September 2009 - AFMA

SEPTEMBER 2009 

Volume 18 Nr 3 

AFMA 

AFMA Forum 2010 

2 – 5 March 2010 

Register online at www.afma.co.za 

Matrix 

Quarterly magazine of the Animal Feed Manufacturers Association

XX 


Matrix 

CONTENTS 

SEPTEMBER 2009 

Volume 18 Nr 3 

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and AFMA MATRIX. 

2 Preface: Facing the Feed Industry Challenges 

By Brett Roosendaal – National Feed Technical Manager, Epol 

4 Clay minerals to fight footpad lesions 

By Arno van der Aa – Technical Manager, Orffa Additives 

12 Correct particle size benefits animal performance 

By Dick Ziggers 

24 Industry News 

• AFGRI - first in AFMA Code of Conduct certification 

26 Does your finished product shrink or grow 

By Ian Buick – Operations Management Services Ltd, UK 


• New Managing Director for Astral Foods: 

Feed Division 

• Mario le Roux new MD of Nutri Feeds (Pty) Ltd 

• Cuthbert Mambolo joins Bedson Africa 

34 Stool management in sows: keep the GI tract 

By Ernst-Günther Hellwig and Dr Heinrich Kleine Klausing 

41 Basic principles for finishing lambs in a feedlot 

By Dr Conrad Coetzer – Director: Technological 

Development, AFGRI Animal Feeds 


• The Oceana Group 

44 Coming events 

September 2009 AFMA MATRIX 1

PREFACE 

Facing the Feed 

Industry Challenges 

By Brett Roosendaal – National Feed Technical Manager, Epol 

The last quarter of 2008 will be 

remembered as one of the most 

tumultuous periods in the history 

of modern capital markets, and its 

first anniversary is upon us. Do 

we need to be reminded that global 

equity markets collapsed by over 

40%, credit markets froze, housing 

prices declined and central bankers 

extended their lending facilities 

beyond the imaginable. South 

Africa to a large extent escaped 

the direct impact of this financial 

market turmoil. The indirect effects 

of the global recession have become 

evident however, with amongst 

others, softening in animal protein 

demand and a consequent decline in 

prime lending rates. 

Feed raw material prices peaked 

at historically high levels during 

the past twelve months and have 

remained exceptionally volatile. 

Record high prices across all 

commodities were attained, followed 

by the credit crunch and then, more 

recently, a rapid fall in commodity 

prices. The foregoing together 

with exchange rate volatility has 

translated into significant challenges 

for raw material procurement and 

has placed feed companies’ margins 

at risk. These challenges have been 

compounded by extra feed milling 

capacity being created by new 

entrants into the market and by the 

expansion of existing companies. 

Feed margins are going to be under 

pressure for the foreseeable future 

and will return to more moderate 

levels in the short term as 

supply and demand economics 

dictate. 

The local chicken market is 

estimated to have grown in rand 

value by 10% in the past twelve 

months to R17,7 billion as meat 

substitution shifts the priority away 

from beef and pork. Meat demand 

is expected to keep on increasing 

due to more South Africans having 

larger disposable incomes and 

moving into higher socio-economic 

groups. 

Taking account of the context 

portrayed above the Congress 

Committee has crafted the 8th 

International Congress for the 

Feed Industry to address a number 

of these imminent challenges by 

internationally renowned experts. 

Topics include the “Global Financial 

and Economic Situation, Global 

Feed Situation, and Global Raw 

Material Situation”. Global Feed 

Safety and the European Regulatory 

environment will also be defined 

in a paper presented by The 

European Feed Safety Authority. 

The role of the nutritionist will 

receive attention in a paper called 

“Businessman Nutritionist – The 

nutritionist’s role in cost efficient 

feeding”. Current “buzz” topics are 

also covered, namely the advent 

of AGP-free nutrition and gut 

health. Recent advances in specie 

specific nutritional topics will be 

presented by speakers such as Steve 

Leeson, Lourens Erasmus, Simon 

Tibble, and Merryl Webster on mill 

optimization. Vitamin and mineral 

nutrition as well as mill hygiene 

and energy efficiency in the 

feedmill are topics that will receive 

airtime. 

The overriding flavour of the 

International Congress is one where 

we find ourselves in a global context 

and in what way we can endeavour 

to build demand and produce more 

cost efficiently through the animal 

protein value chain. Delegates 

should experience profound 

intellectual enrichment with 

practical and commercial take-out 

to advance their business interests 

in the feed and animal protein 

production industries. 

A number of support industries to 

the feed industry will be present 

in the exhibitors hall to showcase 

their recent developments and will 

include Buhler, Kemin, Novus and 

ADDCON. Apart from the formal 

presentations, a further major 

benefit will be the networking 

opportunity the Congress will 

provide as it attracts interested 

parties from the sub-region, the 

continent, surrounding islands 

and from overseas. The venue 

is Sun City with its world-class 

facilities in terms of entertainment, 

restaurants, accommodation and the 

game reserve close by. I hope the 

program will act as a sweetener and 

entice you to join AFMA in hosting 

the 8 th International Congress 

for the Feed Industry in southern 

Africa. 

2 AFMA MATRIX September 2009

NUTRITION 

Clay minerals 

to fight footpad 

lesions 

Footpad lesions in poultry are an indicator of animal welfare 

standards. Footpad burns often indicate that the animals are not 

properly housed and fed. Arno van der Aa explains how clay 

minerals in the diet can help prevent these painful foot conditions. 

By Arno van der Aa – Technical Manager, Orffa Additives 

The implementation of welfare 

measurements for broilers in recently 

approved legislation has put the 

importance of preventing footpad 

lesions in a new perspective. In June 

2007 EU Directive 2007-43-EC 

became effective and implementation 

is due on 30 th June, 2010. During 

the long negotiations the uptake of 

footpad lesions has been in and out of 

this Directive. It was finally decided 

not to include footpad lesions as an 

effective parameter in the Directive. 

However, it was noted that at the 

evaluation of this directive in 2012 

this parameter would be revisited. 

Clinoptilolites are specially selected clay 

minerals, known for their typical structure 

which enables the clay mineral to bind 

ammonia. 

Importance of the issue 

Concurrently, the discussion also 

continues on a national level. In the 

Netherlands, for example, footpad 

lesions were still planned to be taken 

up by the national implementation 

of the EU Directive 2007-43-EC. 

This would mean that the incidence 

of footpad lesions would become a 

tool to define the density of birds 

a poultry farmer is allowed to keep, 

which has a direct bearing on the 

economical results. Just before 

governmental approval in July 2008, 

footpad lesions were (again) left out 

of the Dutch regulation. But the 

government agreed with the poultry 

industry to investigate possibilities 

for monitoring and addressing the 

problem of footpad lesions. This again 

indicates the importance of footpad 

lesions, and moreover the difficulty 

for governments to effectively include 

this parameter in their legislation. 

In some countries footpad lesions 

have already had a direct effect on 

farmers’ income. Sweden already 

started in 1994 with the “broiler foot 

health programme”. In Denmark 

footpad lesions are measured in the 

slaughterhouse and farmers are 

awarded for good results. It is very 

likely that more countries will soon 

follow this kind of practice, or that 

retail and/or NGO’s become driving 

forces to fulfill consumer demands. 

For the benefit of the poultry 

industry a pro-active approach seems 

advisable. 

Multiple factors 

Footpad lesions are a multifactorial 

disease and are influenced by internal 

and external factors. Internal factors 

of influence can be categorised as sex, 

breed, age, pressure, daily growth, 

and animal health. External factors 

include water supply, litter type, litter 

height, top dressing of litter, climate, 

season, light, bird density, faeces 

distribution and last but certainly not 

least, feed composition (Veldkamp 

2007). Within this article mainly the 

effect of feed measurements, but more 

particularly the use of clinoptilolite 

(clay minerals) will be discussed. 

Feed measurements and footpad 

lesions 

There are several ways to manage 

litter quality and footpad lesions by 

means of feed strategies. The levels 

of sodium and potassium in the feed 

may affect water uptake and thereby 

lead to wet litter problems. Some feed 

ingredients such as soy and tapioca 

have high potassium levels and also 

high levels of certain feed ingredients 

that may affect litter quality. High 

levels of crude protein are also 

known to have a negative effect on 

> 


NUTRITION 

litter quality. High protein levels 

cause high levels of uric acid to be 

formed in the liver and excreted by 

the kidneys. It furthermore stimulates 

water uptake and wet droppings. To 

prevent footpad lesions, the inclusion 

levels of biotin may be of importance. 

Biotin improves the formation and 

development of the upper skin. 

Earlier reports have shown that biotin 

deficiencies increase footpad lesions 

(Mayne, 2005). 

Importance of litter quality 

Litter quality is an important 

parameter regarding the incidence 

and severity of footpad lesions. 

Moisture content is important, since 

wet litter is known to influence the 

occurrence of footpad lesions in 

broilers and turkeys (Mayne, 2005). 

But especially the occurence of 

wet litter combined with nitrogen 

components like ammonia is an 

irritant to footpads. The combination 

of wet litter and high ammonia 

content can affect the footpad, which 

results in colourisation of the skin, 

and ultimately ulcerations. Damaged 

footpads give lee way for fungi or 

bacteria to cause secondary infections, 

which may even lead to condemnation 

of the carcass (Ekstrand ea, 1997). 

Broilers affected by footpad lesions 

will experience pain and therefore 

reduced mobility, leading to lower 

feed intake and growth. 

Clay minerals and litter quality 

Clinoptilolites are specially selected 

clay minerals, known for their typical 

structure which enables the clay 

mineral to bind ammonia (Suchy et 

al., 2006). As a result gut health is 

improved, since ammonia is toxic to 

the gut wall. As an additional effect, 

a reduction of footpad lesions may be 

expected because ammonia bound to 

clinoptilolite causes less irritation to 

the footpads. In 2001 the binding of 

ammonia by clinoptilolite was tested 

in pigs by the University of Gent, 

Belgium. They found that 32% of 

total ammonia was bound within diets 

that contained clinoptilolite, compared 

to only 1% with bounded ammonia 

in the control treatment. Results 

Table 1: Experimental setup 

Treatment Additive Starter Grower Finisher 

1 Control - - - 

2 Clinoptilolite 0,5% 1,0% 1,5% 

A negative control group against a treatment with Clinoptilolite (AmmoMIN, Orffa Additives) added to 

the diet. The procental addition of Clinoptilolite is a dilution of the diet. 

Table 2: Effects of clinoptilolite on litter quality and footpad lesions 

Control 

Clinoptilolite 

Growth (0-35d) gr 2 116 2 170 

Feed intake (0-35d) gr 3 457 3 611 

Corrected FCR (0-35d) 1,621 1,629 

Litter score 

Day 7 1 1 

Day 14 2 2 

Day 21 2,8 2,3 

Day 27 3,5 3 

Day 31 4 3,5 

Day 35 4,3 4 

Footpad lesion scores* 

Day 28 1,7 1,5 

Day 35 1,3 1,1 

1 

Corrected FCR (0-35d.) 

FCR corrected to 2132 grams at day 35, -0,01 for each additional 25 grams of body weight. 

*0= No lesions, no discolouration or scars. 1= Mild lesions, parts of the footpad is discoloured to light 

brown 2= Larger or multiple tumours, discolouration of the footpad to dark brown 3= Severe lesions; 

deep lesions, ulcers, and scabs 

from several trials have shown that 

the inclusion of clinoptilolite in the 

diet reduces water excretion and thus 

improves litter quality. As a result of 

ammonia binding in the gut, technical 

performance is also improved. In the 

following sections different trials are 

discussed. 

Balance trial in Belgium 

In 2005 a trial was performed at CLO- 

DVV (Melle, Belgium) to measure 

the bio-efficacy of clinoptilolites in 

three different dosages. The trial was 

set up as a balance trial with male 

Ross-308 broilers according to the 

EU Reference method (Bourdillon 

et al., 1990). Three different dosages 

of clinoptilolite (1%, 2% and 3% 

inclusion) were compared with a 

negative control group. There was a 

7 days adaptation period (day 14-21 

days of age) and the trial lasted from 

21 to 24 days. For every treatment 

six replicates of 4 male broilers were 

used. Feed and nutrient intake, water 

excretion, dry matter of excretion, 

total excretion, fat digestibility and 

Nitrogen retention were measured. 

The dry matter content of the 

manure was significantly increased; 

see the results shown in Figure 1. 

Water excretion (H 2 

O/feed intake) 

decreases with the inclusion of 

clinoptilolite. Further results showed 

that the inclusion of up to 2% of 

clinoptilolite in the ration had no 

effect on the feed intake, energy value 

of the diet, or Nitrogen retention. 

This means that dilution of the diet 

up to 2% is possible while maintaining 

the performance. This is explained 

by improved fat digestibility and 

improved usage of protein sources. 

Using a dilution strategy including 

clinoptilolite can be a successful tool 

to lower feeding costs. 

Field trials in Germany 

In 2003 a field trial was performed 

in Germany on a farm with two 

identical stables containing 26 500 

birds each. The effects of additional 

clinoptilolites were determined, using 

inclusion levels of 0,5%, 1,0% and 

1,5% in starter, grower and finisher 

diets respectively. Litter quality 

improved numerically at days 14, 21 

and 28 with 0,5 (scale 1 to 6). The 

trial was repeated in 2005 with an 

addition of 1,0% clinoptilolites in 

all phases. Litter quality improved 

numerically by 0,67 on average at days 

> 


NUTRITION 

9, 21 and 28 (scale 1 to 6). Footpad 

lesions were scored in 994 birds, 

on scale 1 (no lesions) to 4 (severe 

lesions). Results are given in Figure 

2. Scores tended to be positively 

influenced by the clinoptilolite versus 

control diets: score 1 (8,4% vs 4,2%), 

score 2 (24,0% vs 22,0%), score 3 

(60,8% vs 66,8%) and score 4 (6,9% 

vs 7,0%). In both trials economic 

results improved, by 23% and 41% 

respectively. Interestingly, both trials 

resulted in an improvement in losses 

at the slaughterhouse. 

Research trial in The Netherlands 

To improve litter quality and reduce 

footpad lesion prevalence and 

severity, a trial was performed in 

2007 at Provimi Research Station 

“De Viersprong” in Velddriel, The 

Netherlands. In this trial the effects 

of clinoptilolite (AmmoMIN, Orffa 

Additives BV) inclusion in the diet 

were measured. The feed composition 

was formulated in such a way 

that wet litter was expected, this 

to see clear effects on litter quality 

and footpad lesions. Birds were fed a 

control diet or a diet with an addition 

of 0,5%, 1,0% and 1,5% clinoptilolite 

in starter, grower and finisher diets 

respectively. This means that clinoptilolite 

replaces other ingredients, 

leading to a nutritional dilution. Both 

treatments contained 120 male birds 

divided over 6 replicates. Results of 

this trial are shown in Table 2. Birds 

fed clinoptilolite tended to grow 

faster (+54 grams) from day 0 to 35, 

although not significantly (P> 0,05, 

ANOVA using GENSTAT). No differences 

were found in Corrected Feed 

Conversion. These results show that 

at least similar results on performance 

can be obtained, with a tendency to 

increased growth, even with a dilution 

of the diets by adding clinoptilolites. 

This can be explained by the binding 

of ammonia in the gut. The dilution 

of the diet with clinoptilolite may 

reduce the cost price of the formulation. 

Litter scores were measured 

weekly on a scale from 1 (dry) to 5 

(wet). From day 21 onwards, litter 

scores improved numerically for birds 

fed clinoptilolite. Footpad lesions 

Figure 1: Dry matter content of manure at different inclusion rates of clinoptilolite in the 

broiler diet 

26,5 (%) 

26 

25,5 

25 

24,5 

24 

23,5 

23,3 

23 

22,5 

22 

were scored from 1 (no lesions) to 4 

(severe lesions) per bird at days 28 

and 35. According to trial protocol, 

fresh wood shavings were added to 

cages when litter scores became too 

high (> 4). Adding clinoptilolite to 

broiler diets numerically reduced 

average footpad lesions, from 1,7 to 

1,5 at day 28 and from 1,3 to 1,1 at 

day 35 for control and clinoptilolite 

diets respectively. It should be noted 

that even four out of six replicates 

of the control group required extra 

wood shavings compared to only two 

clinoptilolite replicates. Extra addition 

of wood shavings is known to reduce 

the incidence of footpad lesions. In 

practice, extra addition of wood shavings 

is not common; therefore, the 

effects on footpad lesions may even 

be higher than recorded. Experiences 

from other trials teach us that dry 

matter of the faeces may increase due 

to clinoptilolite addition. 

Conclusions 

It seems that footpad lesions in the 

24,6 

25,6 

25,9 

Control 1% Clinop. 2% Clinop. 3% Clinop. 

Figure 2: Effect of clinoptilolite on lesion severity, German field trial 2005 

% DISTRIBUTION 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

Score 1 Score 2 Score 3 Score 4 

LESION SEVERITY 

Control 

poultry industry are becoming 

increasingly important. Not only does 

one have to keep in mind that animal 

welfare is important for the image of 

the poultry meat industry; footpad 

lesions can also impact on performance 

due to low mobility of the 

birds. It will also become increasingly 

important in terms of legislation, 

although in many countries so far, 

practical implementation seems to be 

at a bottleneck. 

Inclusion of clinoptilolite in broiler 

diets has several advantages. First of 

all it can be used as an assurance to 

prevent wet litter and reduce severity 

of footpad lesions. Secondly, it is a 

cost price reducing measurement, 

while performance will be equal or 

may even improve, in cases where the 

product is used to dilute the diet. 

References are available on request. 

Clinoptilolite 

With acknowledgement to FEED MIX 

magazine. 


NUTRITION 

Correct particle size benefits 

animal performance 

Feed producers should be concerned about the composition of the cereal grains in the feed and 

also closely manage the feed processing steps so that the animals may fully utilise the nutrients. 

Particle size reduction is an aspect that is of major importance, since it increases the surface area 

of the grain and thus allows for greater interaction with digestive enzymes. It has been studied 

for many years now, but still new data become available. 

By Dick Ziggers 

techniques which can be used on-line. 

Most of the feed ingredients used in feed 

manufacturing are subjected to particle 

size reduction either within the feed plant 

or prior to reception. The most important 

benefits from particle size reduction in 

feed manufacturing processes are related 

to: 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

Larger surface area for faster 

digestion 

Improving ease of handling of some 

ingredients 

Improving mixing characteristics of 

ingredients 

Increasing pelleting efficiency and 

pellet quality 

Meeting customer performance for 

feeds 

Studying the influence of particle size on animal performance is complicated due to the 

indirect effects on nutritional value of other steps in processing, such as mixing and 

pelleting. 

Particle size analysis is the study of 

the size distribution of the particles 

of a powdery material and is closely 

related to key processes such as grinding, 

fractionation and mixing. In addition, 

size distribution is related to feeding 

behaviour and digestion of the feed 

particles by animals. 

Since the particles have irregular shapes, 

size measurement is defined as the 

diameter of the theoretical sphere whose 

behaviour is similar to that of the real 

particle. The distribution is then fitted 

on theoretical laws. The fineness of the 

meal is described by the mean diameter 

and the heterogeneity of the distribution 

by the standard deviation. Among the 

main techniques commonly used are 

sieving (in dry or wet conditions), laser 

light diffraction, and imaging. These last 

two techniques are non-invasive and fast 

Much energy has been put into particle 

size research in pigs at Kansas State 

University (KSU) in the beginning of 

this century. It was found here, that the 

young pig does a better job of chewing 

its feed than growing-finishing pigs. 

The largest potential for fine grinding 

to improve feed efficiency will be for 

finishing pigs. Nonetheless, fine grinding 

or rolling will improve feed efficiency 

regardless of age. This improved feed 

efficiency appears to be a result of 

improved nutrient digestibility. Average 

daily gain does not seem to be effected 

by reduced particle size. Usually feed 

intake is reduced with reduced particle 

size. However, there seems to be an 

optimum particle size between 500 and 

700 microns. Pigs fed grain ground to 

500 microns had a 6% improvement in 

feed efficiency compared to pigs fed 

diets containing grain ground to 900 

microns. On the other hand production 

rate in the mill is reduced when particle 

> 


XX NUTRITION 

sizes is decreased from e.g. 700 to 500 

microns. The decision on optimum diet 

particle size needs to include assessment 

of improvements in feed efficiency versus 

reduction in milling production. KSU 

researchers suggest a diet particle 

size of app. 700 microns to optimise 

both pig performance and milling 

efficiency. 

Type of grain counts 

Not all grains should be reduced to the 

same particle size. Studies with high-fibre 

cereals such as barley indicate that fine 

grinding of these ingredients may greatly 

improve their feeding value. Research 

data indicate that grinding of fibrous 

feed ingredients to approximately 700 

microns improves their feeding value 

and may make them more attractive as 

substitutes for corn and sorghum. 

Wheat needs to be treated slightly 

differently. Because of its high protein 

content and propensity to become floury, 

it presents some unique processing 

problems. If ground too fine, wheat can 

reduce feed intake. Therefore in pig diets 

wheat should be ground coarser than 

corn or sorghum, between 800 and 900 

microns. 

One of the known disadvantages of fine 

grinding is the increased incidence of 

gastric ulcers. The frequency of ulceration 

increases when particle size drops below 

500 microns. Other disadvantages of fine 

grinding include bridging problems in 

bulk bins and feeders as well as increased 

dustiness of the feed. 

Particle size in practice 

KSU studies in the US showed that 

two-thirds of compound feeds sampled 

were in the recommended 600-800 

micron range. Similar research was 

conducted by an Ohio State University 

(OSU) who found that the average 

micron size of feed ground in a hammer 

mill was 916 microns. Roller mills 

averaged 720 microns. The location of 

feed manufacture was also significant. 

On-farm processing yielded an average 

of 881 microns. Feed mill processed 

feed averaged 755 microns. On-farm 

hammer mills produced a wide range 

of particle sizes. There was also a 

significant difference in average particle 

size of feed from on-farm or feed mill 

operated hammer mills. On-farm grinding 

averaged 1 029 microns and the feed 

mills averaged 730 microns. 

The economic impact of particle size can 

be significant. If a 100-sow farrow-tofinish 

operation has an average diet cost 

of $130 per tonne and reduces particle 

size from 1 100 to 750 microns, this 

would result in a saving of approximately 

$4 750 per year based on improved feed 

efficiency. 

Researchers in Denmark investigated the 

effect of particle size (fine and coarse) 

and feed processing (pelleted vs. nonpelleted) 

on the villi in the intestines 

and the adhesion of Salmonella enteric 

Typhimurium DT12 to the intestines 

of pigs. They found that the effects of 

particle size and feed processing on 

villus height and crypt depth in the small 

intestine were minor. Feeding coarse diets 

increased the crypt depth in the colon. 

Using a pig intestine organ culture model, 

Salmonella adhered less (60%) to the ileal 

tissue of pigs fed the non-pelleted diets 

than to those fed pelleted diets. Their 

general conclusion was that pigs fed a 

non-pelleted diet are better protected 

against Salmonella infections than pigs 

fed a pelleted diet. 

Researchers in Tarragona, Spain looked 

at feed preferences in pigs and its 

correlation with feed particle size and 

texture. They concluded that the texture 

properties of the feed could explain in 

part the feed preferences observed in 

pigs, whereas particle size characteristics 

appeared less important. 

Particle size relevance 

Guillou and Landeau from French 

cooperative Ucaab, compiled a 

quantitative database with data from 23 

scientific papers and internal reports, in 

order to derive response laws to particle 

size variation for nutritional value. 

General conclusions from their survey: 

in growing swine (weaned piglets and 

growing-finishing pigs) energy faecal 

digestibility is reduced by 0,6 unit and 

nitrogen faecal digestibility by 0,8 unit 

when particle size increases by 100 μm 

(micron). Among technical parameters, 

only feed conversion (FCR) of piglets 

is related to particle size: +100 μm 

in average particle size increased FCR 

with 0,03 unit. These ranges are low 

compared with other sources of variation 

in digestive or metabolic use of diets. 

Poultry prefer larger particles 

Day-old chicks learn to associate 

nutritional effects with the sensorial 

characteristics of feed particles, thanks 

to a precise visual observation of details 

and specific tactile capacities of the beak. 

Selection of feed particles is fast and 

accurate. However, this selection may 

vary according to the sensorial experience 

of the bird concerning the feed. Eating 

rate depends on the size and hardness of 

the pecked particles. 

In poultry diets the effects of particle size 

appear to be puzzled with complexity of 

the diet as well as further processing such 

as pelleting or crumbling. The response 

to reduced particle size (600 to 500 

microns) in broiler chicks appears to be 

greatest when fed simple (corn-soybean) 

diets in meal form. Feeding a complex 

diet in crumbled form did not appear to 

require particle size below 1 000 microns. 

Studies with laying hens suggest that 

there is no advantage in reducing particle 

size below 800 microns. 

In New Zealand Amerah et al. (2007) 

studied the influence of feed particle 

size and feed form in broilers. Bird 

performance was superior in birds fed 

pelleted diets compared with those on 

mash diets. Pelleting evened out the 

differences in particle size distribution 

between treatments and, as a result, 

wheat particle size had no effect on the 

performance of broilers fed pelleted 

diets. 

In mash diets, coarse grinding of wheat 

improved weight gain and feed:gain 

compared with medium grinding. 

Pelleting had a negative effect on 

Apparent Metbolizable Energy (AME(n)). 

Overall, the results showed that feed 

form had a greater influence on the 

different measured parameters than did 

particle size. 

In an additional study Amerah et. al 

(2008) found that differences in particle 

size distribution still existed between 

diets (corn or wheat-based) after 

pelleting, especially in the proportion 

of coarse particles (1 mm and over). 

In corn-based diets, coarse grinding 

improved weight gains compared with 

fine grinding, but this particle size effect 

was not observed in wheat-based diets. 

In both diets, coarse grinding lowered 

feed:gain of broilers compared with fine 

grinding. In wheat-based diets, coarse 

grinding improved AME(n) compared 

with fine grinding. Heavier gizzard 

> 


NUTRITION 

Table 1: Effect of different wheat particle sizes on egg production and quality 

Parameter 

Whole wheat 

+ balancer 

2mm particle 

size 

5mm particle 

size 

8mm particle 

size 

Feed intake (g per d on dry 

matter basis) 

81,4 87,8 92,1 99,1 

Daily egg production 0,96 0,92 0,93 0,84 

Egg weight (g) 60,4 59,3 58,6 53,3 

Yolk colour index 4,59 4,59 4,70 4,67 

Percentage shell (%) 8,73 9,23 9,06 9,80 

Feed cost (£ per tonne) 277 317 302 299 

Feed cost per 100 eggs (£) 2,35 3,03 2,99 3,53 

weights were observed in birds fed coarse 

corn-based diets. This effect was not 

present in birds fed coarse wheat-based 

diets. Overall the researchers concluded 

that the effect of feed particle size varies 

according to grain type. 

Gizzard effect 

Although it is assumed that fine grinding 

increases particle surface and thus 

increases availability for enzymatic 

digestion, there is evidence that coarser 

grinding to a more uniform particle 

size improves the performance of birds 

maintained on mash diets. This counterintuitive 

effect may result from the 

positive effect of feed particle size on 

gizzard development. A more developed 

gizzard is associated with increased 

grinding activity, resulting in increased 

gut motility and improved digestion of 

nutrients. 

Although grinding to fine particle size is 

thought to improve pellet quality, it will 

markedly increase energy consumption 

during milling. Systematic investigations 

on the relationships of feed particle 

size and diet uniformity with bird 

performance, gut health and pellet 

quality are warranted if efficiency is to 

be optimised in respect of the energy 

expenditure of grinding. 

Indian research at CCS Haryana 

Agricultural University investigated the 

effects of five different particle sizes 

(2-6 mm hammer mill screens) in broiler 

feeds. The general conclusion was that 

feed particle size resulting from the 5mm 

screen (868 micron) hammer mill was 

most efficiently utilised by the broilers, 

as it resulted in improved FCR, reduced 

electricity consumption for grinding and 

better body weight gains in birds. 

Laying hen studies 

Little work has been carried out in laying 

hens regarding particle sizes in the 

diet. A recent study conducted by Dr 

Marian Scott at the University of Belfast, 

North Ireland, has evaluated the effect 

of particle size and feed form on egg 

production and egg quality parameters. 

The treatments included a whole-wheat 

ration plus balancer, wheat ground 

through three particle sizes (2, 5 and 

8mm) and formulated into diets offered 

in three forms (pellets, crumbs and mash) 

to laying hens. Performance of the hens 

is summarised in Table 1. The effect of 

feed form is not reflected in this table, 

although this had no significant effect 

on egg production or egg quality, but 

crumbed diets reduced feed cost per 

100 eggs. The finer particle size (2mm) 

resulted in better performance than 

coarser particle sizes. However, overall 

optimum performance was achieved 

when the whole-wheat plus balancer 

ration was given to hens. Offering feeds 

in such a form would also reduce diet 

costs per 100 eggs produced and in 

addition, reduce the energy required for 

diet production. However, this would 

need extra investments in the feeding 

system for feeding the wheat whole. 

Research at the Polytechnical University 

of Madrid, Spain, investigated the effect 

of the main cereal of the diet and particle 

size in young brown layers. The only 

significant effect detected was that feed 

intake was greater for hens fed coarseground 

cereals (10mm screen) than 

for hens fed medium and fine-ground 

cereals (8 or 6mm screen). None of the 

egg quality parameters studied were 

influenced by dietary treatment. Neither 

type of cereal nor particle size affected 

productive performance or egg quality of 

young brown hens. 

Studying the influence of particle size 

is complicated by the integration of 

indirect effects on nutritional value, 

such as mix stability, or by interactions 

with elementary steps of the process 

In pigs the recommended particle size is 

between 700 and 800 microns. Smaller 

particles could give better results, but 

have detrimental effects on the animal’s 

digestive system. 

Poultry are somewhat indifferent to particle 

size, however, they prefer particles coarser 

than pigs do for optimal performance. 

other than grinding (such as pelleting). 

Moreover, optimal particle size 

selection depends on factors other than 

nutritional-like flowing properties of the 

meal: feed restriction due to poor flowing 

properties is still a real concern. Technical 

constraints nowadays still override 

nutritional benefits in the decisionmaking 

process for high quality meal. 

With acknowledgement to FEED TECH 

magazine. 


INDUSTRY NEWS 

AFGRI - first in AFMA Code 

of Conduct certification 

AFGRI Animal Feeds was the first AFMA member to be awarded 

the AFMA Code of Conduct certification, done on all their branches 

which include: Bethlehem; Eloff; Isando; Kinross; Klipheuwel; 

Patterson and its Head Office. 

The AFMA Code of Conduct was developed by industry for 

industry, to ensure the adherence to all the legislative requirements 

as well as regulations pertaining to feed legislation. The Code 

however specifically focuses on all the requirements pertaining to 

the Animal Feeds and Animal Health Act. 

Additional to the AFMA Code of Conduct Certification, AFGRI was 

also awarded the AFRI Compliance Platinum Award, which focuses 

on food safety, bio-safety and quality in the manufacturing. This 

prestigious Platinum Award can only be made to an AFMA member 

after completing the AFRI Compliance Audit as well as the AFMA 

Code of Conduct Audit. 

From left to right: De Wet Boshoff (Executive Director, 

AFMA), Joe Hanekom (Managing Director, Afri 

Compliance), Herman van Zyl (Executive Portfolio 

Manager, Afri Compliance) and Henry Cottle (Managing 

Director, Afgri Animal Feeds). 

Being the first recipient of the AFMA Code of Conduct, AFGRI 

hereby once again confirms its commitment to excellence and the 

pursuing of its objective to produce safe feed to its clients. 

Afgri Trading can bring benefit and value to our customers 

by supplying quality raw materials in a cost effective 

manner making use of our extensive resources in farmer 

contracts, finance packages, storage capabilities, logistics 

and hedging strategies. 

Our range of raw materials include: 

Maize, milling by-products, oilseeds, oilseed meals, 

other proteins, minerals and amino acids. 

Contact: 

Erhard Briedenhann 012 683 5349 / 082 551 1634 

erhardb@afgri.co.za 

Tania Erwee 012 643 8196 / 083 994 5592 

Tanya.erwee@afgri.co.za 

Francois Smit 012 683 5354 / 083 629 8324 

fsmit@afgri.co.za 

AFGRI Trading (Pty) Ltd • Reg no. 1963/007478/07 • 267B West 

Avenue, 1st Floor, Centurion, Pretoria • P O Box 11054, Centurion 

0046, Gauteng South Africa

MANAGEMENT 

Ian 

Bu 

ick 

is direc 

tor 

of Opera 

tions 

Man 

age 

men 

tS 

Serv 

ice 

ces Ltd, 

a UK bas 

sed 

Int 

tern 

ernati 

ationa 

lFeed 

ed 

Mi 

llil ng con 

sultan 

cy 

provid 

ding 

a ful 

l rang 

nge eo 

f prod 

uction 

an 

d 

eng 

ine 

eri 

ng 

ser 

vic 

es to the 

indus 

try since 

1999. 

9. 

An 

engine 

neer 

er 

and me 

mber ro 

ft he UK 

Cha 

rte 

red 

Manag 

nageme 

ement 

Ins 

nstit 

ute, Ian 

has 

mor 

et 

han 

34 years 

exper 

perien 

ence 

in eve 

very 

asp 

ect 

of mill 

operat 

ratio 

ion 

s. 

Matching weight volumes of incoming raw materials 

and outgoing complete feed can save a lot of money. 

Does your finished 

product shrink or grow 

By Ian Buick – Operations Management Services Ltd, UK 

Do you know the key 

performance indicator 

which identifies the 

variation in tonnes of 

finished product leaving 

the mill, when compared 

with the tonnage of raw 

material which originally 

arrived This is one vital 

question which far too 

many managers responsible 

for managing feed mills 

cannot answer accurately. 

When 100 tonnes raw materials arrive at 

the plant and 1% is lost in the process it 

means that only 99 tonnes leave. So why 

is it happening, how can it be identified 

and how can it be corrected There can 

be a number of reasons why a mill loses 

stock or suffers shrink: 

• Losses due to moisture reduction in 

processing; 

• Unauthorised removal of feed from 

site; 

• Failure to account for movements of 

material properly; 

• Material being spoilt and thrown 

away; 

• Dust emissions from inefficient control 

equipment. 

The last four can be dealt with through 

good management of maintenance, 

production and administration. Moisture 

loss, the most significant factor, is more 

complex and needs further explanation. 

None of them, however, will be obvious, 

unless the overall reconciliation of 

material movements is done on a regular 

basis. 

Moisture loss 

If moisture changes during production 

are examined, it is possible to create 

profiles for feed through the process. 

Figure 1 shows a typical feed passing 

though the feed production process 

> 


MANAGEMENT 

and indicates the main points at which 

moisture changes. Without corrective 

action, mills can suffer between 0,5 and 

1,5% moisture losses. With net profit 

margins in some feed companies being as 

low as 1 to 2 %, this factor alone could 

influence whether or not that company 

returns a profit or loss, so it really is a 

vital part of mill management control. 

The diagram highlights the effects of 

grinding and cooling on moisture losses. 

The first is almost impossible to prevent. 

It can be reduced by maintaining grinder 

beaters, screens and the air system in 

good condition, but losses will still be 

experienced. Cooling is an evaporative 

process, so moisture reduction is 

essential, but there may be times when 

cooling is too efficient and overdrying is 

experienced. 

Figure 1: A typical moisture profile during production with no extra water added 

% MOISTURE 

14 

13 

12 

11 

10 

Raw material Grinding Conditioning Cooling 

The only way to fully correct this effect 

is to add water. The difficult part is 

to ensure that the water is retained, 

and that the pellet press is capable of 

pelleting the higher moisture material. 

Since the late 1990’s the Akzo Nobel 

emulsifier Bredol has been used to 

assist in correcting the problem, in 

addition to providing other significant 

production benefits. It not only allows 

the retention of higher moisture than 

pure water, it also allows the addition 

of more water, than the press would 

normally be able to handle. This is 

particularly important in hot dry climates. 

One recent full-scale production trial 

in Australia demonstrated that if water 

levels as high as 3% were added with 

emulsifier, the pellet press could easily 

process the material, and the subsequent 

evaporation of excess water actually 

cooled the product below the ambient 

air temperature by 2°C. The end product 

moisture was then slightly higher than 

> 

GAIN 

LOSS 

Breakeven 

Point 

Only 

steam 

added 

Moisture 

Target 

Finished 

Product 


MANAGEMENT 

the calculated target from raw material 

moisture levels. 

Figure 2 shows the progression which can 

be achieved from zero water addition, 

pure water addition and increased water 

addition + emulsifier. 

Figure 2: Showing the different effects possible with the use of an emulsifier 

Moisture % 

Normal 

Production 

Only using steam 

Raw material 

12% 

Grinding 

11% 

Mixing and 

Conditioning 

14% 

Cooling 

11% 

Result 

Loss 1% 

Balancing the differences 

So how does a mill identify the balance 

of gains and losses in a mill Primarily, if 

a mill wishes to simply look at moisture 

variations, then the testing of raw 

material and finished product moistures 

can provide results which would indicate 

the trend in gains or losses. There 

are, however, serious issues related to 

moisture testing. When a mill is looking 

for movements of 0,5 to 1%, the only 

truly reliable method is to oven test 

samples. 

Quick testing methods are a valuable 

indicator, particularly in live production 

testing – however, NIR, NIT, Capacitance 

and Microwave testing are only as 

good as their calibration set up. When 

compared with oven tests it is sometimes 

possible to experience variations as large 

as 1%. Results like these can hide the 

trends being looked for. Quick testing 

heat balances have an even larger 

potential variance where repeated tests 

are carried out before the equipment 

cools down. Loading a small sample 

carefully onto the plate takes time. The 

sample is also drying rapidly during this 

loading operation. The end result is that 

the sample may be compromised before 

the test begins. In this case sample 

preparation should be done on the plate 

away from the machine after it has been 

zeroed. 

Correct sampling 

No moisture results can be representative 

unless the sampling procedure is carried 

out correctly. The only sample which 

will deliver accurate information is one 

which has been taken once the cooler has 

discharged its own maximum volume and 

optimum conditioning is taking place. 

Samples which are taken too early in the 

production run will always deliver a low 

moisture result. If different operators 

regularly take samples at different stages 

of the run, the end result will be variable 

moisture results. 

Some mill computer systems have 

the capacity to track despatched feed 

volumes and relate this back to raw 

Steam plus 

1,5% water 

Steam plus 

1,5% water 

and emulsifier 

Steam plus 

3% water and 

emulsifier 

12% 

12% 

12% 

material weighing records. In this way 

any variation resulting from the process 

will be identified. Care has to be taken if 

the product is screened at loading, as this 

will clearly affect the quantity available 

for despatch. 

The simplest and most basic method 

of monitoring looks at raw materials 

received at a mill, the quantity in stock 

and finished products being dispatched. 

It is relatively easy to monitor if you are 

measuring all incoming materials over 

a weighbridge and sending finished 

products out in the same way. The only 

remaining factor is the starting and 

finishing stock of materials in the mill. 

This is potentially a variable area as you 

need to measure the contents of bulk 

bins, but given an experienced operator 

and some degree of measurement, which 

can be as simple as a tape measure 

with a weight at the end, this will 

provide reliable information. Monthly 

reconciliation is the longest interval 

which should be used as figures can be 

investigated and acted upon quickly. The 

best mills do it on a weekly basis. The 

calculation looks like this: 

Opening stock + Received goods 

Closing stock + Dispatched goods – 

Stock gained or lost 

11% 

11% 

11% 

Changing nutritional values 

Some parties argue that, instead of 

looking at stock variations, raw material 

nutritional values can be changed to 

factor out moisture losses. This is a very 

risky strategy. If an overall approach is 

taken, it assumes that all raw materials 

will lose moisture at the same rate during 

15,5% 

15,5% 

17% 

11,5% 

12% 

13% 

Loss 0,5% 

Break even 

Gain 1% 

grinding. Raw material properties and 

financial values are then changed in the 

formulation computer to allow for this. 

The reality is that materials behave in 

different ways during grinding, and 

some will lose moisture more readily 

than others. Even if materials are treated 

separately, separate deliveries can behave 

differently during grinding. For example, 

hard and soft wheats or sorghum with 

the same moisture level will grind 

differently and release more or less 

moisture. Generally feed grains are not 

differentiated, so any figures to correct 

moisture losses are likely to be guesswork. 

The only way to arrive at a close finished 

product nutritional result which matches 

the target based on analysis of incoming 

raw materials, is to bring the moisture 

back to it’s target level. If 100 tonnes 

arrives at a mill, 100 tonnes should 

leave. 

The calculation is very simple. For 

example, every 100 000 tonnes produced 

in a mill with average raw material cost 

at 100 Euro per tonne, a 1% loss in 

moisture represents a profit reduction of 

100 000 Euro. Despite this many mills 

either do not pay attention to this factor 

at all and the losses are hidden. Others 

will reconcile once or twice each year. 

This simply reveals that you have had 

a long term problem and it is now too 

late to correct it. Regular checks and fast 

action will provide a big benefit to your 

company’s profit line. 


magazine. 


YOUR PARTNER IN 

FEED PRODUCTION 

Graintech Milling Systems (Pty) Ltd and 

Makeway Engineering Co (Pty) Ltd are 

uniquely versatile organisations, providing a 

comprehensive range of services, expertise 

and equipment to a diversity of customers. 

The guiding principles behind each and every 

Graintech and Makeway project are quality, 

reliability, accuracy, timeliness and good 

return on capital invested. 

Scope of services: 

- Turnkey material handling projects 

- Engineering services 

- Total project management 

- Total turnkey projects 

- Conceptual engineering and feasibility studies 

- Detail engineering and design 

- Detail draughting 

- Shop detailing 

- Project procurement 

- Construction and commissioning 

Areas of specialisation (applications): 

- Flour mills and feed mills 

- Maize milling 

- Flour milling 

- Wheat milling 

- Sorghum milling 

- Soya milling 

- Maize degermination 

- Animal feed milling 

- Animal feed pelleting 

- Biomass processing and pelleting 

- Animal feed mixing and blending 

- Roughage grinding 

- Lucerne drying, grinding and pelleting 

- Molasses supplementation 

- Maize silos 

- Sunfl ower silos 

- Wheat silos 

- Malt handling 

- Starch handling 

- Pneumatic fl our handling 

- Pro-nutro weighing and mixing 

- Sugar conditioning and handling 

- Bulk materials handling systems 

- Batch houses and cullet treatment systems for the 

glass industry 

- Batch weighing and continuous weighing systems 

Contact: Jan Kminek | 68 Fourth Street, Booysens Reserve, Johannesburg 2091 | Tel: +27 11 835-2064 | Fax: +27 11 835-2816 

E-mail: info@graintech-makeway.com | Website: www.graintech-makeway.com

INDUSTRY NEWS 

New Managing Director 

Astral Foods: Feed Division 

Roedolf Steenkamp was appointed 

to the position of Managing 

Director: Feed Division of Astral 

Foods on 4 June 2009, replacing 

Chris Schutte, who was promoted 

to CEO of Astral Foods. Roedolf 

joined the company on 2 April 2002 

as General Manager of the Group’s 

feed milling operations in Zambia 

and Zimbabwe. In November 2005, 

he was promoted to Chief Operating Officer – Africa. 

Roedolf Steenkamp holds the position of Managing 

Director for the Astral Foods Feed Division (8 local 

feed mills) and also serves on the Boards of Africa Feeds 

Limited, trading as Tiger Animal Feeds and Progressive 

Poultry Limited, both Zambian operations as well as 

Meadow Mozambique Limitada in Mozambique. Astral’s 

Central Analytical Laboratories (CAL) also report to 

him. 

Roedolf Steenkamp also serves as an Executive Director 

on the Board of Astral Operations Limited. 

Mario le Roux new MD 

of Nutri Feeds (Pty) Ltd 

Mario le Roux is the newly appointed Managing 

Director of Nutri Feeds replacing Chris van 

Niekerk. Mr le Roux is a qualified C.A (SA), RA. 

This highly successful individual made his way 

up from S.A.R.S where he was director of special 

investigations in Cape Town. He first became 

involved in the business world in Johannesburg 

as an assistant financial manager at Macsteel 

International. 

He became financial manager for Barlows Equipment Company and 

formed part of a team establishing the Caterpillar brand in Angola, 

Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique. After Barlows he became the 

Managing Director Tiger Animal Feeds (Zambia), Director Meadow 

Feeds (Malawi) and Financial Director Meadow Feeds (RSA). 

Before joining Nutri Feeds he was involved at Afgri Operations Limited 

where he was Managing Director of the Clark Cotton Group of 

Companies and director of Afgri Operations Limited. 

Mario can best be described as a corporate problem solver and 

Business Expander. 

Nutri Feeds is fortunate to have this young business executive as 

part of the team on the eve of Nutri’s planned expansion and market 

repositioning in Southern Africa. 

Cuthbert Mambolo 

joins Bedson Africa 

Cuthbert Mamabolo formerly Operational Nutritionist 

of AFGRI Animal Feeds has been appointed as 

Technical Marketing Manager at Bedson Africa in May 

2009 and will be responsible for the Feed Division’s 

products which include mycotoxin management, gut 

health and in-feed performance enhancers. 

Cuthbert holds an MSc (Agric) from University of 

Pretoria and Post Graduate Diploma in Business 

Administration (PDBA) from GIBS. He has experience 

in feed formulation and technical support to key 

customers. Bedson Africa 

(Pty) Ltd is a market leader 

in the supply and marketing 

of top quality animal health 

and production-enhancement 

products. For more information 

please contact Cuthbert on 

012 803 4376 or cuthbert. 

mamabolo@bedson.co.za. 


NUTRITION 

Stool management 

in sows: keep the GI 

tract moving 

The performance of sows in north-western Europe has increased 

dramatically over the past 10 years. The overall benchmark now is 

to produce 30 pigs/sow/year. To achieve this, the GI tract has to 

be supported and working well to optimally supply the uterus with 

nutrients and guarantee high performance. 

By Ernst-Günther Hellwig and Dr Heinrich Kleine Klausing* 

The gastro-intestinal (GI) tract is 

one of the most sensitive systems 

in the pig. The intestine is in direct 

contact with the environment and 

has the task to enzymatically digest 

(small intestine) or bacterially digest 

(large intestine) feed that is processed 

and moved onward by peristaltic 

movement. Through this process 

pathogenic bacteria can be ingested 

and/or a non-pathogenic load of 

bacteria are constantly present in the 

GI tract. As long as the system “GI 

tract” is working there will be no 

apparent clinical symptoms or disease. 

If the system is disturbed – and sows 

often suffer from constipation during 

critical phases, for instance around 

birth or during lactation – pathogenic 

bacteria reproduce very quickly 

(clostridia) or ubiquitous gram 

negative E.coli die in large amounts 

and their cell wall fractions flood the 

sow’s metabolism with endotoxins. 

Today’s feeds are specifically 

formulated for this critical phase 

around birth, which amongst other 

tasks will keep the sow’s stool from 

firming. However, this does not mean 

that all feeding phases should not 

facilitate normal peristaltic movement. 

Diarrhoea can occasionally be 

observed in sows. Oftentimes bacteria 

like lawsonia and brachyspirus will 

be the cause of this (less frequently, 

Salmonella). Of course, there are 

many other causes for diarrhoea 

which can be identified via dissection 

or individual analytical stool samples. 

While we have been breeding for pig 

numbers over the years there is no 

positive correlation between uterus 

lengths, needed for pig numbers, and 

intestinal length. This means that 

the intestine has to work much more 

efficiently at 16-18 foetuses in late 

gestation, than if the sow were only 

to carry 7-9 foetuses. As a result we 

have to pay much more attention 

with modern sow lines, not only to 

the farrowing process and rearing 

but also to the way in which we 

manage the stool consistency around 

farrowing and during lactation. We 

could call this an optimisation of stool 

management. 

Positively influencing gut microflora 

It is paramount to maintain intestinal 

peristalsis so that constipation does 

not occur and that health problems 

and performance reduction are not 

experienced. Especially around 

farrowing and during lactation but 

also during gestation it remains 

important to maintain good stool. 

The most important influence on 

the gut peristalsis will be the ration 

and the correct fibrous structure 

of the feed (expandable, absorptive 

components with fermentable 

substances – see Table 1). Mycotoxins 

need to be watched by applying 

thorough quality control measures 

of raw materials. Equally important, 

a clean water supply with low iron 

and manganese levels, a neutral 

pH without toxins (biofilm), and 

chlorinated. 

Stabilising the gut microflora and 

a reduction of gut pathogens and 

their metabolic by-products and 

endotoxins can be achieved by using 

acids, prebiotics, probiotics and other 

additives. Antibacterial plant extracts 

and herbal oils are being used more 

and more. 

The addition of acids (formic-, lactic-, 

citric-,propionic and benzoic acid) 

will strategically reduce the pH value 

in the stomach. This allows for a 

> 


NUTRITION 

Stool consistency acceptable but fibres not fully degraded. 

Feed ingredients have been well fermented, which is reflected in a 

smooth consistency. 

very pH consistent digesta entering 

the small intestine and alkalinity is 

avoided – an important prerequisite 

for the reduction of microbial 

colonisation of the gut. Acids will 

discourage orally ingested bacteria 

from multiplying in the stomach. 

Prebiotics are especially effective in 

the gut. They will be bacterially 

digested and produce short-chain 

fatty acids that will affect the pH 

value and at the same time represent 

an energy source for enterocytes 

and the animal itself. Prebiotics are 

represented by fructooligosaccharides, 

mannanoligosaccharides, lactulose, 

xylooligosaccharides, etc. 

Probiotics have the task of “occupying 

spaces” that would otherwise be taken 

up by pathogenic bacteria (e.g. E.coli). 

Probiotics will also induce the release 

of endogeneous enzymes which will 

result in a better digestion and less 

food for pathogenic bacteria in the 

small intestine. Probiotic bacteria 

stimulate the innate lactobacillus in 

the mucous membrane and immune 

competence of the protective barrier 

of the intestine. 

Ion exchange materials such as 

aluminosilicates and bentonite are 

able to bind charged metabolic byproducts 

like ammonia and detoxify 

the body. Plant-derived materials as 

well as herbs and herbal oils will have 

an antibacterial and antioxidative 

effect on the gut microflora. 

Increased vitamin doses above 

nutritional requirements will also 

show positive results. Particularly 

vitamin E, vitamin C and vitamin 

B have proved to be very useful in 

practice. 

...and in practice... 

During practical routine diagnosis in 

farrowing operations the following 

symptoms may be observed: 

• Units have problems with 

constipation starting in gestation; 

• Hard stool starting before but also 

after birth continuing into the 

suckling period (2 nd - 3 rd week) in a 

large portion of the sows; 

• Reduced feed intake in lactating 

sows; 

• Reduced milking in the important 

first days of lactation up to about 

14 days post farrowing; 

• Uneven development of the piglets 

in the affected litters, diarrhoea 

starting as early as the first few 

days, higher mortality (smothering, 

diarrhoea, starve-outs from 

insufficient milk). 

Feed requirements around 

farrowing 

What can be done from a feeding 

aspect and how can the sows be 

assisted Extremely important: Check 

the water supply! Lactating sows have 

a daily requirement of up to 40 litres. 

Are the sows being brought into the 

farrowing house early enough It 

is required at least 7 days prior to 

farrowing. If the time is shorter and 

the feed is changed when moving 

the sow into the farrowing house 

(gestation feed to lactation feed) it 

can be useful to continue feeding the 

gestation diet up to two to three days 

after farrowing. 

If feeding the lactation diet causes 

constipation, the nutritional state 

is always worse than if the sow 

continues to eat a gestation diet which 

is consumed and digested properly. 

The alternative is to use special 

products that will significantly reduce 

the risk of constipation. 

If sows are kept on straw it makes 

sense to take them off the straw 

14 days prior to farrowing. Sows 

will eat straw and straw can lead to 

constipation stressing the system; 

straw will not swell and absorb 

moisture. For this reason the sow’s 

intestinal tract should be free from 

straw around farrowing. 

If an energy dense lactation diet 

is being fed (13,4 MJ ME/kg and 

higher) the use of fibrous materials 

will be limited. In such cases it is 

advisable to use a lower energy 

lactation diet (12,8-13,0 MJ ME per 

kg). Fibre content should be at least 

5% and expandable fibre sources such 

as wheat bran and sugar beet pulp 

> 


NUTRITION 

Feed structure and crude fibre 

Feed materials that are highly fermentable by bacteria (functional dietary components) are cereal roughage (like wheat bran), 

sugar beet pulp, maize and wheat feed as well as canola and sunflower extraction meals. Functional dietary components play an 

important role in the intestine. They improve gut motility and as a result passage rates which in turn result in a reduced incidence 

of constipation. They can, depending on the ingredient, take on more or less water which can also satisfy and improve gut-fill 

with identical intakes and energy contents. 

Unfortunately until now the measure for fibre fractions in feed for swine (or better, the structural carbohydrates) is still based 

on crude fibre. The fermentable carbohydrates in the caecum and the differences are not adequately graded. A measurable 

grading and a differential treatment of structural carbohydrates are offered by the analytical methods described by Soest (1991). 

Structural carbohydrates are listed and can be defined by the following fractions: 

• NDF: (Neutral Detergent Fibre) - This fraction combines the hemicelluloses, pectin, cellulose and lignin in the feed. NDF can be 

simply described as the plant cell walls. Hemicelluloses, pectin and cellulose are the most important structural carbohydrates 

that are more (hemicelluloses, pectin) or less fermentable (cellulose). 

• ADF: (Acid Detergent Fibre) - This fraction contains the fibres like cellulose and lignin in feed. The difference between the 

values derived for ADF and NDF is the amount of hemicelluloses. The contents of cellulose are given by the difference between 

ADF and ADL. 

• ADL: (Acid Detergent Lignin) - The chemical analysis of this fraction describes lignin. The difference between ADF and ADL will 

give you a value for cellulose in feed. Lignin is almost completely indigestible for monogastric animals. 

Gidenne (2003) defined a category of “digestible fibre” that can be used to evaluate the fermentation capacity of feeds in the 

colon of pigs. 

• DF: (Digestible Fibre) - The fraction of “digestible fibre”, are calculated from the sum of “hemicelluloses” (NDF – ADF) and 

water insoluble pectin (WIP). The majority of pectin is fermented and digested in the large intestine. 

Table 1 gives an overview of the contents of structural carbohydrates in different components that can be used for the 

manufacture of sow and finishing feed. 

Table 1: Content of structural carbohydrates in important feed components (g/kg of substance) 

Feedstuff NDF ADF ADL WIP DF Crude fibre Starch 

Barley 175 55 9 6 126 46 527 

Wheat 105 31 9 5 79 22 583 

Triticale 125 31 9 6 100 23 563 

Oats 280 135 22 11 156 111 400 

Maize 100 25 5 7 82 19 611 

Wheat Bran 428 128 35 30 330 102 128 

Wheat Feed 326 100 27 23 249 70 190 

Maize Gluten Meal 312 94 12 50 268 78 180 

Wheat Gluten Meal 271 77 24 15 209 50 170 

Palm Kernel Meal 520 317 90 30 233 150 8 

Rape Seed Meal 277 189 86 100 188 121 55 

Full fat soya 117 73 8 60 104 56 50 

Soy Bean Meal 104 65 5 55 94 50 48 

Soy Hulls 588 426 21 92 254 355 60 

Lignocellulose 820 700 200 0 120 600 0 

Sunflower Meal 383 270 90 65 178 225 29 

Peas 130 70 4 50 110 57 424 

Beans 123 89 8 21 55 77 370 

Sugarbeet pulp 428 212 18 250 466 170 0 

Mixture of linseed, wheat, sugarbeetpulp; 

processed 

367 170 11 18 215 73 200 

Tapioca 95 68 20 15 42 44 630 

Malt Culms 378 139 18 55 294 126 105 

Straw 671 413 67 0 258 369 0 

Lucerne Meal 418 326 73 68 160 261 25 

Grass Meal 460 250 50 45 255 225 15 

(after Gidenne, 2003; Maertens et al., 2002; own data) 

> 


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XX NUTRITION 

MANAGEMENT 

Sow has constipation, which can be seen from this hard and dry 

stool. The GI-tract is not in balance and the feed should be adjusted. 

A heat-treated linseed formula might help. 

should be used. The energy source 

can be fat in such cases (min. 5% crude 

fat in the diet). 

If hardened stool is already a fact 

in gestation then a feed review will 

be necessary. Is enough fibrous 

material and expandable material 

being supplied Are the gestating 

sows receiving enough good 

water Could toxins be the cause 

of stool inconsistencies Can the 

feed structure influence the stool 

consistency In critical situations 

mashed feed is the better choice. In 

problem cases a quick reaction is 

necessary, because high performing 

and susceptible animals will react 

very quickly with poor performance. 

Even vaccinations that are given to 

animals during stress periods can 

lose some of their effectiveness (e.g. 

PRRS-vaccinations). Experience has 

shown that in such situations, it can 

be useful to support the animals’ 

metabolism and their immune 

systems. This can be done by using 

vitamins especially high in B-complex 

as well as supplementing with 

Omega-3 fatty acids. 

Especially during this critical phase 

around farrowing experience has 

taught us that special products 

based on heat-treated linseed will 

alleviate constipation totally and 

improve the nutritional state of the 

sow. Linseed contains water soluble 

polysaccharides, so-called mucilage. 

This substance will quell upon contact 

with water and form a linseed mucous. 

The heat treatment or cooking 

improves this process. The linseed 

mucous improves the digestion in 

the GI tract and aids fermentation in 

the lower intestine. This is evident 

through the improved consistency 

of the stool and the typical smell of 

fermentation. 

Healthy gut – healthy sow – higher 

performance 

In summary, aiding a highly prolific 

sow is paramount. Gut peristalsis is 

to be maintained so that constipation 

or hardened stool is not observed. 

The eubiotic state of the GI tract 

must be maintained and a proactive 

“stool management” should avoid the 

unbalanced state in the intestine. In 

general all the management issues 

should be discussed between the 

producer, the vet and the nutritionist. 

Only if all negative environmental 

factors thet influence the health status 

can be removed, can performance 

be maintained or high performance 

achieved. 

*Ernst Günther Hellwig is the founder 

and director of the AVA (Agricultural 

Veterinary Academy) based in Horstmar- 

Leer, Münsterland, Germany 

(www.ava1.de). Dr. Heinrich Kleine 

Klausing is the Technical Director with 

Deutsche Tiernahrung Cremer based in 

Düsseldorf, Germany. 

(www.deutsche-tiernahrung.de) 


magazine. 

The high input costs, the 

relatively low meat price and 

therefore lower profit margins, 

is the motivation to improve meat 

production and feed conversion 

efficiency. Since nutrition makes up 60 

to 70% of the cost (excluding purchase 

price) of every kg meat produced, there 

rests a big responsibility on people in the 

industry to pay regular attention to new 

feed technologies and feeding strategies. 

Increased energy concentration in the 

diet usually leads to a better growth 

rate and feed conversion provided that 

energy intake is not that high that it 

leads to digestive disturbances. The 

type and quality of the feeder lamb, the 

composition of the diet as well as the 

level of feed trough (bunk) management 

play a very important role in improving 

growth, feed conversion and overall 

profitability. Some of the most important 

guidelines that can be followed to 

improve the feedlot owner’s profit 

margin are described below. 

Feed trough management is a crucial part 

of any effective feedlot enterprise. The 

primary goal of a feedlot enterprise is to 

feed the right type and quantity of feed 

to lambs, so as to accomplish the best 

economic growth response. The aim 

of such a feed programme is to have a 

fresh and palatable supply of the right 

diet available almost 24 hours of every 

day in every feed trough. Some feedlots 

still make use of the traditional “full 

trough” (ad lib) management method, 

where sufficient feed is always available 

in the trough. This system leads to 

accumulation of mouldy or old feed 

and an increased amount of fines that 

necessitates frequent cleaning of the 

trough and leads to feed wastage. The 

“Clean trough” management system 

is on the contrary more effective, as it 

stimulates the sheep to eat almost all 

the feed after every feeding and before 

additional fresh feed is added. Moulded 

and rotten feed must immediately be 

removed. The deterioration in freshness 

of feed is faster in high temperatures 

and in feed of high moisture content. 

It is important that fresh feed is never 

added on top of old feed, as it will not 

be consumed and then starts to rot. 

The above argument is the reason why 

sheep that are fed using self feeders do 

not perform as well as sheep fed in line 

troughs. Thorough mixing of the feed 

is another important part of trough 

management. The rumen of the sheep 


MANAGEMENT 

Basic principles for 

finishing lambs in a feedlot 

Dr Conrad Coetzer – Director: Technological Development, AFGRI Animal Feeds 

is like a big fermentation barrel that 

has the tendency to stay as constant 

as possible. To ensure stability in the 

rumen, the quantity, rate of intake and 

feed composition must be as constant 

as possible. Variance in the consistency 

thereof can lead to problems. Irregular 

feed intake can lead to digestive 

problems and cause feed wastage. 

Both lead to an increase in the quantity 

feed required per unit weight gain and 

therefore cost of gain. 

The best gain and feed conversion can 

only be reached if a high quality wellbalanced 

diet, consisting of all the 

important nutrients (energy, protein, 

vitamins and minerals) as well as enough 

effective roughage to avoid any digestive 

disturbances is fed. Furthermore, it is 

also important for the diet to contain 

the necessary growth stimulants (for 

example Ionofores) to optimize growth 

and feed conversion. The inclusion of 

anionic salts like ammonium-chloride 

and the balancing of the Ca to P ratio 

are important to avoid urinary calculi 

(water belly). As with dairy cows, lambs 

have a high protein requirement and 

therefore it is important to include a 

sufficient amount of high quality protein 

(particularly bypass protein) in the diet. 

Maize is usually a better energy source 

compared to grain byproducts such as 

hominy chop and wheat bran. Molasses 

products are beneficial since it supplies 

readily fermentable energy, reduces dust 

and improves the palatability of the feed. 

Good quality Lucerne hay is the roughage 

of choice as it is highly digestible and 

palatable, therefore resulting in higher 

intake. Lucerne is high in protein and Ca; 

it also has good buffer properties in the 

rumen. It is also important to include 

high levels of trace elements and vitamins 

in the diet, thereby improving gain and 

feed conversion as well as strengthen 

the immune system to fight secondary 

illnesses. Pelleted feed usually gives 

better results compared to meal, since 

there is less feed wastage and selection 

and intakes are usually higher. 

Animals usually go through three 

feeding phases in a feedlot namely 

the adaptation, growth and 

finishing phases. The rumen of a 

new feeder lamb is not adapted 

to the high energy concentration 

of the feedlot ration and therefore 

it is important to adapt the 

animals slowly and gradually to 

the new diet. Pulpy kidney can 

be the cause of great losses in 

cases where lambs are suddenly 

switched over to a high energy 

diet. The aim of the following 

growth phase is to grow the 

frame of the lamb without adding 

too much fat. This phase is important 

to produce a heavier carcass but still 

of A2/3 grade. Although the protein 

content of the growth diet is lower than 

the adaptation diet, it must still be high 

enough to stimulate lean protein (muscle) 

growth. A high level of bypass protein 

is especially important for achieving this. 

The energy levels of the finishing diet 

are much higher than the growth diet 

as it takes a lot more energy to add fat 

than it does to add lean muscle tissue. 

Sufficient clean and cold drinking water 

must be available at all times. 

The purchase price of the feeder lamb 

contributes 65-75% of the total cost to 

produce a final carcass and therefore 

it is important that the right animal is 

bought at the right price. It is important 

to remember that the wrong lamb 

cannot be fed right. The ideal lamb will 

be a young healthy meat or meat-wool 

type lamb, that has undergone good 

frame growth and that has the genetic 

potential for high and efficient growth 

rates. Normally, meat and meat-wool 

types perform better than wool types and 

fat-tailed types that are known to deposit 

too much fat. Multipurpose meat-wool 

types like the Dohne Merino and SA 

Mutton Merino do not only grow fast 

and efficiently but produce good quality 

wool that generates a good additional 

income. These types produce a wellbalanced 

carcass that is not too heavy 

but still has a good conformation and 

ideal fat distribution. 

Lambs with long wool must be shorn 

as soon as possible; lambs with short 

wool grow faster and more efficiently 

compared to lambs with long wool. 

During processing the lambs must be 

inoculated against especially pulpy kidney 

and pasteurella, dosed against internal 

parasites and implanted with an ear 

implant containing zeranol. The injection 

of a macrocyclic lactone product not 

only controls internal parasites but also 

external parasites such as sheep scab 

mites. There is data available that shows 

that vitamins (Especially A & E) and 

micro mineral injections (without copper) 

can be advantageous. It is advisable to 

identify animals with ear-tags in order to 

monitor the individual animal’s growth 

and health status throughout the feedlot 

period. 

In summary, if the feedlot owner still 

wants to be profitable in times of high 

feed costs and relatively low meat prices, 

it is important that only a high quality 

diet formulated according to the latest 

technological principles be fed to healthy 

high quality lambs in circumstances 

where outstanding feed trough and 

health management is practiced in a 

clean feedlot with optimal conditions 

that will promote maximum growth. 

September 2009 AFMA MATRIX 41

INDUSTRY NEWS 

THE 

OCEANA 

GROUP 

The Oceana Group is one 

of the pioneers of the 

South African fishing 

industry. The company 

has been in operation 

for 90 years and pelagic 

fishing operations 

are focused along the 

Southern African West 

Coast. In the small pelagic 

sector, Oceana currently 

operates a fleet of 15 

purse seine vessels, three 

fish meal plants and two 

canneries. 

Local operations are based in St Helena 

Bay, Hout Bay and Walvis Bay on the 

Namibian Coast. Fish meal production 

started in 1946 in Lambert’s Bay and in 

1952 in Walvis Bay. In the mid-water 

trawl sector, Oceana operates four 

factory stern trawlers targeting horse 

mackerel. 

Operations initially started with a 

basic operation of small wooden purse 

seiners, offloading by hand and very 

unsophisticated fish meal and canning 

operations. Over the years Oceana has 

introduced modern fishing and fish 

processing technology mainly from 

Europe. Today it is operating a full-scale 

drying fish meal plant in the St Helena 

Bay facility and an indirect hot air drying 

fish meal plant in the Hout Bay facility. 

All water is processed in waste heat 

evaporator plants to ensure maximum 

efficiency of energy sources. The facility 

at Walvis Bay still runs off the direct drying 

technology. The factory stern trawlers 

are producing steam dried trawler 

fish meal, mostly of super prime quality. 

The main fish meal markets have 

traditionally been the local animal 

feed market but Oceana has in recent 

years sold substantial volumes of fish 

meal in overseas markets, mainly China 

but also the Middle East. Plans have 

been put into place to increase the 

supply of high quality fish meal to the 

aqua feed and specialized animal feed 

markets, both locally and internationally. 

Approximately 70% of the fish meal 

output is produced from anchovy, with 

most of the balance coming from redeye 

herring and pilchard off-cuts from 

the canneries. 

> 


COMING EVENTS 

DATE EVENT VENUE ENQUIRIES 

2009 

7 October ‘09 AFMA Symposium Diamond Auditorium 

CSIR Conference Centre 

Pretoria 

South Africa 

8 October ‘09 WPSA-day Diamond Auditorium 

CSIR Conference Centre 

Pretoria 

South Africa 

29 October ‘09 Pig production - input 

quality vs cost 

5 November ‘09 Aquaculture – making it 

work in South Africa 

2 - 5 March 2010 AFMA Forum 2010 

(The seventh International 

Congress for the Animal 

Feed Industry) 

13 - 16 October 2010 World Nutrition Forum Salzburg 

Austria 

Elsenburg Auditorium 

Stellenbosch 

South Africa 

Elsenburg Auditorium 

Stellenbosch 

South Africa 

2010 

Sun City 

Northwest Province 

South Africa 

Teresa Struwig 

Tel: +27 12 663 9097 

Fax: +27 12 663 9612 



Dr Deon Barnard 

Tel: +27 11 991 6000 

Fax: +27 11 475 5752 

E-mail: Deon.Barnard@meadowfeeds.co.za 

Elsje Pieterse 

Tel: +27 21 808 4743 

Fax: +27 21 808 4750 

E-mail: elsjep@sun.ac.za 

Elsje Pieterse 

Tel: +27 21 808 4743 

Fax: +27 21 808 4750 

E-mail: elsjep@sun.ac.za 

Teresa Struwig 

Tel: +27 12 663 9097 

Fax: +27 12 663 9612 



Biomin 

Tel: +43 2782 803 

E-mail: office@biomin.net 

Website: www.worldnutritionforum.info 

The Oceana Group 

(From page 42) 

Oceana is well positioned to take 

good advantage of a healthy anchovy 

resource, which is predicted to remain 

strong over the next few years. Our 

processing plants are well positioned 

along the coast to maximise the 

opportunities to process high quality 

meal from fresh raw material. Processing 

plants are being continuously upgraded 

to ensure the highest appropriate quality 

standards, in line with other world 

producers. Our main challenges remain 

energy costs, in particular fuel prices, 

and the international dollar price of fish 

meal. 

We continue to actively pursue the 

highest air, water and environmental 

quality standards within regional and 

global parameters. 

The South African fish stocks, especially 

the pelagic fishing stocks, are generally 

very well researched and controlled 

under the guardianship of the local 

Marine and Coastal Management 

regulatory authority. We are confident 

that the operational management 

procedures that have been put into 

place with the fishing industry and the 

scientists are based on a solid foundation 

of good internationally accepted 

principles and therefore the risk of 

overexploitation is limited. Government 

policy and procedures for the allocation 

of the Total Allowable Catch and control 

measures are clear and are well-policed. 

This quota allocation and fishing controls 

system is in place, with government and 

industry in close cooperation to 

ensure compliance and resource 

sustainability. 

The International Fish Meal & Fish 

Oil organization, IFFO, will assist 

the industry worldwide to ensure a 

Responsible Supply Code is introduced 

and that more research on pelagic 

fishing activities and resources is funded 

and coordinated. This is intended to 

counter some of the negativity which 

may exist around the harvesting of 

small pelagic fish resources for the 

manufacture of protein fish meal and 

oil products, and the use of the same 

in different animal feed diets. The focus 

will be on highlighting the benefits of 

including fish meal in feed diets. 

Oceana has implemented most of 

the IFFO code principles in our own 

operations over a number of years and 

can provide our customers with full 

traceability of the fish meal. 

For enquiries, visit our website at 

www.oceana.co.za or www.fishmeal. 

co.za or contact Wilhelm van Zyl: 

wvanzyl@ob.co.za

September 2009 - AFMA

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