Looking at employment - Nacro

EDITORIALLooking at employment‘A suitable ex-offenderemployed today may be onecrime prevented tomorrow.’Douglas Hurd, 1988‘A job is the best help thatany ex-offender can get toavoid returning to crime.’Jack Straw, 1997Two Home Secretaries, a decade apart. Itseems that both Labour and Conservativegovernments can accept the idea that a safersociety is one in which people with criminalrecords are not excluded from the labour market.In this, the second edition of Safer Society, wefocus principally on offender employment,community regeneration and the links betweenpenal policies and social exclusion.Chris Mullin MP states his view that the‘prison works’ philosophy is at an end. Wehope he is not being too optimistic. Inidentifying education, training andemployment as the keys to tackling the yobculture blighting Britain's poorestneighbourhoods he endorses the ‘work works’message taken up by Rob Allen in hisoverview of regeneration initiatives and byAndrew McCall in his tour d’horizon ofEuropean offender employment strategies.Getting offenders into work rests equally onthe success of two tasks: giving themeconomically-useful skills and stimulatingdemand for those skills. Skills development isperhaps the easier job, although throughoutEurope it is made unnecessarily difficult bynear-chaotic policy environments and byinstitutional and funding architectures in needof extensive remodelling.Increasing employment opportunity will be aSisyphian task without an onslaught onemployer attitudes - and the UK Governmentmust be alive to the potential for harm offeredby too clumsy an introduction of new criminalrecord checking arrangements - and arecognition of the limitations of supply-sidemeasures. Mike Stewart's piece onIntermediate Labour Markets describes oneway in which we can begin to bridge thedemand gap in areas of low indigenousinvestment and deliver an array of socialbenefits: good value for taxpayers' money ifall the outputs are counted. A forthcomingNACRO report, Going Straight to Work, willmake the case for renewed action to eliminateunfair discrimination against offenders andex-offenders in the job market and launch aninitiative to enlist major employers in thepromotion of better, fairer recruitmentpractices. This initiative will be covered in thenext edition of Safer Society.The Government continues to emphasise thecentrality of community safety and crimereduction to its welfare to work,neighbourhood renewal and anti-schoolexclusion initiatives. We welcome this ‘joinedup thinking’ - indeed, Safer Society aims topromote just such a holistic approach tocreating inclusive and participativecommunities. There remains the danger,however, that some large-scale interventions -the New Deal for young people is an example- will fail to touch many of the hardest tohelp. There are disturbing signs in some areasthat less motivated youngsters are failing tonegotiate the complicated gateway phase,despite the best efforts of the (new andimproved) Employment Service.Also in this edition Keith Towler announcesNACRO's community remand initiative andRob Allen looks critically at the doctrine ofevidence-based practice. StephanieBraithwaite describes the part mediation canplay in restorative justice and Anne Dunnanalyses disturbing Home Office findingswhich show that people from minority ethnicgroups continue to be dealt withdisproportionately harshly by the criminaljustice system.Again, we hope the magazine highlights thefact that strategies for creating a fairer andsafer society cannot be viewed in isolationfrom each other.We hope that this second edition of the magazine is succeeding in its aim to provideinformation and ideas about making society safer. The editorial board would welcome yourletters in response to issues discussed or suggestions for items in future edtions.NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE CARE AND RESETTLEMENT OF OFFENDERS169 Clapham Road, London SW9 0PU Telephone 0171 582 6500 Fax 0171 735 4666ISSN 1464-8415NACRO IS A REGISTERED CHARITYThe views expressed in the articles in the magazine do not necessarily reflect the views of the Safer Society editorial board.PHOTOS: Right and front cover by Mark Harvey, iD•8, Sheffield Cover photo: Posed byparticipants at NACRO Sheffield NCT.

ContentsCHRIS MULLIN MP page 2The Chairman of theHome AffairsCommittee puts theCommittee’s report on‘Alternatives to PrisonSentences’ in context.NEWS see boxopposite page 5FEATURES page 11Safety ThroughRegeneration 11Rob Allen analyses thekey issues which willdetermine the successor failure of the NewDeal for Communitiesand other programmesEmploying Offendersin Europe 14Andrew McCallidentifies the positive,practical steps whichneed to be taken toget offendersthroughout Europeback into employment.Intermediate LabourMarkets and SaferCommunities 17Mike Stewart outlinesthe strategic role thatIntermediate LabourMarkets can play inreducing crime andpromoting communitysafety by gettingoffenders into work.Bail or Jail? 20There is anopportunity now to cutthe number ofjuveniles remanded incustody across thecountry in a way whichwill bring benefits tous all, observes KeithTowler.Is What Works WhatCounts? 21Unless positive andconstructive measuresto combat localdisorder are developedalongside coercivepowers, argues RobAllen, the currentinitiative could end uppromoting rather thantackling socialexclusion.Mediating for a SaferSociety 24Mediation can help createsafer communities byreducing crime and thefear of crime, saysStephanie Braithwaite.Legislation, Race andCriminal Justice 25Anne Dunn reviews the keyfindings from the Section95 report and looks atother legislative changeswhich will becomeincreasingly important inthe coming years.ContrastingJudgements 27Wilfred Hyde notes that,judged by the results oftwo internationalsentencing seminars,judges in Britain favourlonger prison sentencesthan their continentalcounterparts.REVIEWS page 28Tim Bateman reviews ‘TheISTD Handbook ofCommunity Programmes’and ‘A Guide to Setting upand EvaluatingProgrammes for YoungOffenders’.‘AT A GLANCE’ back coverKey points about crimeand the fear of crime fromthe 1998 British CrimeSurvey.SAFER SOCIETY SUBSCRIPTION RATESFull: £20 per year3+ copies: £15 per year per copyOverseas: £30 per yearNACRO members pay just £15 per year - a discount of 25%. If you want to find out moreabout NACRO membership, please contact Carol Hendrickson on 0171 840 6429 or (fax)0171 735 4666NEWS insideThe Government’s greenpaper on measures tosupport families. 5The Government’s whitepaper on improving theprospects of thoseleaving care. 5Statistics on children atrisk. 6Measures to protectchildren at risk of sexualabuse. 6Job applicants to be subjectto criminal record checks.6New powers needed fordealing withpsychopathic offenders.6Probation hostels workingsuccessfully. 7Home Affairs Committeeargue for greater use ofcommunity sentences. 7Government welcomesalternatives to prisonsentences report 7Call for mediation centresto resolve conflict. 8High level of syringesharing. 8Prisoners are not switchingto heroin. 8Sex offender treatmentprogrammes in prisonsmaking a difference. 8Jack Straw introduces threestrikes law for burglars.8Inspector praises youngoffender institution 9Number of lifers increasing9Do motor projects work? 9The fifth consecutive fall incrime - summary ofrecorded crime andsentencing statistics. 10SAFERSOCIETYEDITORIALBOARDRob AllenMervyn BarrettTim BellSelina CorkeryAnne DunnPenny FraserCraig HarrisBeverley ThompsonFrank WarburtonMelior Whitear

Safer Society FEATUREReintegrating a LostGeneration,Photo: Frank ManningIn his address at the NACRO AnnualGeneral Meeting on 10 November1998Chris MullinMP for Sunderland South and chair ofthe House of Commons Home AffairsSelect Committee, outlined some ofthe background to the Committee’sreport, ‘Alternatives to PrisonSentences’ (published in September),in particular the public’s support forthe ‘prison works’ philosophy.** See News item on page 7Like many of my colleagues, I represent a poor, inner cityconstituency. Through my office pass a long train ofpeople whose lives have been made a misery by crime. Itis perfectly understandable why for many ordinary peoplethe prison works philosophy, however misconceived, has provedso attractive.The 1980s saw the growth of a massive yob culture. It was truein an area like mine and in large parts of the country and Europe.The collapse of work for the unskilled male (in Sunderland welost the shipyards, the coal mines and a lot of our engineeringindustry) meant for a lot of young men - who might once haveleft school at the age of 15 or 16, gone into an apprenticeship orsome form of training and started mixing with adults andmoderating their behaviour accordingly - that their worldchanged completely. When they left school, it was often the lastpublic institution they would have contact with for many yearsunless, as for all too many of them, they came in contact with thecriminal justice system. These young men have frankly causedmayhem in some parts of the country.This is the essential background to the political problem thatthose of us who want to see the prison population reduced and amore effective criminal justice system have to bear in mind. Inparts of my constituency, civilised life has collapsed. I cannot putit any less dramatically than that. There are whole streets wherethere are very few habitable houses. They have come underattack from gangs of out of control youths.A man came to my surgery a few months ago who has lived onthe Pennywell Estate in Sunderland for 30 years. He said it wasfine when everybody was in work and had useful activities topursue, but eight or nine years ago things began to deteriorate. Ihave visited this man several times. He lives in a nicelymaintained ex-council house but the five properties either side ofhim are boarded up and in some cases burnt out. Five propertiesin both directions, and all 10 properties along the back of him.He had made the mistake of buying his council house and as aresult he was trapped. He had a net over his greenhouse to catchin-coming missiles and on the day of his wife’s funeral the carsof the mourners came under attack from youths throwing stones.It is not hard once we put ourselves in his position or that ofsome of his neighbours to understand why the public is not allthat receptive to people like myself telling them that prison reallydoes not work and that there must be other options.The other thing that happened during the 1980s and earlier is thatthe criminal justice system began to lose its way. It became, andNACRO SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE FEBRUARY 1999 2

Photo: Michael GrieveDiverting the New Generationremains so, almost wholly ineffective against certain types of youngoffenders. There was a period as well, and it is passed I am glad to say,when probation officers could be heard referring to offenders rather thanthe taxpayer as ‘clients’. That did not do a lot of good for publicconfidence either. And to compound all that, the police abandoned thepolicing of some of the most difficult areas, like the one I have justdescribed.At the beginning of the 1980s, police officers got very large pay rises.One of the effects of this was that, whereas previously they often livedlocally and were fairly widely dispersed, they all began to get mortgagesand move up to the leafier end of town. I remember a police inspector’swife telling me that there were 13 police officers living in the rathershort street in which she lived. But there was not a single officer on thePennywell Estate, which has about 10,000 people living on it. There wasa time - it has changed now - when the only police officers seen inPennywell came in large raiding parties and glared at citizens throughthick plastic windows. Not a very good basis for creating communityconfidence. All these factors contributed to a general loss of publicconfidence in the system and a growth in demands for retribution, and itis very difficult for politicians to resist this when they are dailyconfronted with the victims.About five or six years ago some politicians discovered that there werevotes to be had by pursuing the prison works philosophy, even though Isuspect that they knew that it did not. There was a very willingconstituency for this point of view, and the result was an escalation in theprison population. I like to think that the publication of our report a fewmonths ago marked the formal end of the prison works philosophy. Wetook evidence from a wide range of witnesses. We had evidence inparticular from two retired senior probation officers, Peter Coad andDavid Fraser, and Professor of Criminology Ken Pease. They argued thata much bigger prison population was required; that alternatives do notwork properly and the only way to guarantee that the public is safe fromcriminals is to keep them locked up. But I felt that the bubble burst ontheir argument when they were asked what level they expected the prisonpopulation to rise to if their philosophy was to reach its logicalconclusion. They disagreed about numbers but eventually settled onabout 200,000, which was three times the crisis level we have now.I do not think that any government of any political persuasion is able tocontemplate having 200,000 people locked up, if for no other reason thanit is extremely expensive. Once we had on the record that this was wherewe were headed we could have a rational discussion about thealternatives.We looked at various programmes around the country and the one thingthat became clear very quickly was that the outcomes of alternatives toThe second task isto divert thevulnerable awayfrom criminalactivity and intouseful lives. Thisis best done at avery young age,long before theycome into contactwith the criminaljustice system.

Safer Society FEATURE Reintegrating a LostPhoto Michael Grieveprison were not carefully measured. TheChief Inspector of Probation told us thatof the 230 projects that he hadexamined, only 35 had any crediblemethod of measuring outcomes and ofthose only four were sufficientlyrigorous to hold up to a sceptical public.This is a serious problem and, if wewant to confront the fact that the publicas a whole believes in the prison worksphilosophy, we have to come up withmeasurable evidence that the alternativeswork.It is important, too, that the alternativesare not seen as soft options by thepublic. My local newspaper regularlyreports that so and so ‘walked free fromcourt’ with ‘only’ 200 hours ofcommunity service. Two hundred hoursof community service, provided it issufficiently rigorous and properlysupervised, is quite a stiff penalty andmight prove to be more demanding thanhaving someone simply sitting in aprison cell, never having to confronttheir offending behaviour. But that is nothow it is perceived or presented. And itis true that many community serviceorders have turned out to be softoptions. When people have not shownup for community service they have notalways been pursued as vigorously asthey might have been and that tooundermines the credibility of the wholesystem. This is an area that I think allthose who care about finding crediblealternatives to prison have to address. Itis not enough to assert that prison doesnot work. We have to be able todemonstrate this to a sceptical publicand we are some way from this.We have two important tasks. The firstis to do what we can - and this isdifficult - to reintegrate the lostgeneration of youth, mainly, but not allmales, back into society so that they canhope to lead a purposeful life. In the last18 or 20 years we have been breeding ageneration of alienated people whonaturally are going to behave badly ifthey have no stake in society. Theycannot of course be dealt with bycriminal justice measures alone.Education, training andultimately work are thekey to success.Education, training and ultimately work are the key to success. That is why Welfare toWork was at the core of the programme on which this Government was elected.The second task is to divert the vulnerable away from criminal activity and into usefullives. That is best done at a very young age, long before they come into contact with thecriminal justice system. Diversion is absolutely essential if we are to stop anothergeneration of unskilled youth going down the same plug hole as the previous one. Onething I discovered at a fairly early stage on the Home Affairs Select Committee is thattoo much of the Home Office budget goes into locking up people and not enough goesinto diverting vulnerable people before they start offending, even though it is possible toidentify them well in advance.In my constituency we have a very successful scheme called Breakout, which is run bypeople on the Pennywell Estate who during the school holidays organise constructiveactivities for young people. They get some of the parents involved in taking kids to thecountryside and beaches outside Sunderland, which most of the kids have never seen.This scheme, which organises activities on two or three days a week for 700 of the mostvulnerable people initially, costs about £30,000 - the cost of locking up one juvenile fornine months. The moral of the story is clear. If you invest that money at a much earlierstage you get a much better result. It is not just a matter for the criminal justice system.It is about providing a pathway towards work, about nursery education, literacy,numeracy, and proper parenting classes. We have a Government that understands theproblem and is beginning, however inadequately, to address it. There is no magicsolution. All we can do is hope to reverse trends that have been set in place over a longtime. I am confident that we can make progress. NACRO SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE FEBRUARY 1999 4

SAFER SOCIETY NEWS SAFER SOCIETYNewsGovernmentsupportfor familiesMeasures to supportfamilies were outlined ina Government greenpaper, published inNovember. Themeasures include betterservices and support forparents.Measures aimed atensuring that parentshave access to adviceand support includeestablishing theNational Family andParenting Institute,giving health visitors anew enhanced role,developing the £540million Sure Startinitiative and familyliteracy and mentoringschemes, andintroducing educationfor parenthood inschools.The Sure Startprogramme is aimedparticularly at thosefamilies experiencingPhoto: Clare Marsheducational underachievement,health,housing, orunemploymentproblems. Under it,parents as much aschildren will besupported. Help mayinclude training forwork, help with literacyor numeracy, and helpand advice on disciplineor other parentingproblems.The paper says that ‘byinvesting in Sure Startnow, we will be able tocontinue reaping thebenefits of improvedsocial adjustment andreduced anti-socialbehaviour in 20 years’time, through bettersuccess in employment,better health andreduced crime’.Measures also includebetter support forfamilies facing seriousproblems. Here theGovernment hasannounced a new £500million three yearprogramme to cuttruancy, unrulyclassroom behaviourand unnecessaryexclusions in an effortto reduce these by onethirdby 2002.The programme willinvolve close cooperationbetweenparents, schools and thepolice with more homeschoolliaison,mentoring for difficultpupils and extra staff tofollow up nonattendancewithparents.Other areas covered bythe paper concernbetter financial supportfor families, helpingfamilies balance workand home, andstrengthening marriage.SUPPORTING FAMILIES: ACONSULTATION PAPER isavailable from the HomeOffice, 50 Queen Anne’s Gate,London SW1H 9ATGovernment to carefor children in careThe Government’s plansfor protecting childrenin care, and forimproving theirprospects when theyleave it, were outlinedin a white paper,‘Modernising SocialServices’, published on30 November. Thepaper followed a socialservices inspectoratereport in Septemberwhich found that socialservices were failing toprovide proper care andprotection forvulnerable children andthat there were widevariations in standardsbetween agencies.The white paper notedthat children in carehave been abused andneglected by a systemthat was supposed tolook after them, andmost leave care with noeducationalqualifications at all,many of them at greatrisk of falling intounemployment,homelessness, crimeand prostitution.Action to protectchildren will include theestablishment of a newCriminal Records Bureau(see page 6) to improveand widen access topolice checks onpeople seeking workwith children and othervulnerable people. TheBureau will be a ‘onestopshop’ foremployers wantingaccess to policerecords and theseparate lists (List 99and the ConsultancyIndex list) maintainedby the Department forEducation andEmployment and theDepartment of Health.The paper also sets outthe Government’s plansfor improving socialservices generally. In his response tothe Children’sSafeguard Review,published 4 November,the Secretary of Statefor Health, FrankDobson, said that theUtting Report had‘painted a woeful taleof failure. Manychildren who had been“taken into care” toprotect and help themhad not been protectedand helped. Insteadsome had sufferedabuse at the hands ofthose who were meantto help them. Manymore had been letdown, never given theattention they needed,shifted from place toplace, school to schooland then turned outwhen they reached 16.’‘The proportion of careleavers aged 16 to 18who leave at the age of16 increased from 33%in 1993 to 40% in1997, largely it seems,5 FEBRUARY 1999 SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE NACRO

SAFER SOCIETY NEWS SAFER SOCIETYVulnerablechildren There were 31,600children on childprotection registerson 31 March 1998,according toDepartment of Healthstatistics publishedon 29 October. 8,000 (25%) of thechildren on theregisters at the endof the year were alsobeing looked after bylocal authorities. According to‘Modernising SocialServices’, in1997/98, 91 childrendied or sufferedserious injury at thehands of adultabusers. In someauthorities, as few as25% of young peopleleave care with anyeducationalqualification. One in fourchildren looked afteraged 14-16 do notattend schoolregularly and manyhave been excludedand have no regulareducationalplacement. According to ‘TheSchools’ Census for1998’, there were12,700 permanentexclusions fromprimary, secondaryand special schoolsin 1996/97, anincrease of 2% on theprevious year.as a cost saving measureby local authorities.’This, says the response,‘is alarming. Themajority of ordinaryfamilies continue toprovide a substantialmeasure of support totheir children until theyreach at least 18; theaverage age at whichyoung people now leavehome for independenceis estimated to be 22.Moreover, care leaversare likely to be rathermore dependent thanothers at that age inview of their personaland educationalhistories.’ TheGovernment iscommitted to reversingthis trend. Research on ‘Caringfor Children Away fromHome’, published on 18November, confirmeddoubts about theefficacy of some parts ofthe residential sector.Two-fifths of the childrenin residence say theyhave been bullied in therecent past; one in sevensay they have beentaken advantage ofsexually by anotherresident; two-thirds saythey have been unhappyin the recent past andtwo-fifths say they havecontemplated suicide.The report containsrecommendations toimprove standards andtackle abuse in children’shomes.MODERNISING SOCIAL SERVICES:PROMOTING INDEPENDENCE,IMPROVING PROTECTION, RAISINGSTANDARDS is available from TheStationery Office. Price £14.50and on the Internet on:http\\www.officialdocuments.co.uk\document\cm41\4169\4169.htmAn Executive Summary isavailable free from theDepartment of Health, PO Box410, Wetherby, West YorkshireLS23 7LN. The summary and a A5popular version are on theInternet on:http\\www.doh.gov.uk\scg\wpaper.htmTHE GOVERNMENT’S RESPONSETO THE CHILDREN’S SAFEGUARDREVIEW is available from TheStationery Office. Price £4.50.CARING FOR CHILDREN AWAYFROM HOME - MESSAGES FROMRESEARCH is available from JohnWiley and Sons. Price £13.99.Child prostitutesto be treatedas victimsChild prostitutes will betreated as victims ofabuse under joint HomeOffice and Departmentof Health guidance,published on 29December. The guidanceaims to: safeguard andpromote the welfare ofthe children; encouragethe investigation andprosecution of criminalactivities by those whoabuse and coercechildren in prostitution;and establish that theprimary lawenforcement effort mustbe against abusers andcoercers. The Governmentpublished the SexualOffences (Amendment)Bill on 17 December tocreate a new offence ofabuse of trust, whichwill apply where aperson aged 18 or over,in specifiedcircumstances, hassexual intercourse orengages in any othersexual activity with ortowards a person underthat age, if the olderperson is in a positionof trust over theyounger person.The offence is intendedto protect 16 and 17year olds in potentiallyvulnerablecircumstances,including detention orresidential care, orwhere the relationshipof trust is particularlystrong, such as inschools.The Bill also equalisesthe age of consent forhomosexuals from 18 to16 in England, Walesand Scotland (and 17 inNorthern Ireland).Criminalrecord checksannouncedThe Governmentannounced plans on 14December 1998 toimplement Part V of thePolice Act 1997 whichwill mean that allemployers will be ableto obtain the records ofjob applicants. Underthe Act, a CriminalRecords Bureau will beestablished inMerseyside under themanagement of theUnited KingdomPassport Agency. Thecore work of examiningrecords and issuingcertificates will behandled by civilservants.This will take about twoyears to set up. Onceestablished, allemployers will be ableto find out whether jobapplicants have acriminal record, eitherby requiring theapplicants to run acheck on themselves or,in some instances, byrunning the checkdirectly.The Bureau will be selffinancing.All applicantsfor certificates from theagency will be requiredto pay a fee which theGovernment estimateswill vary from between£5 and £10.The Government willphase in checks. Prioritywill be given to theissue of certificates forNACRO SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE FEBRUARY 1999 6

SAFER SOCIETY NEWS SAFER SOCIETYthose seeking positionswhich involve regularlycaring for, training,supervising or being insole charge of personsunder 18.Psychopathicoffenders: newpowers neededNew legal powers areneeded to protect thepublic from offenderssuffering frompsychopathic disordersand to care for them,according to a reportpublished by NACRO on4 November 1998.The report, ‘Risks andRights’, calls for a newreviewable sentence fordangerous offenderswith a psychopathicdisorder who have beenconvicted of a seriousviolent or sexualoffence. At presentmany such offenders goto prison because thecourts are told bypsychiatrists that theoffender is untreatable,while others are givenhospital orders. Thereport says that‘psychiatrists disagreeabout treatability andwhether an offenderends up in prison orhospital can be a matterof chance’.The report proposesthat offenders given thenew sentence wouldinstead be placed inseparateaccommodation outsidethe current penal andhealth systems, with apositive approachaiming at rehabilitation.Had such a power andback up arrangementsbeen available, moreeffective and earlierintervention might havebeen possible in thecase of Michael Stone,convicted of the murderof Lynn and MeganRussell.The report stresses thatthe great majority ofmentally disturbedpeople do not present adanger to others andthat the current legalframework for dealingwith people with asevere mental illness -as opposed to thosewith a psychopathicdisorder - is adequate. Itargues, however, thatminimising the riskassociated with severemental illness requiresmuch better fundedcommunity care, withswift access to back-upspecialist and hospitalservices.The report recommendscloser and better coordinatedcontact byagencies working withvulnerable mentallydisturbed people tomake sure that they arecared for and thaturgent action is taken iftheir condition worsens.It calls for a code ofpractice on managingrisk for all agenciesdealing with mentallydisturbed people.RISKS AND RIGHTS: MENTALLYDISTURBED OFFENDERS ANDPUBLIC PROTECTION isavailable from NACRO. Price£11 including postage.Probation hostelsgiven vote ofconfidenceBail and probationhostels areunquestionablydemonstrating theirability to accommodateand work successfullywith some of the mostdifficult, damaged andpotentially dangerousdefendants andoffenders, according toa probation inspectoratereport published on 3November 1998.The report, ‘Deliveringan Enhanced Level ofCommunity Supervision’,found that in 1997, 67%of orders or conditionsof residence weresuccessfully completed.Less than 4% ofresidents in the hostelscovered by theinspection were knownto have been chargedwith an offencecommitted during theirresidence, and themajority of these wereof a relatively minornature. The public‘should takeencouragement fromthese findings’.DELIVERING AN ENHANCEDLEVEL OF COMMUNITYSUPERVISION: REPORT OF ATHEMATIC INSPECTION ON THEWORK OF APPROVEDPROBATION AND BAIL HOSTELSis available from the HomeOffice.Rising prisonpopulation‘unsustainable’In its report on‘Alternatives to PrisonSentences’, published on10 September, the HomeAffairs Committeehighlighted a number ofprogrammes whichattempt to divert youngpeople away from crime.These include SherborneHouse in South London,which deals with youngmale offenders whowould otherwise havereceived a custodialsentence. Theseparticipants have areconviction rate 15%lower than would bepredicted for suchoffenders.But the Committee notesthe ‘absence of rigorousresearch into theeffectiveness ofindividual communitysentences at present,and that, until this isrectified, confidence inthem must be limited,and sentencing policy amatter of guessworkand optimism’.Nevertheless, notingthat the current risingprison population is‘unsustainable’, theCommittee concludesthat ‘there are manypeople currentlysentenced toimprisonment who couldbe dealt with moreeffectively - and at farless expense - by a noncustodialsentence’.Among diversionaryschemes, it highlightsYouthWorks inBlackburn, one of fiveYouthWorks initiativesaimed at creating ‘safer,high-qualityenvironments byharnessing the energiesof young people in aproductive way’.YouthWorks appears tobe achieving its aim ofreducing crime in theRoman Road Estate areaof Blackburn, which wasnumber one in a rankingof police beats in termsof crime committed andnow is number 14.The Committeecommend such schemesbut note that theirfunding is erratic. ‘Theprecarious financialsituation such projectsfind themselves inmakes it difficult tomake long-term plansand takes up thevaluable time of theirworkers which could bemore usefully spent withthe young peopleconcerned ... The costeffectivenessof suchschemes is difficult toquantify and impossibleto ignore.’ALTERNATIVES TO PRISONSENTENCES: THIRD REPORT OFTHE HOME AFFAIRSCOMMITTEE SESSION 1997-98is available from The StationeryOffice. Price £11.50.Government7 FEBRUARY 1999 SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE NACRO

SAFER SOCIETY NEWS SAFER SOCIETYwelcomes MPs’reportIn a reply published inDecember, theGovernment welcomedthe Home AffairsCommittee’s report on‘Alternatives to PrisonSentences’.‘We believe that thecourts should haveavailable to them aneffective range ofsentencing options andthe Committee’s reportcontributes to realisingthat aim’, states thereply. It points out thatthe introduction of thehome detention curfewis expected to cause afall in the prisonpopulation from justunder 66,000 in late1998 to an average of63,200 in 1999.‘Imprisonment must bethe right response forthose who havecommitted seriousoffences, for those whopose a danger to thepublic, such as violentand sexual offendersand for persistentoffenders. However …there are manyoffenders whose crimescan adequately bepunished by fines or bycommunity penalties,providing that thosepunishments arerealistic and arerigorously enforced.’A further £127 millionof government fundingis being provided forthe probation serviceover the next threeyears, and the Crimeand Disorder Act 1998‘introduces tough newcommunity orderswhich will fill specificgaps within the optionscurrently available tosentencers’.Describing the HomeAffairs Committee’sreport as ‘useful andconstructive’, the paperconcludes: ‘TheGovernment intends thatsentencers and thepublic should regardcommunity sentences astough and effectivepunishments for manyoffences and that prisonis used only whennecessary.’THE GOVERNMENT REPLY TOTHE THIRD REPORT FROM THEHOME AFFAIRS COMMITTEESESSION 1997-98 ‘ALTERNATIVESTO PRISON SENTENCES’, isavailable from The StationeryOffice, £5.20.Mediation’s role intackling conflictThe Home Office shoulduse funds from its crimereduction strategy toestablish and evaluateproperly resourcedmediation centres in 12major cities, says areport on NACRO’smediation schemespublished on 25 January.The report, ‘ReducingConflict, BuildingCommunities’, arguesthat mediation canresolve conflicts beforethey escalate out ofcontrol. For example, 80to 90% of conflictsbetween feudingneighbours which resultin face-to-face mediationare resolved.And at around £300 acase, mediation is muchcheaper thantransferring or evicting atenant. The report alsocalls for the greater useof victim-offendermediation. Many victimsfind confronting theoffender is valuable incoming to terms withcrime and most of themwho do are happy withthe outcome.Mediation can also be aneffective means ofreducing reoffending bymaking offendersappreciate the harm theyhave caused. In onesurvey, two-thirds ofoffenders who took partin mediation sessions inLeeds did not re-offend,despite most of thembeing persistentoffenders.REDUCING CONFLICT, BUILDINGCOMMUNITIES: THE ROLE OFMEDIATION IN TACKLING CRIMEAND DISORDER is availablefrom NACRO. Price £3.50including postage. See alsofeature on Mediation on page24.Drug users sharingequipmentA survey of injectingdrug users not incontact with drugtreatment services foundthat three-quarters ofthem (78%) had sharedequipment during thefour weeks prior tointerview. The survey,published on 9December by theImperial College Schoolof Medicine, said thatthe level of sharing ofsyringes is much higherthan has been found inprevious studies. According to theDepartment of Health’s‘Drug Misuse Statistics’,21,996 drug misuserspresented themselves todrug misuse services inthe six months ending30 September 1997.Over half (54%) were intheir twenties andaround one in eight(13%) were aged under20.Over half (54%) of themisusers were onheroin. Others were onmethadone (13%),amphetamines (9%) orcannabis (9%). Of the estimated £1.4billion spent on antidrugactivities in1997/98, 12% was spenton prevention (includingeducation) and 13% wasspent on treatment andrehabilitation, accordingto Dr Jack Cunninghamin a parliamentaryanswer to AnnWinterton, MP, on 18November. Similar levelsof expenditure areexpected in 1998/99. On 17 November, theStanding Conference onDrug Abuse launchedits new directory forthose seeking help fordrug misuse. Thedirectory, ‘DrugProblems - Where to GetHelp’ lists over 500services around Englandand Wales.Few prisonersswitching to heroinAccording to a HomeOffice report, contraryto the view that themandatory drug-testingprogramme mightencourage prisoners tochange from cannabisto heroin because thelatter is less easilydetectable in tests, veryfew prisoners havemade the change andnone are becomingpermanent heroin users.The Home Office reportalso estimated that thecost of the programmein terms of extra daysspent in custody bypeople failing the testsis £7 million.MANDATORY DRUG TESTINGIN PRISONS: THERELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MDTAND THE LEVEL AND NATUREOF DRUG MISUSE, ResearchStudy No.189, is availablefrom the Home Office.Prison programmesworkingAn evaluation of the sexoffender treatmentprogramme in sixprisons shows that theywere successful inincreasing the level ofchild abusers’admittance of offendingbehaviour. Pro-offendingattitudes, such asthoughts about havingNACRO SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE FEBRUARY 1999 8

SAFER SOCIETY NEWS SAFER SOCIETYsexual contact withchildren, were reducedas were levels of thedenial of the impactthat sexual abuse hasupon victims.Overall the programmeswere successful atincreasing levels ofsocial competence. Ofthe sample, 67% (53 outof 77 men) were judgedto have shown atreatment effect - therewere significantchanges in all or someof the main areastargeted. Longer-termtreatment (about 160hours) produced resultswhich held up betterafter release than shorttermtherapy (about 80hours), particularly forhighly deviantoffenders. A 1995/96 PrisonService study on theeffectiveness of prisonregimes showed thatparticipation oneducational/vocationalcourses reduced therates of reconvictionprovided that they wereundertaken by offenderswho had a need in thatarea, according toGeorge Howarth in aparliamentary answer toJim Cunningham, MP, on17 December. About 3,000prisoners are expectedto complete accreditedoffending behaviour andsex offender treatmentprogrammes during1998/99, according toLord Williams in aparliamentary answer toLord Avebury on 16December.AN EVALUATION OF THEPRISON SEX OFFENDERTREATMENT PROGRAMME,Research Findings No.79, isavailable from the HomeOffice.Crime (Sentences)ActOn 13 January 1999, theHome Secretary, JackStraw, announced hisintention to implementsection 4 of the Crime(Sentences) Act prescribinga minimum sentence ofthree years for a thirdoffence of domesticburglary. This will takeeffect from December.The announcementfollowed a Court of Appealjudgement, delivered on 15December 1998,concerning section 2 of theAct. Section 2 provides thatwhere an offender over 17is convicted for a secondtime of a serious sexual orviolent offence the courtmust pass a life sentenceunless there are‘exceptional circumstances’which justify it not doingso.The Court of Appeal hasnow laid down that, wherea life sentence is passedunder section 2, the tariffperiod - the period to beserved for the purposes ofdeterrence and retribution(after which prisoners canbe considered for releaseon licence) - shouldnormally be about one halfof the determinatesentence which the courtwould have imposed had itnot been required to passa life sentence.Thus the judgement makesclear that the courts retaina substantial measure ofdiscretion in influencingwhat happens to aprisoner even though thelife sentence itself ismandatory. It alsosuggests that section 2may, taken alone, have aless dramatic effect on thesize of the prisonpopulation than mighthave been assumed.Prisons Inspectorpraises ThornCrossThe Chief Inspector of Prisons, SirDavid Ramsbotham, praised the HighIntensity Training Unit at Thorn Crossyoung offender institution in aninspection report published inJanuary.What works?Motor projectsPhoto: Clare Marsh According to ‘Motor Projects’, 80% of the 1,087offenders who attended 42 motor projects between1989 and 1993 were reconvicted within two years.Three-quarters of these were reconvicted for motoringoffences. Such a high level of reconviction may not besurprising. Despite the relative youth of the sample,many offenders had extensive criminal histories. 26%had more than 10 previous convictions, 56% hadmore than six convictions, and 95% had previousconvictions. Overall, however, the 80% of offenders who werereconvicted, were reconvicted of less seriousoffences. The most common motoring reconvictionswere driving while disqualified (49%), driving withoutinsurance (48%), and taking a vehicle without consent(21%). And while the actual reconviction rates were higherthan predicted with particularly poor results for‘racing’ projects, the actual reconviction rates forolder offenders on the projects were lower thanpredicted (6% lower). In addition, those who completed programmesfared better than those who did not: offenders whodid not complete the projects were reconvicted atmuch higher rates than their age and criminalhistories would suggest. In its report on ‘Alternatives to Prison Sentences’,the Home Affairs Committee noted that research intothe Ilderton Motor Project, conducted by the InnerLondon Probation Service, found that the reconvictionrate of project attenders over three years was 38%lower than that of a similar group. It also noted that participants on the MerseysideService’s Car Offender Project were found to have a24% reconviction rate over a 12 month follow-upperiod, compared to a 43% reconviction rate for suchoffenders nationally.MOTOR PROJECTS IN ENGLAND AND WALES: AN EVALUATION, HomeOffice Research Findings No.81, is available from the Home Office,50 Queen Anne’s Gate, London SW1H 9AT. Free. ALTERNATIVES TOPRISON SENTENCES: THIRD REPORT OF THE HOME AFFAIRSCOMMITTEE SESSION 1997-98 is available from The StationeryOffice. Price £11.50.9 FEBRUARY 1999 SAFER SOCIETY

Criminal Statistics1997Crime ratesIn 1997, 4.6 million notifiable offenceswere recorded by the police in England andWales, 6% fewer than in 1996 - the fifthconsecutive annual fall, the first occurrencethis century. Nevertheless, the number ofnotifiable offences recorded by the policeper 100,000 population has risen from1,100 in 1950 to 8,600 in 1997.Comparison of British Crime Surveyestimates of crime committed (see backcover) with police recorded crime revealsthat there were: over three times as manydomestic burglaries committed as recorded;over three times as many woundings;nearly four times as many bicycle thefts;four times as many thefts from vehicles;nearly seven times as many offences ofvandalism; and eight times as manyrobberies and thefts from the person.17% of recorded offences resulted insomeone being charged, summoned orcautioned. 11% of offences were ‘taken intoconsideration’ or resulted in ‘no furtheraction’.Nearly all the countries of Western Europehave shown a sharp increase in recordedcrime between 1987 and 1997 withEngland and Wales experiencing an increaseof 18%, about average for Western Europe.However, the recent sharp fall in Englandand Wales contrasts with many othercountries where recorded crime is stillrising.HomicideNearly two-thirds of the 738 victims ofhomicide in 1997 were males.Women were more likely to be strangledor asphyxiated (25% were) than men (3%).Men were most likely to have been killedwith a sharp instrument (32%). Firearmswere used in 9% of all homicides.The main suspect was someone knownto half of male victims and three-quartersof female victims.Children under a year old were most atrisk of homicide.One person convicted of homicide in1997 had been convicted of homicideon a previous occasion. One otherperson who had been previouslyconvicted of homicide committedsuicide after committing homicide in1997.SAFER SOCIETY NEWS SAFER SOCIETYOffendersIn total, 1.7 million offenders were found guilty or cautioned in1997, including 509,400 found guilty or cautioned for indictableoffences:Offenders cautioned or found guilty in 1997Indictable offence(000s)Violence against the person 58.2Sexual offences 6.4Burglary 41.1Robbery 6.2Theft and handling stolen goods 201.2Fraud and forgery 24.2Criminal damage 13.3Drug offences 96.7Other (excluding motoring offences) 52.6Motoring offences 9.5Total 509.4The peak age of ‘known’ offending is now 18 for both males andfemales.Sentencing93,100 offenders were sentenced to immediate imprisonment, 9%more than in 1996 and the highest figure since at least 1928:Offenders sentenced in 1997 by sentence or orderSentence or order(000s)Discharge 128.0Fine 998.7Probation order 54.1Supervision order 11.2Community service order 47.1Attendance centre order 7.6Combination order 19.5Curfew order 0.4Total community sentences 140.0Fully suspended imprisonment 3.5Young offender institution 22.1Unsuspended imprisonment 71.0S.53 C&YP Act 1933 0.7Total immediate custody 93.1Otherwise dealt with 20.7Total 1,384.7At magistrates’ courts, immediate custody was imposed for 11% ofindictable offenders, compared with 4-5% in 1989 to 1992.At the Crown Court, use of immediate custody for indictable offencesrose from 43% in 1990 to 60% in 1996 - the highest recorded figuresince the early 1950s - and remained at that level in 1997.The prison population in England and Wales rose by just under one-thirdbetween 1987 and 1997 compared with a doubling in the Netherlandsand the USA and a reduction of about one-third in Finland.CRIMINAL STATISTICS ENGLAND AND WALES 1997 is available fromThe Stationery Office. Price £22.40.NACRO SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE FEBRUARY 1999 10

Safety Society FEATURESafety ThroughRegenerationCutting Crime byTackling DeprivationBY ROB ALLEN‘In my own garageI found a spotwhere kids hadbroken in, huddledround blanketsand sniffed glue.There is no excusefor drug abuse orlaw breaking butthese kids have aright to expectbetter and weought to offerthem better.’John Prescott,Deputy PrimeMinisterTurning around the worst estates in Britain is among the most difficult tasks facing theGovernment. In several thousand neighbourhoods high-crime rates are but one symptom of arange of social problems. Poor health, housing and education and above all a lack of legitimatework opportunities combine to produce troubled and troublesome communities whose quality of lifeshames an affluent country at the end of the 20th century.NACRO’s 1995 report on ‘Crime and Social Policy’ identified the fact that the hardships associatedwith greater inequality were being concentrated in certain neighbourhoods where crime and disorderwere much more prevalent (NACRO, 1995). It argued that crime is not only linked with destabilised,demoralised and marginalised communities, but it contributes to their decline. As the Americans Kellingand Coles put it in their influential book ‘Fixing Broken Windows’, ‘ultimately the result for aneighbourhood whose fabric or urban life and social intercourse has been undermined is increasingvulnerability to an influx of more disorderly behaviour and serious crime’ (Ref).The ‘Crime and Social Policy’ report recommended targeting crime prevention resources towards suchareas and argued that ‘action must be linked with other strategies to deal with this depth of disadvantage... Local efforts need support from a broader national strategy for economic and social regenerationwhich recognises the impact of social and economic policies. Central to all of this will be theinvolvement and commitment of local people.’The Government’s commitment to do something about the poorest areas is therefore welcome and iftranslated into successful action on the ground could make a huge impact on crime. The recipe forsorting out the problems is contained in the third report of its Social Exclusion Unit (SEU), published inSeptember to coincide with the launch of the New Deal for Communities (NDC) funding programme.The report, ‘Bringing Britain Together’, is a wide-ranging analysis of the problems and the lessons fromprevious efforts to solve them (SEU, 1998). The report sets out the components of a comprehensive newnational strategy. The strategy, which reflects closely much in the ‘Crime and Social Policy’ report,comprises three strands: the first is made up of the range of initiatives already being undertaken byindividual departments, such as the various New Deals and policies on failing schools, healthimprovement and crime and disorder reduction.Second is the New Deal for Communities, with its emphasis on funding long-term measures which aredeveloped and managed very locally, involve local people and integrate the work of differentprofessionals, agencies and organisations. Initially targeted on 17 pathfinder areas, NDC will eventuallyspend £800 million.11 FEBRUARY 1999 SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE NACRO

Tony Blair meetsworkers on the HollyStreet estate in eastLondon at the launch ofNew Deal forCommunities, 15Photo: Evening StandardThird, the Government has created 18 cross-cutting action teamsof civil servants and outside experts to draw up plans fortackling underlying problems of regenerating local economies,improving housing and neighbourhood management, enhancingprospects for young people, increasing access to high-qualityservices and making the Government work better.Among a wide range of questions, the teams will be consideringhow best to get the most disadvantaged people into work,prevent anti-social behaviour, build and support communityorganisations, involve parents in their children’s education,engage people in poor neighbourhoods in arts, sport and leisure,and reduce youth disaffection. More ambitiously still, teams willbe asking how shops, insurance and financial services can beencouraged back into poor neighbourhoods, along with capital tostimulate business start-ups.There is no faulting the breadth and ambition of the strategy,although the true test as always will be whether the army ofstakeholders at central and local level will be able to ‘walk thewalk’ as well as ‘talk the talk’. The flavour of the analysis isfamiliar from earlier SEU reports on truancy and exclusion andon rough sleeping, which emphasised the importance of morejoined-up government and better inter-agency co-operation, quiteas much as the need for more resources.Perhaps the most innovative idea is that all of the local authorityand other public agencies providing services to a community -social services, health, housing and police - work in multidisciplinaryteams under a ‘neighbourhood manager’. As well asovercoming the fragmentation of different schemes andprogrammes often going on in the same area - what the SEUcalls ‘initiative-itis’ - neighbourhood management, throughaccountability to a neighbourhood board and the development ofa local plan, should enable problems to be addressed in a moreholistic way and for resources to be shared in a much moreplanned way.What are the key issues which will determine the success orfailure of the latest in a long line of initiatives? First, the extentto which the new partnerships genuinely engage local peoplewill be crucial. Tony Giddens in ‘The Third Way’ argues that ‘inorder to work, partnerships between government agencies, thecriminal justice system, local associations and communityorganisations have to be inclusive - all economic and ethnicgroups must be involved’ (Giddens, 1998). What this analysisignores is the often highly divided nature of the mostdisadvantaged communities.Forthcoming research by NACRO into social crime preventionmeasures in two northern cities shows the importance ofproactive efforts to involve and engage local people - the young,the isolated, victims of crime and offenders - but achievinggenuinely inclusive consultation and participation is a prizeworth having. NACRO’s Huyton Community Crime Preventionproject, which has been funded by the Single RegenerationBudget in Merseyside, will try to put the lessons of this researchinto action.The carrot of funding will help in the NDC areas, but elsewherecommunity involvement will not just happen. Indeed the rolewhich it is envisaged that the police will play will not beuniversally welcomed. While the idea put forward by Giddensthat the police ‘should work closely with citizens to improvelocal community standards and civil behaviour using education,persuasion and counselling instead of arraignment’ is muchpreferable to using their powers to sweep undesirables off thestreets, it will need to be implemented thoughtfully.Second, the SEU report places great faith in the ability both ofNACRO SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE FEBRUARY 1999 12

Safety Through Regeneration FEATURE Safer Societyagencies to work more effectively at thecoalface and of mainstream government policiesto develop a more preventive focus targeted onthe worst problems. Another NACRO researchstudy due to be published shortly, evaluating thecommunity safety strategy of a large city,revealed the difficulties of meaningfullycoordinating the work of departments within asingle local authority let alone across the wideragency landscape. Signing up to plans orprotocols is one thing, changing the direction ofday to day work and above all spending moneydifferently can be quite another.Efforts to bring about better inter-agencyworking with young offenders is being drivenforward by new statutory infrastructure in theform of youth offending teams and a YouthJustice Board, together with a frameworkdocument setting out what it means in practicefor different agencies to give effect to thestatutory aim of preventing offending by youngpeople. Something similar may be required ifthe neighbourhood management provessuccessful in the pathfinder areas. It willcertainly be important for neighbourhoodrenewal initiatives to be linked into the crimeand disorder reduction strategies which will bein place from 1st April.As for central government policy, it will beimportant for the action teams to grasp somepotentially painful nettles. Businessimprovement districts could offer tax breaks forcorporations which participate in strategicplanning and invest in designated areas.Mainstream schools must be properly equippedand resourced to educate the most troublesomeyoungsters rather than given the opportunity tooff-load them into special units. And housingauthorities must not be allowed simply to ridtheir own properties of anti-social or difficulttenants at the expense of the wider community.More contentious still is the question of drugs.In all too many of the poorest areas theconsumption, distribution and exchange of drugshas filled the space vacated by work in the livesof residents. While the Government haseffectively ruled out the policy ofdecriminalisation favoured by radicalcommentators, it is clear that unless education,prevention and treatment programmes areintroduced on a scale to match the problem,efforts at renewal will struggle.Getting central departments and the localagencies they sponsor to take a broad andinclusive view of their social role andresponsibilities is the key task.Nowhere is this more true than when dealingwith the people who do offend or engage in antisocialbehaviour. The consequences of moreaggressive use of powers to evict and of theanti-social behaviour order, spelled out by TimBell in the last issue of ‘Safer Society’, couldlead to an ‘unhouseable’ underclass ofpermanently excluded people. Theimplementation of criminal convictioncertificates in the Police Act 1997 could make ita good deal more difficult for people with acriminal record to find legitimate work. Properconcern to prevent dangerous sex offenders fromworking with children is threatening to spill overinto at best a wariness of, at worst an outrightrefusal to consider, a much wider range ofoffenders for a much wider range of work whichthey could quite properly do.Helping offenders to get and keep a job isperhaps the best way of preventing re-offending.As well as improving the quality and extent ofwork-based training, there is a need to ensurethat offenders are not increasingly excludedfrom opportunities. The Intermediate LabourMarket initiatives described by Mike Stewart(page 17) have particular promise in the mostdisadvantaged areas.NACRO’s forthcoming campaign, ‘GoingStraight to Work’, will seek to encourageemployers of all kinds not to write offoffenders*. This is part of a much larger task ofensuring that, to adapt the objectives of theHome Office, society is just and tolerant as wellas safe. It is with all three objectives in mindthat the strategy for neighbourhood renewalmust be implemented. * An article about the campaign will be included inthe next issue.ReferenceGiddens, A (1998), ‘The Third Way’, Polity PressKelling, G L and Coles, C M (1977), ‘Fixing BrokenWindows’, Simon and SchusterNACRO (1995), ‘Crime and Social Policy: A Report ofthe Crime and Social Policy Committee’Social Exclusion Unit (1998), ‘Bringing BritainTogether: A National Strategy for NeighbourhoodRenewal’.As for centralgovernment policy, itwill be important forthe action teams tograsp some difficultnettles. Businessimprovement districtscould offer tax breaksfor corporations whichparticipate in strategicplanning and invest indesignated areas.Mainstream schoolsmust be properlyequipped andresourced to educatethe most troublesomeyoungsters rather thangiven the opportunityto off-load them intospecial units. Andhousing authoritiesmust not be allowedsimply to rid their ownproperties of antisocialor difficulttenants at the expenseof the widercommunity.ROB ALLENIS NACRO’s DIRECTOR OFRESEARCH ANDDEVELOPMENT13 FEBRUARY 1999 SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE NACRO

LOOKING AT EMPLOYMENTEmploying Offendersin EuropeBY ANDREW McCALLIn five years working for theEuropean Offender EmploymentForum, I have come into contact withministers, European commissioners,members of national and Europeanparliaments, government officials,eminent academics and projectworkers. Almost without exception,they have identified a close linkbetween unemployment, offending,re-offending and rising crime. Noonedisputes that reintegratingoffenders through employment isbeneficial. This consensus, however,has failed to translate itself intopractical, effective and co-ordinatedaction across Europe. Why is this?The European Offender EmploymentForum has been seeking answersand, as a result, has been able toidentify positive, practical stepswhich can be taken to improve thesituation.First, the impact of criminal justice policy on reintegrating offendersshould not be underestimated. One of the results of the previous HomeSecretary’s, Michael Howard’s, ‘prison works’ policy was toovercrowd prisons. The first elements of prison regimes to suffer whenthey are overcrowded include work, education and training - the veryactivities which can help prisoners reintegrate. So a beneficial criminal justicepolicy framework forms part of the solution the Forum is seeking.There are numerous examples of projects in Europe in which employers aredirectly involved in prison work, or in which prisoners are employed outsideprison in order to prepare for work on release. One initiative involved anoffshore oil company which trained Dutch prisoners to man oil rigs on release(EOEG, 1994). Another involved Network Southeast in London recruiting 90prisoners over two years (EOEG, 1996). There are also many examples ofemployers working with people serving community sentences. The key pointis that the training of offenders must be relevant to the needs of today’s labourmarket and must be seen to be so by the offenders themselves, otherwise theirvalue is limited.Research undertaken by the Ministry of Justice in Northrhine Westphalia in1993, for example, showed that 80% of prisoners who completed their trainingbut failed to find work on release re-offended, compared with 32% of thosewho found work. The 80% rate was worse than the re-offending rate amongprisoners who failed to complete their training (75%) (EOEG, 1994).Successful training within prison does not necessarily reduce the risk of reoffendingafterwards - especially if there are no opportunities to apply whatthey have learnt in the world of work afterwards.There is also a need to ensure that offenders have basic skills training. At arecent Forum seminar, employers discussed the obstacles to employing moreex-offenders. Although they felt that having a criminal record in itself was aproblem, their primary concern was the lack of basic skills among exoffenders.Their main concern was to recruit young people, whether exoffendersor not, who possessed attributes such as proper motivation,reliability, trustworthiness, ability to read and write, and the ability to work aspart of a team.NACRO SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE FEBRUARY 1999 14

Safer Society FEATURE EmployingPhoto: Michael GrieveThe point was underlined by Hans van der Ven, the Director ofHurkmans, a Dutch company specialising in laying pipes andunderground wiring. For him, offending was not the obstacle.His requirement was for motivated young people, prepared towork hard and who were not distracted by an alcohol or drugproblem. He already employed a considerable number of exoffendersin his company. Thus, largescale and specificvocational training projects may not always be appropriate,particularly if relevant jobs are not available. This is not to ruleout vocational training, but to underline the importance of basicskills complemented, according to labour market circumstances,by training in specific skills.Many offenders have multiple problems which cannot be solvedsolely through help with employment. Chief among these arealcohol or drug abuse, although others include housing, welfareand family problems. At the root of these problems is theundoubted increase in drug-related crime in recent years. Someof the most successful employment initiatives are those whichtake full account of these problems. A special section of a prisonin Rome, for example, provides intensive work to tackle drugabuse combined with work experience provided through a localco-operative. Re-offending rates are low and many prisonerswith previous drug problems are successfully placed withemployers.The aim of the WOBES employment programme in Austria is toprepared drug users for jobs in the ‘free’ labour market. Itprovides a ‘semi-protected’ environment in which intensivetraining is undertaken. Ex-offenders and other socially excludedgroups are recruited as temporary workers to undertakesubsidised employment, such as housing repairs and renovations.They are simultaneously offered accommodation, care and helpwith drug problems.The project is indicative of an increasing trend towards theprovision of more comprehensive packages of assistance tooffenders. Cumbria Probation Service identifies the problemclearly:‘Many individuals under supervision by Cumbria ProbationService have multi-faceted, mutually-reinforcing problemsinvolving drug and alcohol misuse, unemployment andaccommodation difficulties. These problems are intertwined withtheir offending behaviour in complex and varied ways ... and itis necessary to address each issue adequately on its own termsand also in its links with the other issues.’Cumbria Probation Service has established a project aimed atdelivering ‘the kind of intensive, holistic approach to themultiple needs of offenders under supervision who haveemployment, accommodation and drug and alcohol problems’(Cumbria Probation Service, 1997).Some foyer schemes also provide housing and training/employment skills for offenders. Partnership approaches havealso been developed in which close links between agencies havebeen established to provide a range of services for offenders. Butapart from these examples, genuine and effective multidimensionalprogrammes are still difficult to find.There is a need for continuity from sentence to release. Some ofthe least effective interventions we have seen have resulted fromleaving prisoners - or probationers - isolated at the end of theirsentence. However effective the pre-release or prison trainingscheme, without action to bridge the gap between custody andcommunity, there will always be a tendency towards reoffending.The value of subsidising jobs for offenders also needs to beconsidered. In Italy, there are numerous examples of subsidiesbeing paid either to employers or to offenders, to assist them infinding employment. In Bologna, for example, there was a15 FEBRUARY 1999 SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE NACRO

Safer Society FEATURE Employing Offenders in EuropeCONFERENCEAninternationalconference on‘Basic Skills forOffenders’,organised bythe Forum, isbeing held inParis on4-6 March1999. The feefor theconference is£250, includingaccommodation.For details,contact AndrewMcCall on 0181546 9978.ANDREW McCALLIS THE DIRECTOR OFTHE EUROPEANOFFENDEREMPLOYMENTFORUM, WHICHEXISTS TO TACKLERISING EUROPEANCRIME BY IMPROVINGPOLICY ANDPRACTICE IN THEREHABILITATION OFOFFENDERS.scheme which involved young offenders workingin a company for six to nine months, for whichthey received one million lira (approximately£350) per month. If the company took on a drugaddict, they were given a direct grant and furtherfinancial incentives if permanent employmentwas provided (IARD, 1995).There is no consensus on the intrinsic value ofsubsidised employment for offenders. The ideaof ‘positive action’ in favour of offenders isanathema in some countries, while for others it isa useful idea. The debate will continue but,whatever the political arguments, it is clear thatfinancial incentives can play a part inencouraging the employment of ex-offendersand, depending upon the overall employmentsituation, their use may become widespread.Once we begin to piece together the elementswhich contribute to a successful interventionwith offenders, the question ‘What can be done?’is not difficult to answer. The tricky question is‘How can we do it?’ and it is here that we reachthe crux of the problem. Taking into account allof the excellent and effective initiativesidentified by the Forum, and allowing for somewe have missed, I would be surprised if theycover any more than 10% of the half a million orso people leaving prison in Europe each year. Itis perfectly clear that most offenders do notbenefit from special integrated, holistic or labourmarket friendly employment initiatives - thegood practice evident in specific projects doesnot translate into widespread, concerted action tobenefit larger numbers of offenders. Why? Ibelieve that there are two reasons.First, employment and training provision foroffenders is not sufficiently controlled and coordinatedwithin the member states. Typically,not only will the prison service be providingwork, training and education for inmates, so toomight the labour ministry, and a separate agencymay be providing a training or employmentservice. In addition, many probation services willprovide employment services for people releasedfrom prison. Some probation services may workwith prisoners prior to release. Once out ofprison, ex-offenders may be eligible for a rangeof training or employment services, provided bya plethora of agencies. This is without takingaccount of programmes on drug or substanceabuse, housing and welfare benefit issues - thelist goes on.There is a need for these agencies to talk to eachother as a matter of routine, to ensure thatinformation on effective practice is shared andthat programmes are monitored, so that standardscan be continuously improved. At policy level,government departments should be in regularcommunication with each other. It should benatural for ministries responsible for welfarematters to discuss the implications of failings inthe justice system which lead to large andincreasing numbers of welfare dependants.Similarly, labour ministries should concernthemselves with the capacity of the justicesystem to produce people capable of securingemployment. They should also naturally considerwhether their training and employmentprogrammes are accessible to prisoners and exoffenders.Second, the funders of programmes need toensure that the services delivered are effective,that they are producing results and that theyprovide value for money. Governments mustmake it their business to ensure that theprogrammes they support are meeting the rangeof offenders’ needs, are linking properly with thelabour market and are providing continuity fromsentence to release. In short, they need toestablish an active quality control andmonitoring system. With such a system, it wouldbe possible to avoid some of the mistakescurrently being made.I have sought to demonstrate that the factorsleading to a successful intervention withoffenders are generally well known. The Forumhas helped develop a database of informationabout good practice, based on comparative study,research and debate. If the politicians can beencouraged to give unemployment, crime andoffender rehabilitation the priority they deserveand if governments can effectively control,monitor and co-ordinate employment andtraining services for offenders, the mechanismsfor achieving positive results will be in place. ReferencesCumbria Probation Service (1997), ‘Hard-up,Homeless and Hooked on the Hard Stuff’EOEG (1996), ‘Europe towards 2000: ConferenceReport’, European Offender Employment GroupEOEG (1994), ‘What Works: Models of Good Practicein Europe’, European Offender Employment GroupIARD (1995), ‘Training Needs and Integration into theWork Environment of Young People Leaving PenalInstitutions: Final Report’NACRO SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE FEBRUARY 1999 16

LOOKING AT EMPLOYMENTIntermediate LabourMarkets andSafer CommunitiesBY MIKE STEWARTThis articleexamines theconcept ofIntermediateLabour Marketsand outlines thestrategic rolethey could playin helping to: Deliverproducts thathelp prevent andreduce crime andpromotecommunitysafety. Enableoffenders tobecome moreemployable andfind work.What areIntermediate LabourMarkets?Intermediate Labour Markets (ILMs) providetemporary jobs with training for long-termunemployed people. They deliver products whicheither have a direct social purpose or trade in anactivity that would not normally be undertakenand are concentrated in areas of particularly highlong-term unemployment (Centre for LocalEconomic Strategies, 1996).ILMs were pioneered by the Wise Group inGlasgow in 1983 and subsequently by GlasgowWorks, who between them now provide over1,000 ILM jobs a year (Glasgow Works, 1998).From these beginnings ILMs have developedslowly but steadily in recent years in areas ofparticularly high unemployment. The ILMconcept itself is still being refined and developed,quite appropriately, to suit the requirements oflocal communities.The Government has recognised and given impetusto the development of ILMs, most notably in theprototype Employment Zones where an ILMoption (known as Neighbourhood Match) forms akey element of the Employment Zone deliveryplans. The Government’s Social Exclusion Unitreport, ‘Bringing Britain Together’ (see page 11),also considers that ILMs may be one way ofhelping unemployed people in particularlydisadvantaged areas back to work and a JobsAction Team will report back to the Unit on ILMsand their effectiveness (Social Exclusion Unit,1998).All ILMs incorporate the following basicprinciples: They are designed specifically for long-termunemployed people and provide a pathwayback to the full labour market. They provide a wage and operate in the sameway as the full labour market in terms ofrecruitment, selection, work discipline,contracts of employment, rate for the job etc. They are temporary because the centralpurpose is to assist people back into the fulllabour market. Training, jobsearch and personal developmentare integral to ILM jobs. They undertake work that provides additionaleconomic activity, mainly in the socialeconomy but also in the public and privatesectors. The work created has the potential to besustainable over the longer term. The funding for ILMs pools and repackagescurrent mainstream funding sources such astraining funds, regeneration funding, Europeanstructural funds and, where possible, benefits.There is no single blueprint for ILMs. Each isdesigned to meet local needs and closely linked tolocal regeneration strategies. They have invariablygrown out of effective local partnerships and aremanaged and administered through formallyconstituted not-for-profit organisations. Undercurrent regulations, assembling the fundingpackage and the management of ILMs is acomplex business, requiring considerable skill.The quality of local management is therefore vitalto their success.ILMs are not cheap options. The average cost perILM job is significantly higher than othergovernment employment-related programmes. Tobe successful they must provide real work, qualitytraining and also help deliver wider strategicobjectives. The infrastructure needed to manageand provide an appropriate level of support also17 FEBRUARY 1999 SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE NACRO

Safer Society FEATURE Intermediate Labour Markets and Safer CommunitiesPhoto:Mark Harveyrepresents a significant cost. However, they do produceconsiderably better job outcomes than other programmes – 63%of Wise Group employees, for example, successfully find jobs.Direct cost comparisons with other government programmes,however, can be misleading. The work that ILMs do can producesurpluses that can be reinvested and other outcomes ofconsiderable benefit to local communities. It is also important toremember that the pooling and repackaging of different sourcesof funding can produce considerable added value in terms of thestrategic outcomes achieved.The relevance of ILMsto crime preventionA 1995 report by the Crime and Social Policy Committee,established by NACRO, considered the relationship betweenunemployment and crime and concluded that ‘unemploymentplays a vital part in generating circumstances in which crime canflourish and in undermining attempts to reduce crime.Conversely having a decent job or the prospect of one can be amajor factor in helping to steer individuals away from crime’(NACRO, 1995). It also emphasised the general importance ofmaximising employment not only as a desirable end in itself butbecause ‘it would have major benefits in reducing crime andwould greatly facilitate crime prevention efforts’.Significantly, the NACRO report also identified that ‘the issue ofwhere additional jobs will come from needs to be addressedmore comprehensively, not just as a means of reducingunemployment but also for the wider aim of crime preventionand to combat the marginalisation of certain sectors of society.’Much has happened to promote this approach since that reportwas written.Improving the employability of long-term unemployed peoplethrough Welfare to Work policies, an emphasis on lifelonglearning and measures to combat social exclusion are among thehighest priorities of the current Government. Local authoritiesand the police have now been required to developcomprehensive crime and disorder strategies. The opportunityhas therefore now been presented to link measures to combatunemployment with the development of crime and disorderstrategies at a local level.Preventing and reducing crimeand promoting community safetyMany of the measures that are likely to be included in localcrime and disorder strategies will require the creation ofadditional jobs. The recent Home Office research study‘Reducing Offending’ lists a range of evidence-based examplesof good practice across the crime prevention spectrum (HomeOffice, 1997). Situational crime prevention measures, forexample, such as target hardening, controlling access to crimetargets, city guards, attendants, rapid repair and graffiti cleaningwill require people to do them. ILMs have a role in providingrelevant services and products.Effective measures to prevent criminality by engaging withchildren, family and friends and schools will require additionalpeople to provide various types of support. Targetedemployment-related measures for ex-offenders, includingvocational training and literacy programmes to help reducereconviction rates, will need people to deliver them and supportindividuals through them. Some ILMs indeed do some of thiswork already but to date the development of this type of projecthas not been linked strategically to crime prevention strategies.There is some funding available specifically to develop andimplement local crime and disorder strategies but there isNACRO SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE FEBRUARY 1999 18

Many of the measures that are likelyto be included in local crime anddisorder strategies will require thecreation of additional jobs.unlikely to be enough to meet the full range ofneeds. There is considerable potential howeverfor pooling other funding resources locally anddeveloping ILMs which will meet a number ofcomplementary objectives:Create jobs in the local economy with thepotential to be sustainable in the longer term.Provide temporary jobs with training forlocal unemployed people, including exoffenders,which will provide a bridge to thefull labour market.Deliver products that will help meet some ofthe objectives of local crime and disorderstrategies.Finding work forunemployed ex-offendersMeasures to improve the employment prospectsof long-term unemployed people, particularlythose who have also been offenders, tend tofocus on skills development and tackling thebarriers to unemployment that they face. Theproblem is worse for unemployed ex-offenderswho are doubly disadvantaged because of thestigma attached to their offending behaviour. Inaddition, considerable effort is needed to engagewith and change the attitudes of employers tounemployed people in general and ex-offendersin particular.However, high-crime areas also tend to be areaswhere there are significantly higher levels oflong-term unemployment. In these areas, there isoften an insufficient supply of suitable jobs forlong-term unemployed people in the localeconomy. The jobs that are available are morelikely to be part-time, temporary or low paid,presenting a range of problems associated withbenefits or low income traps. Improving anindividual’s employability and engaging withlocal employers is not enough in thesecircumstances to enable unemployed people tofind and maintain work. In areas of highunemployment an intermediate approach isneeded which provides real work, a wage andgenuinely improves the prospect of a full-timejob.Harnessing the potentialNo-one would claim that ILMs in isolation are asolution to unemployment, but in areas of highunemployment they can and do form part of thesolution. Similarly ILM projects will not, inisolation, reduce crime in high-crime areas butthey could form a key element of local crimeand disorder strategies.There is an opportunity now for local partners tothink imaginatively and creatively aboutcombining the twin government policyobjectives of getting long-term unemployedpeople back to work with ways of reducingcrime and promoting community safety. As thisarticle has tried to illustrate, the development oflocal ILMs is one way of doing this andaddressing a range of complementary policyobjectives. They also provide an opportunity toturn joined-up national thinking into joined-uplocal practice by both creating jobs for localunemployed people and delivering products andservices that will help reduce crime in the samelocal communities. ReferencesCentre for Local Economic Strategies (1996),‘Regeneration Through Work’Glasgow Works (1998), ‘The Wise Group AnnualReport 1997’Home Office (1997), ‘Reducing Offending: AnAssessment of Research Evidence on Ways ofDealing with Offending Behaviour’, Research StudyNo.187NACRO (1995), ‘Crime and Social Policy: A Report ofthe Crime and Social Policy Committee’Social Exclusion Unit (1998), ‘Bringing BritainTogether: A National Strategy for NeighbourhoodRenewal’A considerablebody of experienceand expertise nowexists to helpdevelop ILMs andthere is a NationalILM Network, witharound 30members,administered bythe Centre forSocial Inclusion. Ifyou would likefurther informationabout ILMs or wishto be put in touchwith a local ILMorganisation,please contactMike Stewart at theCentre for SocialInclusion, VigilantHouse, 120 WiltonRoad, LondonSW1V 1JZ or bytelephone on 0171-808 7010.MIKE STEWARTIS A DIRECTOROF THE CENREFOR SOCIALINCLUSION19 FEBRUARY 1999 SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE NACRO

Safer SocietyFEATUREorPhoto: Michael GrieveBAILJAIL?BY KEITH TOWLERPhilip Knight was 15 whenhe took his own life inSwansea prison in 1991.Despite the outcry whichfollowed and legislation toend penal remands forjuveniles, eight years onboys like Philip are stillbeing sent to prison.Dealing with youngsters on remand has proved one of the mostdifficult problems of criminal policy in recent years. Everyoneagrees that jail is no place to hold unconvicted school children, butever since the panic about bail bandits in the early nineties concernabout offending on bail has been high. New secure children’s homes intendedto provide alternative accommodation for imprisoned 15 and 16 year olds arebeing used instead to allow courts to lock up children as young as 12. Thelaw’s intention that the most vulnerable boys in the older age group are heldthere too may be scuppered by lack of places.The Government’s answer to the problem lies in greatly extending the rangeand quality of bail support and supervision and other community-basedinitiatives for remanded juveniles. The Crime and Disorder Act 1998 willrequire local authorities to provide bail support amongst its services foralleged and convicted young offenders and the Youth Justice Board (YJB)will be devoting £35 million over the next three years to the development ofnew projects up and down the country. The Board’s bidding guidance usesNACRO’s definition of bail support as:‘Community-based activities in programmes designed to help ensure thatdefendants awaiting trial or sentence successfully complete their periods ofunconditional or conditional bail by returning to court on the due datewithout committing offences or interfering with the course of justice and toassist the bailee to observe any conditions of their bail. Activities andprogrammes may be aimed at: improving social and life skills, controllinganger and aggression, reducing drug and alcohol misuse and tacklingdifficulties with family relationships, schooling, employment oraccommodation.’NACRO has worked over many years to improve remand arrangements atnational and local level. A series of surveys undertaken with the Associationof Chief Officers of Probation highlighted the areas from where the largestnumbers tended to go to prison. The Community Alternatives to SecureAccommodation project has set more detailed monitoring of remanddecisions in place in Wales, while the committee chaired in 1996 by formerprisons minister Sir Peter Lloyd published guidance on best practice for allthe key local agencies (NACRO, 1996). The 1995 Directory of Bail Supportmapped existing projects and identified considerable gaps (NACRO, 1995).Not surprisingly, NACRO is set to play an important role in theforthcoming expansion of bail support. Four demonstration projects, fundedby the lottery, will be getting underway in Bradford, Newcastle, Bristol andInner London in the spring. By using volunteer mentors and exploring thepossibility of bailed youngsters making amends for their crimes, theprojects will add genuine innovation to what is known to work best fromexisting projects. In addition, the Home Office and YJB have agreed tofund a small policy and dissemination unit which will ensure the emerginglessons from the projects are learned and applied. This will be particularlyimportant given the large number of projects likely to come into being withfunding from the YJB. NACRO has been contracted by the Board to advisepotential bidders and hopes to play a continuing role in providing thedevelopment, monitoring and information services which an initiative likethis needs if it is to make an optimum impact. Expert advice and assistancewill be key to meeting the objectives of reducing offending on bail,reducing remands to care and custody and helping reduce delay.There are a number of key lessons from NACRO’s diverse experience sofar. First, it is important to locate bail support within an agreed localstrategy, to which all of the agencies sign up. Second, there is a need toNACRO SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE FEBRUARY 1999 20

target the most intensive bail supportprogrammes at those at greatest risk ofbeing remanded to custody or of reoffending.Third, it is important todistinguish bail support, whichcomprises interventions in the life of adefendant, from bail information,which provides factual informationabout their situation.Fourth, clarity is needed about theenforcement of bail support and thecircumstances in which defendants willbe returned to court. Fifth, while thereare limits to the work with a defendantwhich can be undertaken at the remandstage, interventions should seek tofollow the principles of effectivepractice. Sixth, monitoring andevaluation are crucial. Finally, bailsupport should be complemented by arange of other initiatives includingremand fostering and remand rescue(schemes in prisons and secure unitswhich review the detention of juvenilesand put together alternatives).Local strategies based on theseprinciples have brought about bigreductions in remands to custody in anumber of areas, including GreaterManchester. There is an opportunitynow to roll these strategies outnationally in a way which bringsbenefits to defendants, victims and thewider community. ReferencesNACRO (1995), ‘Bail Support Directory:Directory of Bail Support Provision inEngland and Wales by Local Authority andProbation Service Area’, NACRO YouthCrime Section Bail Support UnitNACRO (1996), ‘The Code of Practice forJuvenile Remand Proceedings’, NACROJuvenile Remand Review GroupKEITH TOWLERIS RESPONSIBLE FORTHE COMMUNITYALTERNATIVES TOSECUREACCOMMODATIONPROJECT, NACROCYMRUIs WhatWorksWhatCounts?The Role of EvidencebasedCrime Reductionin Policy and PracticeBY ROB ALLENTrue to their leader’s most well known sound bite, theGovernment’s policy of getting tough on crime and tough onthe causes of crime has deservedly won widespreadsupport. Up and down the land police and councils, havingaudited crime and disorder problems, are developing withlocal people ways to solve them. Fundamental reforms ofthe youth justice system are getting off the ground,alongside a raft of initiatives which should assist the crimereduction effort by supporting vulnerable parents, tacklingtruancy and school exclusion, reducing rough sleeping,For those who do get into trouble there is a growing interest in effectivepractice with both prison and probation officers enjoined to do ‘what works’.Indeed, evidence-based practice, the driver of the Home Office’s own £250million crime reduction strategy, has become something of a mantra.A Third Way is emerging in criminal policy which neither lays the crime problemsolely at the door of individual responsibility nor of social deprivation. Answers donot lie in the simple polarities of harsh punishment or soft treatment, lawenforcement or community regeneration. Instead, just as all of the agencies involvedwith the youth justice system must be guided by the statutory aim of preventingoffending, broader efforts to reduce crime are coalescing around the lessons whichemerged from the Home Office assessment of research evidence on ways of dealingwith offending behaviour (Home Office, 1997). As the Prime Minister reportedlyreminds his ministers ‘it’s what works what counts’.21 FEBRUARY 1999 SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE NACRO

Unless positive and constructivemeasures to combat local disorderare developed alongside coercivepowers - for example mediationschemes, intergenerationalprojects, support for families, afterschool activities and detachedyouth work - the Crime andDisorder Act could end uppromoting rather than tacklingsocial exclusion.Photo: Michael GrieveThere is clearly everything to be said for re-casting crime policyin a way which takes a more balanced account of the varyingdimensions of the crime problem and its solution than did theincreasingly one club approach of the previous administration.Yet translating an essentially pragmatic policy into action couldprove problematic, particularly if the expected economicdownturn puts falling crime rates under threat. In practical termsdecisions about the relative emphasis given in local strategies,on the one hand, to police targeting of high-profile repeatoffenders with the aim of securing sound evidence, convictionsand long sentences and, on the other, to intensive interventionsamong children and families at risk will be keenly contested.Tensions may well arise too between the evidence-basedapproach and the much greater involvement of local people indesigning and implementing local solutions ushered in by aCrime and Disorder Act, described by Jack Straw as the‘triumph of community politics over detached metropolitanelites’. What people overwhelmingly want is more police on thebeat and more widespread use of close circuit television.Evidence for the effectiveness of the first is hard to find and ofthe second more limited than is often supposed.More worrying, there is the prospect of local crime reductionstrategies assuming an increasingly repressive edge. We are usedto the balance between social and situational measures - thosewhich seek to prevent the propensity people have to offend andthose which look to restrict opportunity by target hardening orsurveillance.There is now a third component, which might be called coercivecrime prevention, involving local, flexible use of the police andcourts to deter or remove the seemingly intractable problemscaused by difficult people. New measures in the Crime andDisorder Act - the anti-social behaviour order, local child curfewand power to remove truants add to the armoury of existingpowers to deal with anti-social tenants.How the powers will be used is as yet unclear. Most of theexamples usually given of the behaviour to be subject to theanti-social behaviour order are of very serious criminalbehaviour for which for one reason or another it is impossible tosecure a conviction. But we know that local people may havevery different ideas of what is meant and such is the weight ofpublic expectation which has been stimulated by theGovernment, agencies will find themselves under considerablepressure to use their new powers.A further example of the coercive approach is so-called zerotolerance policing, whose proponents are unlikely to be put off byits lukewarm review in the Home Office research. The idea thatthe police should take a stronger line in respect of minor acts ofmisbehaviour whether drunkenness, damage, public order orwhatever has some appeal. There is something to be said for thepolice enforcing standards on behalf of the communities theyserve - although this is far from straightforward in a multiculturaland multi-racial society - but unless their efforts arebacked by resources to meet the personal, family or socialdifficulties which underpin so much bad behaviour, all that is leftis arrest and court appearances and ultimately perhaps prison.Unless positive and constructive measures to combat localdisorder are developed alongside coercive powers - for examplemediation schemes, intergenerational projects, support forfamilies, after school activities and detached youth work - theCrime and Disorder Act could end up promoting rather thantackling social exclusion.There is a danger that the problem-solving measures -collectively known as social crime prevention - will be squeezedNACRO SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE FEBRUARY 1999 22

Is What Works What Counts? FEATURE Safer Societybetween the situational and the coercive. Certainly theopening round of the Home Office crime reductionstrategy - the strategic burglary initiative - is largelyabout target hardening.The most extreme example of coercive crimeprevention in the use of imprisonment as a way ofreducing crime. There was an impressive consensusamong those who gave evidence to last year’s HomeAffairs Select Committee inquiry into ‘Alternatives toPrison Sentences’ that the prison population was toohigh. One of the only three witnesses who argued thatthe prison population should be higher was crimeprevention expert Ken Pease who reckoned thereshould be 10,000 more prisoners. His two fellowwitnesses thought the prison population should be inthe region of 2-300,000 so Professor Pease’s view wasrelatively moderate, but troubling all the same.What does the evidence-based approach promise forpolicy in respect of those who are convicted of crimes?Despite the surprising and to many disappointingdecision to implement Michael Howard’s ‘ThreeStrikes’ policy for persistent offenders, theGovernment seems broadly to accept the Home AffairsCommittee’s view that ‘the huge rise in the prisonpopulation during the last five years is unsustainable.Unless halted and in due course reversed - it will endbadly’ (Home Affairs Committee, 1998).In the long-term the Government strategy is based, noton any dislike of prison (other than perhaps its costs)but rather on the pragmatic view that too manyprisoners means overcrowded jails, poor regimes, feweropportunities to rehabilitate, less of the things whichwork to reduce offending. Many of the evidence-basedapproaches work as well if not better in the community.So the argument goes that prison should be targeted onthe most dangerous and persistent criminals and noncustodialpenalties beefed up and supervised by a newpublic protection service so they have the confidence ofsentencers and the public.In the meantime, the wider scale youth justice changesaimed at nipping crime in the bud, the local crime anddisorder reduction strategies with their targets forbringing down crime and the various social policyinitiatives to combat social exclusion, regenerate thehigh-crime neighbourhoods, prevent and treat drugmisuse, improve parenting, reduce truancy and so onwill start to have a positive impact. The raw material ofcriminal activity will be reduced and with it the need tolock up so many people.At the micro level, one of the main messages of theHome Office review of what works is that there areprogrammes which if properly delivered and managedcan reduce offending, both if carried out by theprobation service and also, though probably lesseffectively, if carried out during a prison sentence. Theprogrammes are based on cognitive behaviouralapproaches. What is not clear yet is how far theseprogrammes need to be complemented by some of themore traditional aims of prison regimes.Canadian research shows a substantial reduction inreoffending among those undertaking literacy andnumeracy courses in prison. Other studies here andabroad show that released prisoners are less than halfas likely to offend if they are helped to find and keep ajob; that prisoners who are released homeless are morethan twice as likely to reoffend as those who havestable accommodation; and that prisoners withoutfamily support are between twice and six times morelikely to offend in the first year after release than thosewho have close family ties.Constructive regimes and throughcare are importantfor all prisoners, including the majority who areunlikely in the forseeable future to undertake specificbehavioural programmes. Moreover, prisoners’determination to avoid offending after they have gonethrough behavioural programmes will be reduced ifthey have no job prospects, no home and no familysupport. The extension of programmes to changeoffending behaviour must not be at the expense ofincreased efforts to resettle offenders into housingand employment and to help them maintain familyties.While reducing re-offending is obviously important,there is also a continuing obligation to provide decentconditions and a range of activities for those we sendto custody. It is ironic that the country which gave usthe idea of an evidence-based strategy on crime has inlarge part forgotten that obligation.The USA has an imprisonment rate getting on for sixtimes our own. A third of young black men are inprison, on probation and parole. According toAmnesty International, there is a persistent andwidespread pattern of human rights violations. Thetripling of the prison population since 1980 has beenaccompanied by the common use of chains and legirons as restraints, sexual and physical abuse,methods of control which include long periods ofisolation and others described as cruel, degradingand sometimes life threatening. Experience theresuggests it’s not only what works what counts. ReferencesHome Affairs Committee (1998), ‘Alternatives to PrisonSentences: Third Report of the Home Affairs CommitteeSession 1997-98’, The Stationery Office.Home Office (1997), ‘Reducing Offending: AnAssessment of Research Evidence on Ways of Dealingwith Offending Behaviour’, Research Study No.187Whilereducingre-offendingis obviouslyimportant,there isalso acontinuingobligationto providedecentconditionsand a rangeof activitiesfor thosewe send tocustody.23 FEBRYARY 1999 SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE NACRO

MEDIATINGfor a Safer SocietyBY STEPHANIEBRAITHWAITEPhoto: Stuart RaynerMediation is a method of conflict resolution that enables peopleinvolved in a conflict to reach a mutually acceptable agreement withthe help of a trained, neutral third party mediator.MEDIATION UK is a registered charity and the onlyumbrella organisation in the UK for projectsinvolving mediation, conflict resolution andaccredited training. The main areas of its work arein the local community to help solve neighbourhood conflicts, inschools and colleges to deal with problems such as bullying andother disruptive behaviour, and in the criminal justice system tomediate between the offender and his/her victim.In using mediation in the criminal justice system, the principlesof conflict resolution are used within the framework of‘restorative justice’. This has been defined by Tony Marshall, aformer Director of MEDIATION UK, as ‘a process whereby allthe parties with a stake in a specific offence come together toresolve collectively how to deal with the aftermath of theoffence and its implications for the future’.The main methods of mediation are: direct face-to-facemediation between the victim and the offender, where theydiscuss the offence and its implications, and agree on a form ofreparation; and family group conferencing, where in addition tothe victim and offender, members of their families and relevantmembers of the community can come together and go throughthe same kind of processes. If direct mediation is not an option,then indirect mediation is possible, using the mediator as a gobetween.Examples of restorative justice in action are the caution plusscheme and Retail Theft Initiative of Thames Valley Police andthe Northampton Diversion Scheme. There are obviousadvantages in using restorative justice methods in that the victimcan play a direct part and have a voice in the proceedings, andthe offender is made accountable for the offence and can learnabout the impact it has had on the victim, and both can take partin deciding on reparation.There have been many evaluations of such projects, both in theUK and in other parts of the world, and the results areencouraging. Any type of crime is relevant, at any stage of thecriminal justice system. All projects have demonstrated alowering of reconviction rates, from 2% in one scheme to 97%in another. But the reduction in offending behaviour is not theonly benefit. Levels of satisfaction for both victims andoffenders are consistently high when compared with those of thenormal system. Victims are grateful for the opportunity to meetthe offender, to be able to express their feelings and have someinfluence on the outcome. Offenders feel they have a greaterunderstanding of how their offence affected the victim andappreciate the opportunity of being able to help the victim andsay they are sorry.Reparation can take many forms, from direct reparation to thevictim in terms of the return of stolen goods, financialreimbursement or a personal service to the victim of some kind,to a form of several hours’ service to the local community orcharity. Reparation agreements are also more likely to becompleted in full when mediation has been included in thereparation process than when it has been directly ordered by thecourt.Other findings have shown that: mediation increases offenders’perception of the harm they have done to the victims; victimswant to help the offenders, especially the younger ones; bothvictims’ and offenders’ opinions of the police are morefavourable; offenders find the process more difficult thanappearing in court; many more victims take part in the processthan do in court; and fears of re-victimisation are decreased.Safer communities can be built by reductions in crime and fearof crime and also by involving and enabling members of thecommunity to solve their own problems, as all forms ofmediation attempt to do.Further opportunities for mediation involving the police,probation officers, social workers and local youth justice teamswill arise as a result of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998,especially with the introduction of final warnings, reparation,action plan and supervision orders. Stephanie Braithwaite is a chartered forensic psychologistworking with MEDIATION UK as a volunteer.Recent developments in all the forms of mediation -including community, education, victim-offender,environmental, workplace and internationalrelations - will be discussed at the MEDIATION UKAnnual Conference in Sheffield from 17 to 19 June1999. For further details about the work ofMEDIATION UK or the conference, please contactTherese Windle at MEDIATION UK, Alexander House,Telephone Avenue, Bristol BS1 4BS. Tel: (0117) 9046661. Fax: (0117) 904 3331. Email:mediationuk@mediationuk.org.ukSee news item on NACRO’s feport on mediation on page 8.NACRO SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE FEBRUARY 1999 24

BY ANNE DUNNNACRO’S POLICYRESEARCHMANAGER, RACEAND CRIMINALJUSTICE UNITLegislation,Race andCriminal JusticePhoto: Michael GrieveThe fifth HomeOffice ‘Statistics onRace and CriminalJustice’ (HomeOffice, 1998) is themost detailed todate of the series ofreports publishedsince 1992 undersection 95 of theCriminal Justice Act1991. As well asstatistics on policestop and searchpowers – whichshow that, as in theprevious year, blackpeople were onaverage five timesmore likely thanwhites to bestopped andsearched – itincludes a chapteron the developmentof ethnic monitoringsystems in criminaljustice agencies anda helpful breakdownof population byeach police force.There is usefulinformation aboutarrests, cautions,homicides, racialincidents, and thenumbers of minoritystaff working in theagencies concerned.The increasing value of section.95 illustrates the importance of a strong and coherent legislativeframework for ensuring fairness in the criminal justice system. This article gives a brief reviewof the key findings from the 1998 report, and looks at other legislative changes which willbecome increasingly important in the coming years.Of the one million Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE) s.1 stop and searches carried out in1997/98, 11% were of black people, compared to 2% in the general population over the age of 10; and5% were of Asians, compared to 3% in the general population. Of the two million arrests, 7% wereblack, and 4% were Asian. Cautioning, however, was used less frequently for black people than forwhite and ‘other’ ethnic groups.As in previous years, the number of people from minority groups in prison remains high: in June 1997,18% of the male and 25% of the female prison population. Even when prisoners from outside the UKare discounted, the proportion remains high: 14% of men and 16% of women from minority groups.61% of the adult black male prison population was serving sentences of over four years, compared to59% of Asians and 47% of white prisoners. Among women, 58% of black prisoners were serving overfour years compared to 31% of white prisoners.This year’s report also compared the prison population with the 10 police force areas with the highestminority populations and concludes that ‘compared with the population, black offenders were five to sixtimes more likely than white offenders to be received into prison’.There was a similar imbalance in the homicide figures, where 9% of the 1,230 murder victims over twoyears from 1996 to 1998 were black, 6% were Asian and 3% were of ‘other’ ethnic origin. There was a6% increase in the number of racial incidents recorded by the police, from 13,151 in 1996/97 to 13,878.At the other end of the picture, as in previous years, black and Asian workers are very much in theminority in the police (2%) and Prison Service (2% of prison officers and governors). In the probationservice and the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS), there is a higher proportion of minority staff (8%each) but very few at senior levels. There are ‘believed to be’ five minority circuit judges (out of about500) but none at any higher levels of the judiciary. For the first year, four minority justices’ clerks wererecorded.The real importance of s.95 is now becoming more clearly apparent. It is now possible to start looking attrends in, for example, stop and search and arrests; together with other recent research, such as a HomeOffice study on Entry into the Criminal Justice System (Phillips and Brown, 1998), the results confirmlong-standing concerns about the disproportionate use of these powers in minority communities –concerns which must be tackled urgently. Other concerns arising from the 1998 report are as follows. The continued increase in the use of s.1 stop and search powers in general, from 109,800 in 1986when it was first used, to just over one million in 1997/98. In the 10 police areas with the largestminority communities, there has been an increase in all cases except the West Midlands, which hasdecreased its use of the power from 58,401 in 1996/97 to 42,486 in 1997/98.At a time when there is new emphasis on police and local authority partnerships, restorative justiceand intelligence-led policing, the continued high level of use of these powers is surely questionable –particularly as only about 11 or 12% of searches lead to an arrest. The time is right for a thoroughHome Office review of the aim and effectiveness of s.1 of PACE.25 FEBRUARY 1999 SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE NACRO

Safer Society FEATURE Legislation, Race and Criminal JusticeOther search powers(PACE s.60, to preventincidents of violence, andthe Prevention of TerrorismAct 1989) are also beingused disproportionatelyagainst people fromminority communities; forexample, of the 7,970 s.60searches, 47% were ofwhite people, 11% were ofblack people and 39%were of Asians. This needsfurther explanation.Despite very welcome developments in using ethnicmonitoring systems across the criminal justice system, thereremains a key section which is still not subject to monitoring– sentencing in magistrates’ courts and Crown Courts. Thismakes it impossible to track cases as they go through thesystem or to identify trends and patterns in sentencing.Introducing ethnic monitoring of sentencing decisions shouldbe a priority for the Lord Chancellor’s Department.The CPS is committed to introducing monitoring ofprosecution decisions. However, it is to be based on datagathered by the police. At present, police decide themselveson a suspect’s ethnic origin, often using a code system – IC1,IC2 etc. This system might well be needed when trying totrack down suspects who are at large, but once someone isdetained and charged, they should be asked to specify theirown ethnic origin – a self-classification system rather than apolice classification system.Similarly, victims of crime should also be asked to providetheir ethnic origin so that, for example, clear up rates fordifferent groups can be identified.The value of legislationFrom its origins as a relatively modest piece of legislation -requiring the Secretary of State to publish information to helpthose engaged in the administration of justice to avoiddiscriminating on grounds of race, sex or any other improperground – s.95 is becoming an invaluable tool.The Crime and Disorder Act 1998 includes new and strongerlegislation covering racially-motivated offences, which isanother welcome development – provided of course the newpowers are used, monitored and kept under review to ensurethey are really doing the job.‘Fairness and justice are inseparable and amajor task for the criminal justice system isto ensure full equality for all.’ (Lord JusticeRose, Chairman, Criminal JusticeConsultative Council, introduction to the1998 Section 95 report).became UK law under theHuman Rights Act 1998. Article14 provides that ‘the enjoymentof the rights and freedoms setforth in this Convention shall besecured without discriminationon any ground such as sex, race,colour, language, religion,political or other opinion,national or social origin,association with a nationalminority, property, birth or otherstatus.’The Act makes it unlawful for public authorities – includingcentral and local government, courts, police, and immigrationofficers – to act in ways which are incompatible with theConvention. As well as Article 14, Article 5 on the right toliberty may have implications for stop and search and arrest;Article 6 may have implications in terms of ensuring a fair trial;and other articles may become important as case law isdeveloped.This is a key piece of legislation which will have far-reachingimplications. Complaints about unfairness or discrimination canbe set in a human rights context and tested in court. Individualsshould more easily be able to bring their grievances to court.It is essential that this new legislation is used to the best effect.One way to do this would be to establish a Human RightsCommission – as proposed by organisations such as the Institutefor Public Policy Research - which could act as an umbrellaorganisation to promote and safeguard the human rights ofdifferent groups in the community. Such a body would coordinatethe use of new legislation and monitor its effectiveness.It could help individuals to bring cases to test the application ofthe Human Rights Act, and it could have an educational role inpromoting the importance of human rights.So far the Government has decided not to establish aCommission. NACRO hopes that it may keep this under review.The inquiry report into the death of Stephen Lawrence willshortly be published. It will have implications for all policeareas, not only the Met, and for other agencies in the criminaljustice process.* Establishing a Human Rights Commission tohelp to implement the report’s recommendations would be asignificant step which would help to underline the Government’scommitment to fairness and equality. * The next issue of ‘Safer Society’ will include an article about theinquiry report and responses to it.Could even more be done to create a strong and workablelegislative framework to ensure equality in the administration ofjustice? In its call for reform of the 1976 Race Relations Act, theCommission for Racial Equality (CRE, 1998) is pressing for theAct to include discrimination by any public body including thepolice and the Prison Service, which until now have beenexempt. NACRO strongly supports this proposal.Such an amendment will in any case become necessary in the lightof Article 14 of the European Convention on Human Rights, whichReferencesCRE (1998), ‘Reform of the Race Relations Act 1976: Proposal for ChangeSubmitted by the CRE to the Secretary of State’Home Office (1998), ‘Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice System: HomeOffice Publication Under Section 95 of the Criminal Justice Act 1991’Phillips, C and Brown, D (1998), ‘Entry into the Criminal Justice System: A Surveyof Police Arrests and Their Outcomes’, Home Office Research Study No.185NACRO SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE FEBRUARY 1999 26

Contrasting JudgementsBY WILFRED HYDE‘Contrasting Judgements’ contains a report on two sentencing seminars held by a project knownas ‘International Comparisons in Criminal Justice’ (ICCJ).ICCJ seminars are small, informal gatherings.They do not produce communiques or strivefor agreed answers to the problems beingdiscussed. What they do provide is anopportunity for judges from different countries todiscuss the way in which they approach theirjobs and in particular the task of passingsentence on those who appear before them.Judges from Canada and the USA have attendedsome seminars, but most of the participants havebeen judges from England and Wales, and judgesor public prosecutors from other Europeancountries, including Scotland: a country whosecriminal justice system differs in many respectsfrom that south of the border.The seminars discuss sentencing of convictedoffenders on the basis of actual cases that havecome before the courts. Much of the interest in‘Contrasting Judgements’ lies in the summaries itcontains of more than a dozen cases and of therange of possible sentences which judges indifferent countries thought they themselvesmight have passed. Beyond that what generallessons do the reports contain?First, and not surprisingly, courts in all countriesdeal with a similar range of offences and thoseconvicted of them have to be sentenced. Arson,burglary, sexual assault of children, to choose butthree cases from those in the reports, can and dotake place in all countries, even though the legaldefinitions of the offences may vary.Second, and perhaps more surprisingly, thedifferences between the legal systems in differentcountries - the inquisitorial or accusatorialsystem, the differing part played by the publicprosecutor in different countries, and so forth -do not alter the factors that most judges have inmind when deciding on an appropriate sentence.Discussions at the seminars left no doubt thatthere was a common recognition of the need tobalance the familiar objectives of sentencing:deterrence, the protection of the public and thepunishment and/or treatment of the offender. Itdid not, of course, follow that judges in differentcountries always placed the same weight onthese objectives, but the arguments on how thebalance was best struck were familiar to all.Third, where judges felt an offence was notsufficiently serious to require a custodialsentence, the types of non-custodial sentenceavailable to them were similar in differentcountries. All used fines, probation orsupervision in some form, and communityservice orders. There were, however,interesting differences. Most countries incontinental Europe make more use ofsuspended sentences than is now permitted inthis country. Sweden is already making regularuse of electronic tagging while other countriesare only starting experiments.And what about the differences between thesentencing practices of different countries, and,crucially, the length of prison sentences? Whatseems a long sentence to a judge in one country,such as Denmark, would seem a short sentenceto an American judge. Here the author of‘Contrasting Judgements’ chooses his wordscarefully, and with due caveats about the dangerof not comparing like with like. In a summary ofthe outcome of the second seminar he says‘Swedish participants and those from theNetherlands seemed the readiest to suggest noncustodialpenalties, and when a custodialsentence was suggested the lengths of sentenceproposed by participants from Britain were onthe whole longer than those suggested by theircontinental colleagues’. But, as the reports showthere are gradations and variations, and it is thesewhich make the seminars so interesting, and wehope valuable.And to add a personal note, how shaming it isfor those of us who struggle with any foreignlanguage to listen to people from 10 differentEuropean countries discussing difficult legal andphilosophical issues in fluent English. ‘Contrasting Judgements: Report on TwoInternational Sentencing Seminars’ is available fromNACRO. Price £2.50 including postage.NACRO’s Vice President, JudgeChristopher Pitchers, chairingthe latest ICCJ seminar inLund, Sweden.WILFRED HYDEIS A NACROCONSULTANTPhoto: Rob Allen27 FEBRUARY 1999 SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE NACRO

ReviewsBYTIM BATEMANPOLICY DEVELOPMENT OFFICER INNACRO’S YOUTH CRIME SECTIONYoung people account for a around a quarter of knownoffenders. The Government’s commitment, expressed in theprovisions of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998, to reform of theyouth justice system stems in large part from thedisproportionate impact on society of offending by this agegroup. In this context, it is not surprising that there has been anincreasing emphasis on ‘what works’: ensuring that interventionwith young offenders is consistent with the growing body ofresearch evidence about what characteristics of programmes aresuccessful in reducing offending behaviour. Both these newpublications from the Institute for the Study and Treatment ofDelinquency are welcome additions to the armoury of thoseconcerned with the creation of a safer society through effectivework with young people in trouble.The ISTD Handbook of CommunityProgrammes 2nd Editionedited and compiled by Carol MartinThe ISTD Handbook of CommunityProgrammes is an updated and greatlyexpanded edition of a work firstpublished in 1997. Unlike itspredecessor, it includes informationabout Scotland and Northern Ireland. Thenew edition also differs from the earlierone by inclusion of some programmesaimed solely at adults, although those aimed at youngoffenders still predominate. In essence, the book provides acollation of information on what is happening in the field ofcommunity interventions with offenders. Programmes areclassified as general or specialist - with the latter broken downinto 23 different types - and are cross referenced wherenecessary. The indexes list projects both alphabetically andgeographically so that it is possible to gain an overview ofwhat is available in a particular area. Data includes theprogramme’s aims and objectives, critical components, targetgroup, referral criteria, whether it might be replicatedelsewhere and so on.If the book has weaknesses, these are unavoidable given itsnature. Firstly, inclusion is dependent on information returnsfrom the programme provider: it seems unlikely, forexample, that there is only a single project in Leicestershire.Secondly, information of this kind inevitably dates fairlyrapidly. Rather than a criticism of the project, however, thissimply points to the need for regular updating andexpansion. The directory is, in fact, an invaluable tool forpractitioners looking to refer to a particular type of resourceor for agencies wanting to research relevant experiencebefore establishing their own programme. The book is alsouseful as an indicator of trends: this edition, for example,includes a new specialist section for programmes onparenting skills. It highlights too how few programmes areproperly evaluated and, in this context, its companionvolume ‘A Guide to Setting up and Evaluating Programmesfor Young Offenders’ is an ideal complementary resource forpotential providers.NACRO SAFER SOCIETY MAGAZINE FEBRUARY 1999 28A Guide to Setting up andEvaluating Programmes forYoung OffendersSimon MerringtonSimon Merrington’sintroductory guide to theprinciples of goodprogramme design moves ina logical progression throughthe key elements: from the importance ofgrounding a programme in theory, throughdefining aims and a target group, programmestructure, management and funding, staffing,programme delivery and concluding withmonitoring and evaluation. Significantly,perhaps, the last topic provides the subjectmatter for by far the longest chapter.The author starts from three common reasonsfor programme failure: inadequacy of theory, ofimplementation and of evaluation. Theremainder of the book consists of a practicalmanual for avoiding such failure. For example,the section on targeting: outlines the predictors identified by the AuditCommission - inadequate parenting, truancy,delinquent peers, unstable living conditions,unemployment, substance misuse and so on restates the ‘what works’ principle thatintensive intervention is more successful withhigh-risk offenders considers various measures for assessing risk addresses factors such as age, gender andethnicity and focusing on specific offences and discusses the implications of the abovefor ensuring a large enough target group andsufficient homogeneity of group members.Other chapters are equally well structured andprovide ample references to further researchand instances of good practice, including actualexamples of assessment and evaluation toolsalready in use.Obviously no guide can guarantee programmesuccess and indeed the author devotes somespace both to the importance of ‘worker style’and the possibility that evaluation may showthat aims have not been met. However, theprinciples outlined in the book are ones worthyof consideration by all practitioners within theyouth justice field when contemplating theimplications of their new statutory duty to worktowards the reduction of offending behaviour byyoung people.‘The ISTD Handbook of Community Programmes’ and ‘A Guide to Setting up and Evaluating Programmes for Young Offenders’are available from the ISTD, priced £17.00 and £11.50 respectively.

‘At a glance’The 1998 British Crime SurveyPhotos: Mark Harvey, iD•8CRIME RATESThere were an estimated 16,437,000 crimes against adults living inprivate households in 1997, 14% fewer than in 1995 (see Table).There were fewer vehicles stolen (down 27%), fewer offences of violence(down 17%), fewer acts of vandalism (down 15%), and fewer burglaries(down 7%). Mugging increased by 1% (see Table).There were four times as many crimes against property as violent ones(see Table).Number of incidents of crime in 1997 inthousands1997 % change1995-1997PROPERTYVandalism 2,917 -15Burglary 1,639 -7All vehicle thefts 3,483 -19Theft from vehicle 2,164 -14Theft of vehicle 375 -25Attempts of and from 943 -27Bicycle theft 549 -17Other household theft 2,067 -9Stealth theft from person 507 -15Other thefts of personal property 1,890 -9All BCS property 13,052VIOLENCECommon assault 2,276 -19Robbery and wounding 1,022 -13Robbery 307 -2Wounding 714 -17Snatch theft from person 83 12All BCS violence 3,381 -17Domestic violence 835 -16Mugging 390 1Stranger 681 -28Acquaintance 1,462 -15ALL BCS CRIME 16,437 -14A quarter of the 16,437,000 crimes were recorded by the policeand thus ended up in ‘Criminal Statistics’ (see page 10).CRIME RISKSOne third (34%) of adults were victims ofcrime in 1997, down 5% on 1995.Young people, the unemployed, singleparents, people living in private rentedaccommodation, those living in inner cityareas and in `areas of high physical disorder’were most likely to be victims.5.6% of households experienced at least oneburglary and 15.7% experienced at least onevehicle-related theft.There was a 4.7% chance of experiencingviolence. This was most often commonassault (3.2%).Risk of serious injury from an assault israre: 1% of adults were victims of awounding in 1997.Young men are most at risk of violence -20.9% of young men aged 16 to 24 had beena victim of violent crime in 1997 - oldpeople are at least risk.Most victims of violent crime know theoffender: 43% of violence involvesacquaintances, a further 25% is `domestic’.Men are most likely to be victims of strangerviolence, over eight out of 10 in 1997.Women were the victims in 70% of domesticincidents.CONCERN ABOUT CRIMEPeople tend to over-estimate the crimeproblem: only 9% of people are aware thatcrime fell between 1995 and 1997, and 58%believe that violent crime accounts for morethan half the total.Women worry more about crime than men,except about vehicle crime, and they areparticularly worried about violent crime. 31%of women are very worried about thepossibility of being raped.It is only in relation to safety after dark thatthe elderly register noticeably high concernabout crime. For instance, 31% of womenaged 60 or over say they feel very unsafe outalone after dark.8% of people indicate that the fear of crimehas a substantial effect on the quality of theirlives. Half say it has little or no effect.References‘The 1998 British Crime Survey England and Wales’,Home Office Statistical Bulletin 21/98 and ‘Concernabout Crime: Findings from the 1998 British CrimeSurvey’, Home Office Research Findings No.? isavailable from the Home Office, 50 Queen Anne’sGate, London SW1H 9AT. Free.