Speech, language and communication difficulties: young - Nacro

Speech, language
and communication
difficulties
Young people in trouble with the law
April 2011
Contents
Introduction 1
The impact of speech, language
and communication difficulties 2
Spotting the problem 3
Specific language impairment 3
Learning disability 4
Learning difficulty 4
Speech, language and communication
difficulties 4
The extent of the problem 5
Young people in custody 5
Young people on community orders 5
Engaging with a YOT 6
Developments 9
The Communication Trust 9
Assessing need 9
Speech and language therapy in YOTs 10
Conclusion 10
Introduction
Speech, language and communication difficulties
experienced by young people in trouble with the law
have historically been somewhat overlooked. But in
recent times, a number of research reports and
initiatives have highlighted these difficulties as a
significant area of unmet need, whilst also noting that
they may be more prevalent in the offending population
than the general population. 1
Speech, language and communication difficulties are
not always easily identifiable. Nor are there systematic
processes in the youth justice system for identifying
such problems.
The Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists
is currently conducting a campaign called ‘Locked up
and locked out: communication is the key’ 2 highlighting
the impact of speech, language and communication
difficulties on those who offend. It emphasises the
importance of identifying speech, language and
communication difficulties amongst children and young
people in contact with the youth justice system early
on and addressing them through specialist support to
help prevent further antisocial and offending behaviour.
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London SW8 1UD
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This briefing paper will outline some of the practical
problems surrounding the identification and treatment
of speech, language and communication difficulties in
young people in trouble with the law, consider how
youth offending teams (YOTs) can best support young
people with these needs, as well as take a look at
some new developments in this area.

2 Speech, language and communication difficulties: young people in trouble with the law
The impact of speech, language and
communication difficulties
Young people with speech, language and communication needs have poor conversational
skills, poor non-verbal skills and poor social perception, all of which can hinder their ability to
form friendships with their peers and may lead to them becoming marginalised. 3 Those who
become isolated in this way often experience anxiety and depression which can affect their
mental health. 4 These problems can become exacerbated with age if they remain unidentified
and untreated, and are likely to result in poorer outcomes for the individuals concerned. 5
Speech, language and communication difficulties can erode self-esteem and affect educational
achievement, social integration and general behaviour. 6 In addition, they increase the
probability of offending behaviour and early disengagement from school 7 (children with these
problems are much less likely to continue in education beyond 16 years of age). 8 The Prison
Reform Trust also advises that there is a risk of continued offending behaviour by those with
learning difficulties and learning disabilities where those needs remain unidentified, and
indicate that a lack of support and services could be a contributory factor in reoffending. 9
Whilst not directly focused on those with speech, language and communication needs, Lord
Bradley’s 2009 review of people with learning disabilities and mental health problems in the
criminal justice system stressed the importance of early identification, intervention and support
at various stages in the criminal justice process: arrest and prosecution; appearance in court;
placement on a community order; placement in secure accommodation; and during
resettlement. 10
Once in the youth justice system, young people with speech, language and communication
needs can experience difficulties with processes that require the ability to understand and
process often complex information in stressful circumstances. They need to understand the
processes they are subject to, to be able to communicate proficiently with a wide range of
individuals at different stages and to interact. All of this requires the ability to listen, understand,
process conversation and formulate ideas and experiences into words. 11 Those with speech,
language and communication difficulties are clearly at a disadvantage if they lack the requisite
skills to fully comprehend what is happening or to express themselves clearly. Research by
Humber and Snow has found that amongst those with speech, language and communication
difficulties, the ability to provide narrative information in a logical and sequential manner was
frequently lacking – skills that are required particularly in police interviews and court
processes. This inability can also make young people more vulnerable because their level of
engagement may be misinterpreted as boredom, evasion or resistance and general lack of
co-operation when, in fact, the opposite may be true. 12 Additionally, young people can become
proficient in covering up their speech, language and communication problems by avoiding
engagement or being disruptive since this serves to distract attention from their difficulties. 13
Speech, language and communication problems can also mean that young people are unable
to grasp the jargon, abstract language and complex terminology frequently used by
professionals in a variety of criminal justice settings. Bradford YOT carried out some research

Speech, language and communication difficulties: young people in trouble with the law 3
in which a group of young people were asked to discuss 37 words they were likely to hear in
court. The results showed poor recognition and explanation of commonly used words like
‘offence’, ‘comply’, ‘breach’, ‘conviction’, ‘alleged’ and ‘magistrate’, and all of the young people
indicated that they struggled to understand language in court. Crawford and Bull advise that
a language comprehension assessment is vital – not just for witnesses but also for young
defendants – to gauge what they know and understand about court and the words used
since lack of comprehension can acutely affect outcomes, a finding of guilt or innocence,
and the sentence received. 14
Whilst the research cited above relates to court vocabulary, the words described are not
significantly different from those which may be used at a police station or when engaging with
a young person in a YOT or in the secure estate. If young people are unable to comprehend
and respond to information which is being provided to them or requested of them, this could
lead to criminal justice outcomes which are more negative than might otherwise be the case.
Spotting the problem
Speech, language and communication difficulties are not always easily identifiable. Firstly,
they can masquerade as other conditions. Those with comprehension and personal
expression difficulties can develop behavioural issues because of a sense of frustration at
being unable to express themselves clearly or to be properly understood (particularly where
their difficulties are hidden or unidentified). Consequently, communication problems are
sometimes interpreted as behavioural problems when they are not. 15 Secondly,
communication difficulties are sometimes grouped together with learning difficulties and,
whilst they can sometimes be associated, speech, language and communication problems
are not necessarily indicative of a learning difficulty or learning disability. 16
Given the confusion that exists in this area it may be instructive to briefly examine what the
terms ‘specific language impairment’, ‘learning disability’ and ‘learning difficulty’ encompass
in order to gain an understanding of how they differ from speech, language and
communication difficulties.
Specific language impairment
A specific language impairment is, according to the definition from I CAN, 17 a language
difficulty that is not caused by ‘any known neurological, sensory, intellectual or emotional deficit.
It can affect the development of any aspect of language, eg, vocabulary, grammar and
discourse skills’. It is described as a very broad category, with some children and young
people having mild and transient expressive problems and others having severe and
persistent difficulties with both receptive and expressive language. Stammering, for example,
is a specific language impairment. Specific language impairments should be distinguished
from other speech, language and communication needs which are reflected in poor speech
and language skills (compared to other children of the same age) and which can be
addressed with the right support. I CAN also advises that speech, language and
communication difficulties can relate to (or emerge from) other underlying impairments such
as a hearing impairment, general learning difficulties or autistic spectrum disorders.

4 Speech, language and communication difficulties: young people in trouble with the law
Learning disability
The British Institute of Learning Disabilities refers to the World Health Organisation’s
definition of a learning disability as ‘a state of arrested or incomplete development of mind’,
adding that someone with a learning difficulty can have ‘significant impairment of adaptive/
social functioning’. 18 The British Psychological Society identifies that there are three core
criteria which must be met before a person will be considered to have a learning disability: 19
• Significant impairment of intellectual functioning (the ability to understand new or
complex information).
• Significant impairment of adaptive/social functioning.
• Onset before adulthood (ie, problems are not acquired with maturity).
Research undertaken by the Prison Reform Trust advises that a learning disability is defined
in diagnostic terms as an IQ below 70. 20 Those with a learning disability will have problems
processing verbal and non-verbal information. This can be apparent in difficulties in
understanding, learning and remembering new things, and adapting learning to new situations.
Learning difficulty
It should be noted that there is no single definition of a learning difficulty, but problems may
be evident in an inability to learn, to get on with others or to follow rules. 21 Dyslexia, for
example, is a learning difficulty.
Speech, language and communication difficulties
According to the Bercow report, speech, language and communication needs ‘encompass a
wide range of difficulties related to all aspects of communication in children and young
people. They can include difficulties with fluency, forming sounds and words, formulating
sentences, understanding what others say and using language socially.’ 22
Problems in speech, language and communication may not become apparent until a young
person falls behind his or her peers in language development, 23 but these problems are not
always picked up in school and may be even more difficult to identify if the young person
disengages from school. The Communication Trust advises that young people’s needs may
be evident if they are manifesting any of the following: difficulties conversing with others;
being unable to say what they want; having difficulty processing what is being said to them;
or not understanding social rules. 24 They may also show signs of poor social and
conversational skills, poor organisational skills, unclear speech, poor language skills, a lack
of understanding, poor number skills, and poor reading and writing skills. The Royal College
of Speech and Language Therapists’ briefing, Speaking Out, indicates that young people
with communication difficulties have problems with the following key competencies: 25
• Articulation: the ability for an individual to express himself or herself effectively through
speaking, writing or non-verbal communication.
• Perception: being able to recognise and understand the spoken or written word, body
language and facial expressions.
• Listening skills: the ability to listen carefully to what is being said.

Speech, language and communication difficulties: young people in trouble with the law 5
• Recall: being capable of remembering information that has previously been given.
• Expression: being competent at expressing feelings and emotions in an acceptable manner.
• Interaction: the capacity to relate to others in a socially acceptable manner plays a pivotal
role in promoting social integration.
The extent of the problem
There does not appear to be a commonly agreed figure of the percentage of the general
population with speech, language and communication needs. 26 Equally, the exact proportion
of young people with speech, language and communication difficulties in England and Wales
in contact with the criminal justice system is unknown. An evaluation of the YOT assessment
tool, Asset, indicated that of 3,395 young people in contact with youth justice teams, a
quarter had special needs (with just over 60% of these in possession of a statement of
educational need), 27% had literacy and numeracy needs, 26% had unspecified problems
and 42% showed indications of under-achievement. 27 Any of these factors could be
indicative of an unidentified speech, language and communication need.
Most studies conducted to date have been small-scale so it is difficult to establish if they
over or underestimate the extent of the problem, although the consensus appears to be that
the prevalence of speech, language and communication difficulties amongst the offending
population is significantly greater than amongst the general population.
Young people in custody
A 2007 study into the prevalence of speech, language and communication difficulties amongst
young people in secure accommodation found that over two thirds had below average
language skills, and 33% had poor literacy skills and were not able to read to a standard
appropriate for their age. 28 The study found that because their grasp of vocabulary and grammar
was more limited than that of the typical adolescent population, they may not have been able
to cope with ‘verbally mediated interventions’ aimed at reducing their likelihood of reoffending.
Whilst the Youth Justice Board (YJB) has not specifically commissioned research into this
area, there is some resonance between the aforementioned study and research the YJB
conducted into the mental health needs of young people in custody and the community in
2005. 29 Three hundred and one young people were interviewed – 151 in secure facilities and
150 in the community. Of these, 23% were described as meeting the criteria for a learning
disability (as they had an IQ of less than 70) whilst a third of the study sample had borderline
learning difficulties. Three quarters of the young people in the study had been temporarily or
permanently excluded from school and over three quarters had a reading age and reading
comprehension age below their chronological age and well below the mean chronological
age of the population sampled (16 years old). 30 Problems in relationships with family and
peers were also appreciably evident.
Young people on community orders
Bradford YOT conducted research to identify young people with communication needs on a
six-month pilot project for whom a speech and language assessment could be carried out. It

6 Speech, language and communication difficulties: young people in trouble with the law
estimated that 40-60% of the project caseload had communication difficulties, using the
following criteria to identify communication needs: poor communication skills; limited
vocabulary; lack of understanding of the work undertaken; not benefiting from the work
undertaken; difficulties with anger management; poor educational attainment (particularly in
relation to literacy); and difficulty relating to adults. The research found that 14 of the 19
young people were below the average age of development compared to their peers, with
42% of them rated as having severe communication difficulties. 31
In 2008, Leeds YOT screened 72 young people subject to intensive supervision and
surveillance programmes for language and communication problems with the support of a
speech and language therapist. 32 Screening included self-assessment by the young person,
verbal reasoning and a narrative skills task. Where there was evidence of difficulties, further
assessments were then undertaken (eg, understanding of spoken paragraphs, word
associations and sentence formulation). Of the young people screened: 65% received some
form of language and communication intervention; 20% had very low understanding of
verbally presented information; 18% had limited vocabulary and/or word retrieval difficulties;
and over 77% had social skills difficulties that were noticeable to staff. The majority had
difficulties in more than one area and although the young people often reported that they
found concentrating on spoken information and/or explaining events difficult, they did not
tend to consider that they had communication problems. Notably, only 8% had had any
previous contact with speech and language therapy.
Engaging with a YOT
It is vital that a young person under YOT supervision is able to understand what is happening
to them and what is required of them. They need to be able to grasp the requirements of any
statutory order and any conditions that are imposed with it. They need to understand they
will be required to meet and work with a range of individuals delivering different interventions.
In addition, they will need to attend appointments at pre-arranged times and provide a range
of information about the offence and their personal histories for assessments and progress
reviews. They may also be required to read and understand information relating to some or
all of the above and to take part in activities and programmes – either alone or with others.
When a young person is referred to a YOT, an assessment is carried out using Asset to screen
for any risk factors for antisocial and offending behaviour. The assessment process should
provide YOT workers with a good understanding of the individual’s needs so they can work
with them in the most effective way to address their offending behaviour. However, the ability
of YOTs to assess and support young people with speech, language and communication
difficulties is hindered by the fact that staff have generally not had the appropriate training to
identify or work with those with these difficulties. Whilst there are local initiatives in some
areas, there is currently no systematic national means of assessing people with speech,
language and communication difficulties at the start of their contact with a YOT.
YOT staff typically use a variety of oral and written interventions (frequently involving
exercises and activities) to help young people explore their experiences, their ability to think

Speech, language and communication difficulties: young people in trouble with the law 7
about the consequences of their actions and to avoid or adjust certain behaviour patterns in
the future. For this engagement to be meaningful and participatory, YOT workers must have
the necessary knowledge and resources to be able to identify and respond to problems
correctly, as well as be aware of other pathways to support and assistance.
Given that there is no standard and comprehensive national tool in place to assess needs in
this area, speech, language and communication problems can be misinterpreted by YOT
workers as other difficulties or as a lack of co-operation. Lack of awareness may also mean
that young people are not worked with in a way that is most appropriate to their personal
capabilities. This can have two effects: it can result in staff having lower expectations of what
an individual can achieve; and it may also lead to the young person having additional
difficulties in responding to interventions or adhering to orders. And this can affect outcomes.
The Bercow report described difficulties in responding to interventions as being ‘sufficient to
affect their ability to communicate with staff on a day-to-day basis, to prevent them from
benefiting from verbally mediated interventions, such as education and offender behaviour
work and, if not addressed, to contribute to reoffending’. 33
Humber and Snow suggest that successful participation in interventions and programmes is
reliant on language skills which include listening and understanding, finding non-literal
meanings, processing conversation, formulating one’s own ideas and experiences into
words, and the ability to participate in group and individual sessions. 34 They advise that the
effectiveness of interventions will be significantly limited for those who have inadequate
receptive and/or language skills. Programmes, interactions and interventions need to be
carefully developed and delivered, with literacy, writing, speaking and listening demands set
at the right level. This problem is not confined to the youth justice system. Research on
general offending behaviour programmes for adults reached a similar conclusion. 35
YOT practitioners must ensure that young people have fully understood the requirements of
the statutory order and that they have the necessary information to carry out the order. 36
There is evidence that children and young people who have been subject to enforcement
procedures may have struggled to comply because of a lack of comprehension about
expectations. 37 Even when adults think they have explained the expectations of orders and
the consequences of not complying, the message has not necessarily been understood.
National Standards for Youth Justice Services states that every effort should also be made to
support the young person to successfully complete the order, 38 which suggests that the
requirement is not just to provide information but also to take steps to check that it has been
understood. This applies to written as well as verbal information. 39
A 2010 thematic inspection of youth alcohol misuse and offending highlighted the variation
amongst YOTs in relation to how they assess communication difficulties and noted that there
tended to be an assumption that any specific needs in this area would previously have been
picked up in an educational setting. 40 Crossing the Communication Divide: A toolkit for prison
and probation staff working with offenders who experience communication difficulties lists a
number of factors which may indicate that someone has a communication problem meriting
further investigation as follows: 41

8 Speech, language and communication difficulties: young people in trouble with the law
• Difficulty coping at school.
• Poor achievement at school.
• Attendance at any sort of special school.
• Difficulty managing processes such as housing and benefits.
• Not understanding court or probation processes.
• Avoidance of situations that require communication, such as attendance at support groups.
• Difficulty in providing information even when the other person present is clearly there to help.
The toolkit provides some basic guidance which might help YOT staff to identify particular
difficulties, as well as information on how to communicate more effectively with the young
person concerned and considerations for making written information more accessible. Basic
strategies should include checking the young person’s level of understanding by asking the
same question in different ways and allowing young people plenty of time to respond when
being interviewed or in the course of general discussion. Another useful technique staff can
adopt is to simplify the language they use as far as possible using open-ended questions and
grammatically simple sentences. The Communication Trust suggests that workers delivering
youth justice services can positively interact with a young person with speech and language
difficulties by concentrating on the following:
• Giving the young person extra time to listen to and understand what is being said.
• Asking what would assist them in promoting their understanding.
• Emphasising specific words that they should focus on.
• Ensuring that the young person gives their own explanation of what has been said to verify
whether they fully understand what is expected from them.
• Giving the young person reminders of any future appointments.
• Flagging anything the young person has said which the staff member does not understand.
• Providing the young person with a brief overview before providing them with a more indepth
explanation.
• Providing them with a wide variety of activities to encourage their engagement.
• Providing them with positive encouragement and feedback.
• Simplifying written materials using clear writing and understandable terminology.
• Speaking at a slower speed to facilitate their listening to what is being communicated.
• Using short sentences with appropriate pauses to allow them to process new information.
• Using uncomplicated language that the young person is familiar with.
• Using visual tools to encourage their understanding.

Speech, language and communication difficulties: young people in trouble with the law 9
Developments
A number of initiatives have emerged which attempt to address some of the youth justice
system’s issues in dealing with young people’s speech, language and communication
difficulties. Some of these are briefly described below.
The Communication Trust
The Communication Trust has been working with the YJB to increase the level of understanding
of the importance of young people’s communication needs amongst the youth justice
workforce, to improve skills and confidence within the sector, and to provide appropriate
training. Its training materials are designed to help practitioners identify the links between a
variety of communication needs including: dyslexia; dyspraxia; speech, language and
communication needs; autism spectrum disorder; and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
As part of this awareness raising, a free guide has been produced called Sentence Trouble
for individuals working in YOTs, secure children’s homes, secure training centres and young
offender institutions. 42 There is also a Sentence Trouble website which builds on this booklet
and provides a forum for youth justice practitioners to share ideas and practice in relation to
this area. 43
Assessing need
The Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists has long advocated that appropriate
screening, assessment and interventions be made available to children and young people in
the youth justice system. They are now launching a free e-learning tool called The Box:
What’s it like to be inside which will be available to professionals in the justice system. 44
As indicated earlier, the assessment by Asset that takes place when a young person is
referred to a YOT is not designed to assess speech and language needs and, as such, does
not have specific questions or a section that address this area. However, an assessment tool
called the Oracy Profile has now been developed by Wrexham Youth Justice Service and the
Education Learning and Achievement Department of Wrexham County Borough Council
which seeks to identify any unrecognised communication difficulties. It is designed to raise
awareness amongst staff of such problems, help them tailor their approaches to meet young
people’s needs and improve the effectiveness of interventions with those experiencing
communication difficulties. In addition to the Oracy Profile, Wrexham Youth Justice Service
has also developed a number of tailored interventions to help staff work with young people in
the most appropriate way, according to their needs.
Afasic is a UK charity which supports children and young people with speech, language and
communication needs, as well as their parents. It has developed a checklist of indicators for
non-specialist staff, including those working in the youth justice system, to help them identify
young people with speech, language and communication needs. In addition, it suggests a
number of possible causes of problems and strategies for addressing them.

10 Speech, language and communication difficulties: young people in trouble with the law
Speech and language therapy in YOTs
Only a relatively small number of YOTs have had speech and language therapists seconded
to their teams to date. One example is Leeds YOT which had a therapist providing support to
young people subject to intensive supervision and surveillance programmes. The therapist’s
role was to identify any speech, language and communication difficulties amongst the young
people, plan and co-ordinate appropriate interventions, support staff to become more aware
and confident in dealing with affected young people and to evaluate any changes in their
language and communication skills following the intervention. The evaluation found that,
following a speech and language intervention, 75% of those completing the programme had
made a significant improvement in every communication area targeted and 88% had made
significant progress in their ability to understand sentence formulation and in word
association tasks. Leeds YOT staff are convinced of the value therapy adds and have
recommended that a therapist role becomes an integral post in their team.
Conclusion
Raising awareness of the speech, language and communication problems that some young
people in trouble with the law experience is an important first step in starting to identify how
best to respond. The indications are that a significant number have speech, language and
communication problems which have not been officially identified and which could be
impacting on their behaviour and personal and social development. Although the number of
studies undertaken to date appear to be small-scale, they also demonstrate that this is an
area of unmet need.
There are a number of useful resources available which can assist workers delivering youth
justice services to young people. Further clarification on screening and assessment
methodologies would also be useful, as would training that improves knowledge and
understanding amongst youth justice practitioners. However, this would need to be supported
by the expertise of appropriate agencies, which would require a commitment from lead justice
agencies, a greater commitment from health and education services, as well as the
involvement of speech and language services.

Speech, language and communication difficulties: young people in trouble with the law 11
References
1 Talbot J (2010) Seen and Heard: Supporting vulnerable children in the youth justice system London: Prison Reform
Trust
2 See www.rcslt.org/about/campaigns/Criminal_justice_campaign_briefing (accessed 12 December 2010).
3 Conti-Ramsden G, Botting N (2004) ‘Social difficulties and victimisation in children with SLI at 11 years of age’
Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research vol 47 pp.145-161
4 Linares-Orama N (2005) ‘Language-learning disorders and youth incarceration’ Journal of Communication
Disorders vol 38 pp.311-319
5 Lewis B (2007) Short and Long Term Outcomes for Children with Speech Sound Disorders available at
www.literacyencyclopedia.ca/pdfs/Short-_and_Long-term_Outcomes_for_Children_with_Speech_Sound_
Disorders.pdf (accessed 12 December 2010)
6 Lindsay G, Dockrell J, Strand S (2007) ‘Longitudinal patterns of behaviour problems in children with specific
speech and language difficulties: child and contextual factors’ British Journal of Educational Psychology vol 77
pp.811-828
7 Humber E, Snow P (2001) ‘The oral language skills of young offenders: a pilot investigation’ Psychiatry, Psychology
and Law vol 8 pp.1-11
8 Bryan K, Freer J, Furlong C (2007) ‘Language and communication difficulties in juvenile offenders’ International
Journal of Language and Communication Disorders vol 42 pp.505-520
9 Loucks N (2007) No One Knows – Offenders with Learning Difficulties and Learning Disabilities: Review of
prevalence and associated needs London: Prison Reform Trust
10 Bradley K (2009) The Bradley Report: Lord Bradley’s review of people with mental health problems or learning
disabilities in the criminal justice system London: Department of Health
11 Humber E, Snow P (2001) ‘The oral language skills of young offenders: a pilot investigation’ Psychiatry, Psychology
and Law vol 8 pp.1-11
12 Snow P, Powell M (2004) ‘Contemporary comments interviewing juvenile offenders: the importance of oral
language competence’ Current Issues in Criminal Justice vol 16:2 pp.220-225
13 This was contained in a transcript of evidence from the Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists put
before the National Assembly for Wales on 4 November 2009 as part of the Culture and Communities Committee’s
inquiry into youth justice.
14 Crawford E, Bull R (2006) ‘Teenagers’ difficulties with key words regarding the criminal court process’ Psychology,
Crime and Law vol 12(6) pp.653-667
15 Humber E, Snow P (2001) ‘The oral language skills of young offenders: a pilot investigation’ Psychiatry, Psychology
and Law vol 8 pp.1-11
16 This was contained in a transcript of evidence from the Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists put
before the National Assembly for Wales on 4 November 2009 as part of the Culture and Communities Committee’s
inquiry into youth justice.
17 I CAN is a charity that assists young people with speech and language difficulties. See www.ican.org.uk.
18 British Institute of Learning Disabilities (2006) Factsheet: Learning disabilities available at www.bild.org.uk/
docs/05faqs/Learning%20Disabilities%2006.pdf (accessed 12 December 2010)
19 Professional Affairs Board of the British Psychological Society (2000) Learning Disability: Definitions and contexts
Leicester: The British Psychological Society
20 Loucks N (2007) No One Knows – Offenders with Learning Difficulties and Learning Disabilities: Review of
prevalence and associated needs London: Prison Reform Trust
21 This definition from www.mindroom.org.uk has been used to provide a simple explanation of the term. However, it
should be noted that it may be defined differently elsewhere (accessed 12 December 2010).
22 Bercow J (2008) Review of Services for Children and Young People (0-19) with Speech, Language and
Communication Needs Nottingham: Department for Children, Schools and Families
23 Bishop D, Clarkson B (2003) ‘Written language as a window into residual language deficits: A study of children with
persistent and residual speech and language impairments’ Cortex vol 39 pp.215-237
24 Communication Trust (2009) Sentence Trouble London: Communication Trust
25 Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists (2006) Speaking Out: Young offenders with communication
difficulties available at www.rcslt.org/about/young_offenders_and_criminal_justice/england_briefing_2010
(accessed 12 December 2010)
26 When reviewing information for this report, estimates varied between 1% and 10% and were based on different
methodologies.
27 Baker K, Jones S, Roberts C, Merrington S (2002) The Validity and Reliability of Asset: Findings from the first two
years of the use of Asset Oxford: University of Oxford
28 Bryan K, Freer J, Furlong C (2007) ‘Language and communication difficulties in juvenile offenders’ International
Journal of Language and Communication Disorders vol 42 pp.505-520

12 Speech, language and communication difficulties: young people in trouble with the law
29 Harrington R, Bailey S (2005) Mental Health Needs and Effectiveness of Provision for Young Offenders in Custody
and in the Community London: Youth Justice Board
30 The study found no significant differences in the learning difficulties between the custodial and community
populations.
31 Crew M, Ellis N Speech and Language Therapy Within Bradford Youth Offending Team: Report outlining the
findings of a six-month pilot project examining the speech and language needs of the clients within Bradford Youth
Offending Team (2008) available at http://bradford-yot.co.uk/new_pdf/2008/SLT%20report%20Oct%202008%20
final%20version.pdf (accessed 12 December 2010)
32 Gregory J, Bryan K (2009) Evaluation of the Leeds Speech and Language Therapy Service Provision Within the
Intensive Supervision and Surveillance Programme Provided by the Leeds Youth Offending Service available at
www.leedsyos.org.uk/PDF/Leeds%20SLT%20report%20Jun%2010a.pdf (accessed 12 December 2010)
33 Bercow J (2008) Review of Services for Children and Young People (0-19) with Speech, Language and
Communication Needs Department for Children, Schools and Families: Nottingham
34 Humber E, Snow P (2001) ‘The oral language skills of young offenders: a pilot investigation’ Psychiatry, Psychology
and Law vol 8 pp.1-11
35 Davies K, Lewis J, Byatt J, Purvis E, Cole B (2004) An Evaluation of the Literacy Demands of General Offending
Behaviour Programmes, Home Office Findings 233 London: Home Office
36 Youth Justice Board (2009) National Standards for Youth Justice Services London: Youth Justice Board (para 8.10)
37 Hart D (2010) Children and Young People in ‘Breach’: A scoping report on policy and practice in the enforcement
of criminal justice and antisocial behaviour orders London: National Children’s Bureau
38 Youth Justice Board (2009) National Standards for Youth Justice Services London: Youth Justice Board (para 8.18)
39 ibid (para 8.14)
40 HM Inspectorate of Probation (2010) Message in a Bottle: A joint inspection of youth alcohol misuse and offending
Manchester: HM Inspectorate of Probation
41 The toolkit is at www.kentprobation.org/documents/2010-03_Communications-Toolkit.pdf (accessed 12 December
2010).
42 Communication Trust (2009) Sentence Trouble London: Communication Trust
43 See www.sentencetrouble.info.
44 Futher information is available at www.rcslt.org/about/young_offenders_and_criminal_justice/intro.