on hunting method and web type). The 

estimated total number of understorey spider species 

in the study area was 192 (±5 SD) species, representing 

around 13% of the total number of spider species so far 

described from India. 

Overall spider density, species richness, and 

species density showed no trend in relation to fragment 

area across all sites. Specific comparisons among 

undisturbed sites indicated however that high altitude 

sites had fewer species than mid-altitude sites and fragments 

had fewer species than relatively larger continuous 

forest sites. In contrast to the lack of trend in overall 

species richness and abundance, species composition 

changed substantially in relation to habitat alteration 

and altitude. Across sites, spider species composition revealed 

four distinct clusters: high altitude undisturbed 

sites, mid-altitude disturbed sites with an undisturbed 

mid altitude site, mid-altitude highly disturbed sites 

with a disturbed site, and shade-coffee plantation sites. 

Spider species (especially Psechrus torvus and Tylorida 

culta) that contributed significantly to the dissimilarity 

between undisturbed and disturbed rainforest sites, 

and rainforest and shade-coffee sites, were identified as 

useful indicators of habitat alteration. 

The Elephant Hills: facilitating human-elephant coexistence in a fractured landscape 

This project led by M. Ananda Kumar, NCF’s Conservation 

Officer who has over a decade of experience in conservation 

in the Anamalai hills, has provided an insightful 

look at ecology and behaviour of Asian elephants. It 

has also enabled a critical look at the interactions and 

conflict between elephants and people in the fragmented 

Valparai plateau landscape. 

Knowledge of interactions and conflicts between 

people and elephants is crucial for understanding and 

designing proper human-elephant conflict resolutions 

in altered habitats. On the Valparai plateau in the 

Anamalai hills, the juxtaposition of plantations, forest 

fragments, and human habitations interspersing with 

elephant movement routes has led to human-elephant 

conflicts. These negative interactions have led to undesirable 

consequences such as harassment of elephants 

by people, ‘elephant drive’ operations, and deployment 

of electric fence around plantations to avoid elephant 

movement in the Valparai region of the Anamalai hills. 

These acts perhaps were due to lack of understanding 

about elephant ecology, movements, and behaviour, a 

lacuna that this project has tried to address over the 

last five years. 

The 220 km² of the Valparai plateau in the 

Anamalai hills is an important conservation area for 

elephants. The plateau has been historically used and 

continues to be used by elephants. Tea, a predomi- 



29

nant plantation crop on the Valparai plateau occupies 

nearly three-fourths of the landscape followed by coffee 

and cardamom. Eucalypt patches were raised as fuel 

clearings to meet energy requirements of tea factories. 

This mosaic of habitats may have differential effect on 

elephant use of habitats on their regular movement 

between surrounding protected forests. The natural 

vegetation in this region is comprised of rainforest fragments 

and vegetation along rivers which constitutes 

less than 1%. 

In four years of study and monitoring between 

2002 and 2007, elephants were found to use areas with 

natural vegetation more than monoculture plantations, 

despite their lower availability on the plateau. Since 

2002, the use of tea has decreased and with a corresponding 

increase in the use of natural vegetation by elephants. 

Nearly 80% of elephant sightings were noticed 

away from human colonies which are widely scattered 

in the high human-density plateau (454 people/km²). 

The study indicates that elephants have a tendency to 

avoid human settlements and prefer habitats with tree 

cover for their food, shelter, and movement. 

Most of the conflicts in the Valparai region were 

due to damage to property which store food grains such 

as rice, dhal and other lentils and residential places. 

Since most of rations shops and noon-meal centres are 

either within the or close to habitations, damages were 

also noticed to human colonies. Since 2002, there has 

been 50% decline in number of conflict incidents and 

associated costs on the plateau with an annual average 

of 108 incidents (including numerous minor incidents 

such as eating garden/banana plants close to houses) 

and Rs. 333,000 cost, respectively. Upon investigating 

the high conflict places in the last four years, there were 

only six ration shops, four noon-meal centres, and six 

human colonies that have been repeatedly damaged by 

elephants. These places need to be prioritized for immediate 

protection to minimize human-elephant conflict. 

Plantation companies such as Tata Coffee Ltd 

have taken steps to shift ration shops away from colonies 

based on our suggestions. Steps have been initiated 

with the local media and the Forest Department staff 

by conducting workshops and frequent news publications 

about elephants being published in the vernacular 

(Tamil) and English daily newspapers. Fifteen news 

items have been published in the last one year as an attempt 

to develop provide regular news about elephant 

movement, their presence, and measures to reduce 

conflicts through the mass media. This has effectively 

resulted in ‘No human death’ for 31 months between 

November 2004 and May 2007. The Tamil newspaper 

reporters voluntarily agreed to publish positive articles 

about elephants at regular intervals to communicate to 

the people of the Valparai plateau. We hope that continuing 

such steps through the media will have a positive 

impact on conflict resolution and foster human-elephant 

coexistence. 

Decreasing conflict between people and elephants over the last few years in the Valparai plateau region. The number of 

accidental human deaths due to elephants has also declined. 

30 



Living amidst rainforests: tribal livelihoods and resource use 

Understanding demography, livelihoods, and resource 

use patterns of forest-dwelling peoples is an integral 

part of designing conservation strategies. This project 

carried out by Manish Chandi attempts to understand 

the livelihood of tribal people living inside the Indira 

Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, their means to livelihood, 

linkages to natural resources, and present socio-economic 

status. 

Six scheduled tribal communities live within the sanctuary 

in 36 settlements. This study covered three communities 

spread in 8 settlements living within or adjacent 

to rainforests. The communities under review 

are the Kadar, Muthuvar, and Malai Malasar in 8 chosen 

settlements. They are culturally distinct communities 

with different cultural histories, though regionally they 

share a history of contact and assimilation. 

The Kadars and the Malai Malasars were a community 

hunting and gathering in the Anamalai forests 

at different elevations more than a hundred and fifty 

years ago (from when the first records for the region are 

available). Whereas a range of cultural beliefs and systems 

have been incorporated in their lives today after 

nearly a hundred years of contact and assimilation, one 

of the earliest practices they absorbed was agriculture, 

learnt with their contact with the Muthuvar tribe. The 

Muthuvar are a community said to have fled the Kingdom 

of Madurai in the Pandian era and colonised the 

eastern slopes of the Western Ghats eventually moving 

farther afield, occupying some areas close to the higher 

ranges in parts of what are today the states of Kerala 

and Tamil Nadu. These communities have witnessed 

many changes in their habitat in the form of forestry operations, 

colonisation of their lands via tea plantations, 

and also the construction of a series of dams. These inroads 

to the forest changed their habitat and their use 

of the habitat from foraging for consumption to foraging 

for income generation. These practices have further 

changed with their lives becoming sedentary after the 

establishment of the Indira Gandhi Wildlife sanctuary 

and National Park. The transitions and acculturation 

experienced during the use of large tracts of forest for 

purposes ranging from forestry and plantations of tea 

and coffee to the trade in minor forest products has a 

bearing on their socio-economic condition and livelihood 

choices. 

For long the primary source of income has been 

through the sale of minor forest products until regulations 

to reduce the practice set in with the establishment 

of the park. Cultivated cash crops such as cardamom 

have also been sources of earning income, though 

employment as daily wage labourers in a variety of 

forest management and plantation activities in recent 

decades has provided employment opportunities during 

drier months. Such work has largely been taken up 

only by the Kadars and Malai Malasars with infrequent 

involvement of the Muthuvars. Other ventures such as 

lemon grass distillation, temporary jobs in the plains 

have been erratic although they did contribute to income. 

Small-scale cultivation of other cash crops such 

as pepper, turmeric, and coffee is being attempted by 

some communities, although daily wage labour and 

sale of minor forest produce remain primary sources of 

income. Although these people avail of some employment 

opportunities with the forest department, their 

integration with conservation goals of the sanctuary 

through opportunities in administration of the park remain 

tenuous. 

Through interactions we learnt that borrowings 

and savings are serious but not obvious issues affecting 

livelihoods. Further there has been a history of an exploitative 

trader-tribal nexus that still exists and needs 

to be tackled imaginatively. Each of the eight settlements 

are being characterised on their means to livelihood, 

the influences and drivers of change, and on some 

cultural attributes linked to their way of life. By such 

profiles created on the communities, their use of the 

physical environment and requirements may be better 

understood. Translating such perspectives and ecological 

insights into management strategies and changes 

can help, perhaps to a limited extent, balance livelihood 

needs and conservation goals of the rainforests. 



31

Team 

• Principal personnel: Divya Mudappa, T. R. Shankar Raman, M. Ananda Kumar 

• Research Affiliates: Manish Chandi, Atul A. Joshi, Vena Kapoor, Hari Sridhar 

• Field staff: Sathish, Krishnan, Dinesh, Moorthy; 



• Barakat, Inc., USA 

• Conservation, Food and Health Foundation, USA 

• UNDP-GEF Small Grants Programme, India 


• Hemant Katoch, Switzerland 

• World-Wide Fund for Nature (WWF-Nepal), 

• Rufford Maurice-Laing Foundation, UK 

• SeaWorld & Busch Gardens Conservation Fund, USA 


• Tanya Balcar & Bob Stewart, Vattakanal Conservation Trust, Kodaikanal 

• Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, Uttarakhand 

• Tea Estates India Limited 

• Parry Agro Industries Limited 

• Tata Coffee Limited 

Collaborations and partnerships with institutions and individuals 

• Bombay Burmah Trading Corporation Limited 

• UNDP Post-tsunami Environment Initiative 

i j 

32 





33

P from top: Gaur in Bandipur 

National Park; a view of the 

Sahyadri landscape; weighing 

fuelwood used by rural households; 

LPG supply to villages near 

Bandipur.

i DECIDUOUS FORESTS j 

Over the last decade, the deciduous forests programme 

has worked to develop a better understanding of the 

complex interface between ecology and society in the 

densely settled landscapes around Karnataka’s wildlife 

reserves. Over the last year, we have commenced work 

that now stretches across the states of Maharashtra, 

Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, and addresses 

the same complex interface at the larger scale of conservation 

landscapes, which comprise protected areas, 

reserved forests, and privately-owned lands. We believe 

that such a tiered understanding of the relationships 

between people and wildlife is critical both in formulating 

well-reasoned conservation policy as well as in effectively 

implementing it on the ground to bring about 

sustained conservation. Besides this broadening of programmatic 

focus, over the last year, we have continued 

to carry out projects that specifically further our un- 

derstanding of the ecology of deciduous forests as well 

the human societies that interact with these forests. We 

continue our studies examining the impacts of the invasive 

Lantana camara on forest vegetation and ungulates 

as well as an in-depth study into the ecology of the gaur 

Bos gaurus. We also carried out studies examining tree 

death patterns in these forests, and its possible drivers. 

We have also continued to work closely in the human 

landscape, understanding conflicts between people and 

wildlife, as well as the dynamics of human dependence 

on forest resources and social factors governing conservation 

interventions to minimize such dependence. 

Besides these, the programme also continues to train 

students and build local capacity to monitor conservation 

issues as well as to participate in/implement onground 

conservation solutions. This programme is led 

by M. D. Madhusudan. 

Between meso- and mega-herbivores: foraging, population and community ecology of a mega 

ruminant, gaur Bos gaurus 

The deciduous forests of the Western Ghats are home to 

a diverse community of large herbivores. Among them, 

the gaur, Bos gaurus, is interesting for its intermediate 

position between the smaller chital and sambar, 

and the elephant. Farshid Ahrestani’s study is geared 

at understanding how gaur manage their nutritional 

requirements and coexist with other herbivores. 

Following efforts at the Mysore Zoo to develop a comprehensive 

key to age-sex classification for male and female 

gaur, our project on the ecology of the gaur, being 

carried out by research scholar Farshid Ahrestani, used 

this key to sex and age 1100 individual gaur that were 

sighted during 231 encounters while travelling 2117 

km of forest roads in Bandipur National Park and Mudumalai 

Wildlife Sanctuary. Preliminary results indicate 

quite expectedly that adult females between 3-10 years 

dominate gaur populations. Gaur appear not to exhibit 

a calving peak, small calves below 2 months were observed 

throughout the year, which is in contrast to the 

calving peak (February-April) exhibited by both chital 

and sambar. These results will be used to develop an 

age-structured population model for gaur populations, 

while also trying to develop a body-size based model 

to explain the differences found in calving patterns between 

gaur, and the smaller chital and sambar. 

Preliminary results from analysing δ 13 C ratios 

in chital, sambar, gaur and elephant faeces, indicate 

that sambar primarily browse during the entire year; 

gaur, in contrast, are primarily grazers throughout the 

year; chital appear to switch to browse as the dry season 

progresses; while elephants exhibit mixed feeding 



35

through the year. As predicted there is a lower fibre content 

found in faeces of the three ungulate ruminants, in 

contrast to the higher fibre content found in elephant 

faeces. These results will also be corroborated by histological 

analyses of faeces of the four to determine 

browse:graze in diets through the year. A rapid survey 

of 400 km2 in Bandipur and Mudumalai to determine 

overlap of different herbivore species was completed in 

the late dry season (April ’07), the results of which will 

be compared to a similar wet-season survey in the midwet 

season (July-August ’07). These results will enable 

an inter-species, as well as intra-species seasonal, comparison 

between the four herbivores of interest. Physical 

and vegetative parameters in 90 (317 m2) plots have 

so far been quantified which will enable a multivariate 

analyses of gaur habitat. 

Conservation in the kitchen 

In an attempt to staunch the rapid erosion of forests 

while satisfying the genuine livelihood requirements of 

local communities, a range of innovative solutions have 

been implemented across the country. While these are 

promising in their intent, most have not been backed 

with solid evidence of their relative efficacy in the short 

and long term. Visiting student Tanya Rogers carried 

out a project to measure the effectiveness of a scheme 

that attempts to provide affordable LPG to communities 

previously dependent on forest wood for fuel. 

Despite being densely populated, India remains 

one of the best conservation prospects globally for 

many endangered large wildlife such as the tiger, gaur, 

Asian rhino and Asian elephant. These endangered species 

live cheek-by-jowl with people. Over 15% of India’s 

population – more than 150 million people – depend on 

forests, many of which are habitats of these endangered 

species, to meet their basic daily needs of food, fuel and 

fodder. 

The current approach to conservation is mainly 

preservationist and is predicated on outlawing human 

resource-use in wildlife reserves. The premise has been 

that if people were effectively excluded from these resources, 

they would inevitably discover and adopt alternatives. 

Yet, on the ground, little has changed because 

laws disallowing use of wildlife habitats for food, 

fuel and fodder have been virtually impossible to effectively 

implement. In recent times, there has also been 

an alternative approach to conservation, built around 

the provision of alternatives to resources or incomes 

derived from extractive use of forests. Given the numbers 

of forest-dependent consumers in India, the provision 

of these alternatives has been a huge uphill task. 

In any case, both approaches to conservation have suffered 

singularly from a lack of monitoring of their effectiveness. 

In the absence of this data, debates on conservation 

approaches in India continue to generate more 

heat than light. 

Today, there are examples of innovative and unorthodox 

approaches to conservation problems that 

have dogged us for decades. Extraction of fuelwood 

from forests is perhaps the most nagging among these 

examples. In the villages around Bandipur Tiger Reserve 

in south India, an organization called Namma 

Sangha has attempted a creative solution to this problem, 

which, in the years prior to 2004, has been responsible 

for the daily harvest of approximately 125 tons of 

fuelwood from the Reserve. Time series analysis of satellite 

imagery has shown chronic forest loss in this region 

over the last 30 years, and its attendant impacts on 

forest-dependant wildlife have also been severe. In this 

context, Namma Sangha’s effort made it possible for a 

large proportion (nearly 50% of the 25,000 households 

living within 5 km of the Reserve boundary) of households 

dependent on forests for fuelwood to switch to 

liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). 

In this context, we carried out carefully designed 

surveys in over 290 families spread across 17 villages to: 

(a) evaluate the role of various socioeconomic factors in 

enabling (or preventing) a family that derives fuelwood 

from Bandipur to adopt LPG as an alternative fuel; (b) 

identify the most important correlates of fuelwood consumption 

levels in this landscape; and (c) measure the 

effectiveness of LPG in reducing the household-level 

consumption of fuelwood sourced from forests. Analyses 

of these data are currently under way. 

36 



Living on the edge: Patterns of tree mortality in Bandipur’s dry deciduous forests 

The structure of the dry deciduous forests of the Western 

Ghats are being altered by the invasive exotic, Lantana 

camara, with far reach consequences for the functioning 

of the ecosystem. In a series of studies, NCF’s 

researchers Ayesha Prasad, Sumanta Bagchi and MD 

Madhusudan are unraveling the nature of these effects 

on forest dynamics. These studies are revealing 

that there is a complex interaction between L. camara 

growth, the mosaic of forest roads and elephant debarking, 

that results in significantly increased mortality of 

trees closer to roads. We are additionally conducting a 

series of manipulative experiments to test the flow-on 

consequences of this weed on native plant survival and 

forest herbivores. 

Trees largely determine forest architecture and microclimate, 

and hence abrupt rise in tree mortality 

can alter forest structure, composition, and diversity, 

and have significant impacts on wildlife as well. Forest 

edges have been shown to increase tree mortality near 

them, due to a range of factors and processes. When isolated 

from the protection of neighbouring vegetation, 

forest trees at edges are exposed to a variety of physical 

processes and environmental conditions that lead to 

greater mechanical and pathological damage, and have 

higher probabilities of dying than those in the forest 

interior. So when we noticed that roadsides, view-lines 

and clearings in Bandipur’s tourism area had alarming 

numbers of dead trees, we decided to try identifying 

factors driving this increased mortality. 

In the months September to November 2006 we 

conducted a brief survey of tree mortality patterns in 

the tourism area of Bandipur National Park. The area 

has an extensive network of roads (c. 72 km in an area 

of 32 km2), several of which are used for safaris. Along 

these safari roads, view lines of varying width are regularly 

maintained mainly to increase visibility for tourists 

but also as firebreaks. There are no view lines along 

the other roads. The regular clearing and maintenance 

of these roads and view lines create hard edges with 

the forest. In several parts of the study area, native understorey 

has been almost completely replaced by exotic 

invasive species, such as Lantana camara, whereas 

in other parts native species remain. The area is also, 

seasonally, home to high densities of elephants, whose 

feeding habits often result in extensive damage, and 

sometimes death of trees. 

First we counted numbers of dead trees near 

roads and viewlines, as well as away from them to determine 

whether the difference was large enough to 

have potential ecological effects. Second, we counted 

numbers of dead trees in wide and narrow viewlines 

to determine whether size of the clearing had any effect 

on tree mortality. Third, we counted numbers of dead 

trees in areas that were infested with invasive plant 

species, and areas that had retained native understorey 

species to assess whether invasive species were elevating 

tree mortality levels. Finally, in order to understand 

how elephant-inflicted damage was influencing these 

patterns, we counted number of live trees that showed 

signs of debarking and compared them between roadedge 

and interior, wide and narrow viewline and native 

and exotic understorey. 

The study showed that roads do have a marked 

effect of tree mortality in these forests. Furthermore 

wide clearings with invasive species, have higher tree 

death than narrow clearings or native species. Finally, 

elephant-related damage was significantly greater near 

roads and clearings than in forest interiors. These findings 

suggest that intensively managed landscapes such 

as this tourism area, with regularly maintained roads, 

clearings, firebreaks and view-lines, may be vulnerable 

to ‘unnaturally’ high levels of tree damage and consequently, 

death. Therefore, even though many of these 

forests enjoy high levels of protection, management regimes 

themselves may be adversely affecting the structure 

and function of these forest communities. 



37

A forest in weed: Impact of Lantana camara, a major invasive plant, on wildlife habitat in 

Bandipur Tiger Reserve 

Invasion by exotic species is considered one of the leading 

causes of biodiversity decline globally. Specifically, 

invasive exotic plant species have caused changes in 

species diversity, ecosystem functioning and aesthetic 

value of many habitats around the world. Lantana camara 

is one of the most widespread, terrestrial invasive 

species in India today. A native of Central and South 

America, Lantana came to India as an ornamental to be 

planted in gardens and hedges. Since then, the species 

has spread rapidly into both settled and forest lands, and 

is considered by IUCN as one of the world’s 100 most 

invasive species. The infestation of dry deciduous forests 

in India by Lantana is particularly severe and widespread. 

In places, it is so abundant that it comprises the 

bulk of the forest understorey. It grows dense, often in 

tangled, impenetrable thickets that greatly hinder large 

mammal movement, and potentially reduce forage for 

herbivores. Despite its abundance and widespread 

presence, very little is known about its ecology or its 

ecological impacts on these forests and their wildlife. 

In order to understand how Lantana affects 

forest regeneration and forage for wild herbivores, we 

conducted an experiment (May 2006 – May 2007) that 

followed tree regeneration, and wild herbivore habitat 

use through one year. We experimentally removed Lantana 

in several study plots, while leaving it untouched 

in several others. This way we could compare the effects 

of Lantana on our variables of interest. We tracked 

seedling survival and germination by tagging individuals 

and monitoring them through four seasons. We also 

measured understorey species, and grass in each season. 

Also, although wild herbivores like sambar deer 

and gaur are known to feed on Lantana, little is known 

about how Lantana influences the use of particular areas 

by these species, or how important it is in their diets. 

A series of pellet/dung counts of four wild herbivore 

species showed habitat usage across in areas with 

and without Lantana. Results analyses are currently 

underway. At a glance, however, it appears that Lantana 

is shielding young seedlings from herbivory but reducing 

wild herbivore usage of habitats. Also, together with 

livestock-grazing, Lantana appears to be associated 

with long-term changes in vegetation community composition. 

Towards a regional conservation strategy for the Western Ghats: an assessment of habitat 

quality, connectivity and the distribution of large mammals 

In a project ambitious in its scope and extent, MD 

Madhusudan, AJT Johnsingh, MO Anand, R Raghunath 

and Charudutt Mishra are mapping the forests of the 

Western Ghats along multiple axes of habitat quality, 

biological value and connectivity, to develop a comprehensive 

and data-driven conservation strategy for this 

important biodiversity hotspot. 

The global biodiversity hotspot of the Western Ghats 

offers one of the most important long-term survival 

prospects for large, charismatic and highly endangered 

mammals such as the tiger, Asian elephant and the 

gaur. Led by Drs. AJT Johnsingh, MD Madhusudan and 

Charudutt Mishra, this project supported by the Ministry 

of Environment and Forests broadly aims to develop 

a multidimensional view of large mammal conservation 

in the Western Ghats, particularly with respect to landscape-level 

habitat quality and connectivity. While a 

preliminary goal is to document at a fine scale patterns 

in species distributions and threats to conservation 

across the Western Ghats, a second step would be to understand 

the ecological, geographic and socio-economic 

drivers of these patterns. By working in close collaboration 

with the Forest Departments of Maharashtra, Goa, 

Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, the project hopes to 

encourage wildlife managers to view the large regions of 

wildlife habitat outside protected areas in the Western 

Ghats as conservation landscapes, rather than perpetuate 

a narrow focus on Wildlife Sanctuaries and National 

Parks alone. Consequently, we hope that the work will 

contribute to updating and reviewing of conservation 

policy to better enable large mammal conservation. We 

have already commenced field surveys in the states of 

Maharashtra, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, focusing particularly 

on forested landscapes that lie between important 

designated protected areas in these states. 

38 



Farming the forest edge: understanding conflict and furthering people-elephant coexistence 

Humans and wildlife live in an uneasy co-existence 

along the forest boundaries of Bandipur, and conflict 

with wild species is part of the daily lives of local communities. 

For effective conservation, understanding 

and addressing the reality and perception of this conflict 

is crucial. K. Murthy is currently documenting conflict 

in villages around the park boundary, and exploring 

potential conflict mitigation strategies. 

Growing conflict between people and elephants poses 

one of the most serious challenges to the survival of this 

species, while also causing serious hardship to farming 

communities around elephant habitats. Although studies 

have begun to document the magnitude of these 

conflicts and their impact on humans, the manner in 

which these losses are distributed across households 

and villages in a landscape still remain poorly understood. 

Further, despite spending crores of rupees on 

conflict alleviation measures, we remain startlingly 

ignorant about their effectiveness in actually containing 

conflict. In a new study being coordinated by field 

coordinator K Murthy, we began with a survey of conflict 

perceptions in 23 villages around Bandipur Tiger 

Reserve, through which we have identified 5 villages for 

more careful monitoring of human-elephant conflict. In 

each of these villages, we have commenced day-to-day 

monitoring of human-elephant conflict incidents by 

working with local villagers. Over the next year, based 

on the data generated and opportunities for on-ground 

intervention, we intend to set up closely-monitored pilot 

projects of conflict management in a couple of the 

selected villages. 

Team 

• Field staff: K. Murthy, Paul Chandran, JK Madha & Maraiah 

• Researchers: M. O. Anand, F. R. Ahrestani, S. Bagchi, A. E. Prasad & T. Rogers 

• GIS analysis and technical support: R. Raghunath 

• Scientists: M. D. Madhusudan, A. J. T. Johnsingh & C. Mishra 


• Ministry of Environment and Forests, India 



• The Netherlands Foundation of the Advancement of Tropical Research, The Netherlands 

• Save the Tiger Fund, Washington, USA 

Collaborations and partnerships with institutions and individuals 

• I. M. A. Heitkonig, H. H. T. Prins, S. E. van Wieren, Wageningen University 

• W. M. Shields, State University of New York 

• R. Arthur & T. R. S. Raman, NCF 

• J. Krishnaswamy & M. C. Kiran, ATREE 

• Nadathur Conservation Trust, India 

• Namma Sangha, Bandipur, India 

• Resource Ecology Group, Wageningen University 

• Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment, Bangalore 

• Biological Research Laboratories, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York 

• State Forest Departments of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. 

• State University of New York – College of Environmental Science and Forestry 

i j 



39

P from top: Green turtle in Agatti often get 

caught in nets and are used as fish bait; trawlers 

waiting to leave shore in Pondicherry; surveying 

coral reefs in Lakshadweep; sorting fish catch on 

the Coromandel coast

i OCEANS AND COASTS j 

NCF’s marine programme, led by Rohan Arthur, has focused 

on understanding basic principles that drive the 

ecosystem functioning of coastal and marine habitats, 

and the influence of human communities on these ecosystems. 

Our work is based mainly in the coral reefs and 

seagrasses of Lakshadweep and the Gulf of Mannar. In 

the Lakshadweep, we are examining the long-term impacts 

of rapid climate change and related ocean-warming 

events on reef communities. We are also attempting 

to understand the roots of conflict between local fishing 

communities and green turtles over shared seagrass resources. 

In addition, we have undertaken a large-scale 

programme to understand the impacts of benthic trawling 

on non-target marine species. 

The Post-Tsunami Environmental Initiative 

The tsunami of December 2004 had far-reaching impacts 

on the Indian coast. NCF, along with its partners, 

ATREE, CAG and FERAL, are conducting a comprehensive 

set of studies on the impact of the tsunami on ecosystems 

and ecosystem-derived livelihoods. This programme 

is being led by Rohan Arthur. 

This project is an attempt to assess the resilience of 

coastal systems to the 2004 tsunami, from ecological, 

socio-economic and policy perspectives. It is an ambitious 

attempt to understand a catastrophic event and its 

consequences from a variety of different lenses. Funded 

by the United Nations Development Programme, this 

initiative is an innovative collaboration of ecologists, 

social scientists, policy analysts, community advocates 

and ecosystem restoration teams. The NCF Marine Programme 

was the project leader for the first phase of this 

work, that also involved ATREE and CAG. In the second 

phase, NCF is looking specifically at a few focused issues 

that arose as a result of this initial analysis. 

Phase 1 

The earthquake and tsunami of 2004 was a catastrophe 

of unprecedented magnitude, leaving almost 230,000 

people dead or missing, and several millions homeless 

as it travelled across the Indian Ocean. Although nearly 

2,000 km away the epicentre, the coasts of mainland of 

India suffered hugely, and the tsunami affected more 

than 1200 km of coastline, across Andhra Pradesh, 

Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Pondicherry. Nearly 8500 people 

lost their lives, and thousands more were left homeless. 

Typically, the communities worst affected by the 

tsunami were marginal fishing and agricultural communities 

living in tiny villages and hamlets that hugged 

the coastline, mostly dependent on natural systems for 

their livelihoods. While the full scale of the impact of 

the 2004 tsunami on people and their livelihoods is 

now being gradually understood, more than two years 

after the event, we do not yet have a complete picture of 

its consequences to nearshore marine and coastal ecosystems. 

Although studies have been conducted at several 

locations along the coast, a comprehensive picture 

of ecosystem status does not yet exist across the land 

and seascape. Addressing this need is one of the major 

objectives of the UNDP Post-Tsunami Environment Initiative, 

conducted by the NCF Marine Programme and 

its partners. The primary aim during the initial phase 

of this project was to evaluate the nature of change 

wrought by the tsunami on natural ecosystems across 

coastal lands and seascapes, and to broadly assess impacts 

to socio-ecological systems along the affected 

coast of mainland India. At one level, the programme 

was geared towards bringing together a range of disparate 

studies conducted along the coast, both before 

and after the tsunami to provide a picture of trends in 



41

ecological processes and the impact of the tsunami on 

these trends. At another level, the programme reviews 

coastal policy and developmental trends in the coastal 

zone, assessing its applicability, relevance and implementation 

in a post-tsunami context. This was part of 

a longer-term initiative that builds on the critical gaps 

in our knowledge identified in the first phase, with specific 

studies and on-ground activities. In Phase 2, NCF 

is working independently to assess the post-tsunami 

impacts of trawling on incidental species. In addition, 

in the coming year, NCF will be developing ecologically 

relevant indicators for monitoring ecosystem functioning 

of coral reefs and seagrasses on the east coast of India. 

Phase 2: Trawling and its impacts 

Trawl fishing has long been known to have devastating 

impacts on the marine environment. These broadly include 

species removal, habitat degradation and impacts 

on artisanal fishing communities through the depletion 

of resources. A pertinent issue of global concern is the 

impact trawling has on non-target species, also called 

“bycatch”. The trawl fishery (shrimp trawling in particular) 

is probably the most unsustainable of all fisheries, 

accounting for over 50% of the total estimated discards, 

while representing only 22% of the total landings. 

Trawlers in the tropics are known to catch over 400 

non-target species, in a bycatch : shrimp ratio by mass 

as high as 10:1; this includes certain large and often 

endangered marine species such as elasmobranchs, sea 

turtles and Cetaceans which share a range of life history 

characteristics that make them particularly vulnerable 

to overexploitation. 

Trawlers were introduced in 1954 as part of the 

Indo Norwegian Project. The initial success in terms of 

disproportionately higher catches as compared to artisanal 

fisheries, resulted in nearly all fisheries related 

investments made by the government being targeted 

at the mechanized sector, with the artisanal fishers receiving 

little or no attention. However despite 50 years 

of trawl fishing in the country and apparent impacts of 

this fishery in the form of catch declines and conflicts 

with artisanals, research on the impacts of this fishery 

are few and scattered. This paucity of data has resulted 

in very little transformation in the present regimes of 

marine resource harvest most often leading to fishing 

beyond sustainable yields, while simultaneously aggravating 

conflicts with artisanal fisher groups. 

NCF’s ongoing research on trawl fishing is geared towards: 

• Characterizing catch and bycatch across trawl gear 

and space. 

• Quantifying the importance of bycatch to the Coromandel 

fishery (bycatch vs main catch in terms of 

qualities and economics) 

• Developing an indicator species approach to bycatch 

monitoring 

• Understanding the relative impacts of artisanal fishing 

vs trawling on marine communities. 

Over the last year, we have been conducting 

extensive surveys of fish catch and bycatch on fishing 

bases along the Coromandel coast, interviewing fishers 

about their fishing practices, and attempting to understand 

the economics, trade linkages and sustainability 

of this fishery. 

Phase 2: Developing monitoring programmes for 

seagrasses and coral reefs 

Work to begin in the next financial year. 

Preparing for catastrophe: coral reef resilience and climate change 

Coral reefs are the canaries of global warming, and 

NCF’s long-term monitoring and research programme 

in the Lakshadweep, led by Rohan Arthur, is geared to 

understanding the impacts of catastrophic climate-related 

events on the coral reefs of the Lakshadweep. 

Isolated, low-lying coral atolls such as the Lakshadweep 

are perhaps going to be the worst affected by glo- 

42 



bal warming. The first portents of the fallout of global 

warming have already been documented by NCF when 

the coral reefs suffered a mass mortality of corals of unprecedented 

proportions. Although reefs are recovering 

from that event, every summer is a potential mass 

bleaching year, and understanding the long-term resilience 

potential of these reefs to repeated ocean warming 

events is a primary area of research at NCF. We have

een monitoring reefs since 2003, tracking changes to 

benthic condition and ecosystem functioning. This year, 

we expanded our spatial sampling by adding between 

two and three additional sites at each sampled atoll, 

thus making our overall sampling design considerably 

more robust. These sites have been chosen along a predicted 

gradient of resilience and resistance, and will be 

tracked to determine how they fare in the wake of an El 

Niño. 

This summer was also a particularly hot El 

Niño year, and we feared that the reefs would suffer a 

mass mortality event. To prepare for this, we evaluated 

reefs close to the peak of summer, and installed several 

temperature loggers at sampled locations to track 

seasonal changes in ocean temperature. These will be 

collected post-monsoon, when a further assessment will 

be conducted to determine if initial signs of bleaching 

we recorded before the monsoon resulted in mortality. 

Green turtle soup: Understanding conflict between fishers and turtles in Agatti 

Agatti Island in the Lakshadweep, is an island of fishers. 

In recent years, the lagoon fishers of Agatti are facing 

an increasing level of conflict with green turtles whose 

populations, they believe, have increased significantly, 

over-grazing the seagrass and causing declines in lagoon 

fish. Together with Aparna Lal, a student from 

WII, Rohan Arthur is leading a study of the relationship 

between turtle populations, its impacts on seagrasses, 

and the perceptions of conflict among the fishing community. 

The focus of NCF’s marine programme is to explore 

community-based resource management of marine 

habitats and species in the Lakshadweep. In the first 

year of the programme, interviews, community presentations 

and participatory meetings were conducted 

in the island of Agatti to evaluate community attitudes 

towards marine resources, assess their perception of 

resource-related problems, and determine their openness 

to establishing a fisheries reserve. This process 

revealed that while fishers all complained of declining 

catches, and viewed the fisheries reserve as a potentially 

useful way of increasing fish yields within the lagoon, 

they were convinced that the declines in fish catchers 

were due to an overstocking of green turtles in the Agatti 

lagoon. Interviews with fishers revealed that green 

turtles have caused a significant decline in seagrasses 

in the Agatti lagoon, which in turn has reduced fish recruitment 

and adult abundance in seagrass meadows. 

Before any fisheries reserve was established, fishers in 

the Lakshadweep were keen to see NCF, as a research 

organisation, to design studies to examine the potential 

impact of green turtles. We re-evaluated our focus as 

a result of these community interactions and decided 

that, while the initial proposition of the fisheries reserve 

would not change, understanding the socio-economic 

and ecological basis for human-turtle conflict 

was a crucial first step to address community concerns 

and to help us develop collaborative solutions where 

possible. The current focus of the marine programme 

in the Lakshadweep is: 

1. Understanding human-wildlife conflicts between 

fishing communities and green turtles in the 

Agatti seagrass meadows 

2. Describing patterns of fishing and fishing pressure 

on seagrass resources in Agatti 

3. Describing spatial distribution patterns of turtles 

in the Agatti lagoon and quantifying the potential 

impact of their herbivory on seagrass meadows 

4. Quantifying the impacts of potential overgrazing 

on reef fish utilisation of seagrass meadows 

5. Strengthening collaborative ecological monitoring 

of coral reefs and lagoons 

Together with seagrass researchers from CSIC and a 

Master’s student from the Wildlife Institute of India, 

NCF conducted a series of experiments and observational 

studies to quantify the population of green turtles 

in the Agatti lagoon, and the impacts of their grazing on 

seagrass population and meadow structure. Are initial 

results indicate a very high density of turtles inhabiting 

the seagrass meadows of Agatti. They graze heavily on 

seagrasses, and this grazing has resulted in significant 

changes to seagrasses in the Agatti meadow. 

In addition, we have been conducting interview 

based studies to understand the relationship of fishers 

to the Agatti lagoon, their patterns of resource use, and 

the nature of conflict with turtles. 



43

• Principal scientists: Rohan Arthur, M. D. Madhusudan 

• United Nations Development Programme 

• Ford Foundation 

Team 

• Collaborating Scientists: Teresa Alcoverro, Nuria Marba 

• Consultants: Sudarshan Rodriguez, V. Srinivas 

• Research Affiliates: Aaron Lobo, Aparna Lal, Vena Kapoor 

• GIS: R. Raghunath 

• Field staff: Varun Fernando 


• Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean (CORDIO) 

Collaborations and Partnerships 

• Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE) 

• Citizen Consumer and Civic Action Group (CAG) 

• Foundation for Ecological Research, Advocacy and Learning (FERAL) 

• Centre d’Estudis Avançats de Blanes, CSIC, Spain 

• IMEDEA, CSIC, Spain 

• Centre for Action Research on Environment Science and Society (CARESS), Chennai 

• Wildlife Institute of India 

i j

i PRIMATES j 

The Primate Programme (run in collaboration with the 

National Institute of Advanced Studies), led by Anindya 

Sinha, continued its investigations into the demography, 

ecology, behaviour, cognition and genetics of several 

primate species across the country over the last 

year. These projects involved long-term studies on the 

demography, behavioural ecology, population genetics 

and conservation of two macaque species, the bonnet 

macaque of southern India and the Arunachal macaque 

of Arunachal Pradesh as well as relatively short-term 

studies on the behavioural ecology of mixed troops of 

rhesus and bonnet macaques in Maharashtra, community 

ecology and conservation of primates in Assam, 

and the distribution, abundance and conservation status 

of the lion-tailed macaque and the slender loris in 

southern India. We have also initiated a new project on 

the distribution and conservation of the purple-faced 

langur, the toque macaque and the slender loris in Sri 

Lanka. 

Social organisation and social relationships in wild bonnet and rhesus macaques 

In continuation of our long-term research project on 

bonnet macaques, which has been investigating social 

relationships and life-history strategies in wild groups 

of this species, we have made significant progress in 

our exploration of two further problems in its social behaviour: 

(1) the temporal persistence of social relationships 

within troops and (2) the developmental patterns 

of infant-mother relationships. We have also recently 

initiated a field study on the demography of pure and 

One of our long-term interests has been to investigate 

the social and mechanical cognitive abilities of wild bonnet 

macaques, particularly the cognitive mechanisms 

underlying specific behavioural processes including the 

acquisition of social knowledge and tactical deception 

and the origin, development and function of vocal commixed-species 

troops of rhesus and bonnet macaques 

in the states of Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. Two 

important components of this project are: (1) Delineation 

of the distribution boundary of the rhesus and the 

bonnet macaques in peninsular India, and (2) studies 

on the behavioural ecology, demography and conservation 

status of mixed troops of the two species in selected 

sites in Maharashtra. 

Demography, ecology and social evolution in wild bonnet macaques 

This long-term project, begun in 2000 and proposed 

to continue for twenty years, is investigating the demographic 

structure and ecology of a population of 

wild bonnet macaques in the Bandipur National Park 

– Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary complex in the states 

of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. During the last year, we 

have continued our monitoring of twenty-two troops 

of the species and have begun detailed quantitative observations 

on the behavioural ecology of five of these 

groups. 

Communication and cognition in wild bonnet macaques 

munication in this species. In this connection, we have 

initiated new inter-disciplinary projects with Prabhakar 

Vaidya and Kishor G Bhat on the analyses of vocal communication 

and with Rajesh Kasturirangan and Michael 

A Huffman on the cognitive mechanisms underlying individual 

and social behaviour in this macaque species. 



45

Ecology and conservation of the lion-tailed macaque in Karnataka state 

The lion-tailed macaque is a highly-endangered primate 

that is facing imminent local extinction or sharp declines 

in many protected areas over its distributional range in 

the Western Ghats mountains. An important population 

in this species is the newly-discovered Sirsi-Honnavara 

population, which might mark the northernmost point 

of its distribution. This study aims to understand the 

ranging and feeding ecology of this population and 

plans to initiate conservation measures to protect its 

habitat and its last constituent groups. 

Distribution, abundance and conservation status of the slender loris in the Eastern and 

Western Ghats, India 

This study aims to examine the geographical range 

limits of the two Indian slender loris subspecies, the 

Mysore and the Malabar slender loris, their population 

densities, and factors affecting their abundance in the 

Eastern and Western Ghats mountains. The results of 

the study will not only provide essential data to assess 

the conservation status of the species and formulate 

management strategies for its survival, but will also 

present a broader perspective of differences in landscape 

and faunal assemblages in the Eastern and the 

Western Ghats. 

Distribution and conservation of the purple-faced langur, the toque macaque and the slender 

loris in Sri Lanka 

Sri Lanka is global biodiversity hotspot, where over 

90% of the primates are endemic and threatened. We 

have implemented a collaborative primate conservation 

programme in Sri Lanka that is focusing on population 

surveys and demographic patterns of its least-known 

taxa and conservation-oriented studies of its highly 

threatened taxa. As a first phase of this study, we conducted 

a pilot study in Sri Lanka in order to identify key 

areas of primate conservation in Sri Lanka, assess the 

logistics of launching such a conservation programme 

and to strengthen collaborative links with Sri Lankan 

scientists. This pilot study provided a conservation action 

plan that outlined areas where primate conservation 

efforts should be focused in Sri Lanka. In the 

second phase of our study, we hope to conduct a comprehensive 

distribution survey of all the primate species 

in the country so that information may be obtained 

on primate abundance and distribution in Sri Lanka, 

and facilitate the implementation of a well-defined, collaborative 

conservation programme for its endangered 

primate taxa in the near future. 

Ecology, behaviour and conservation of macaques in northeastern India 

We have recently developed a research programme to 

investigate the demography, behavioural ecology and 

conservation status of a highly-endangered primate 

community, consisting of four macaque species – the 

Assamese macaque, the pigtailed macaque, the rhesus 

macaque and the stumptailed macaque, together with 

the hoolock gibbon and the capped langur – in several 

fragments of low-lying tropical rainforests of the Brahmaputra 

Valley in Assam. This project has just completed 

its first phase during which we have explored the 

occurrence, distribution and status of primate communities 

in 43 Reserve Forests and Proposed Reserve Forests 

in eastern Assam. We have also conducted several 

46 



GPS training programmes for forest personnel in Digboi 

and Doomdooma Forest Divisions, Assam. 

We have recently described a primate from Arunachal 

Pradesh, the Arunachal macaque (with the scientific 

name Macaca munzala), which is a species new 

to science. In 2005, we initiated a long-term project to 

explore its demography, behavioural ecology and conservation 

status in the Tawang and West Kameng districts 

of western Arunachal Pradesh. In this connection, 

we have also completed a preliminary survey for the 

Arunachal macaque in the districts of Upper Subansiri 

and West Siang in central Arunachal Pradesh.

Molecular genetics of the Arunachal and bonnet macaques and the sinica group of Macaca 

This collaborative project, initiated in January 2006, 

has been exploring the molecular phylogeny of the sinica 

group of the genus Macaca, consisting of five species, 

in general and those of the bonnet macaque and 

the newly-discovered Arunachal macaque, in particular. 

Specific nucleotide sequences from the nuclear genome 

and mitochondrial DNA have been amplified, sequenced 

and compared across these species in order to determine 

the exact phylogenetic position of the Arunachal 

macaque and the bonnet macaque within the genus. We 

are also evaluating the sub-specific status of the bonnet 

macaque using a molecular taxonomic approach 

and exploring the molecular population genetics of the 

species over its entire distribution range in peninsular 

India. 

Ecology, behaviour and conservation of macaques in northeastern India 

We have recently developed a research programme to 

investigate the demography, behavioural ecology and 

conservation status of a highly-endangered primate 

community, consisting of four macaque species – the 

Assamese macaque, the pigtailed macaque, the rhesus 

macaque and the stumptailed macaque, together with 

the hoolock gibbon and the capped langur – in several 

fragments of low-lying tropical rainforests of the Brahmaputra 

Valley in Assam. This project has just completed 

its first phase during which we have explored the 

occurrence, distribution and status of primate communities 

in 43 Reserve Forests and Proposed Reserve Forests 

in eastern Assam. We have also conducted several 

Team 

GPS training programmes for forest personnel in Digboi 

and Doomdooma Forest Divisions, Assam. 

We have recently described a primate from Arunachal 

Pradesh, the Arunachal macaque (with the scientific 

name Macaca munzala), which is a species new 

to science. In 2005, we initiated a long-term project to 

explore its demography, behavioural ecology and conservation 

status in the Tawang and West Kameng districts 

of western Arunachal Pradesh. In this connection, 

we have also completed a preliminary survey for the 

Arunachal macaque in the districts of Upper Subansiri 

and West Siang in central Arunachal Pradesh. 

• Anindya Sinha, Nature Conservation Foundation and National Institute of Advanced Studies 

• Sindhu Radhakrishna, National Institute of Advanced Studies 

• Rishi Kumar, National Institute of Advanced Studies 

• Mayukh Chatterjee, National Institute of Advanced Studies 

• Narayan Sharma, Nature Conservation Foundation and National Institute of Advanced Studies 

• Debapriyo Chakraborty, Nature Conservation Foundation and National Institute of Advanced Studies 

• H N Kumara, National Institute of Advanced Studies 

• Uttara Mendiratta, Postgraduate Program in Wildlife Biology and Conservation, Bangalore 

• Kakoli Mukhopadhyay, Kolkata 

Collaborations and Partnerships with Institutions and Individuals 

• Kishor G. Bhat, School of Natural Sciences and Engineering, NIAS, Bangalore 

• Prabhakar Vaidya, School of Natural Sciences and Engineering, NIAS, Bangalore 

• Rajesh Kasturirangan, School of Humanities, NIAS, Bangalore 

• Uma Ramakrishnan, National Centre for Biological Sciences, Bangalore 

• Charles Santiapillai, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka 

• S. Wijeyamohan, University of Jaffna, Jaffna, Sri Lanka 

• Michael Alan Huffman, Primate Research Institute, Inuyama, Japan 

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i ANNUAL MEETING j 

The Annual Academic Meeting of Nature Conservation 

Foundation, was held over three days, from the 20 th to 

the 22 nd of March, 2007. It was held at The Roost hotel 

in Mysore and was well attended by senior scientists, 

research scholars, research affiliates, visitors from other 

organisations, from within and outside Mysore and 

other well wishers. 

It consisted of 10 different sessions, held over 

the 3-day period. We began with an update on the six 

different programmes that are currently running within 

NCF, and this work was summarized by the individual 

Programme Heads. The six programmes being the 

High Altitude Programme, Rainforest Restoration Programme, 

Community-based Conservation Programme 

in Arunachal Pradesh, Primate Programme, Deciduous 

Forest Programme, and Marine Programme. The rest of 

the sessions were divided into sections titled Species 

Ecology, Behaviour and Evolution, Community Ecology, 

Community-based Conservation, Ecological Patterns 

and Processes, Human Impacts, Conservation Planning 

and Policy, Human Dependence, Socio-economy 

and Conflicts, Guest Presentations, and five Workshops. 

There was also a screening of the film, Rediscovering the 

Munzala, produced by Pavithra Sankaran, Media & Outreach 

Manager of NCF. 

Our visitors Included Anand Nadathur, Sriram 

Nadathur, Suri Venkatachalam, and Sudhakar Mallya, 

from Nadathur Holdings & Investments, who have also 

started a Trust called the Nadathur Conservation Trust 

(NCT). NCT is currently a key collaborator and supporter 

of NCF. From ATREE, we had Ravi Chellam (Director), 

Harini Nagendra, and Jagdish Krishnaswamy, and from 

NCBS we had Uma Ramakrisnan, Suhel Quader, and 

Kavita Isvaran, Dr. Eben Goodale, Maya Ramasawamy, a 

prominent wildlife artist and whose work graces quite 

a few of our books and posters, Indrila Guha and Rajarshi 

Banerjee (Advisors - Sundarban Program, WWF – 

Eastern India), and Nandita Hazarika, from Ecosystems 

India, Guwahati, as well as a host of other visitors were 

present. 

The meeting concluded with an informal dinner 

on the 22 nd evening, where all the visitors and members 

of NCF, had a chance to unwind after the intensity of the 

three days. 

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i FEMDIG j 

Friday morning discussion groups (FEMDIGs) are in-house discussion forums which are held at least once a 

month. They consist of short talks or presentations on current or completed research projects by researchers and 

scientists at NCF or visitors from other institutions. More than 25 such talks have taken place in the past year. A 

select list of these is listed here. 

By NCF Personnel 

• Ambika Aiyadurai, Research Scholar, 1 September 2006. Hunting patterns in four tribal communities of Arunachal 

Pradesh. 

• Ayesha Prasad, Research Scholar, 15 September 2006. Impacts of the exotic weed Lantana camara on large 

mammals. 

• Sumanta Bagchi, Research Scholar, 13 October 2006. Prominent positive feedback loops between plants and soil 

over water retention in Kibber's rangelands. 

• Pranav Trivedi, Head of Education and Outreach and Senior Ecologist, 13 October 2006. Composition and 

organisation of mixed-species bird flocks in two tropical deciduous forests of Gujarat. 

• Charudutt Mishra and Yashveer Bhatnagar, Senior Scientists, 27 October 2006. Progress of NCF’s high altitude 

programme and the formulation of "Project Snow Leopard" a national policy for wildlife conservation in the 

Himalayan high altitudes. 

• A. J. T. Johnsingh, Eminent wildlife biologist, NCF, 15 December 2006. Conservation in the Terai landscape. 

Reintroduction of lions in Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary. Conservation of golden and hump-backed Mahseer. Problems 

and challenges to conservation in Rajaji National Park. Biological corridors in Bhutan. 

• Pavithra Sankaran, Media and Outreach Manager, 19 January 2007. Screening of Rediscovering the Munzala. 

• Rohit Naniwadekar, M. O. Anand, Aparajita Datta, Meghna Krishnadas, 13 February 2007. Wildlife monitoring 

in Namdapha National Park. 

By Visitors 

• Karthik T., MSc Wildlife Biology and Conservation, Wildlife Conservation Society, 29 September 2006. Patterns 

of seed rain and regeneration in abandoned agricultural fields in a tropical deciduous forest in India. 

• Vidya Athreya, Wildlife Biologist, 6 October 2006. Patterns and reasons of human – leopard conflict in 

Maharashtra 

• 12 January 2007. Screening of Wild Dog Diaries 

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i PUBLICATIONS j 

Talks and Presentations 

1. Ahmad, R., Bhatnagar, Y. V. & Mishra, C. Summer habitat use and sexual segregation of the endangered Kashmir 

Markhor in Jammu & Kashmir, India. IV World Congress on Mountain Ungulates, Munnar, India. Organized 

by Caprinae Specialist Group, IUCN & Highranges Club, Munnar, (12-15 September 2006). 

2. Arthur, R. 2006. Overview: conservation and restoration for management of marine and coastal areas. Workshop 

on post-tsunami environment initiative, UNDP, Chennai. (19 December 2006). 

3. Bagchi, S. & Namgail, T. Vegetation dynamics in Trans-Himalayas - importance of smaller players. Poster, 

IV World Congress on Mountain Ungulates, Munnar, India. Organized by Caprinae Specialist Group, IUCN & 

Highranges Club, Munnar, (12-15 September 2006). 

4. Datta, A. 2007. Hornbills, nutmegs, rats: endangered interactions in a tropical forest in Arunachal Pradesh, NE 

India. Invited symposium talk at the Association for Tropical Biology (ATB) Asia Chapter Conference ‘Averting 

Biodiversity Meltdown in the Asian Tropics’. Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu, India (6-8 March 2007). 

5. Dutta, T., Sharma, S., & Bhatnagar, Y. V. Impact of predation on blue sheep population in Hemis National Park, 

Ladakh, India- a modeling approach. IV World Congress on Mountain Ungulates, Munnar, India. Organized 

by Caprinae Specialist Group, IUCN & Highranges Club, Munnar, (12-15 September 2006). 

6. Fox, J. L, Bhatnagar, Y. V. & Singh, N. Habitat separation among Tibetan argali, kiang and blue sheep in the 

Tso Kar Basin, eastern Ladakh, India – consequences for conservation. IV World Congress on Mountain Ungulates, 

Munnar, India. Organized by Caprinae Specialist Group, IUCN & Highranges Club, Munnar, (12-15 

September 2006). 

7. Johnsingh, A. J. T., Mishra, C. & Bhatnagar, Y. V. Plenary talk: Conservation status and research of mountain 

ungulates in India. IV World Congress on Mountain Ungulates, Munnar, India. Organized by Caprinae Specialist 

Group, IUCN & Highranges Club, Munnar, (12-15 September 2006). 

8. Kapoor, V. An introduction to spiders, sampling methods and field identification techniques. For students of 

the MSc Programme in Wildlife Science and Conservation at National Centre for Biological Sciences, Bangalore, 

(1 Nov 2006). 

9. Kapoor, V. Effects of rainforest fragmentation on spiders (Arachnida: Araneae) in the Anamalai Hills, Southern 

Western Ghats, India. Paper presented at the Student Conference on Conservation Science, University of 

Cambridge, Cambridge, UK. (2 – 30 March 2006). [Special Mention Award] 

10. Kumar, M. A. Using research on Asian elephant to identify conflict mitigation measures in the Anamalai hills. 

Lectures for students of the MSc Programme in Wildlife Science and Conservation at National Centre for 

Biological Sciences, Bangalore. (February 2007). 

11. Mudappa, D. Ecological restoration in a fragmented rainforest landscape in the Anamalai hills. Paper presented 

at Ecological restoration of degraded ecosystems in Tamil Nadu: planning and implementation, 

Workshop, Chennai, (19 Dec 2006). 

12. Mukhopadhyay, K., Chatterjee, M., Datta-Roy, A. & Sinha, A. 2006. Food, sex and society: Ecological variability 

in social organisation and individual behavioural strategies among wild bonnet macaques in the Bandipur 

National Park – Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, southern India. International Journal of Primatology 27 (Suppl 

1): Abstract No 301. Abstracts of the 21 st Congress of the International Primatological Society, Entebbe, 

Uganda, (June 2006). 



51

13. Namgail, T., Bhatnagar, Y. V. & Fox, J. L. Influence of livestock grazing on Tibetan argali habitat use and time 

budget. IV World Congress on Mountain Ungulates, Munnar, India. Organized by Caprinae Specialist Group, 

IUCN & Highranges Club, Munnar, (12-15 September 2006). 

14. Raman, T. R. S. & Mishra, C. Science-based conservation and restoration in threatened ecosystems of India. 

Paper presented at the 20 th annual meeting of the Society for Conservation Biology, Conservation without 

borders, San Jose, California, USA, (24-28 June 2006). 

15. Raman, T. R. S. The role for ecological restoration in conservation of biological diversity. Paper presented 

at Ecological restoration of degraded ecosystems in Tamil Nadu: planning and implementation, Workshop, 

Chennai, (19 Dec 2006). 

16. Ranjitsinh, M. K., Bhatnagar, Y. V., Ahmad, R. Status of Pir Panjal Markhor in Jammu & Kashmir. IV World Congress 

on Mountain Ungulates, Munnar, India. Organized by Caprinae Specialist Group, IUCN & Highranges 

Club, Munnar, (12-15 September 2006). 

17. Sharma, N. & Sinha, A. 2006. Primates in isolation: Managing fragments as a key to their conservation. Abstracts 

of the National Seminar on Zoology for Human Welfare, Zoological Society of Assam, Gauhati University, 

Guwahati, (February 2006). 

18. Sinha, A., Kumar, R. S., Datta, A., Madhusudan, M. D. & Mishra, C. 2006. In search of the munzala: Behavioural 

ecology and conservation of a newly discovered primate, the Arunachal macaque Macaca munzala, in 

western Arunachal Pradesh, northeastern India. International Journal of Primatology 27 (Suppl 1): Abstract 

No 429. Abstracts of the 21 st Congress of the International Primatological Society, Entebbe, Uganda, (June 

2006). 

19. Sinha, A. 2006. Of memes and macaques: Phenotypic flexibility, behavioural traditions and cultural evolution 

among wild bonnet macaques in the Bandipur National Park – Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, southern 

India. International Journal of Primatology 27 (Suppl 1): Abstract No 578. Abstracts of the Twenty-first Congress 

of the International Primatological Society, Entebbe, Uganda, (June 2006). 

20. Sridhar, H. Effects of rainforest fragmentation and degradation on Indian giant squirrel ( Ratufa indica) and 

other arboreal mammals in the Anamalai hills, southern Western Ghats, India. Paper presented at the 4 th International 

Tree squirrel and 1 st International Flying Squirrel Colloquium, Periyar Tiger Reserve, Thekkady, 

(20 – 29 March 2006). 

21. Sridhar, H. Rainforest fragmentation effects on arboreal and other mammals in the Anamalai hills, southern 

Western Ghats. Lectures for students of the MSc Programme in Wildlife Science and Conservation at National 

Centre for Biological Sciences, Bangalore, (January 2007). 

Technical reports, manuals and workshop proceedings 

1. Abstracts of the Workshop on Ecological Restoration of Degraded Ecosystems in Tamil Nadu: Planning and 

Implementation, 19 December 2006, Chennai, organised by Tamil Nadu Forest Department, Nature Conservation 

Foundation, and UNDP Post-Tsunami Environment Initiative. Published by Nature Conservation 

Foundation, Mysore. 

2. Alcoverro, T., Muthuraman, B., Marba, N. & Arthur, R. 2007. Measuring the impact of the tsunami on seagrass 

meadows in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay. Pp 93-104 in Report on ecological and social impact assessments 

post-tsunami in mainland India; Submitted to UNDP. Post-Tsunami Environment Initiative. pp 199. 

3. Bhatnagar, Y. V., Namgail, T., Bagchi, S. & Mishra, C. 2006. Conserving the Tibetan gazelle. NCF Technical Report 

No. 14. Nature Conservation Foundation and International Snow Leopard Trust, Mysore 

4. Datta, A. 2007. Hornbills and tribal communities: wildlife conservation in Arunachal Pradesh (2003-2006). 

Interim report submitted to the Arunachal Pradesh Forest Department. 136 pp. 

5. Kapoor, V. 2006. Hanging by a thread: Spider communities in rainforest fragments and shade-coffee plantations 

in the Anamalai hills, Western Ghats, India. NCF Technical Report No. 13, Nature Conservation Foundation, 

Mysore. 

6. Kumar R. S., Mishra, C. & Sinha, A. 2007. A preliminary survey for macaques in central Arunachal Pradesh, 

northeastern India. Interim Report. Nature Conservation Foundation and National Institute of Advanced 

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Studies, Mysore, India 

7. Kumar, M. A. 2006. Effect of habitat fragmentation on Asian elephant ( Elephas maximus) ecology and behaviour 

patterns in a conflict-prone plantation landscape of the Anamalai hills, Western Ghats, India. Final 

report submitted to Rufford Maurice Laing Foundation, UK. 

8. Kumar, M. A. 2006. Towards coexistence: First steps to modifying human-elephant relationships in a conflict-prone 

landscape in the Anamalai hills. India. Final technical report submitted to WWF Nepal. 

9. Madhusudan, M. D., Srinivas, V., Raghunath, R., Kapoor, V. & Arthur, R. 2007. Understanding coastal vulnerability 

– Spatial approaches to understanding the impacts of the 2004 tsunami on the Indian mainland. Pp 

7-30 in Report on ecological and social impact assessments post-tsunami in mainland India; Submitted to 

UNDP. Post-Tsunami Environment Initiative. pp 199. 

10. Mukherjee, N., Muthuraman, B., Gokul, A., Kapoor, V., Arthur, R. & Shanker, K. 2007. A gap analysis of ecological 

impact assessments done in the tsunami affected states. Pp 31-42 in Report on ecological and social impact 

assessments post-tsunami in mainland India; Submitted to UNDP. Post-Tsunami Environment Initiative. 

pp 199. 

11. Muthuraman, B., Gokul, A., Mukheree, N., Shanker, K. & Arthur, R. 2007. An overview of coastal ecosystems 

and the impact of the December 2004 tsunami on mainland states in India. Pp 43-71 in Report on ecological 

and social impact assessments post-tsunami in mainland India; Submitted to UNDP. Post-Tsunami Environment 

Initiative. pp 199. 

12. NCF & VCT (2006). Principles for rainforest and grassland restoration in the Anamalai hills. Nature Conservation 

Foundation, Mysore, and Vattakanal Conservation Trust, Kodaikanal. 

13. PSL. 2006. Towards Project Snow Leopard: report of the National Workshop on Project Snow Leopard. 10th- 

11th July, 2006, Leh, Ladakh. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, Department of 

Wildlife Protection, Jammu & Kashmir, Nature Conservation Foundation, and International Snow Leopard 

Trust, Mysore, India 

14. Radhakrishna, S. & Sinha, A. 2006. Distribution and conservation of primates in Sri Lanka: A pilot study. 

Technical Report 2-06, Ecology, Behaviour and Conservation Group, National Institute of Advanced Studies, 

Bangalore, India 

15. Sinha, A., Kumar, R. S. & Mishra, C. 2006. Ecology and conservation of the Arunachal macaque Macaca munzala. 

NCF Technical Report No. 15. Nature Conservation Foundation, National Institute of Advanced Studies, 

and International Snow Leopard Trust, Mysore, India 

16. Trivedi, P., Bhatnagar, Y. V. & Mishra, C. 2006. Living with snow leopards: A conservation education strategy 

for the Himalayan high altitudes. NCF Technical Report No. 12. Nature Conservation Foundation and International 

Snow Leopard Trust, Mysore 

Popular articles and book reviews 

1. Datta, A. 2007. Namdapha: looking beyond the tiger. The Hindu Survey of the Environment 2007. 

2. Chatterjee, M. & Sinha, A. 2007. A review of the book Walker’s Marsupials of the World by Ronald M Nowak 

(The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, USA, 2005). Current Science 92: 69 

3. Madhusudan, M. D. & Sankaran, P. 2006. Of personality, ideology and science in tiger conservation (Review 

of A View from the Machan by K. Ullas Karanth). Conservation and Society 4: 350-353. 

4. Madhusudan, M. D. & Arthur, R. J. 2007. Succeeding poorly or failing better? Seminar 577 

5. Raman, T. R. S. 2006. Restoration Ecology: The New Frontier [Book review]. Conservation and Society 4: 

493-495. 

6. Raman, T. R. S. 2007. On fire: can wildlife and slash-and-burn agriculture coexist? Wildlife Conservation. May- 

June: 46-51. 

7. Shanker, K. & Madhusudan, M. D. 2006. Fenced out: wildlife research in India. Down To Earth, 15 Nov 2006. 

8. Shanker, K. & Madhusudan, M. D. 2006. Wildlife research in India. Central Chronicle, 11 Nov 2006. 



53

Peer-reviewed publications 

1. Arthur, R., Done, T. J., Marsh, H. & Harriott, V. 2006. Local processes strongly influence post-bleaching benthic 

recovery in the Lakshadweep Islands. Coral Reefs 25:427-44. 

2. Bhatnagar, Y. V., Wangchuk, R., Mishra, C., Prins, H. H. T., & Van Wieren, S. E. 2006. Perceived conflicts between 

pastoralism and conservation of the kiang Equus kiang in the Ladakh Trans-Himalaya, India. Environment 

Management. 38:934–941. 

3. Bhatnagar, Y. V., Wangchuk, R. & Mishra, C. 2006. Decline of the Tibetan gazelle in Ladakh, India. Oryx. 40: 

229-232. 

4. Bagchi, S. & Mishra, C. 2006. Living with large carnivores: predation on livestock by the snow leopard ( Uncia 

uncia). Journal of Zoology. 268: 217–224. 

5. Chakraborty, D., Ramakrishnan, U., Panor, J., Mishra, C., & Sinha, A. 2007. Phylogenetic relationships and 

morphometric affinities of the Arunachal macaque Macaca munzala, a newly described primate from Arunachal 

Pradesh, northeastern India. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 44: 838–849. 

6. Datta, A. & Goyal, S. P. (in press). Responses of diurnal tree squirrels to selective logging in western Arunachal 

Pradesh. Current Science. 

7. Goswami, V. R., Madhusudan, M. D. & Karanth, K. U. (2007). Application of photographic capture-recapture 

modelling to estimate demographic parameters for male Asian elephants. Animal Conservation 10: 

391-399 

8. Kapoor, V. (in press). Effects of rainforest fragmentation and shade-coffee plantations on spider communities 

in the Western Ghats, India. Journal of Insect Conservation. DOI 10.1007/s10841-006-9062-5. 

9. Kapoor, V. 2006. An assessment of spider sampling methods in tropical rainforest fragments of the Anamalai 

hills, Western Ghats, India. Zoos’ Print Journal 21: 2483-2488. 

10. Madhusudan, M. D., Shanker, K., Kumar, A., Mishra, C., Sinha, A., Arthur, R. Datta, A., Rangarajan, M., Chellam, 

R., Shahabuddin, G., Sankaran, R., Singh, M., Ramakrishnan, U. & Rajan, P. D. 2006. Science in the wilderness: 

the predicament of scientific research in India’s wildlife reserves. Current Science 95: 1015-1019 

11. Mishra, C., Madhusudan, M. D., & Datta, A. 2006. Mammals of the high altitudes of Western Arunachal Pradesh, 

Eastern Himalaya: an assessment of threats and conservation needs. Oryx 40: 1-7 

12. Mishra, C. & Datta, A. 2007. A new bird species from Eastern Himalayan Arunachal Pradesh – India’s biological 

frontier. Current Science 92: 1205-1206. 

13. Mudappa, D. & Raman, T. R. S. 2007. Rainforest restoration and wildlife conservation on private lands in the 

Western Ghats. Pages 210-240 in Shahabuddin, G. & Rangarajan, M. (editors) Making Conservation Work. 

Permanent Black, Ranikhet, Uttaranchal. 

14. Namgail, T. (in press) Winter habitat partitioning between Asiatic ibex and blue sheep in Ladakh. Journal of 

Mountain Ecology. 

15. Namgail, T., Fox, J. L & Bhatnagar, Y. V. (in press) Human-Carnivore Conflict: Livestock Mortality Caused by 

Large Carnivores in a Trans-Himalayan Wildlife Reserve. Environmental Management. 

16. Namgail, T., Fox, J. L & Bhatnagar, Y. V. (in press) Habitat shift and time budget of the Tibetan argali: the Influence 

of livestock grazing. Ecological Research. 

17. Pawar, S., Birand, A. C., Ahmed, M. F., Sengupta, S. & Raman, T. R. S. 2007. Conservation biogeography in 

North-east India: hierarchical analysis of cross-taxon distributional congruence. Diversity and Distributions 

13: 53-65. 

18. Radhakrishna S., Goswami A. & Sinha A. 2006. Population survey and conservation status of the Bengal slow 

loris Nycticebus bengalensis in Assam and Meghalaya, northeastern India. International Journal of Primatology 

27: 971-982 

19. Raman, T. R. S., Mudappa, D. & Kapoor, V. (in press). Restoring rainforest fragments in the Western Ghats, 

India: evaluating survival of planted saplings in different degraded sites. Restoration Ecology (in press). 

20. Sharma, S., Dutta, T. & Bhatnagar, Y. V. 2006. Marking-site selection by free ranging Snow leopard ( Uncia 

uncia). In: Conservation Biology in Asia (Eds. J. A. McNeely, T. M. McCarthy, A. Smith, L. Olsvig-Whittaker & 

E. Wikramanayke). Society of Conservation Biology Asia Section and Resources Himalaya Foundation. Pp. 

197-213. 

54 



21. Sharma, S., Thapa, K., Chalise, M. K., Dutta, T., Bhatnagar, Y. V. & McCarthy, T. 2006. The Snow leopard in Himalaya: 

A step towards conservation by studying their distribution, marking habitat selection, coexistence with 

other predators, and wild prey-livestock-predator interaction. In: Conservation Biology in Asia (Eds. J.A. 

McNeely, T. M. McCarthy, A. Smith, L. Olsvig-Whittaker & E. Wikramanayke). Society of Conservation Biology 

Asia Section and Resources Himalaya Foundation. Pp. 184-196. 

22. Sinha, A., Kumar, R. S., Gama, N., Madhusudan, M. D. & Mishra C. 2006. Distribution and conservation status 

of the Arunachal macaque Macaca munzala in western Arunachal Pradesh, northeastern India. Primate Conservation 

21: 145-148. 

Outreach Materials 

1. Hornbills: Feathered Foresters. Educational Poster prepared for distribution to Forest Departments, conservation 

agencies, information centres, and schools. 

2. Trivedi, P. & Ramaswamy, M. 2007. Nono, the snow leopard. Illustrated storybook for children. Nature Conservation 

Foundation 

3. Help us keep the Himalaya wild. A set of 4 posters depicting high-altitude Himalayan wildlife (based on drawings 

by schoolchildren from Spiti, Himachal Pradesh) 

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i FINANCIAL STATEMENT j 

Sources of funds Amount Application of funds Amount 

Balance B/D 4,987,852 Field Research 12,319,652 

Grants Received 17,457,648 Administration 360,790 

Bank interest Received 596,352 Fixed Assets 3,087,996 

Fixed Deposits 6,775,000 Advances and Deposits 1,986,024 

Donations Received 663,943 Depreciation 804,925 

Other income 4,418,833 Deposits 8,553,000 

Cash in Hand 2,420 

Cash in Bank 7,784,821 

Total 34,899,628 34,899,628 

A copy of the audited financial statements is available upon request. 

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i BOARD OF ADVISORS j 

We are grateful to our Board of Advisors for their constant support: 

• A V Balasubramanian, Director, Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems 

• Ravi Chellam, Director, Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment 

• Terence Done, Associate, Australian Institute of Marine Sciences 

• Ajith Kumar, Conservation Scientist, Wildlife Conservation Society 

• Sunita Narain, Director, Centre for Science and Environment 

• Herbert HT Prins, Professor & Chair, Resource Ecology Group,Wageningen University 

• Mahesh Rangarajan, Social Historian 

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i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS j 

Individual Supporters and Friends 

D. G. Hedge, Arjun Sanadi, Ashwin Karumbaya, Gunashekar, Venky Muthiah, C. Vijaykumar, Samuel Udayakumar, 

Oliver Praveenkumar, Arun Kumar, Kaushik Subramani, Mahesh Fair, Murali Padikkal, Mahesh John and Soundarrajan, 

Subhashinee Chandran, Sreedharan Chandran, J. T. Kamdin, Robin D’Rozario & Bhavani Singh (Anamalai 

plantations) 

Pavithra Sankaran, Soumya Prasad, S. U. Saravanakumar, Mahesh Rangarajan, Ghazala Shahabuddin, Dilip 

Venugopal, Theodore Baskaran, Maya Ramaswamy, Atul Joshi and a host of volunteers 

Donors 

Karnum Shashidhar, T. R. Ramachandran, Kirti Kandade, Shobha Swaminathan, K. P. Sreedhar, Radha Krishna Charity 

Trust, Rauf Ali, Rama Krishnan, T. R. Rajagopalan, T. Neelakantan, Rajalakshmi, Shyamala, Iridis Advisory 

Government 

Ministry of Environment and Forests, India 

Department of Science and Technology, India 

State Forest Departments of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Goa, Himachal 

Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Jammu & Kashmir, Sikkim, Lakshadweep (administration), Pondicherry, Orissa, and Andhra 

Pradesh 

Dr. C. K. Sreedharan, Dr. Sukh Dev, Mr. K. R. Varadarajan, Mr. V. Ganesan, Mr. A. Sivamani, Mr. G. Murthy, Mr. T. Panneerselvam 

(Tamil Nadu Forest Department); Dr. V. K. Melkani, Trust Director, Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve 

Trust; Dr. S. I. Koya, Department of Science and Technology, Lakshadweep; Dr. Anmol Kumar, Mr. R. B. Lal, Dr. 

Rashid Hasan (all MoEF); Shri J. C. Kala, DG, Forests and Special Secretary to Ministry of Environment and Forests, 

India; Shri R. P. S. Katwal, IFS, Additional DG (Wildlife); Dr. C. M. Seth, Director SFRI, Jammu & Kashmir; Shri Jigmet 

Takpa, Regional Wildlife Warden, Ladakh 

Students 

V. R. Goswami, V. Sumati 

Colleagues in other institutions 

Agatti Coral Reef Monitoring Network (ACRMN); Peter Clyne, Associate Director of WCS-Asia Program; Dr. K. Ullas 

Karanth, WCS-India Program; Nandita Hazarika and Goutam Narayan of Ecosystems-India; Dr. Ravi Chellam of 

ATREE; Dr. Kashmira Kakati; Dr. Teresa Alcoverro; Dr. Nuria Marba; Dr. A. Christy Williams, WWF-Nepal; Dr. Kartik 

Shanker (CES); Dr. Mahesh Rangarajan; Mahendra Shreshta and John Seidensticker (Save the Tiger Fund); Suresh 

Puttaswamy (Namma Sangha); Sriram Nadathur; Anand Nadathur; Suri Venkatachalam; Sudhakar Mallya (all from 

Nadathur Conservation Trust); Dr. Uma Ramakrishnan, NCBS, Bangalore; Mr. Vijay Moktan, WWF Bhutan 

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3076/5, iv cross, gokulam park, mysore 570002, india 

t: +91.821.2515601 f:+91.821.2513822 e:ncf@ncf-india.org 

www.conservation.in

2006-7 annual report - Nature Conservation Foundation

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