Girma-Eshete-Jenbere-thesis - Ethiopian Wolf Conservation ...

Mekelle University 

CDANR 

College of Dryland Agriculture and Natural Resources 

Community Management and Status of an Afro-alpine Ecosystem: 

The case of the Ethiopian Wolf at Mt. Abune Yoseph 

By 

Girma Eshete 

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the 

Master of Science Degree in Tropical Land Resource Management and 

Environmental Protection 

Advisors: Girmay Tesfay (PhD) 

Hans Bauer (PhD) 

Zelealem Tefera (PhD) 

Jorgelina Marino (PhD) 

June, 2010 

Mekelle 

i

Declaration 

This is to certify that this thesis entitled “Community Management and Status of an Afro-alpine 

Ecosystem: The Case of the Ethiopian Wolf at Mt. Abune Yoseph” submitted in partial 

fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Master of Science, in Tropical 

Land Resource Management, to the College of Dryland Agriculture and Natural Resources, 

Mekelle University, through the Department of Land Resource Management and Environmental 

Protection, done by Mr. Girma Eshete Genbere, (Id.No. CDANR/PR0004/01) is an authentic 

work carried out by him under our guidance. The matter embodied in this project work has not 

been submitted earlier for award of any degree or diploma to the best of our knowledge and 

belief. 

Name of the student Girma Eshete Genbere Signature & date ______________________ 

Name of the Supervisors: Girmay Tesfay (PhD) Signature & date___________________ 

Hans Bauer (PhD) Signature & date ____________________ 

Zelealem Tefera (PhD) Signature & date _________________ 

Jorgelina Marino (PhD) Signiture & date __________________ 

ii

Abstract 

Mt. Abune Yoseph has high biodiversity and endemism which is representative of the Afro-alpine 

ecosystems. Our study employed socio-economic and ecological survey as a major 

methodological approach. For socio-economic data 120 randomly selected households from 

eight villages were interviewed and ecological data were collected from 110 circular sample 

plots of 5m radius marked along eight habitat assessment transects laid at 1km apart with 200m 

interval using a 1: 50,000 scale map and Global positioning system (GPS). The result of 

descriptive statistics showed that 80% households exploit economically important natural 

resources to support their livelihoods from Mt. Abune Yoseph and chi-square test indicated the 

presence of significant difference (P

Acknowledgements 

Above all, let endless thanks be to the Almighty God and his mother for their innumerable gifts, 

hold up and allowing me to reach another gesture in my career. 

I highly appreciate my supervisors Dr Girmay Tesfay and Dr Hans Bauer from Mekelle 

University Dr Zelealem Tefera from FZS and Dr Jorgelina Marino from Oxford University for 

their unreserved assistance and encouragement. I thank Dr. Girmay Tesfay and Dr. Hans Bauer 

for their generous and valuable comments on the content and depth of the paper continuously 

throughout the study. My special thanks go to Dr. Zelealem Tefera for giving me the opportunity 

to work at Mt. Abune Yoseph and organizing the fund for my project. He provided me with all 

necessary field materials and facilities. Generally, it was not possible to complete this work 

without his valuable support in every aspect. Many thanks go to Dr. Jorgelina Marino; she took a 

week time to assist me while I was in the field and trained me on basic ecological data collection 

methods. Her guidance and inspiration made this study a reality. 

I am grateful to N/Wollo EPLAUD, main sponsor; EWCP and FZS two sister NGOs working for 

the conservation of the Ethiopian wolf and Afro-alpine ecosystem sponsored my field study. I 

thank Chris Gorden and Anne-Marie Stewart heads of EWCP; Fekadu Lema, Zebiba Ahmed, 

Getachew Asefa, Bilemen Melkamu, Desiew Gelaw and Desale Melakie staff of FZS. I 

appreciate the material and moral contribution of my friends Getachew Shiferaw, Gessiu 

Teshome and all my staff members especially Ato Fentaw Awayehu, Desta Gessesse and Roman 

Sisay. 

I am thankful to my wife Agerie Debeb for her everlasting help and encouragement. She took 

alone the total load of house matters, including taking care of our children during my study. 

Without her it was not possible for me to reach this level. 

iv

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms 

ANRS 

ARDD 

a.s.l. 

BMNP 

BoFAED 

CBFM 

CSG 

EMA 

EPLAUD 

ESP 

EWCO 

EWCP 

EWNHS 

FZS 

GO 

HHs 

HHHs 

IIED 

IUCN 

Mt. 

NGO 

PAs 

SMNP 

TESFA 

U.S.A. 

WEPLAUO 

Amhara National Regional State 

Agriculture and Rural Development Department 

above sea level 

Bale Mountains National Park 

Bureau of Finance and Economic Development 

Community Based Forest Management 

Canid Specialist Group 

Ethiopian Mapping Agency 

Environmental Protection Land Administration and Use Department 

Environment Support Project 

Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Organization 

Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Program 

Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society 

Frankfurt Zoological Society international NGO 

Governmental Organization 

Households 

Household heads 

International Institute for Environment and Development 

The World Conservation Union 

Mountain 

Non Governmental Organization 

Peasant Associations 

Simen Mountains National Park 

Tourism in Ethiopia for Sustainable Future Alternative 

United States of America 

Woreda Environmental Protection Land Administration and Use Office 

v

This piece of work is dedicated to the memories of my beloved father, Eshete Jenbere who took 

me out from the darkness of illiteracy to the light of education. Dad may the almighty God rest 

your soul in haven. 

vi

Table of contents 

page 

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................. III 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................................... IV 

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ................................................................... V 

LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... X 

LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................. XII 

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 1 

1.1. BACKGROUND ....................................................................................................................... 1 

1.2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM .............................................................................................. 2 

1.3. HYPOTHESIS .......................................................................................................................... 3 

1.4. OBJECTIVES .......................................................................................................................... 4 

1.4.1. General Objective ......................................................................................................... 4 

1.4.2. Specific objectives ......................................................................................................... 4 

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................. 5 

2.1. AFRO-ALPINE ECOSYSTEM IN ETHIOPIA ................................................................................ 5 

2.2. ETHIOPIAN AFRO-ALPINE ECOSYSTEM AND ITS ENDEMIC SPECIES ......................................... 7 

2.2.1. Afro-alpine fauna .......................................................................................................... 7 

2.2.1.1. The Ethiopian wolf ................................................................................................... 10 

2.2.2. Afro-alpine flora ......................................................................................................... 12 

2.3. NORTH WOLLO HIGHLANDS AFRO-ALPINE ECOSYSTEM ...................................................... 15 

2.4. COMMUNITY PERCEPTION AND ATTITUDE TOWARDS AFRO-ALPINE ECOSYSTEM ................. 17 

vii

2.5. IMPACT OF THE COMMUNITY ON THE AFRO-ALPINE ECOSYSTEM AND ITS WILDLIFE ............ 18 

2.6. SOCIO-ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF AFRO-ALPINE ECOSYSTEM .......................................... 20 

2.7. SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITY BASED AFRO-ALPINE ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT .................... 23 

CHAPTER III: MATERIALS AND METHODS .................................................................... 25 

3.1. STUDY AREA ....................................................................................................................... 25 

3.1.1. LOCATION ........................................................................................................................ 25 

3.1.2. Topography ................................................................................................................. 27 

3.1.3. Climate ........................................................................................................................ 27 

3.1.4. Soil .............................................................................................................................. 27 

3.1.5. Vegetations and wild animals ..................................................................................... 28 

3.1.6. Water resources .......................................................................................................... 28 

3.2. METHODS ............................................................................................................................ 29 

3.2.1. Interview ..................................................................................................................... 29 

3.2.2. Population demography .............................................................................................. 30 

3.2.3. Ecological survey ........................................................................................................ 30 

3.3. DATA ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................. 31 

CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...................................................................... 32 

4.1. SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTIC AND ECONOMIC POTENTIAL OF MT. ABUNE YOSEPH .. 32 

4.1.1. Household characteristics .......................................................................................... 32 

4.1.2. Socio-economic potential of Mt. Abune Yoseph Afro-alpine ecosystem ..................... 33 

4.2. COMMUNITY PERCEPTION TOWARDS MT. ABUNE YOSEPH AFRO-ALPINE ECOSYSTEM........ 38 

4.3. COMMUNITY PERCEPTION TOWARDS ETHIOPIAN WOLF ....................................................... 42 

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4.4. HUMAN-LIVESTOCK INTERFERENCE TO AFRO-ALPINE ECOSYSTEM AND THE RESULTING 

CONFLICT ................................................................................................................................... 46 

4.4.1. Human-livestock interference pressure and its impact ............................................... 46 

4.4.2. Human conflict with Ethiopian wolf at Mt. Abune Yoseph ......................................... 53 

4.5. ECOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF MT. ABUNE YOSEPH AFRO-ALPINE ECOSYSTEM .................. 55 

4.5.1. Households response on Ethiopian wolf presence/ absence....................................... 55 

4.5.2. Determination of wolf distribution by rodent burrow................................................. 58 

4.5.3. Determination of Ethiopian wolf abundance by sighting at Mt. Abune Yoseph ......... 62 

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................ 66 

5.1. CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................... 66 

5.2. RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................................................... 67 

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 70 

APPENDIX .................................................................................................................................. 75 

ix

List of Tables 

Table 1: Composition and diversity of diet from wolves scat analysis at Mt. Abune Yoseph ..... 19 

Table 2: Sample HHs characteristics of Mt. Abune Yoseph ....................................................... 32 

Table 3: Villages and sample HHs got economic benefit from Mt. Abune Yoseph ................... 33 

Table 4: HHs economic resource benefit from Mt. Abune Yoseph with respect to distance ....... 34 

Table 5: Type of economic benefits obtained from Mt. Abune Yoseph (n =120) ....................... 35 

Table 6: Price of major economic goods and services from Mt. Abune Yoseph in 1year (n =120) 

....................................................................................................................................................... 36 

Table 7: HHs average estimated birr obtained from Mt. Abune Yoseph in one year ................... 37 

Table 8: Distribution of Nominal variables employed in logistic regression ............................... 39 

Table 9: Descriptives of continuous variables employed in logistic regression (n=120)............. 39 

Table 10: Factors determining the perception of respondents towards Mt. Abune Yoseph Afroalpine 

ecosystem and its management .......................................................................................... 40 

Table 11: Factors determining the perception of respondents towards Ethiopian wolves ........... 44 

Table 12: HHs reason why they perceive wolves good or bad species at Mt. Abune Yoseph ..... 45 

Table 13: Human population in woredas that have Afro-alpine ecosystem in North Wollo ........ 46 

Table 14: Livestock grazing period at Mt. Abune Yoseph (n =120) ............................................ 47 

Table 15: Livestock population growth trend in woredas that have Afro-alpine ecosystem........ 48 

Table 16: Reasons for change in wolf number trend at Mt. Abune Yoseph (n=120)................... 49 

Table 17: HHs response on whether or not faced wild animal problem ....................................... 51 

Table 18: Distribution of sample HHs that faced different problem by wildlife ......................... 52 

Table 19: Mean ±SE number of sheep preyed in the last 10 years at Mt. Abune Yoseph (n=120) 

....................................................................................................................................................... 53 

x

Table 20: HHs response on wolf observation, observation time and trend at Mt. Abune Yoseph 56 

Table 21: HHs wolf observation frequency, wolf seen at once and wolf estimation at Mt. Abune 

Yoseph (n =120) ........................................................................................................................... 56 

Table 22: Analysis of rodent burrows by slope and mean comparison using Tukey-Kramer HSD 

....................................................................................................................................................... 59 

Table 23: Bivariate fit analysis of rodent burrow by altitude ...................................................... 60 

Table 24: Analysis of rodent burrow by vegetation height and mean comparison using Tukey- 

Kramer HSD ................................................................................................................................. 61 

Table 25: Analysis of rodent burrow by vegetation cover and means of rodent burrow at each 

level of vegetation cover ............................................................................................................... 62 

Table 26: Bivariate analysis of wolf sighting by altitude ............................................................. 63 

Table 27: Analysis of wolf sighting by slope and mean comparisons using Tukey-Kramer HSD 

....................................................................................................................................................... 64 

Table 28: Analysis of wolf sighting by vegetation height and mean comparisons using Tukey- 

Kramer HSD ................................................................................................................................. 65 

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List of Figures 

Figure 1: From top to bottom: Subordinate female feeding pups and Adult male Ethiopian wolf 

....................................................................................................................................................... 11 

Figure 2: Ethiopian wolf sighting on flat slope, short and open grassland ................................... 14 

Figure 3: The endemic giant lobelia from Mt.AbuneYoseph Afro-alpine ecosystem .................. 15 

Figure 4: Location of the study Area ............................................................................................ 26 

Figure 5:.Land ownership status and economic benefit from Mt. Abune Yoseph ....................... 36 

Figure 6: People selling firewood in the market ........................................................................... 37 

Figure 7: Farming inside Afro-alpine ecosystem by clearing lobelia ........................................... 51 

Figure 8: HHs response on sheep predators at Mt. Abune Yoseph for the last 10 years ............. 54 

Figure 9: One way Analysis of Rodent burrows by Slope .......................................................... 59 

Figure 10: One way analysis of rodent burrow by vegetation height ........................................... 60 

Figure 11: Short Afro-alpine vegetation (E. pinifolius) with rodent burrow from Mt. Abune 

Yoseph .......................................................................................................................................... 61 

Figure 12: One way analysis of wolf sighting by slope ................................................................ 63 

Figure 13: One way analysis of wolf sighting by vegetation height ............................................ 64 

xii

xiii

Chapter I: Introduction 

1.1. Background 

The highlands of Ethiopia are a massif of volcanic origin formed between 70 and 5 million years 

ago. The Great Rift Valley divides the massif into a larger northern area and a smaller 

southeastern area (Malcom and Ashenafi, 1997). One of the characteristics that distinguish 

Ethiopia from all other African countries is the extent of its highland, with 50% of all the lands 

above 2,000 m and 80% of all the lands above 3,000 m in Africa (Yalden and Largen, 1992). 

These mountains enabled the evolution of an abundance of endemic animal and plant species 

confined to the Afro-alpine ecosystem (Yalden, 1983). 

In Ethiopia Afro-alpine grasslands and ericaceous heathlands extend above 3,400 m a.s.l, 

covering about 5000 km 2 . The entire area of Afro-alpine ecosystem in sub Saharan Africa is 

11,887 km 2 , of this 73% is found in Ethiopia. Sixty percent of this habitat occurs in three 

mountain ranges (Bale, Arsi and Simen) with the remainder scattered in smaller isolated areas 

(Marino, 2003). The Afro-alpine ecosystem and surrounding highland support an exceptionally 

high diversity of rare and endemic species, recognized as one of the 34 biodiversity hotspots in 

the world. Among the endemic mammals the endangered Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis), 

Gelada baboon (Theropithecus gelada) and Walia Ibex (Capra walia) are the major. 

The Ethiopian wolf is listed as Critically Endangered by the IUCN (2008) Red List. This 

specialized carnivore lives only in Afro-alpine habitats, generally above 3,200 m a.s.l., and feed 

mainly on rodents, many of which endemic to the Ethiopian highlands. 

In the Northern highlands of the Amhara region, Ethiopian wolf populations are smaller and 

more fragmented than those South east of the Rift Valley (Marino, 2003). These habitats are also 

1

subjected to greater land use pressures. Mt. Abune Yoseph range is one of the main habitats for 

wolf populations in Northern Ethiopia, also home to Gelada baboons and many bird species, the 

giant Lobelia (Lobelia rhyncopetalum) and short Afro-alpine vegetation. Unless measures are 

taken, these species are all vulnerable to extinction. 

1.2. Statement of the Problem 

According to the U.S. Census Bureau 2006 report, the world‟s population is expected to reach 7 

billion in 2012. Providing a long-term food supply for the growing global population without 

damaging ecosystems is one of the greatest challenges facing mankind. This is also an acute 

problem in the Ethiopian highlands where 80% of the country‟s 70 million people live in the 

highlands, with significant pressure for agricultural development. Ethiopia also has the largest 

national herd of domestic livestock in Africa, increasingly using Afro-alpine areas to graze 

leading to overgrazing and erosion. This heightened competition between livestock and wildlife 

cause fragmentation and loss of habitat with its endemic species (Hurni, 1986). 

The Abune Yoseph massif of North Wollo suffers from diverse levels of human intervention 

mainly from agricultural activities and livestock grazing which dramatically modified the natural 

landscape. Natural Afro-alpine habitat has contracted over the last decades and currently remains 

only above 3,700 m a.s.l. The future survival of wolves in Northern Ethiopia especially in Mt. 

Abune Yoseph is in question (Ash, 2000; Marino, 2003). In view of the persistent human impact 

on the massif immediate action is required. To design conservation actions research is needed to 

investigate the current socio-economic and ecological potential of Mt. Abune Yoseph including 

its flagship species, the Ethiopian wolf. 

2

Ethiopian wolves depend on Afro-alpine habitats with enough rodents to survive. According to 

Delany (1972), the main factors accounting for the distribution and abundance of rodents are the 

nature of vegetation through the food and cover it provides and the extent to which these habitat 

components are modified by large mammals and human activity. Previous studies of Mt. Abune 

Yoseph‟s rodents (Tekilu, 2008) and field survey carried out by EWCP from 1997 to 2000, 

identified rodent species and attempted to measure biomass but no research looked in detail at 

the vegetation and environmental factors that determine the distribution and abundance of 

rodents and Ethiopian wolf in this area. 

A number of studies Kellert (1985), indicated that people who perceived economic benefits and 

enjoy unrestricted access to natural resources usually support ecosystem conservation efforts, but 

these did not consider how local communities perceives the Afro-alpine ecosystem and its 

endemic wildlife at Mt. Abune Yoseph. 

Therefore, this research was conducted to fill the above mentioned gaps of the area by testing the 

following leading hypothesis. 

1.3. Hypothesis 

 

Community perception towards common natural resources (Afro-alpine ecosystem and 

Ethiopian wolf) determines their sustainable utilization. 

 

Ecologic and anthropogenic factors determine the distribution and abundance of 

Ethiopian wolf. 

3

1.4. Objectives 

1.4.1. General Objective 

The general objective of the study was to investigate the socio-economic potential and natural 

resources assessment of Mt. Abune Yoseph Afro-alpine ecosystem for the improvement of local 

community livelihoods through sustainable management. 

1.4.2. Specific objectives 

 

To evaluate the socio-economic potential of the Mt. Abune Yoseph Afro-alpine 

ecosystem for the improvement of surrounding community livelihoods. 

 

To assess perception of the local community towards the Afro-alpine ecosystem and 

Ethiopian wolf at Mt. Abune Yoseph. 

 

To evaluate the human-livestock interference and the resulting conflict with wolf in Afroalpine 

ecosystem at Mt. Abune Yoseph. 

 

To determine wolf presence/absence and relative abundance in the ecosystem in relation 

to vegetation parameters (height, cover) and environmental factors (slope, altitude and 

rodent burrow) at Mt. Abune Yoseph. 

4

Chapter II: Literature Review 

2.1. Afro-alpine ecosystem in Ethiopia 

Ethiopia‟s unique geology sets it apart from other African countries. In the high mountains of 

East Africa the climate determines three broad altitudinal belts: an Afro-alpine zone, subafroalpine 

and montane forests or grassland belt (Kingdon, 1990). 

The Ethiopian massif is characterized by marked altitudinal variations that produce a range of 

climates affecting plant and animal distribution and the concentration of people (Yalden and 

Largen, 1992). Most people live in the fertile highlands of the Woina Dega (warm temperate) 

and Dega (temperate) zones. The Wurch zone (alpine, >3,000m) is colder and less favorable for 

agriculture and broadly corresponds with the distribution of habitats suitable for the Ethiopian 

wolf. Within the Wurch, ericaceous heathlands dominated by Phillipia and Erica spp. (Miehe 

and Miehe, 1993) are replaced at higher elevations by the Afro-alpine grasslands, scrubs and 

meadows above about 3,200m. 

The Afro-alpine areas experiences regular night frosts, diurnal temperature fluctuations that far 

exceed seasonal ones, and intense irradiation. Marked altitudinal variations characterize the 

climate, fauna and flora of the Ethiopian highlands (Yalden and Largen, 1992) temperature 

decreases with altitude and rainfall begins to decrease above 3,850 m (Hillman, 1986; Sillero- 

Zubiri, 1994) determining an altitudinal component in the diversity of Afro-alpine plants and 

rodents. 

The most recent glaciers retreated within the last 10,000 years and as the climate warmed the 

Afro-alpine ecosystem became restricted to the highest mountains. The end of the Pleistocene 

5

ought a change in the climate, and the extensive Ethiopian Afro-alpine steppes shrunk to their 

present state, reducing the habitat available to Ethiopian wolves by an order of magnitude 

(Gottelli and Sillero-Zubiri, 1992). Global warming during the last 10,000 years progressively 

confined the Afro-alpine ecosystem to the highest mountains, and 60% of all Ethiopian land 

above 3,000m has been converted to farmland. 

The central Sanetti Plateau located within the Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) in 

Southwestern Ethiopia is one of the most distinctive of all Ethiopian habitats and represents the 

type of characteristic Afro-alpine vegetation that would have spread over a wide area of highland 

during the peak of the glacial. Apart from Bale and Arsi in Southern highlands, Afro-alpine 

ecosystems are located in the Simien Mountain National Park (SMNP) the largest Afro-alpine 

range North of the Rift Valley and the third most important in wolf population in Ethiopia. The 

other Afro-alpine units are North Wollo (1150 km 2 above 3200 m), South Wollo (1220km 2 ), 

Mt.Guna (960 km 2 ), Mt.Choke (500km 2 ) Guassa-Menz (124km 2 ) and Gosh Meda (90km 2 ) 

(Marino, 2003). The major three primary mountain ranges: Bale, Arsi and Simen receive some 

recognition as protected areas under the EWCO. In Northern highlands 680 km 2 of Afro-alpine 

and sub-afroalpine habitat in the Simen Mountains (ANRS) only 180 km 2 fall within the SMNP 

and the remainder the buffer zone around the park. One area of Afro-alpine habitat in Menz 

(ANRS) is managed by a committee of the community (Ashenafi et al., 2005), and all other 

including the Mt. Abune Yoseph have no formal protection. 

6

2.2. Ethiopian Afro-alpine ecosystem and its endemic species 

In Ethiopia the altitudinal variation produces varied macro and micro climatic conditions that 

affect nature and humans and contribute to the formation of diverse ecosystems. The flora of 

Ethiopia is estimated to comprise between 6,500 and 7,000 species, of which about 10% are 

considered to be endemic. The fauna is also highly diverse: 277 species of mammals, 861 species 

of birds, 201 species of reptiles, 63 species of amphibians, 150 species of fish and 324 species of 

butterflies are known from Ethiopia. Among these 31 mammals, 16 birds, 24 amphibians, 9 

reptiles and 40 fish are believed to be endemic (Hillman, 1993). 

Comparing provinces in Ethiopia Wollo has the lowest Afro-alpine endemic richness, despite 

having more than 4000 km 2 of land above 3000 m and three peaks over 4000 m, representing 

18% of the total for Ethiopia and Eritrea (Yalden, 1983). According to Saavedra (2009) the 

explanation for apparent lower diversity may reside in that the areas has been overlooked by 

botanists, including the mountains of Abune Yoseph, Abohoy Gara, Gubalafto, Delanta and 

Amba Ferit. 

2.2.1. Afro-alpine fauna 

The demands posed by an extreme climate and terrain influenced speciation, particularly for the 

smaller organisms such as rodents. Rodents are inherently well suited as the dominant herbivores 

of the Afro-alpine ecosystem (Marino et al., 1999). In cold conditions at high altitude, small 

homoeothermic species benefit from being larger, and indeed the community of Afro-alpine 

rodents is characterized by a high proportion of large species (Sillero-Zubiri et al., 1995). 

7

The present community of high altitude rodents include four endemic rodents that are confined to 

areas of 3,000 m a.s.l (Tachyoryctes macrocephalus, Stenocephalemys albocaudata, Lophuromys 

melanonyx and Megadendromus nikolausi); and six other non endemic extend into areas of 3000 

m a.s.l (Dendromus lovati, Arvicanthis blicki, Stenocephalemys griseicauda, Praomy salbipes, 

Praomys ruppi and Mus mahomet). There are at least a further 16 species of non endemic 

rodents, although four of endemic rodents (Tachyoryctes splendens, Otomys typus, Lophuromys 

flavopunctatus and Arvicanthis abyssinicus) are found together higher than 3000 m (Hillman 

1986; Yalden 1983; Yalden and Largen 1992; Sillero-Zubiri et al., 1995). 

L. melanonyx, S. albocaudata and A. blicki are characteristic of the Afro-alpine belt (Sillero- 

Zubiri et al. 1995). Yalden (1988) suggested that O. typus might be an Afro-alpine moorland 

specialist. L. flavopunctatus and S. griseicauda were characteristic of the montane grasslands. O. 

typus, decreased in abundance in trap returns as altitude increased through the ericaceous and 

Afro-alpine belts (Sillero-Zubiri et al., 1995). 

Within Afro-alpine areas, fine-scale associations were identified between rodents and vegetation 

types, largely determined by drainage and soil characteristics in relation to local topography. 

Stratified counts and rodent trapping demonstrated some clear habitat association between 

species and microhabitat conditions (Sillero-Zubiri et al., 1995). This habitat selection behavior 

helped to identify predictors of rodent abundance and distribution, and to interpret species‟ 

adaptations to survive the harsh Afro-alpine environment. 

The giant molerat (T. macrocephalus) is currently confined to the Bale Mountains only (Yalden 

and Largen 1992) where it shows clear cut habitat selection between vegetation types, and 

between sub-habitats. Giant mole rats feed mainly on grasses with some dicotyledons, but 

8

apparently do not favor Helichrysum (Yalden 1983). Lack of suitable food may therefore limit 

their abundance in the ericaceous belt, where major plant types are woody Philippia and Erica 

species. Indices of giant mole rat biomass for Helichrysum dwarf-scrub and ericaceous belt were 

only 1/5 and 1/150, respectively of those in Afro-alpine grasslands (Marino, 2003). 

The role of the Afro-alpine rodent community in limiting the distribution of Ethiopian wolves 

was studied in Bale by looking at the relationship between wolf abundance and the species 

composition, relative abundance and activity pattern of the rodent community in various Afroalpine 

habitats (Sillero-Zubiri et al., 1995). In Bale mole rats were a vital determinant of wolf 

presence but in other Afro-alpine ecosystems small rodents also determine the presence and 

distribution of Ethiopian wolves (Ashenafi et al., 2005). 

The burrowing habits of giant mole rats have a modifying effect on the landscape and the 

composition of vegetation communities (Miehe and Miehe, 1994). Mima mounds are the soil 

accumulated from burrowing. A correlation between the presence of mima mounds and the 

abundance of mole rat signs supports the hypothesis that mole rat abundance could determine 

wolf population densities (Marino, 2003). 

Birds of prey rely heavily on rodents (in Bale), but their main predator is another species unique 

to Ethiopia, the Ethiopian wolf (C. simensis) endemic to the Afro-alpine ecosystem of the 

Ethiopian highlands, its diurnal habits and distinctive coat render this species conspicuous. 

Moreover, the rodents‟ distribution and diurnal activity coincide with Ethiopian wolves‟ diurnal 

and solitary foraging habits, and their confinement to Afro-alpine habitats over 3,000 m (Marino 

et al., 1999). 

9

In addition, Afro-alpine ecosystem of Ethiopia is home for several unique populations of 

threatened endemic large mammals such as Ethiopian wolf, the walia ibex and the gelada 

baboon. 

2.2.1.1. The Ethiopian wolf 

The Ethiopian wolf is an Afro-alpine specialist endemic to the highlands of Ethiopia (Marino, 

2003). It survives where there is an Afro-alpine vegetation community and an associated rodent 

community. Unlike many carnivores, pack members of Ethiopian wolves forage and feed alone 

on small diurnal rodent prey, which they commonly and actively dig out from their burrows 

during the day time. In the Bale Mountains, the Ethiopian wolf feeds primarily on the giant mole 

rat and other species of Murinae rodents (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 1995). Other food items include 

rock hyrax (Procavia capensis), young antelopes and lambs (Sillero-Zuberi and Gottelli, 1995; 

Ashenafi, 2001). 

Ethiopian wolf density, measured both from observation and road counts, correlated positively 

with the total biomass index and the biomass index for diurnal species, but not for nocturnal 

species. Also a positive correlation was detected between rodent burrows and wolf sign 

(droppings or diggings) along habitat assessment transects (Sillero-Zubiri et al., 1995). 

The Ethiopian wolf is a medium-sized Canid with a reddish coat, distinctive white markings, 

long legs and elongated muzzle. Males are significantly larger than females in terms of body 

mass. The face, ears and upper parts of the muzzle are red. Ears broad, pointed, and directed 

forward. Characteristic facial markings include a white ascending crescent below the eyes, and a 

small white spot on the cheeks. The throat, neck, chest and under (ventral) parts is white. 

Boundary between the red coat and the white markings is sharp and well defined. The contrast of 

10

white markings against the red coat increases with age and social rank in both sexes; the female's 

coat is generally paler than the male's. The long, slender legs are reddish outside, with inner 

aspect white. Front feet has five toes, hind feet with four. The area around the anus is white. Both 

sexes have short tail, becoming a black stripe leading to a thick brush of black-tipped guard hairs 

(Sillero-Zubiri et al., 2004). 

Figure 1: From top to bottom: Subordinate female feeding pups and Adult male Ethiopian wolf 

11

The continued decline of the Ethiopian wolf's has prompted IUCN Canid Specialist Group 

(CSG) to list as critically endangered, in acknowledgment of its extremely high risk of extinction 

in the wild. 

2.2.2. Afro-alpine flora 

The Ethiopian Afro-alpine vegetation is dominated by grass and low growing shrubs from which 

the peculiar giant lobelias (Lobelia rhyncopetalum) emerge. Hedberg (1964) working on 

mountains in East Africa identified five major Afro-alpine vegetation communities, 

Dendrosenecio wood lands, Helichrysum scrub, Alchemilla scrub, Tussock grass land, Bogs and 

related communities. The last four, but not the first are found on Ethiopian mountains. Variation 

in moisture and topography determines which species predominates. 

Helichrysum scrub (usually the small gray shrub Helichrysum splendidum) covers large areas of 

drier (

melanantha, Dianthoseris schimperi, Erigeron alpinum, Haplocarpha rueppellii, Haplosciadium 

abyssinicum, Ranunculus oreophytus, and Swertia spp.), others sometimes form colonies of 

cushion shape (e.g. Myosotis keniensis, Sagina abyssinica, Sagina afroalpina, and Wahlenbergia 

pusilla) or have creeping habits (e.g. Alchemilla microbetula; Cerastium octandrum; Galium 

hochstetteri; Geranium arabicum; Polygonum spp.; Satureja kilimandschari; Veronica spp.). 

The group of tufted hemichryptophytes includes diverse tussock grasses (e.g. Agrostis 

quinqueneseta; Festuca richardii, Helichrysum cymosum herbaceous form; Koeleria capensis; 

Pentaschistis pictigluma; Poa leptoclada; Pentaschistis schimperiania; Senecio schultzii). 

The different vegetation communities support different rodent densities and as a result different 

number of Ethiopian wolves (Sillero-Zubri et al., 1995). In Afro-alpine ecosystem the density of 

Ethiopian wolf related with rodent density and Afro-alpine vegetation height. Wolf density is 

positively correlated with density of rodent prey and short height Afro-alpine vegetation. Highest 

wolf density is found in short Afro-alpine herbaceous communities (1.0-1.2 adults/km 2 ) but 

lower densities are found in Helichrysum dwarf scrub (0.2/km 2 ), in Ericaceous heathlands and 

barren peaks (0.1/km 2 ). Wolves also present at low density (0.1-0.2/km 2 ) in montane grass lands 

at lower altitudes. Generally wolves utilize all Afro-alpine but prefer open areas with short 

herbaceous and grass land communities where rodents are most abundant, along flat or gently 

sloping areas with deep soils and poor drainage in parts. 

13

Figure 2: Ethiopian wolf sighting on flat slope, short and open grassland 

The tops of African mountains have environmental conditions that differ dramatically from the 

low lands below. Plants and to a lesser degree animals have evolved some peculiar adaptations in 

response to the Afro-alpine climate. Plant gigantism is the most striking example. Giant lobelias, 

tree heather (Erica arborea) and giant Saint John's wort (Hyphericum revolutum) are important 

elements of the high montane flora of Ethiopia. The everlasting flowers (Helichrysum species) 

are conspicuous over large areas of the montanae habitat. Their highly reflective silvery leaves 

and dry papery flowers allow them to survive in the desiccating winds up to 4,300 m. The most 

conspicuous Afro-alpine vegetation is the giant lobelia whose sentinel forms dot the Afro-alpine 

landscape. 

14

Figure 3: The endemic giant lobelia from Mt. Abune Yoseph Afro-alpine ecosystem 

2.3. North Wollo highlands Afro-alpine ecosystem 

The Afro-alpine highlands of North Wollo are the second largest in Northern Ethiopia including 

Mt. Abune Yoseph (in Lasta woreda), Mt.Abohoy Gara (in Gidan woreda) Mekulet near Kulf 

Amba between Gubalafto and Delanta woreda. It covers a total area of 189.18 km 2 (ESP, 2001). 

Growing barley and grazing are the major land use practices in the lower altitude but in the upper 

zone agriculture is limited by frost and it provides habitat for wildlife such as Ethiopian wolf. 

Nowadays due to climate change and population growth these land uses are disturbed in all Afroalpine 

ecosystems of the zone. 

15

The Afro-alpine habitats in North Wollo are discontinuous. The Abune Yoseph massif is the 

largest and highest Afro-alpine area, loosely connected by narrow ridges with the small Abohoy 

Gara to the east and the Delanta in the south (Marino, 2003; Ash, 2000). Steep escarpments to 

the North of Mt. Abune Yoseph and east of Delanta limit wolf ranges. Elsewhere, overgrazed 

meadows and cultivated fields restricted suitable habitat to areas above 3,700-3,800m, or 3,450- 

3,500m in Delanta. Sightings and signs of wolves were recorded in all areas, but they were most 

abundant in Delanta, where the largest group with 6 individuals, was observed (Marino, 2003). 

Research conducted on rodents at Mt. Abune Yoseph (Tekilu, 2008) identified seven species of 

which six were endemic to Ethiopia and one insectivore shrew (Crocidura bayileyi) during 

survey in wet and dry seasons. The species were A. abyssinicus, S. griseicauda, L. 

flavopunctatus, O. typus, Pelomys harringtoni, D. lovati and Mericulus imberbis. These varied in 

abundance and density among the different parts of the habitats. Habitats modified by human 

activity supported less species diversity and population abundance than those undisturbed or with 

better natural vegetation cover. Without adequate management of the habitats supporting small 

mammals‟ effective conservation of the endangered Ethiopian wolf will be difficult. At the same 

time, conservation of the Ethiopian wolf in the area can not be successful without the keen 

involvement of local communities, whose lives are strictly intertwined with the wildlife and their 

habitats. 

The Afro-alpine vegetation in Mt. Abune Yoseph is characterized mainly by large extensions 

Cherenfe (Euryops pinifolius) Senecio shrubs with scattered patches of grasslands and rocky 

areas. On the northern slopes, grasslands of the genus Poa, Agrostis, Carex and Festuca 

dominate most lands affected by overgrazing. Only areas with very steep slopes and a high 

degree of humidity sustain tall grasslands. The moderately steep and large plateau of the Reem 

16

Gedel has abundant giant lobelias (800 to 2500) plants per hectare (Saavedra, 2009). The human 

impact is lower at the highest altitudes, where as large areas of the middle and lower altitudinal 

belts are highly modified. 

Studies of vegetation parameters and environmental factors in association with Ethiopian wolf 

prey in Mt. Abune Yoseph has multiple purposes, complements previous studies on rodents, help 

to sustain food chain among vegetation, rodents and wolf along with attempting to lay 

foundation to facilitate the conservation of endemic flora and fauna of this isolated mountain 

range considering the various stakeholders involved. 

2.4. Community perception and attitude towards Afro-alpine ecosystem 

In Africa, the attitudes and perceptions of local communities towards wildlife and areas of 

important wildlife habitat has been positive historically (Lewis et al., 1990; Newmank et al., 

1993; Siachoono, 1995). A positive attitude among local communities is essential for successful 

wildlife conservation programmes, since wildlife provides physical, emotional, intellectual, 

economic and spiritual benefit to human development and well being (Kellert, 1985). An 

approach that focuses more on protecting resources by disregarding the needs and interests of the 

local resource users is bound to fail (Lewis et al., 1990). The most appealing alternative 

approach is to establish agreements, co-operation, partnerships and the equitable distribution of 

benefits between communities living in areas with valuable natural resources, or areas adjacent 

to the protected areas, and the conservation authority (IIED, 1994). In addition negative attitudes 

in recent years have been compounded with potential threats posed by wildlife to economically 

important livestock, huntable wildlife and to other forms of land use (Kellert et al., 1996; Bauer, 

2003). 

17

In Afro-alpine ecosystems the life of the local communities depends on ecosystem services such 

as grazing and land for barley cultivation which they perceive positively. In North central 

highlands of Ethiopia Guassa-Menz natural resources have been managed for the last hundred 

years by traditional practices and these communities have positive perception, an example in 

Ethiopia in this regard (Ashenafi, 2001). Negative attitudes towards wolves in Afro-alpine areas 

in recent years have been connected with depredation of economically important livestock (sheep 

and goat) by wolf (Marino, 2003). For the conservation of natural resources to be effective, 

attitudes of local communities towards management of the resource to be protected need to be 

studied including what communities perceive as needs and aspirations account (Fiallo and 

Jacobson, 1995). 

2.5. Impact of the community on the Afro-alpine ecosystem and its wildlife 

Africa‟s wildlife is under pressure from habitat loss due to forest clearing, agriculture and 

livestock herding; hunting for food and profit; pollution from agricultural and industrial sources; 

and disturbance by tourists. As spaces for wildlife shrink and corridors linking areas of habitat 

are cut, the survival of healthy species population, especially of larger and highly specialized 

animals becomes more threatened. Addressing these problems is a very complex issue, especially 

because indigenous peoples have diverse needs for, and claims to, these resources. Thus, the 

need for protected spaces for wildlife often seems at odds with human needs (Newmark, 1993). 

In North Ethiopia, heavy human pressure impacts on natural resources and biodiversity of the 

SMNP including agriculture, livestock grazing, collection of wood for fuel and timber, poaching 

and construction of road inside the National Park. Soil erosion, strongly affect the vegetation‟s 

potential for regeneration and wildlife habitats for Walia ibex and Ethiopian wolf (Keiner, 1999). 

18

Contacts and conflicts between wolves and humans are bound to increase with increasing human 

density and habitat fragmentation. Moreover, the highlands of Ethiopia are among Africa‟s most 

highly dense agricultural areas and the resulting human, agricultural, and wolf conflict has been 

devastating to the wolf population. 

In the heavily populated Northern highlands for example, livestock graze on high altitude 

pastures all year round. Circumstantial evidence also suggests that overgrazing in the densely 

populated highlands of the North may have negatively impacted upon the highland rodent fauna 

(Nievergelt et al., 1998) and that wolves may predate more frequently on livestock (lambs) or 

become nocturnal when human interference is severe (Yalden and Largen 1992). To prove this 

11 scat samples (fecal samples) collected from Mt. Abune Yoseph and analyzed by EWCP 

between February 1998 and February 1999 clearly revealed composition and diversity of the 

wolves diet in the area. Analysis of prey remains in 11 wolf scats (fecal samples), representing 

Mt. Abune Yoseph wolf populations (Table 1), confirmed that wolves are specialized hunters of 

diurnal rodents and rarely smaller livestock (lambs) across their distribution (Marino, 2003). 

Table 1: Composition and diversity of diet from wolves scat analysis at Mt. Abune Yoseph 

Prey items 

Mt. Abune Yoseph 

Otomys typus 36% 

Arvicanthis spp 23% 

Lophuromys spp 14% 

Stenocephalemys albocaudata 14% 

Praomys albipes 9% 

Livestock 5% 

(Source: Marino, 2003) 

19

In Northern highlands the livestock predation by wolves has resulted in negative attitudes 

amongst the local people, and sporadic killings, at least in South Wollo (Sillero-Zubiri et al., 

1996; Ashenafi, 2001). 

In recent time, degradation of Afro-alpine ecosystem by grazing and high-altitude subsistence 

agriculture make wolf populations susceptible to extinction hazard due to human persecution, 

inbreeding, disease and natural catastrophes (Gottelli and Sillero-Zubiri, 1992; Sillero-Zubiri and 

Macdonald, 1997). Therefore, habitat protection to prevent or reduce further habitat loss would 

have to be given great attention to reduce the risk of extinction in particular of those populations 

in small areas. 

2.6. Socio-economic significance of Afro-alpine ecosystem 

The poor and hungry, to a greater extent than others, are directly dependent on functioning 

ecosystems and those services that the local ecosystems supply for their survival. Humans 

depend on biological resources for their existence. Communities engaged in subsistence 

agriculture as a way of life attempt to optimize their production systems by using resources taken 

from natural ecosystems (Kothari, 1997). Therefore, biodiversity is critically important to 

people‟s livelihoods because it provides diverse subsistence requirements for rural community 

including: fodder; fuel; housing; farming and household implements; and spiritual sustenance 

(Haverkort and Miller, 1994). 

Afro-alpine mountains due to their harsh climatic condition they are not serving as a settlement 

area or not occupied as individual property by rural dwellers rather they are managed as 

communal resource of adjacent subsistent farmers. In developing countries in general and in 

Ethiopia in particular rural communities depend primarily on common property resources for 

20

irrigation water, construction material, fuel wood, and grazing land (Berhanu and Scott, 2001; 

Hurni, 1986). Similarly, Afro-alpine ecosystems and their resources were exploited under 

unrestricted access by their surrounding community for millennia 

According to Malcom and Ashenafi (1997), Ethiopia‟s Afro-alpine ecosystem islands are 

immensely important with their diverse array of resources present in them for the livelihood of 

local communities who used the resources. Resources of Afro-alpine ecosystem that have 

significant socio-economic value for the surrounding communities are: 

Wild species: the plant and animal species endemic to the ecosystem have immediate economic 

value for the society. Grass of the Genus Festuca is used for thatch and basket making and there 

are species used for medicine, food and drinking that are harvested by people living around the 

ecosystem and sold. So the harvested resources are particularly important for the lower group of 

community as a cash crop and a coping mechanism, during severe draught season. 

Agricultural resources: even though mostly ended with failed result, the Afro-alpine ecosystem 

is used for barley cultivation by subsistence farmers below 3300 m a.s.l. depending on soils, 

slope and frost. The domestic animals use for grazing the entire alpine habitat. The area is also 

used as a refuge for far adjacent livestock herd during severe draught. 

Firewood: the ericaceous heathlands are important sources of firewood. There are Afro-alpine 

areas where firewood is gathered on commercial scale. Cherenfe (Euryops pinifolius), Asta 

(Erica arborea), Gebera (Lobelia rhynchopetalum), Amija (Hyphericum revolutum), Ashendye 

(Kniphopia foliosa) and Tinjut (Helychrisum splendidium) are the dominant shrubs being 

collected for household firewood consumption from the ecosystem. Firewood collection usually 

21

takes place in the dry season and a large volume is required due to its low calorific value. Cattle 

dung is burnt concurrently with these woods. 

Tourist values: the Afro-alpine habitats and escarpment provide both spectacular scenery and 

natural values with unusual animal life offer great opportunities for tourism. The endemic and 

rare species of the ecosystems and the diversified culture and heritage of the highlanders have 

potential for tourism. Generally the Afro-alpine ecosystems provide many attractions such as the 

scenery, wildlife and a wilderness appeal to potential visitors. In Ethiopia the BMNP and the 

SMNP are the two Afro-alpine national parks serve as a tourist destination for wildlife and 

highland visitors. Recently, nature based eco-tourism guided by local communities are emerged 

around Guassa and Mt. Abune Yoseph Afro-alpine ecosystems as a potential method of 

livelihood diversification and income generation for supporting the conservation management of 

the areas. Such type of community based tourisms is growing especially around Afro-alpine 

areas of Mt. Abune Yoseph by TESFA an Ethiopian NGO working with local community for the 

improvement of community livelihood through environmental friendly tourism. The Afro-alpine 

ecosystems also served as an area of sport hunting for tourists. 

Water resources: the high ground in the mountains catches more rain than the surrounding low 

lands. This is marked in simen where the low lands less than 35 km east of the peaks receive 

only one third of rain fall (Hurni, 1986). Afro-alpine ecosystems of Ethiopia form the watershed 

for the low lands of north-east Africa, providing water for millions of people and also used as a 

sources of mineral springs. 

22

2.7. Sustainable community based Afro-alpine ecosystem management 

As the human population grows, demands on natural resources have increased causing 

environmental degradation and fragmentation leading to a massive extinction of species (Myers, 

1979). To counteract this situation many developing countries design Environmental 

conservation policy characterized by a top-down approach that includes the establishment of 

state owned biodiversity protected areas. This approach reflects the suspicion of governments 

that local communities are incapable of managing their own resources (Ashenafi and N.Leader, 

2005). However, conservationists have been searching viable and sustainable alternative solution 

in the last 20 years, the approach that involve local communities in the process of resource 

management and decision making known as community-based conservation (IIED, 1994). 

Decentralization of resource management from the central authority to local communities is 

considered a first step forward for successful community-based program. Hence, local people 

have become involved more actively in the generation and distribution of benefits. It also 

promotes the legal and sustainable use of the wildlife and other natural resources. 

Sustainable development is multi-objective process whose goal is to satisfy real human needs ad 

infinitum while ensuring the protection of environmental quality, biodiversity and ecosystem 

resilience by integrating conservation and management with social and economic objectives at 

various social and spatial scales (Okigbo, 1996). For community-based conservation to be 

successful, it needs to be flexible enough to cope with a countryside inhabited by a growing 

number of extremely poor people who depend on a subsistence existence and whose greatest 

goal is to gain economic security (Alcorn, 1997). 

23

In Ethiopia the history of resource management reveals, overall, an increasing trend towards 

state control, and participatory resource management largely remains something that is talked 

about rather than implemented (Alula, 2001). But in contrast to this in Afro-alpine areas, there 

are traditional resource management systems practiced by local communities for century that are 

essential to the people‟s livelihoods and also to the persistence of biodiversity. For this the 

indigenous common property resource management system in the Guassa area of Menz, in the 

Central Highlands of Ethiopia, play a great role for the last hundred years in conserving the 

threatened Afro-alpine ecosystem biodiversity, including an important population of the 

Ethiopian wolf (Ashenafi, 2001; Ashenafi et al., 2005). Therefore, common property 

management institutions (traditional resource management systems, bylaws, etc.) are crucial for 

sustainable resource use and development. Above all, they are a reflection of the existing socioeconomic, 

political and cultural situation of the community (Ostrom, 1991). Institutional 

arrangements, such as rules and conventions, are clearly important elements in resource 

conservation (Murphree, 1993). 

In recent time community based protected areas are commonly established to conserve 

biodiversity, protected ecosystems, and maintain ecological processes. Many community 

protected areas also expected to contribute to sustainable development and poverty reduction 

(Nabin et al., 2008). 

24

Chapter III: Materials and Methods 

3.1. Study area 

3.1.1. Location 

The study was conducted at Mt. Abune Yoseph above 3700 m a.s.l in Lasta woreda, North Wollo 

administrative zone of Amhara National Regional State (ANRS). The administrative center of 

North Wollo zone is Woldia. It has mostly rural population of 1.5 million people living in 13 

woredas. Lasta Woreda is one district of North Wollo with its administrative center Lalibela. 

Mt. Abune Yoseph lies between 12 0 8‟ 7” N and 39 0 15‟ 7” E. It is one of the long isolated 

mountains in the Northern massif with a total area of 50 km 2 (EWCP, 2003) and the highest peak 

of North Wollo 4286 m a.s.l and the second peak of ANRS next to Ras Dashen 4620 m a.s.l 

(ESP, 2001). The massif is limited to the East by the fault escarpment of the Rift valley 

depression and separated from the Tigrean Plateau to the North and from the Simen Mountains 

(4,600 m of height) to the West by a chain of lower mountain systems (1500-2000 m a.s.l). In 

this study, the socio economic survey was conducted on user community of eight villages 

selected from four peasant Associations (PAs) found at the foothill and the ecologic survey was 

conducted on the mountain plateau above 3700 m a.s.l where the short afro-alpine vegetations 

and the wolf range is restricted due to agriculture of subsistent farmers. 

25

Lasta Woreda 

Figure 4: Location of the study Area 

26

3.1.2. Topography 

Mt. Abune Yoseph has rugged topography. It is a large peak surrounded by gorges and very 

steep slopes, where rocky blocks and stones are scattered all over. Three other high peaks 

surround the area: the Big Zigit (4,080 m), the Small Zigit (4,035 m) and the Reem Gedel (4,284 

m) a.s.l, providing impressive views over the Afro-alpine plateau and they are fabulously scenic 

although their value for tourism is undeveloped. 

3.1.3. Climate 

The climate of Mt. Abune Yoseph is characterized by a wet season from June to early 

September, and a dry season from mid-September to May. Annual rainfall averages 2,000 mm, 

mostly falling between July and September. Short rains might fall in any month of the year, but 

particularly in March. Generally the area has bi-modal rainfall known as „Meher‟ (long rainfall 

period: from June to September) and „Belg‟ (short rainfall period: from February to May). The 

mean annual temperature ranges from 7.5 o C to 11 o C which is characterized by moist and very 

cold conditions (ESP, 2001). 

3.1.4. Soil 

The effect of slope on Mt. Abune Yoseph peak is marked in its influence on the run-off, drainage 

and consequently upon the depth of the soil. So mountain areas that have steep slopes are liable 

to soil erosion and increased surface run-off, which will remove nutrients from the surface 

during high rainfall. Most parts of Mt. Abune Yoseph have rocky and shallow soils. The 

depression and flat plains are covered by deep black soils. Degraded landscapes are covered by 

shallow and stony soils (litho sols). Generally, in Mt. Abune Yoseph the distribution and type of 

27

soil differ from place to place based on the geology, physiographic variations and climate which 

are clearly observed on vegetation growth of the area. 

3.1.5. Vegetations and wild animals 

The Abune Yoseph massif shows a complex mosaic of ecosystems, where bush lands, 

woodlands, and Afro-alpine grasslands were represented. Remnant natural forests of Erica 

arborea patches are seen around the church compounds and at boundaries between mountain and 

farmland. Its Afro-alpine vegetations are characterized by giant lobelia, guassa grass and 

Euryops spp. which is locally known as „chifra‟ and „kirshiba‟. Grasslands mostly occur in 

association with the Euryops shrub. Its relatively steep slopes are covered by a mosaic of barley 

cultures and scattered patches of medium sized Afro-alpine grass meadows, shrubs, bushes and 

the endemic giant lobelias. 

Mt. Abune Yoseph has 43 species of mammals, from 19 families and nine orders (Saavedra, 

2009) and 221 bird species, belonging to 48 families and 16 orders (Lepage, 2006). From the 31 

endemic species of mammals known for Ethiopia and Eritrea 7 (22%) and from 16 endemic 

species of birds found in Ethiopia 6 (35%) have been found in the massif. Following the data of 

the Important Bird Areas of Ethiopia work (EWNHS, 1996) the Abune Yoseph massif could be 

considered to be the second most important bird area in the country (Saavedra, 2009). 

3.1.6. Water resources 

The North Wollo highlands including Mt. Abune Yoseph are the watersheds for the tributaries of 

three main river basins of Ethiopia, the Tekeze basin, the Awash basin and the Abay basin. 

Several streams intersect the area and feed the Tekeze River. 

28

3.2. Methods 

3.2.1. Interview 

Before formal household interview a preliminary survey aided with check list was conducted to 

gather background information about the ecosystem, the natural resources within the ecosystem 

and to have an understanding of the relationship between the ecosystem, wildlife, humans and 

domestic livestock and it also provide opportunity to contact with key informants present in the 

study area. Key informants were nominated from the four PAs surrounding Mt. Abune Yoseph. 

They were WEPLAUO experts, development agents, community leaders, elders and Para- 

Ecolologists from FZS and ordinary farmers who had lived in the area for long time and had 

historic background of the area. Then informal survey together with the key informants was 

conducted at the identified PAs. During the survey simple participatory survey techniques (focus 

group discussion, transect walk, etc.) that encourage dialogue and initiate informal discussions 

between farmers and researcher was selected as a tool. After we made long discussion with the 

key informants, based on informal survey results, we select eight villages that were used for 

household interview from the four PAs. These eight villages are found at the immediate 

proximity of Mt. Abune Yoseph at different distance and they bounded the mountain in all 

direction. These villages were Eyebelay and Korit from Wodebye PA, Shegla and Ybaro from 

Telfetit PA, Latgie and AbuneYoseph from AbuneYoseph PA, Kassegne and Enjafat from 

Enjafat PA. 

Finally using the checklist recorded at the preliminary study and the result of informal survey 

workable questionnaire for formal interview was developed and pre-tested by selecting two 

farmers from each village to check its accuracy and efficiency in eliciting the required data. 

29

Based on results of the pre-test, after some questions were revised and modified, it was 

administered to a sample of 120 households (6% of the total user households) selected randomly 

from the total 2014 households found in the eight villages of the four PAs who frequently visited 

the Afro-alpine area, either to herd their livestock, collect grass and firewood, or en route to local 

markets. 

The aim of the household interview was to generate and verify qualitative and quantitative data 

about the socio-economic potential of Mt. Abune Yoseph, and to assess the perception of the 

household heads towards the Afro-alpine ecosystem and its wildlife particularly Ethiopian wolf 

moreover, to evaluate human- wolf conflict in the study area. 

3.2.2. Population demography 

To get indicator data about human-livestock pressure or interferences on Afro-alpine ecosystem 

different years Government statistics (secondary data) on human and livestock population were 

collected from Afro-alpine ecosystems surrounding woredas of North Wollo. 

3.2.3. Ecological survey 

To study the presence/absence and abundance of wolf in the ecosystem, standard EWCP 

questionnaires, interviews, and sighting report were employed (Fanshawe et al., 1997; Sillero- 

Zubri et al., 2004). Presence /absence and distribution of rodents in relation to vegetation 

parameters and environmental factors were recorded along Habitat Assessment Transect (HAT) 

laid 1 km apart with the help of Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) gridlines on a map of 

1:50,000 scale that include the study area (EMA, Lalibela, 1999) and Global Positioning System 

(GPS) (Burnham et al., 1979; Buckland et al., 1993 and Ashenafi et al., 2005). Measurements 

30

were taken within a circular sample plot measuring 5 m radius marked at 200 m interval along 

eight transects with a total distance of 22km and 110 sample plots 75 plots at above 3700-4000 

m and 35 plots above 4000 m a.s.l. At each sample plot data was recorded on slope, altitude, 

habitat type, dominant vegetation species, height and cover of plants, rodent holes, livestock 

dung and wolf droppings. 

3.3. Data Analysis 

All socio-economic and ecologic data were analyzed using the statistical packages SPSS (version 

13) and SAS-JMP 5 software. Data collected by interview: to determine wolf presence/absence 

and relative abundance, data on socio economic potential obtained from Mt. Abune Yoseph and 

data on human-wolf conflict were analyzed using descriptive statistics and the significance was 

tested by cross tabulation and chi-square test at (P

Chapter IV: Results and Discussion 

4.1. Socio-economic characteristic and economic potential of Mt. Abune 

Yoseph 

4.1.1. Household characteristics 

The characteristics of households 1 

(HHs) in the study area were analyzed with descriptive 

statistics (Table 2). Of sample household heads 2 (HHHs) 85.2% were male and 14.8% were 

females. From the HHHs 85.2% were married and 14.8% were unmarried. The age of 

respondents ranged from 18 to 80 years with a mean age of 47.7 years. The family size of the 

respondents ranged from a minimum of 1 to a maximum of 10 with a mean of 5.7. Of the HH 

respondents 52.5% were illiterate but 47.5% HHs were literate that can only write and read. 

From the sample HHs 86.7% had agricultural land holding with mean size of 0.7 ha and the rest 

13.3% were landless. Each sample HHs had a minimum of 0 and a maximum of 78 livestock 

with the mean number of 13 and standard deviation of 10. The sample HH respondents live 

within the range between 1km and 15 km away from Mt. Abune Yoseph. 

Table 2: Sample HHs characteristics of Mt. Abune Yoseph 

Sex N Marital status N Educational 

status 

N Land 

holding 

N Year of residence in 

their current location 

Male 103 Married 103 Illiterate 63 Landless 16 Min 6 

Female 17 Unmarried 71 Literate 57 Land 104 Max 80 

holder Mean 42 

SD 15.7 

1 Households are extended family living under one roof. 

2 Household heads are either male or female that are the central decision maker of the household. 

32

4.1.2. Socio-economic potential of Mt. Abune Yoseph Afro-alpine ecosystem 

The major economic activity of the people living around Mt. Abune Yoseph is subsistence 

agriculture, which include crop farming and animal husbandry. They support their livelihood by 

exploiting diversified goods and environmental services from the ecosystem. Most HHs (64.2%) 

use Mt. Abune Yoseph for 3 months to graze their livestock during the wet season and 61.7% 

HHs graze for 9 months during the dry season. From the respondents, 96 (80%) explained they 

got economic benefit from Mt. Abune Yoseph. According to the chi-square test there was a 

significant difference (p

Communities living closer to Mt. Abune Yoseph exploit effectively the natural resources 

throughout the year than those communities living at far distance (Table 4). Therefore, distance 

of the households from Mt. Abune Yoseph has a significant (P

(Table 5). The income generating degrees of these environmental goods and services as well as 

the HHs involvement vary in Mt. Abune Yoseph depending on some factors. 

Table 5: Type of economic benefits obtained from Mt. Abune Yoseph (n =120) 

No Benefit from Mt. Abune Yoseph 

Response 

yes % No % 

Firewood 89 74.2 31 25.8 

Thatching grass 76 63.3 44 36.7 

Hay grass 66 55 54 45 

Income from tourism 35 29.2 85 70.8 

Other benefit 92 76.7 28 23.3 

In cross tabulation analysis a chi-square test showed natural resource utilization from Mt. Abune 

Yoseph differ (X 2 =4.62, df =1, P0.05) in economic resource utilization between HHs 

based on HHs age, marital status, family size, sex, educational status, livestock number and farm 

size. 

35

Figure 5:.Land ownership status and economic benefit from Mt. Abune Yoseph 

In addition to self consumption and livestock grazing cost each HH got a direct economic benefit 

(Table 6) of 20.00 birr per load from firewood selling (Figure 6) and a maximum of 3000.00 birr 

from tourism, generated through guiding tourists, renting pack animals and selling locally made 

items in 12 months. Generally, 29.2% HHs which distributed across 8 villages got economic 

benefit from tourism (Table 5). 

Table 6: Price of major economic goods and services from Mt. Abune Yoseph in 1year (n =120) 

Item Range Mean Standard Error 

Firewood market price in birr per load 0-20 7.06 0.507 

Thatching grass market price in birr per load 0-50 19.54 1.639 

Hay grass market price in birr per load 0-50 15.25 1.482 

Birr obtained from tourism 0-3000 192.25 42.188 

36

Figure 6: People selling firewood in the market 

HHs also estimated the average economic benefit they got in terms of money including the cost 

of grazing and other all ecosystem goods and services (firewood, thatching grass, hay grass, 

tourism, construction material etc) from Mt. Abune Yoseph a range of 0 to 20,000 birr with 

mean of 1627±207 birr in one year (Table 7). 

Table 7: HHs average estimated birr obtained from Mt. Abune Yoseph in one year 

N Range Mean ± SE 

Average estimated birr per year 120 0-20,000 1627.46± 206.914 

37

Even though the pattern of resource utilization differ between HHs, the result of this study has 

shown clearly that the community in Mt. Abune Yoseph consider the Afro-alpine ecosystem of 

the area to be important for their livelihoods and on many occasions described as it improving 

their livelihood. Similar study on ecosystem showed Communities engaged in subsistence 

agriculture as a way of life attempt to optimize their production systems by using a diversity of 

crop-livestock systems, supplemented by resources taken from natural ecosystems (Kothari, 

1997). Therefore, biodiversity from the ecosystem is critically important to people‟s livelihoods. 

4.2. Community perception towards Mt. Abune Yoseph Afro-alpine ecosystem 

The perception of HHs towards Mt. Abune Yoseph Afro-alpine ecosystem was assessed and 

analyzed with logistic regression by taking the HHs response on need to protect Mt. Abune 

Yoseph dependent variable. The dependent variable was taken as dummy: 0 if the response on 

need to protect Mt. Abune Yoseph was negative and 1 if the response was positive. The 

explanatory variables examined during the logistic regression were age; sex; length of residence 

in the area; educational status; marital status; family size; distance from Mt. Abune Yoseph, land 

access and livestock number. In addition the use or nonuse of natural resources such as firewood, 

thatching grass, hay grass and the presence/absence of wild animal danger at Mt. Abune Yoseph 

were taken as explanatory variables. 

38

Table 8: Distribution of Nominal variables employed in logistic regression 

Nominal Variables 

Number Percent 

Sex Male 103 85.8 

Female 17 14.2 

Marital status Married 103 85.8 

Single 17 14.2 

Educational status Illiterate 63 52.5 

Literate 57 47.5 

Land access Yes 104 86.7 

No 16 13.3 

Firewood Yes 89 74.2 

No 31 25.8 

Thatch grass yes 76 63.3 

No 44 36.7 

Hay grass yes 66 55 

No 54 45 

Wild animal danger at Mt. Abune Yoseph Yes 108 90 

No 12 10 

Need to protect Mt. Abune Yoseph Yes 85 70.8 

No 35 29.2 

Ethiopian wolf-human existence relation Yes 78 65 

No 42 35 

Local attitude towards Ethiopian wolf Positive 79 65.8 

Negative 41 34.2 

Table 9: Descriptives of continuous variables employed in logistic regression (n=120) 

Continuous Variable 

Min Max Mean Std Deviation 

Age of sample HH 18 80 47.5 12.268 

Family size of the HH 1 10 5.7 1.827 

Distance of HH from AY 2 15 7.72 4.199 

Livestock possession of the HH 0 78 13.69 10.509 

39

Table 10: Factors determining the perception of respondents towards Mt. Abune Yoseph Afroalpine 

ecosystem and its management 

Explanatory variable Estimate Std Error Chi-Square P-value 

Intercept 1.683332 1.560696 1.16 0.2808 

Age 0.007933 0.0346202 0.05 0.8188 

Sex[female] 0.36493 0.5590733 0.43 0.5139 

Marital status[married] 0.414794 0.5574251 0.55 0.4568 

Family size -0.23529 0.1752716 1.8 0.1795 

Educational status[illiterate] 1.38216 0.3684552 14.07 0.0002 

Living length at Mt. Abune Yoseph -0.01641 0.0243986 0.45 0.5011 

Distance from Mt. Abune Yoseph -0.24994 0.0959698 6.78 0.0092 

Land access [NO] 1.308343 0.4655066 7.9 0.0049 

Livestock number 0.085859 0.0366595 5.49 0.0192 

Firewood[NO] 0.043504 0.4976789 0.01 0.9303 

Thatching grass[NO] 0.096351 0.4358704 0.05 0.825 

Hay[NO] 0.216391 0.3881591 0.31 0.5772 

Wild animal danger at Mt. Abune Yoseph[NO] -0.37451 0.4248673 0.78 0.3781 

R Square (U) 0.317 

Observations (or Sum Wgts) 120 

The community support the protection of Mt. Abune Yoseph Afro-alpine ecosystem for various 

reasons but the perception towards the need to protect its natural resources differ between 

communities based on different socio-economic characteristic and pattern of environmental 

goods and services harvested from the ecosystem and wild animal danger occurred in the area 

(Table 10). 

There was a significant difference (P

the habitat when compared with illiterate households. The support of literate households might 

be due to the concept they got on conservation of natural resources from formal and informal 

education during their stay at school. Therefore, non educated HHs had negative perception 

towards Mt. Abune Yoseph Afro-alpine ecosystem and they did not also support its sustainable 

management when compared with educated HHs of the area. Study conducted on Masindi 

District CBFM by (Kugonza et al., 2009) in Uganda showed the same result, i.e. higher 

percentage of illiterate respondents were unwilling to participate in CBFM mainly because they 

miss out necessary information and training on sustainable tree conservation. 

Similarly, there was a significant difference (P

management (Table 10). This means that landless HHs did not show positive perception for the 

conservation of the ecosystem. This might be associated with their interest to get private 

farmland from the ecosystem and as well as to exploit the resources of the ecosystem freely for 

their basic needs. Study in Masindi District confirmed, farmers that have secured private land 

ownership showed participation in CBFM than farmers using government land or land not 

claimed secured private ownership (Kugonza et al., 2009). 

In Mt. Abune Yoseph besides farming, livestock rearing is the other economic activity that 

supports crop cultivation and HH‟s economy. The major livestock kept by the community in the 

area are cattle, sheep, donkey, horse and mules. In the area cattle are responsible for ploughing 

and threshing harvested crops. They are also important for providing meat, milk and milk 

products. 

Logistic regression results, showed the presence of significant difference (P< 0.05) between HHs 

by livestock number in their perception towards Mt. Abune Yoseph Afro-alpine ecosystem 

conservation (Table 10). So HHs that has more heard size support or have positive perception 

towards Mt. Abune Yoseph Afro-alpine ecosystem and its conservation management than those 

had less and none livestock number. Based on informal survey and discussion made with key 

informants, since HHs with more heard size did not have enough private grazing land, if 

conserved they could compensate their livestock feed shortage by cut and carry system. 

4.3. Community perception towards Ethiopian wolf 

To analyze the perception of community towards Ethiopian wolf, logistic regression was used to 

model responses, as it provided a convenient way to undertake categorical data analysis. In 

practice the analysis and interpretation are quite similar to the well-known procedure of multiple 

42

egressions (Freeman, 1987). To find out how the community perceives the rare and critically 

endangered wildlife of the area, a dummy of the respondent‟s attitude, 0 if the local community 

attitude response towards Ethiopian wolf was negative and 1 if the response was positive taken 

as dependent variable. The explanatory variables age, sex, marital status, family size, educational 

status, distance from Mt. Abune Yoseph, land access, livestock number, response on wildlife 

danger and Ethiopian wolf human coexistence relation at Mt. Abune Yoseph were related to the 

perception response to the wolf (Table 8 and 9). 

The respondents‟ distance from the Mt. Abune Yoseph associated with different (P

Table 11: Factors determining the perception of respondents towards Ethiopian wolves 

Explanatory variable Estimate Std Error Chi-Square P-value 

Intercept -2.49328 1.3014543 3.67 0.0554 

Age 0.007224 0.0243306 0.09 0.7665 

Sex[female] -0.77332 0.4805182 2.59 0.1075 

Marital status[married] -0.59374 0.4760479 1.56 0.2123 

Family size 0.258119 0.1512715 2.91 0.0879 

Educational status[illiterate] 0.381671 0.2883903 1.75 0.1857 

Distance from Mt. Abune Yoseph -0.14242 0.0580992 6.01 0.0142 

Land access [NO] 0.103772 0.4061492 0.07 0.7983 

Livestock number 0.134623 0.0445717 9.12 0.0025 

Wild animal danger at Mt. Abune Yoseph[NO] -1.19366 0.3766712 10.04 0.0015 

Ethiopian wolf -human existence Relation[No] 0.103766 0.2356485 0.19 0.6597 

R Square (U) 0.2335 

Observations (or Sum Wgts) 120 

Among the people who thought the Ethiopian wolf was a bad species, most gave sheep predation 

by the wolf as their main reason (Table 12). Carnivores commonly generate negative attitude 

among the rural residents in many regions of the world since they prey upon domestic animals 

(Bauer, 2003; Woodroffe, 2000). On the other hand, respondents that considered Ethiopian 

wolves a good species mentions various reasons including their potential to attract tourism, 

entertainment, endemic and heritage value and their utilitarian value in controlling rodents 

(Table 12). According to Ashenafi (2001), large number of residents from Guassa area knew that 

the Ethiopian wolf is an endemic species. In addition, as reported by Deresse (2003), the 

Ethiopian wolf has the potential to attract tourists and bring income to their respective areas. A 

study in Minnesota, U.S.A. showed that there was strong positive attitude towards timber wolf 

44

(Canis lupus) and agreed that timber wolf was symbolic of nature‟s wonder and beauty (Kellert, 

1985). 

Table 12: HHs reason why they perceive wolves good or bad species at Mt. Abune Yoseph 

snoRaeR Number Percent 

Ethiopian wolf is not good species due to sheep predation 35 29.2 

Since means of tourism income 22 18.3 

Since endemic, heritage, and visited by tourists for entertainment 49 40.8 

Since rodent hunter protect crop damage 14 11.7 

Total 120 100.0 

The perception towards Ethiopian wolf also associated with livestock number of HHs. There was 

a significant difference (P

indicated in Table 8 than the study time of (Marino, 2003) in which (90%) of people reported 

negative attitude towards Ethiopian wolf in North Wollo highlands. The decrease of local 

community negative attitude towards Ethiopian wolf might be associated with the education and 

awareness raising done by EWCP and still by FZS in partner with GOs for the last decades 

through out the country in general and in Afro-alpine ecosystems in particular. 

4.4. Human-livestock interference to Afro-alpine ecosystem and the resulting 

conflict 

4.4.1. Human-livestock interference pressure and its impact 

The trend of human and livestock population has increased continuously in and around the Afroalpine 

ecosystem of North Wollo highlands (Table13). At present the human population density 

in and around Afro-alpine ecosystem of North Wollo woredas on average is greater than 120 

people per km 2 . 

Table 13: Human population in woredas that have Afro-alpine ecosystem in North Wollo 

Woreda 

Area Population Per Year And Density Per Km 2 

Inkm 2 2000 Density 2002 Density 2004 density 2007 density 

Lasta* 2844 185395 65.2 191938 67.5 196468 69 201653 70.9 

Delanta* 1529 165717 108.4 171300 112 178448 116.7 203385 133 

Gidan 1236 158602 128.3 158602 128.3 160558 129.9 172537 139.6 

G/laftu 1037 144506 139.4 160357 154.7 167446 161.5 170289 164 

Lasta* includes the new Bugna woreda 

(Source: ANRS BoFAED different years Statistical Bulletins) 

Delanta* includes the new Dawnt woreda 

In Africa, the major problem facing protected areas today is the increase in human settlement of 

adjacent lands and the unauthorized harvesting of resources within the protected areas 

46

(Newmark, et al., 1993). This high number of human population has its own impact on the 

wildlife population and their ecosystem. As the number of human population increases, 

encroachment increases; then the extent of resource exploitation also increases. 

This can easily be observed by increase livestock grazing in Mt. Abune Yoseph Afro-alpine 

ecosystem. The mean period of utilization of Mt. Abune Yoseph Afro-alpine ecosystem as a 

grazing land was 8.11 ± 3 months in the year and 2.34 ± 1 months during wet season and the 

overall range of grazing period in the ecosystem was 0 -11 months (Table 14). 

Table 14: Livestock grazing period at Mt. Abune Yoseph (n =120) 

Grazing Period Range Mean ± SD 

Grazing months in the year 0-11 8.11± 3.092 

Wet season grazing months 0-3 2.34 ± 1.017 

47

Table 15: Livestock population growth trend in woredas that have Afro-alpine ecosystem 

Woreda Area/ Km 2 / Livestock 2000 2002 2004 2007 

Lasta* 2844 Cattle 136924 153875 166197 187381 

Sheep and goat 137321 144186 165600 205539 

Pack animal 13001 20918 24819 31618 

Total livestock 287246 318979 356616 424538 

Density /km 2 101 112.2 125.4 149.3 

Delanta* 1529 Cattle 93141 108283 114173 123335 

Sheep and goat 130280 182648 188719 196636 

Pack animal 16709 26392 27639 44480 


Density /km 2 157 207.5 216.2 238.4 

Gidan 1236 Cattle 72287 82341 85422 87500 

Sheep and goat 157149 161900 171430 225639 

Pack animal 13861 21471 22316 25321 


Density /km 2 196.8 215 225.9 273.8 

Gubalaftu 1037 Cattle 81260 99134 105020 115025 

Sheep and goat 93888 114404 116579 139619 

Pack animal 12198 13693 18293 19862 


Density /km 2 180.7 219 231.3 238.7 

Lasta* includes the new Bugna woreda Delanta* includes the new Dawnt woreda 

(Source: North Wollo zone ARDD) 

The year to year abrupt increase of human and livestock population in North Wollo especially in 

woredas that have Afro-alpine ecosystem resulted in increase in settlement and encroachment of 

livestock and dogs that poses serious threats to the Ethiopian wolf within the ecosystem. Similar 

study in BMNP by Stephens et al. (2001) proved that the abrupt increasing of settlement and 

livestock number around protected area has to be given major concern for three reasons. First for 

the erosive effect of livestock and its detrimental effect on natural flora and fauna of the 

ecosystem, second the presence of large number of domestic stock in the area impaired and has 

negative visual impact on tourist activities. Third, result in interference competition with 

wildlife, such as dogs compete with wolves for prey, spread disease and hybridize with wolves 

(Sillero-Zubiri, 1994). Therefore, the rapid increase of human (Table 13) and livestock 

48

population (Table 15) in Afro-alpine woredas of North Wollo in general and around Mt. Abune 

Yoseph in particular indicate a clear anthropogenic threat on wildlife. In addition to this, the 

cattle and human population continuously devastated the habitat of the Ethiopian wolf. As a 

result, according to 75% of sample HHs report the Ethiopian wolf number at Mt. Abune Yoseph 

decreased (Table 20). 

The reason forwarded (Table 16) by the sample HHs for wolf decrease in Mt. Abune Yoseph 

were migration of Ethiopian wolf to the areas where the human activity is less, human-livestock 

encroachment to the ecosystem, drought due to deforestation and the competition between the 

Ethiopian wolf and common jackal have shown clearly the human livestock interference impact 

on the ecosystem and the resulted conflict with wildlife. 

Table 16: Reasons for change in wolf number trend at Mt. Abune Yoseph (n=120) 

snoRaeR Number % 

Increased since protected 16 13.3 

Increased since personal or dog disturbance is forbidden 14 11.7 

Decreased by draught due to deforestation 21 17.5 

Decreased due to migration 26 21.7 

Decreased due to encroachment 22 18.5 

Decreased due to competition with common jackal 37 7121 

Total 120 100 

In Mt. Abune Yoseph Afro-alpine ecosystem grazing competition between livestock and gelada 

baboon which leads to overgrazing is also a common phenomenon (personal observation). 

49

Fire wood collection was another type of community activity which has a detrimental impact in 

the study area. The community living around the Mt. Abune Yoseph Afro-alpine ecosystem used 

different types of Afro-alpine plant species from the ecosystem for firewood (Figure 6). Fifty 

seven percent sample HHs report Cherenfe (Euryphos pinifolius), Asta (Erica arborea) and 

Amija (Hyphericum revolutum) were dominant species used for firewood in the area while the 

rest 43% respondents reported Cherenfe, Asta and Gebera (Lobelia rhynchopetalum) were the 

most common. Similarly, many (64.5%) respondents indicated that they collect shrubby 

vegetation in Menz-Guassa for firewood. The most commonly collected plant species in Guassa 

was Cherenfe (E. pinifolius). Other species including: Erica or Asta, (E. arborea); Nechilo (H. 

splendidum); St.John‟s wort or Ameja (H. revolutum); and, dry giant Lobelia or Gebera (L. 

rhynchopetalum) are also collected (Ashenafi, 2001). In our study Most (63.3%) of the 

respondents mentioned the reason why these plant species preferred was, since these were the 

only growing plant species in the area where as 36.7% explained these species since they are the 

highly flammable firewood species in the ecosystem. Such uncontrolled firewood exploitation 

throughout the year had a great impact on the quality of habitats for rodent species, which are the 

prime diet of the Ethiopian wolf. 

In addition, from discussion with key informants, this firewood collection activity has resulted in 

ecosystem degradation due to extreme erosion and gully formation. In turn due to erosion, the 

land fertility around the ecosystem has been decreasing gradually from year to year, the crop 

production in the area decreasing from time to time and finally framers surrounding the 

ecosystem obliged to push their farm in to the ecosystem to cultivate more land. As a result, 

there were more farmlands inside the Mt. Abune Yoseph Afro-alpine ecosystem and its 

50

surrounding. This has resulted in continuous land clearing leading to habitat fragmentation and 

loss of biodiversity (Figure 7). 

Figure 7: Farming inside Afro-alpine ecosystem by clearing lobelia 

From the community living at the hill foot of Mt. Abune Yoseph 90% of sample HHs report as 

they faced conflict with wildlife (Table 17). Almost similar findings were observed from the 

study conducted in Tanzania on the conflict between wildlife and local people living adjacent to 

protected areas. Over 71% of local people surveyed, reported conflict with wildlife (Newmark et 

al., 1994). 

Table 17: HHs response on whether or not faced wild animal problem 

snRoaeRn Number Percent 

Not faced problem 12 10.0 

Faced problem 108 90.0 

Total 120 100.0 

51

The conflict between wildlife and local people in and around the Mt. Abune Yoseph Afro-alpine 

ecosystem involved livestock predation and crop damage. From those sample HHs who reported 

causes of conflict to wildlife 30.8% reported livestock predation, 9.2% reported crop damage, 

while 50% reported both livestock predation and crop damage (Table 18). 

Based on descriptive statistics and chi-square test the problem caused by wildlife differed 

(P

4.4.2. Human conflict with Ethiopian wolf at Mt. Abune Yoseph 

In Mt. Abune Yoseph Ethiopian wolf (C. simenesis) and common jackal (Canis aureus) was the 

most common sheep predators singled out by the sample HHs. Leopard (Panthera pardus) and 

spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) were also predating sheep in the area (Table 19). 

Table 19: Mean ±SE number of sheep preyed in the last 10 years at Mt. Abune Yoseph (n=120) 

Range Mean ± SE 

Sheep preyed by Ethiopian wolf in 10 years 0-10 4.26±0.357 

Sheep preyed by Common jackal in 10 years 0-15 5.14±0.539 

Sheep preyed by Leopard in 10 years 0-4 0.83±0.137 

Sheep preyed by Spotted hyena in 10 years 0-7 1.15±0.21 

Comparing the most sheep predators of the area 25.8% HHs responded sheep loss due to the 

Ethiopian wolf, 15% lost due to the common jackals, 36.7% lost sheep due to both the Ethiopian 

wolf and/or common jackal and the rest 22.5% HHs reported no sheep loss due to these two 

predators in the last 10 years (Figure 8). Therefore, according to the HHs response both 

Ethiopian wolf and Common jackal are the main sheep predator of the area. 

53

Sheep predators 

Figure 8: HHs response on sheep predators at Mt. Abune Yoseph for the last 10 years 

Most HHs responded Ethiopian wolf was the main sheep predator of the area when compared 

with Common jackal in the last 10 years (Figure 8). The same result was reported by (Marino, 

2003) in that since the communities have lost many animals, they perceived Ethiopian wolves as 

the main predators of livestock in North Wollo highlands. Even though more HHs blamed 

Ethiopian wolf as a major sheep predator in their response illustrated in Figure 8, the number of 

sheep killed in the indicated years showed more sheep was preyed by Common jackal than 

Ethiopian wolf (Table 19). This is due to Ethiopian wolf attack less sheep number from most 

HHs where as Common jackal killed more sheep number from less HHs. Similar result was 

observed by (Marino, 2003) in SMNP, cases of livestock losses to Ethiopian wolves were 

reported, but common jackal (C. aureus) were indicated to be the main predator. 

54

Based on HHs response, on predation rate of Ethiopian wolf, Common jackal and both, the 

present finding differ from previous works conducted in Menz by Ashenafi (2001) and around 

SMNP by Messele (2006). According to Ashenafi‟s finding only 14.5% of Menz-Guassa sample 

community reported sheep loss to the Ethiopian wolf and 40.3% to Common jackal. Where as 

according to Messele‟s study only 18.3% of Simen sample community reported sheep loss to the 

Ethiopian wolf and 8% to both the Ethiopian wolf and Common jackal. But in present study 

most sample HHs from Mt. Abune Yoseph explained as they lost more sheep by both (Ethiopian 

wolf and Common jackal) and Ethiopian wolf alone respectively (Figure 8). This difference 

might be associated with lack of comparing the degree of sheep loss within 10 years at Mt. 

Abune Yoseph by sample HHs between common sheep predator or due to minimized livestock 

encroachment to the wolf habitats in Simen (protected as National Park) and Guassa protected 

for more than hundred years by Qero system of Menz community and still managed by 

committee of community (Ashenafi, 2001, and Ashenafi et al., 2005). In the same study Messele 

(2006) mentioned the reason for the less number of sheep loss to the Ethiopian wolf in SMNP is 

that the distribution of the Ethiopian wolf is very limited in contrast to the Common jackal. At 

the same time, its habitat is far from the human settlement area. However, Messele also reported 

in his finding humans attack the Ethiopian wolf in some parts of the study area. 

4.5. Ecological assessment of Mt. Abune Yoseph Afro-alpine ecosystem 

4.5.1. Households response on Ethiopian wolf presence/ absence 

All HHs (100%) without any difference responded as they observed wolf at Mt. Abune Yoseph 

before and had enough knowledge about it (Table 20). 

55

Table 20: HHs response on wolf observation, observation time and trend at Mt. Abune Yoseph 

Response Number % 

HHs seen wolf at Mt. Abune Yoseph 120 100 

Wolf observation time at Mt. Abune Yoseph Dawn 49 40.8 

Dawn & dusk 71 59.2 

Wolf trend at Mt. Abune Yoseph Increasing 30 25 

Decreasing 90 75 

Each sample HH had seen Ethiopian wolf in a mean number of 6 ± 0.7 times in the last 12 

months and 13 ±1.7 times in the last 5 years (Table 21). Most 59.2% of respondents observed 

Ethiopian wolf at dawn and dusk while 40.8% of sample HHs observed only during dawn time at 

Mt. Abune Yoseph (Table 20). The large mean number of Ethiopian wolves seen at once in Mt. 

Abune Yoseph by respondents was 4±0.2 (Table 21). 

Table 21: HHs wolf observation frequency, wolf seen at once and wolf estimation at Mt. Abune 

Yoseph (n =120) 

Range Mean ±SE 

Ethiopian wolf observation frequency in the last 12 months 0-60 6.01±0.670 

Ethiopian wolf observation frequency in the last 5 years 1-150 12.96±1.703 

Large number of wolf seen by HHs at once in Abune Yoseph 1-12 4.20±0.209 

HHs estimate number of Ethiopian wolf at Abune Yoseph 1-60 18.93±1.225 

Most (75%) HHs reported the wolf number was decreased in comparison with the past times; in 

the contrary 25 % HHs reported as the wolf number increased in Mt. Abune Yoseph (Table 20). 

Opposite result was reported by (Marino, 2003) many respondents (80%) at that time believed 

that wolves were recovering from past persecution in North Wollo highlands. This might be 

considered from persecution to wolves by dog and local community rather than relating the trend 

with its habitat loss, because in our study the few respondents that supported the increasing trend 

56

of Ethiopian wolf in Mt. Abune Yoseph gave absence of wolf persecution from local people and 

dogs as reason, i.e. protection of the ecosystem by the guard and the restriction law by the local 

authority on farmers and herders not to let in with dogs into the ecosystem were mentioned for 

wolf increasing trend as reason (Table 16). 

Based on sample HH‟s estimate the current time Ethiopian wolf number at Mt. Abune Yoseph 

was analyzed with descriptive statistics and gave mean number of 18.9 ±1.3 wolves (Table 21). 

These numbers are consistent with recent estimations (Sillero-Zubri et al., 2000; Marino, 2003) 

that suggest an amount of wolves ranging between 19 and 23 for the three massifs of North 

Wollo with wolf‟s presence (Mt. Abune Yoseph, Mt.Abohoy Gara and Delanta) totaling 140 km 2 

of available habitat. 

In descriptive statistics with cross tabulation chi-square test indicated the presence of significant 

difference(X 2 =33.5, df =21, P

time on wolf number enabled the HHs to estimate the nearest wolf number during the interview. 

There was also a difference (X 2 =773.9, df =714, P0.05) between HHs based on sample villages, age, marital 

status, length of living years, distance, land ownership status and land size in wolf number 

estimation between HHs at Mt. Abune Yoseph. 

4.5.2. Determination of wolf distribution by rodent burrow 

In this study one way analysis of variance showed slope has significant effect (P

40 

35 

30 

Rodent burrow 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

-5 

flat moderate steep 

S 

All Pairs 

Tukey-Kramer 

0.05 

Figure 9: One way Analysis of Rodent burrows by Slope 

Table 22: Analysis of rodent burrows by slope and mean comparison using Tukey-Kramer HSD 

Source DF Sum of 

Squares 

Mean 

Square 

F Ratio P-value Comparisons for all pairs 

using Tukey-Kramer HSD 

Levels* 

Mean 

Slope 2 162.62 81.31 3.2244 0.0437 Flat A 4241 

Error 107 2698.15 25.22 eafneoon A B 3223 

C. Total 109 2860.76 steep B 7274 

*Levels not connected by the same letter are significantly different 

There was a significant linear association (P

Table 23: Bivariate fit analysis of rodent burrow by altitude 

Factor Estimate Std Error t Ratio P-value 

Intercept -97.82648 19.36096 -5.05 0.0001 

Alt 0.0253655 0.00489 5.19 0.0001 

R Square 0.199464 

Observations ( Sum Wgts) 771 

Afro-alpine plant height showed significant effect (P

Table 24: Analysis of rodent burrow by vegetation height and mean comparison using Tukey- 

Kramer HSD 


Squares 

Mean 

Square 

F Ratio P-value Comparisons for all pairs 


lnvnl * 

enoe 

Vegetation 3 390.8559 130.285 5.5914 0.0013 0-10 cm A 5.00 

height 

Error 106 2469.9078 23.301 11-30 cm A B 1.47 

C. Total 109 2860.7636 31-50 cm B 1.31 

>50 cm B 0.58 


Figure 11: Short Afro-alpine vegetation (E. pinifolius) with rodent burrow from Mt. Abune 

Yoseph 

Afro-alpine vegetation cover did not show significant effect (P> 0.05) in determining rodent 

burrow distribution at Mt. Abune Yoseph (Table 25). This is different from the literature section 

61

in 2.2.2; this difference could be due to different rodent communities from other Afro-alpine 

ecosystem such as from Bale or due to high impact by livestock at Mt. Abune Yoseph. 

Table 25: Analysis of rodent burrow by vegetation cover and means of rodent burrow at each 

level of vegetation cover 

Source DF Sum of Mean F P-value Mean for one way ANOVA 

Squares Square Ratio 

Level* N Mean SDerror 

Vegetation cover 3 38.86 12.95 0.4866 0.6923 26-50% 17 2.53 1.2514 

Error 106 2821.90 26.62 5-25% 11 3.91 1.5557 

C. Total 109 2860.76 51-75% 45 2.00 0.7692 

76-100% 37 2.92 0.8482 

4.5.3. Determination of Ethiopian wolf abundance by sighting at Mt. Abune 

Yoseph 

The one month sighting of Ethiopian wolf at Mt. Abune Yoseph was used to estimate the current 

status of Ethiopian wolf and also proved the result of habitat assessment transect with similar 

analysis using one way ANOVA and bivariate analysis with the same explanatory variable 

Altitude, slope, vegetation height. 

Bivariate analysis showed the presence of significant linear relation (P

observed in the Afro-alpine belt on 13 different days during the visits to this habitat from 1998 to 

2002. On November 30 th 2002 they counted four different individuals, three in the Reem Gedel 

plateau and another one in a valley east of Reem Gedel. They were seen walking and resting in 

open moorlands and grasslands of the massif, mainly in the Reem Gedel plateau (between 3,950 

and 4,150 m a.s.l.). 

Table 26: Bivariate analysis of wolf sighting by altitude 

Term Estimate SDError t Ratio P-value 

Intercept -18.14916 6.529746 -2.78 0.0096 

Altitude 0.0048631 0.001638 2.97 0.0061 

R square 0.239464 

Observations ( Sum Wgts) 21 

There was also a significant difference (P

Table 27: Analysis of wolf sighting by slope and mean comparisons using Tukey-Kramer HSD 

Source 

DF 

Sum of 

Squares 

Mean 

Square 

F Ratio P-value Comparisons for all 

pairs using Tukey-Kramer HSD 

Levels* 

Mean 

Slope 2 5.966667 2.98333 3.7640 0.0361 flat A 1.53 

Error 27 21.400000 0.79259 moderate A B 1.17 

C. Total 29 27.366667 steep B 0.00 


Afro-alpine vegetation height also showed significant effect (P50 cm 

vegetation Height 

All Pairs 

Tukey-Kramer 

0.05 

Figure 13: One way analysis of wolf sighting by vegetation height 

64

Table 28: Analysis of wolf sighting by vegetation height and mean comparisons using Tukey- 

Kramer HSD 


Squares 

Mean 

Square 

F 

Ratio 

P-value Comparisons for all pairs 


lnvnl * 

Mean 

Vegetation height 3 8.816667 2.93889 4.1192 0.0162 0-10 cm A 1.90 

Error 26 18.550000 0.71346 11-30 cm A B 1.10 

C. Total 29 27.366667 31-50 cm B 1.00 

>50 cm B 0.25 


In this study similar parameters altitude, slope and vegetation height determined rodent burrow 

distribution and actual wolf sighting across Mt. Abune Yoseph Afro-alpine ecosystem. 

65

Chapter V: Conclusion and Recommendations 

5.1. Conclusion 

This study was designed to develop an understanding of the existing community management and 

status of Mt. Abune Yoseph Afro-alpine ecosystem by taking Ethiopian wolf as a flagship species 

of the ecosystem. Accordingly, efforts have been made to explore socio-economic and natural 

resources assessment of the mountain for the improvement of user community livelihood, their 

perception towards its management and its endemic wild (Ethiopian wolf) as well as tried to show 

the human- livestock interference impact and the resulting conflict with wolf in the ecosystem. 

The methods employed, which consist of socio-economic interview, ecologic survey and discussions 

with key informants were useful in addressing the aims and leading to the following conclusions. 

The results of this study clearly showed Mt. Abune Yoseph Afro-alpine ecosystem provide essential 

ecosystem economic goods and services vitally important for the livelihoods of local communities 

within the limit of sustainability. Due to this fact, majority of the local community had positive 

perception towards the ecosystem and its flagship species the Ethiopian wolf. A good or positive 

perception towards communal Afro-alpine ecosystem helps to protect or conserve its resources 

from the increased human and livestock interference impact by designing sustainable ecosystem 

management together with community which can avoid the existing human-wildlife conflict 

particularly human-wolf conflict in the area. 

Currently, tremendous pressure of the swelling human and livestock population expressed 

through unsustainable resource exploitation from the ecosystem in the form of long time grazing, 

frequent firewood collection and agricultural encroachment leads to erosion, gulley formation 

66

and low productivity that ends in resource depletion and habitat fragmentation causing 

decreasing trend of Ethiopian wolf at Mt. Abune Yoseph. However, the presence of 19 wolves 

according to local community estimation and well distribution of rodent burrow observed in 

habitat assessment transect along with good opportunity of seeing up to 3 wolves at once during 

wolf sighting as well as an exhausted natural resources exploitation from the ecosystem indicate 

the existing status and socio economic potential of Mt. Abune Yoseph Afro-alpine ecosystem. 

5.2. Recommendations 

Global warming and the increased human and livestock population pose their pressure on Afroalpine 

ecosystems during the last decades and result in the confinement of this ecosystem to the 

highest mountain above 3200 m a.s.l. But nowadays in Ethiopia land above 3000 m a.s.l. has 

been converted rapidly to farmland. Areas previously considered too cold for agriculture and too 

inhospitable for habituation even though ends in failure today all are farmlands and settlement 

areas. 

In Mt. Abune Yoseph, cereals are cultivated even higher, with land ploughed above 3,600 m. 

Much of the Afro-alpine habitat has already disappeared. Nowadays, the line of 3,700 m a.s.l. 

contains the overall Afro-alpine ecosystem of the Abune Yoseph massif, and only a few small 

degraded patches of this ecosystem remain below this altitude. 

As the results of this study indicated the most exceptional resource values of this ecosystem 

which together give the area its conservation significance, the rare, endemic and endangered 

species of flora and fauna as well as the cultural and economic benefits fetched by the local and 

downstream users from the ecosystem are in a great danger of extinction. To cut this scenario the 

following recommendations are given based on the research findings. 

67

Since the attitude and action of human towards something can be shaped by 

understanding and knowledge great attention should have to be given for education and 

awareness creation starting from the local farmers, school children up to local, regional, 

and national leaders in order to discharge their conservation responsibility for Mt. Abune 

Yoseph Afro-alpine ecosystem protection. 

According to this study poor HHs that are landless, proximate to the ecosystem and none 

or less number livestock owners showed negative attitude towards Mt.AbuneYoseph 

Afro-alpine ecosystem conservation due to economic reason to exploit the resource of the 

ecosystem freely in unsustainable way. So in order to reduce the pressure on natural 

resources by this part of the community, it has paramount importance to create an activity 

that diversifies the livelihood of the local poor community. In this regard using the 

location advantage of Mt. Abune Yoseph existing near to Lalibela, the city that holds one 

of Ethiopia‟s top attractions: the rock-hewn churches which are considered the greatest 

historical sites of the Christian world, development of eco-tourism for Mt.AbuneYoseph 

will be a good opportunity. According to the city tourism office, in Lalibela tourism is 

already developed and visited by 10,000-20,000 tourists yearly by using the comfortable 

plane of Ethiopian air lines and car trip that give chance to see large part of the country. 

Therefore in Mt. Abune Yoseph using its rare and endemic flag ship species Ethiopian 

wolf, Gelada baboon and birds as well as the scenic attraction of the Afro-alpine 

ecosystem as a comparative advantage nature based tourism is recommended to support 

the ecosystem protection as well as to improve the livelihood of the local poor 

community. 

68

The Lasta woreda administration should have to take the front line with other GO and 

NGO,s to implement conservation based development that consider Mt. Abune Yoseph 

and Lalibela the natural and cultural heritage as a good opportunity by proposing 

development link between the two hotspots. According to this research finding to reduce 

the livestock and firewood collection burden on the ecosystem and to avoid humanlivestock 

and wildlife conflict happen due to resource competition alternative livestock 

fodder system that avoid free grazing and encourage zero-grazing technology as well as 

ecologically sound, socially acceptable and economically affordable fuel sources such as 

bio-fuel and solar technology side by side planting well identified tree species in terms of 

the area context must be promoted by mobilizing the local community. 

It is also advisable if the future management of Mt. Abune Yoseph Afro-alpine 

ecosystem will be legally recognized community based protected area, in which its 

boundary is clearly known and that has resource management plan developed by the 

involvement of the local community, in order to include their long time custom and 

tradition of sustainable resource protection and utilization and also to encourage the 

development of their own by-law which go hand in hand with the regional land and 

biodiversity management strategy. 

69

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74

Appendix 

1: Interview questionnaire 

Part-1 Questionnaire on socio-Economic survey 

Date of interview ______________________ Enumerator's Name________________________ 

1. Name of household head_______________________________________________________ 

Region________Zone_________Wereda________kebele_________Village ____________ 

2. Age _______ 

3. Sex: Male _______Female_______ 

4. Educational status: 

1. Can‟t read and write 2. Elementary school 

3. High school 4.Vocational 

5. Marital status: 1. Married 2. Single 3. Divorced 4.Widow 

6. Family size____________ 

7. How long have you lived at your current Got (Months/years) ______ 

8. How far is your residence from Mt. Abune Yoseph (in km) _________ 

9. Do you have access to land 1.Yes 2. No 

10. If yes to question 9,what is the size of your land holding by land use type(in timad) 

N0 Land use type Size in Timad *Equivalent size in ha. 

1 Farm land 

2 Woodlot 

3 Grazing land 

4 homested 

5 Other 

Total 

* 1ha.=4 Timad 

11. How many livestock do you own at this time oxen______ cows_____ sheep_______ 

goats_____mules _____horses______donkeys_______ hens‟ _____ Beehives _____ 

12. For how long do you graze at Mt. Abune Yoseph (AY) during dry and wet season 

During dry season for ___________ months. 

75

During wet season for ___________ months. 

13. Does AY bring economic benefits to your household 1. Yes 2. No 

14. Based on question 13, which type of benefit 

1. Household firewood 1.Yes 2. No, if yes, how many loads of fire wood do you collect 

in the last 12months _____________________ 

Market price of firewood per load__________ 

2. Thatching grass 1.Yes 2. No if yes, how many loads of thatching grass do you cut 

in the last 12months _______________________ 

Market price of thatching grass per load________ 

3. Hay 1.Yes 2. No if yes how many loads of hay do you harvest 

in the last 12 months ______________________ 

Market price of hay per load_________________ 

4. Income from tourists 1. Yes 2. No if yes in what type of tourist activity did you 

involved and how much birr did you get from tourism in past years _____ ETB. 

5. Others __________________________________________________________ 

15. What estimated benefits have you made in birr from mt. AY on average in a year _______ 

Part-2 Perception towards Afro-alpine Ecosystem, Wildlife and Wildlife conflict 

16. Is there a need to protect the natural resources of AY Afro-alpine ecosystem 1. Yes 2. No 

17. Who do you think is responsible for the protection of AY Afro-alpine ecosystem 

1. Government 2. Local community 3. NGO 

18. What changes have you observed in the vegetation of AY in the last 20 years Intact / 

improving / degrading / no idea, Why do you think so __________________________ 

19. Are populations of wild animals in AY stable/ increasing/ decreasing / no idea in the last 20 

years Why do you think so ______________________________________________ 

20. Is the conservation of wild animals and plants a good thing 1. Yes 2. No 

Why do you think so ____________________________________________ 

76

21. How do you know the concept of Natural resource conservation 

1. Form training given on NR of AY 

2. through extension education given by DA 

3. By own experience 

4. from formal school 

5. Other sources (specify) __________________________________ 

22. Do you think that the presence of bylaw is important and helped the conservation of 

Mt. AY 

1. Yes 2. No if yes how ____________________________________ 

23. Name wild animals that you know at AY __________________________________ 

____________________________________________________________________ 

24. Do you face problems because of wildlife in your area 1. Yes 2. No 

25. If yes, to question number 24, what are the problems you face 

_________________________________________________________________________ 

_________________________________________________________________________ 

26. Which wild animals are the most problematic in terms of livestock predation at AY 

No Predator Prey Extent (No of animals killed from your herd) 

Last year In last 5 years In last 10 years 

1 

2 

3 

27. What is the trend of livestock predation by wildlife 1. Stable 2. Increasing 3.decreasing 

28. Which wild animals are most problematic in terms of crop damage 

77

No Wild animal Type of crop damaged Extent of damage in the last 12 months 

(H*, M*, L*) 

1 

2 

3 

* H=heavy, M=medium, L=light 

29. What is the tendency of crop damage by wildlife 1. Stable 2. Increasing 3.decreasing 

30. Describe techniques you use to minimize the impacts of livestock predation and crop damage 

______________________________________________________________________________ 

______________________________________________________________________________ 

31. Have you personally seen Ethiopian wolves (EW) in AY 1. Yes 2. No 

32. How many times have you seen EW in the last 12 month‟s ______and past 5 years ______ 

33. What times of the day you are more likely to see EW ______________________ 

34. What is the largest group of EW you have seen in AY ____________ 

35. What do you think about the number of EW in AY 1. Stable 2. Increasing 3. Decreasing 

Explain the reasons for thinking so: ___________________________________________ 

36. How many wolves do you think are present at AY currently ________________________ 

37. Do you think the presence of EW in AY bad for people and their animals 1. Yes 2. No if 

no why ____________________________________________________________ 

38. In your opinion, can wolves live harmoniously in the same area with people 1. Yes 2. No 

39. What is the attitude of local people towards wolves 1. Positive 2. Indifferent 3.negative 

40. Have you ever seen wolves taking any livestock other than sheep and goat 1. Yes 2. No 

Part-3 Sustainable Natural resource utilization and Management 

41. List the dominant tree/ shrub species you use as a fire wood from mt. AY in order of 

importance 1._________________ 2._________________ 3._______________ 

42. Why do you prefer to use the tree/ shrub species mentioned in Q.41 

_____________________________________________________________________ 

43. Do you experience the shortage of fuel wood 1. Yes 2. No 

78

44. If yes to question 43, what mechanism do you use to solve the shortage 

1. Using energy saving stove 2. Using livestock dung 3. Other specify_______ 

45. Do you have your own tree planted at your homestead 1. Yes 2. No 

46. Is there any traditional system established by the community to manage AY 1. Yes 2. No 

if yes, name it _________________________________________________________ 

47. Is there any local bylaw that binds your activity at AY 1. Yes 2. No 

48. Do you know soil and water conservation activities constructed by local community in AY 

1. Yes 2. No if yes, which type 1. Different terraces 2. Planting seedlings 

3. Gully treatment 4. Other specify _____ 

49. Which would be your future choice of management option for natural resources in AY 

Why 

1. If managed as community protected area 2. If divided amongst users 

3. If managed as closure area 4. If managed under investors 

5. if managed as public reserve/ state national park/ 

______________________________________________________________________________ 

______________________________________________________________________________ 

50. Are there any problems in sharing the resources at AY 1. Yes 

2. No if yes, what are those problems 

___________________________________________________________________________ 

___________________________________________________________________________ 

79

2: Contingency tables 

Table 1: Chi-square test of HHs land ownership status and economic resource utilization from 

Mt. Abune Yoseph 

HHs land ownership 

status 

sample HH got economic benefit from Mt. 

Abune Yoseph 

not benefited 

Total 

benefited 

0 16 16 

not own farmland 

own farm land 24 80 104 

Total 24 96 120 

Chi-Square Tests 

Value df 

Asymp. Sig. (2- 

sided) 

Exact Sig. 

(2-sided) 

Exact Sig. 

(1-sided) 

Pearson Chi-Square 4.615(b) 1 .032 

Continuity Correction(a) 3.286 1 .070 

Likelihood Ratio 7.734 1 .005 

Fisher's Exact Test .039 .021 

Linear-by-Linear 

Association 

4.577 1 .032 

N of Valid Cases 120 

Table 2: Chi-square test of HHs sex for wolf number estimation at Mt. Abune Yoseph 

Ethiopian Wolf estimate number at Mt. Abune Yoseph by sample HHs Total 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 15 16 17 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 

sex male 1 0 1 3 4 3 1 5 0 18 1 2 11 4 2 7 8 18 1 4 8 1 103 

female 0 1 2 2 1 2 0 0 1 5 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 17 

Total 1 1 3 5 5 5 1 5 1 23 1 2 12 4 2 8 8 19 1 4 8 1 120 


Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) 

Pearson Chi-Square 33.495(a) 21 .041 


Linear-by-Linear Association 10.329 1 .001 

N of Valid Cases 

120 

80

Table 3: Chi-square test of HHs family size to estimate wolf number at Mt. Abune Yoseph 

family Ethiopian Wolf estimate number at Mt. Abune Yoseph by sample HHs Total 

size 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 15 16 17 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 

2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 

3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 3 0 1 1 1 3 0 0 1 0 11 

4 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 1 3 1 0 0 0 2 0 1 1 0 18 

5 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 5 0 0 1 1 0 2 0 3 0 1 1 1 19 

6 1 1 1 2 0 2 1 0 0 6 0 0 3 0 0 1 2 4 0 1 3 0 28 

7 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 4 0 0 1 1 0 1 2 5 0 0 1 0 18 

8 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 3 0 2 1 1 1 0 0 1 2 1 0 1 1 0 17 

9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 3 

10 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 

Total 1 1 3 5 5 5 1 5 1 23 1 2 12 4 2 8 8 19 1 4 8 1 120 





Linear-by-Linear Association .037 1 .847 


120 

Table 4: Chi-square test of HHs educational status to estimate wolf number at Mt. Abune 

Yoseph 

Educational Ethiopian Wolf estimate number at Mt. Abune Yoseph by sample HHs Total 

status of 

HHs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 15 16 17 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 

illiterate 1 1 3 5 5 4 1 4 1 15 0 0 5 3 0 2 2 7 0 1 3 0 63 

literate 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 8 1 2 7 1 2 6 6 12 1 3 5 1 57 

Total 1 1 3 5 5 5 1 5 1 23 1 2 12 4 2 8 8 19 1 4 8 1 120 







120 

81

Table 5: Chi-square test of HHs based on livestock number to estimate wolf number at Mt. 

Abune Yoseph 

HHs 

livestock 

Ethiopian Wolf estimate number at Mt. Abune Yoseph by sample HHs Total 

number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 15 16 17 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 

0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 

3 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 

4 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 

5 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 3 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 8 

6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 7 

7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 9 

8 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 5 

9 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 2 0 10 

10 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 1 5 

11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 5 

12 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 4 

13 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 5 

14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 5 

15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 

16 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 7 

17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 

19 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 6 

20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 

21 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 6 

22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 

24 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 

25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 

26 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 

27 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 

28 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 

29 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 

31 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 

32 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 

33 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 

34 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 

36 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 

40 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 

42 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 

78 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 

Total 1 1 3 5 5 5 1 5 1 23 1 2 12 4 2 8 8 19 1 4 8 1 120 

82




Likelihood Ratio 322.989 714 1.000 



120 

83

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