Mangrove wetland ecosystems in Ganges-Brahmaputra delta in ...

Front. Earth Sci. China 2008, 2(4): 439–448 

DOI 10.1007/s11707-008-0049-2 

RESEARCH ARTICLE 

Mangrove wetland ecosystems in Ganges-Brahmaputra delta in 

Bangladesh 

E 

Shafi Noor ISLAM (*), Albrecht GNAUCK 

Department of Ecosystems and Environmental Informatics, Brandenburg University of Technology at Cottbus, 

P.O. Box 101344, D-03013 Cottbus, Germany 

Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag 2008 

Abstract The Sundarbans is one of the productive mangrove 

wetland ecosystems in the Ganges-Brahmaputra 

delta in Bangladesh. The delta is undergoing rapid ecological 

changes due to human activity. In the present 

study, surface water salinity data from 13 rivers of the 

Sundarbans were collected in order to investigate the saline 

water intrusion in the mangrove wetlands. Results 

demonstrate that saline water has penetrated the 

upstream area as river water salinity has increased significantly 

in 1976 compared to the year 1968. The soil and 

river water salinity data also shows that it has crossed the 

water salinity threshold line in most parts of the 

Sundarbans wetlands. These observations are due to the 

construction of Farakka Barrage in 1975, which reduced 

the water discharge of the Ganges River from 3700 m 3 /s in 

1962 to 364 m 3 /s in 2006. The shortage of freshwater discharge 

to the deltaic area is trailing active ecosystems 

function, especially in the dry season in the south western 

region in Bangladesh. The objective of this study is to 

understand and analyze the present degraded mangrove 

wetland ecosystems and their negative impacts. The findings 

of this study would contribute to the formulation of 

the mangrove wetland ecosystems management plan in 

the Ganges delta of Bangladesh. 

Keywords freshwater discharge, salinity intrusion, construction 

of Farakka Barrage 

1 Introduction 

The Ganges delta is the largest delta and occupies the 

lower part of the Bengal Basin of the South Asian 

region of Bengal. The delta has come into existence 

by the depositional activities of the three mighty rivers 

of the region: the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the 

Received September 12, 2007; accepted April 3, 2008 

E-mail: shafinoor@yahoo.com 

Meghna. The alluvial land has been developed at the 

southern portion of the Bengal Basin by the combined 

depositional activities of the Ganges, its various distributaries 

and other large and small streams of the 

region. The Ganges delta is situated just above the 

Bay of Bengal with its major portion occupied by 

Bangladesh. The delta is about 360 km wide along 

the Bay of Bengal. The river courses in the delta are 

broad and active, carrying large amounts of water. This 

delta is a tract of vast alluvial flat roughly resembling 

the Greek letter ‘D’ (Delta) and commences at the offtake 

of the Bhagirathi near Gaur of Malda district in 

West Bengal, India (Rob, 1998). The delta of the 

Ganges covers a total area of 80000 km 2 in 

Bangladesh and West Bengal of India (Bagchi, 1944; 

Coleman, 1974; Seidensticker and Hai, 1983). It comprises 

part of the districts of Kushtia, Jessore, Khulna, 

Rajshahi, Pabna and Dhaka of Bangladesh and a 

major portion of West Bengal. As the silts are brought 

in by normal flow and flooding of the rivers annually, 

the Ganges delta is a growing delta. The temperature is 

9.3u to 40u; annual precipitation range is 1474 mm to 

2265 mm. The dry months have an average rainfall 

between 20 mm to 60 mm and the average evapotranspiration 

rate is 15 mm to 90 mm/month. It is composed 

of a labyrinth of waterways, swamps, lakes and 

alluvial deposits occupying the great Bengal delta plane 

woven with numerous small and large rivers (Islam, 

2006). The Ganges delta is the site of the largest mangrove 

forest in the world known as ‘the Sundarbans’. 

The Sundarbans is the legendary sanctuary for the 

famous Royal Bengal Tiger. It is the world’s largest 

delta being the most fertile and vegetated alluvial land. 

It is also called the Green delta which is also a nick 

name for Bangladesh. The Ganges delta is also called 

the Ganges -Brahmaputra River Delta (Islam, 2006). 

The landscapes of the deltaic region encompass strong 

aesthetic, cultural, biological and geological values (Zube, 

1986). At present, landscapes and wetlands are the most

440 Shafi Noor ISLAM, Albrecht GNAUCK 

spectacular global issues for economic growth and balance 

ecosystems. On the other hand, water is a fundamental 

issue for human survival and their cultural 

development. There is an inter-linkage between cultural 

landscape development and water availability. Almost 

half of the world’s wetlands have been destroyed in the 

past 100 years (Barbier, 1993). The total area of wetlands 

in Bangladesh has been variously estimated as 

between 7 and 8 million ha which is almost 50% of 

the total land surface. These include rivers, estuaries, 

mangrove swamps, marsh (haors), baor (fresh water 

oxbow lake) and bils, water storage reservoirs, fish 

ponds and some other lands which are seasonally inundated 

to a depth of 30 cm or more. In Bangladesh, 45% 

of mangrove wetlands have already been destroyed due 

to shrimp farming and anthropogenic influences (Khan 

et al., 1994). The area of The Ganges-Brahmaputra- 

Meghna (GBM) drainage basin is 1.76 million km 2 of 

which 62% can be found in India, 18% in China, 7% in 

Nepal and 8% in Bangladesh and only 4% in Bhutan 

(Elahi et al., 1998). The Sundarbans, situated in the 

Ganges delta, consists of an area of around 6017 km 2 

of which 1400 km 2 of its southern part has been 

declared as a natural world heritage site by UNESCO 

in 1997 (Islam, 2003). The livelihood and ecology of the 

Ganges delta of Bangladesh portion depends on the 

Ganges fresh water supply (Hasna, 1995). 

Approximately 600 000 people are employed seasonally 

(UN ESCAP, 1988). The Gorai-Madhumati basin 

(Figs. 1 and 2(a)) is directly affected by withdrawal of 

water from the Ganges basin. The goal of this research 

is the contribution of a comprehensive management 

plan for the sustainable conservation and protection 

of the Sundarbans mangrove ecosystems in the 

Ganges delta. 

2 Objectives 

The objectives of this paper are to understand the nature 

of mangrove wetlands ecosystems in the Ganges delta and 

how it is being changed to cause threats, and to formulate 

a long-term management plan for mangrove wetlands 

resources through the supply of Ganges water into 

Sundarbans. GIS application would be a proper tool for 

making decisions and formulating recommendations for 

the protection of Sundarbans ecosystems. 

3 Geographical location 

Most parts of the Bengal Basin and Ganges delta are 

floored with Quaternary sediments eroded from the highlands 

on three sides and deposited by the Ganges, 

Brahmaputra and the Meghna Rivers and their tributaries 

and distributaries. The Ganges River originated in 

Gangotri glacier in the southern slopes of the Himalayas 

and carries discharge from a catchment of about 

865000 km 2 in India, to Bangladesh (Fig. 1) (Joseph, 

2006). The location of the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta is 

at latitude of 24u409 N and 88u E longitude. The longitudinal 

extension of the delta is from 88u Eto91u509 E 

longitude (Rob, 1998) (Figs. 2(a) and (b)). 

The Sundarbans stretches over 10000 km 2 and is 

located at the southwest extremity of Bangladesh and 

the southeast of the state of West Bengal in India. The 

Bangladesh part of the Sundarbans is spread over the 

districts of Khulna, Bagerhat and Satkhira and the forest 

covers about 6017 km 2 (Hussain et al., 1994; Hassan et al, 

2001). Almost 62% of the land area lies between latitudes 

21u319 N and 22u309 N and between Longitudes 89u189 E 

and 90u19 E (Katebi, 2001). 

Fig. 1 The Ganges delta and the Sundarbans location the GBM River catchment

Mangrove wetland ecosystems in Ganges-Brahmaputra delta in Bangladesh 441 

4 The Ganges delta and the mangrove 

wetlands 

The development of the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta is still 

continuing since it began some 125 million years ago 

(Ma), after the fragmentation of the Gondwanaland since 

the early Cretaceous. The Ganges deltaic plains are largely 

drained by innumerable distributaries of the Ganges. It 

has such a gentle slope that ranges from 15 m in the north 

to nearly one meter in the south; and the interfluves have 

such a slight relief, the gradient of the delta surface is 

Fig. 2 (a) The limit and the location of the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta 

about 0.016 m/km, the rivers criss-cross each other and 

have developed a complex river system. The topographic 

features are similar to those of the flood plains except that 

the relief is more subdivided. The average elevation of the 

delta in Khulna, Barisal, the Southern part of Faridpur 

and the eastern part of Noakhali district is less than 2 m. 

The river courses in the delta are carrying water discharge, 

29 692 m 3 /s in average into the Bay of Bengal. The discharge 

is 80 684 m 3 /s during the flood and 6041 m 3 /s during 

the low water season. The suspended sediment load 

during the monsoon flood reaches as high as 13 million


Fig. 2(b) The limit of the Ganges delta and location of wetlands 

tons per day. The Ganges Brahmaputra Delta can be 

divided into four major categories: i) Moribund delta, ii) 

Mature delta and iii) Active delta and iv) Tidally active 

delta (Fig. 2(a)). 

i) The moribund delta: The western part of the deltaic 

plain, bound on the east by Gorai-Madhumati Rivers, 

comprises the areas which extend from the northern 

boundary of the Khulna district to Jessore and part of 

Kushtia district. The area of moribund delta covers an 

area of about 18000 km 2 . The rivers of the moribund delta 

cannot bring down enough water and silt, even in flood 

and, being confined within high levees, are not in a position 

to inundate the entire area. 

ii) The mature delta: The mature delta covers an area of 

about 31500 km 2 in Bangladesh and in West Bengal of 

India. On average, it includes Murshidabad (West 

Bengal, India), Nadia and 24-Parganas of India and 

Meherpur, Kushtia, Chuadanga, Jhenaidaha, Magura,


Jessore, Narial, Khulna, Sathkhira and Bagerhat districts 

of Bangladesh. 

iii) The active delta: The eastern active delta covers an 

area of about 16500 km 2 . This part of the Ganges- 

Brahmaputra delta is about 300 km long in the northsouth 

direction and about 100 km and 130 km wide in 

the upper and middle reaches, respectively. The eastern 

active Ganges-Brahmaputra delta includes Rajbari, 

Faridpur, Shariatpur, and Madaripur, Gopalgonj, 

Lakshmipur, Pirojpur, Barisal, Jhalokati, Patuakhali, 

Barguna and Bhola districts of the country. 

iv) The tidally active delta: The southwestern part of the 

Ganges delta is coastal area and a tidally active delta. It is 

dominated by coastal tidal currents. The tidally active delta 

actually is the southern part of the Sundarbans region. It 

covers an area of about 13500 km 2 . The Tidally active delta 

includes the southern part of Bagerhat, Khulna, Sathkhira 

district of Bangladesh and south 24 Pargona district of 

West Bengal in India (Islam, 2006). 

The surface water flow in the rivers of the 

Sundarbans area mainly comes from the Ganges at 

the off-take of Gorai-Madhumati and from the lower 

Meghna through Swarupkati Kocha River (Figs. 2(a) 

and 3). Salinity content of rivers in the Sundarbans 

shows a special variability. The water salinity pattern 

shows both seasonal and spatial variation. During pre- 

Fig. 3 Three ecological zones in the Sundarbans region 

monsoon (March–April), the conductivity of river 

water is high and ranges from 7 mS/cm to 52 mS/cm. 

In the post monsoon season (Aug-Sept), the conductivity 

of river water decreases (0–21.5 mS/cm). Water 

salinity level in the rivers of the eastern region both 

in pre-monsoon and post-monsoon season is low (0– 

7 mS/cm) in comparison to western rivers. 

5 Data and Methodology 

The present study was conducted based on primary and 

secondary data sources. The saline water and soil samples 

were collected and tested at the laboratory for investigation 

of water salinity intrusion trends. The survey covers 

Munchiganj, Mirgang, Koira, Kasiabad, Mongla, 

Kathka, Kochikhali, Hironpoint, Malancha-Mundarbaria, 

and Burigoalini (Fig. 3). Primary data on surface 

water salinity was obtained from 13 rivers including Sibsa 

River, Passur River, Chunnar River, Kholpetua River, 

Bal Jhalia River, Baleswar River, Betmargang River, 

Notabaki River, Passakhali River, Arpongasia River, 

Kathka River, Nilkamol River, and Malancha River 

(Fig. 4) of the Sundarbans by the Institute of Water 

Modelling (IWM). The survey was done in different ecologically 

sensitive areas between February-July in 2003.


The data was processed and analyzed through MS Excel, 

GISArcView 9.1 for data visualization and MATLAB 

software version 7.1 were used for simulation. 

6 Results and discussion 

To understand the real situation in the Sundarbans 

region, 13 important rivers (Fig. 5) located around 

the case area have been chosen for modelling of their 

water salinity. The time series data of water salinity has 

been collected from 13 river basins (Fig. 5) in the 

Sundarbans mangrove wetlands area based on the 

potentiality of the river basins and ecosystems balance. 

All 13 rivers show increasing water salinity. The results 

of the investigation of water salinity show that the 

salinity rate is much higher in the southern and 

south-western rivers; the rivers of the middle area are 

moderate level and the rivers of the northern portion 

carries low salinity than the rivers of middle area of the 

Sundarbans (Figs. 4 and 5). 

The river water salinity trends show that only one river 

has crossed the threshold line (43220 dS/m) (Colugh, 

1985) in 2000; six rivers have crossed the threshold line 

in 2001; eight rivers have crossed the threshold line in 

2002; and eleven rivers have crossed the threshold line in 

Fig. 4 The increasing salinity trends in the Sundarbans 

2003 (Fig. 4). Therefore, the results show that the river 

water salinity trends are gradually increasing and more 

rivers are affected by NaCl in the Sundarbans in 

Bangladesh. 

The high salinity zone is located in the south-western 

corner of the Sundarbans, where the previous salinity 

values were 38 898 dS/m to 54025 dS/m, whereas the present 

values are 54025 dS/m to 69152 dS/m. The high saline 

affected area extends from south to north and east to 

west direction, which is poses an extremely high threat for 

mangrove wetland ecosystems in the Sundarbans. The 

results of water salinity simulation of the Sundarbans 

Rivers will support the formulation of a plan by decision 

makers to protect the special natural heritage site and 

mangrove wetlands ecosystems in the Sundarbans region 

in Bangladesh (Fig. 4). 

6.1 Water allocation in the Ganges basin 

The Ganges River rises at an elevation of 7667 meters in 

Gangotri glacier of Kashi district of India on the southern 

slopes of the Himalayan range. The length of the 

river in Bangladesh is about 2550 km and covers an area 

of about 46300 km 2 . It stretches for more than 1600 km 2 

between Tibet in China and India. The three major tributaries, 

Gandok, Ghagra and Kosi pass through the


Fig. 5 Water salinity isohaline in the Sundarbans region (Base Map: Islam, 2006) 

territory of Nepal. The Yamuna joins the Ganges below 

Alahabad after receiving the Chambal, Hindon, Sindh, 

Betwa and Ken. The Ganges enters Bangladesh about 

17 km down the Farakka Dam. The Gorai is the main 

tributary of the Ganges which enters the Sundarbans 

and supplies upstream fresh water and joins Baleswar 

River (Figs. 3 and 5) downstream. The confluence 

receives the Meghna a few kilometers downstream 

before it merges into the Bay of Bengal (Begum, 1987). 

The construction of the Barrage is 2455 m long and is 

designed for maximum discharge of 75630 m 3 /s. In 1972 

the Government of Bangladesh took up the Ganges 

issue in earnest to the Government of India. The same 

year the Indo-Bangladesh Joint River Commission 

(JRC) was constituted in 1972. After a collaborative 

discussion at the summit in 1974, it was agreed between 

Bangladesh and India that Farakka Barrage would not 

be in operation before an agreement was reached on 

sharing the dry season flow of the Ganges between the 

two countries (Miah, 2003). 

6.2 Reduced Ganges water and increased salinity 

Bangladesh receives low quantity of water discharge after 

the construction of the Farakka Barrage on the Ganges 

River in India due to water withdrawal at Farakka 

Barrage point downstream for irrigation purposes in the 

lean season. There was a comparison of salinity intrusion 

in 1967–1968 with the situation which occurred during 

1976 and 1977 because the unimpaired dry season flows 

of these years were comparable. The water salinity 

approximations before and after 1975 in the Sundarbans 

region are shown in Fig. 6, which shows the water salinity 

approximations before and after 1975 in the Sundarbans 

region. A comparative survey analysis was done in 2003 

based on data of 1968, 1970 and 1976. The result shows 

that, the river water salinity has increased significantly in 

1976 compared to that in 1968 (Fig. 6). 

The amount of the Ganges river water flow in 

Bangladesh is influenced by the effect of the amount of 

water drawn at the Farakka Barrage by India. The


Fig. 6 Water salinity after and before Farakka barrage construction in 1975 in India 

Ganges flow was 3700 m 3 /s in 1962 whereas it was reduced 

to 364 m 3 /s in 2006 (Nishat, 2006) (Fig. 7). As a result, the 

high saline sea water has penetrated in the upstream, and 

falling water tables occurred. Fig. 7 shows a strong correlation 

between Ganges water discharge reduction and 

salinity intrusion. The reduced water flow line and 

increased salinity line has crossed at a certain point in 

1975 (optimum point). 

At this cross point the Ganges water flow was almost 

1500 m 3 /s. This water level line can be introduced as the 

optimal line where both lines crossed at the particular 

point and this point can be called as the optimum point 

of salinity intrusion. The isohaline salinity map (Fig. 5) 

shows the real scenario of salinity intrusion in the 

Sundarbans. 

To compare the increasing salinity trends of three ecological 

zones, the present situation is much more harmful 

than that of 30 years before. Considering the value of water 

salinity, the eastern zone still has a suitable condition for 

mangrove ecosystems; the middle area is rapidly turning 

from middle saline zone to high saline zone; and the southwestern 

region which carries the highest rate of water salinity 

would be more harmful for sensitive mangroves plants 

and animals in the Sundarbans (Fig. 4). 

6.3 Increased salinity and degraded ecosystems in the 

Sundarbans 

The reduction of Ganges fresh water in the upstream area is 

the main reason for salinity intrusion in the southwestern 

Fig. 7 Ganges water flow decreased and salinity increased at Passur-Mongla point


part of Bangladesh. Therefore, the increased salinity and 

alkalinity has damaged vegetation, agricultural cropping 

pattern and changed the cultural landscapes in the 

Sundarbans region. The impact on soil starts with the 

destruction of surface organic matter and soil fertility for 

mangrove plants production. The changes altered basic soil 

characteristics related to aeration, temperature, moisture 

and the organisms that live in the soil. The core elements 

of the ecosystem such as soil, water, vegetation and wildlife 

are strongly affected due to fresh water shortage and human 

activity. The results of the study of EGIS (Environmental 

Geographical Information Studies) shows that water quality 

has degraded during the dry season (February-June) in 

the Sundarbans rivers where 60% waterisinpoorquality 

with EC dS/m being 5532.16 and 40% is in good quality 

with EC dS/m being 2766.08 (EGIS, 2000). 

6.4 Loss of biodiversity and threats for coastal food 

security 

The scarcity of the Ganges flow is a challenge for coastal 

food security, mangrove wetland ecosystems protection, 

and further improvement of coastal saline environment. 

The research finding has asserted that India’s diversion of 

water had resulted in a loss of rice output of 236000 metric 

tons in 1976. Deforestation of mangroves due to shrimp 

farming, salt farming and agriculture adversely affects marine 

fish production and leads to a loss of biodiversity and of 

livelihood to over 6 million people who depended on mangroves 

(Anon, 1995). A number of species like Javan rhinoceros 

(Rhinoceros sondaicus), water buffalo (Bubalus 

bubalis), swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli), Guar (Bos gaurus), 

hog deer (Axix porcinus) and marsh crocodile (Crocodiles 

palustric) became extinct during the last 100 years in the 

Sundarbans. Oil spill is another potential threat and could 

cause immense damage, especially to aquatic fauna and 

seabirds and probably also to the mangrove forest biodiversity 

(Blower, 1985). The yearly natural calamity, global 

warming and its impacts are new challenging threats for 

coastal food security and biodiversity (Husain, 1995). 

6.5 Top dying diseases 

With the commissioning of the Farakka Barrage, the discharge 

in the downstream was drastically reduced. As a 

result, all the elements of ecosystems development on the 

availability of water were affected. The siltation in the 

Sundarbans has increased and sediment trapping has been 

aided by pneumatophores and dense roots of mangroves. 

The dominant species of sundari (Heritiera fomes) and 

Goran (Cariops decandra) are affected by top-dying disease. 

Almost 265 km 2 areas of Heritiera type forest are 

moderately affected and 210 km 2 areas are severely affected, 

which is one of the main threats for a sustainable 

mangrove wetland management and the protection of its 

ecosystems. 

7 Conclusions 

The Sundarbans mangrove wetlands, Chandabill-Baghiar 

bill, Bildakatia, Atadanga Baor (Fresh water oxbow lake), 

and Marijat Baor (Fig. 2(b)) are situated in the Ganges 

delta. The Ganges fresh water plays an important role in 

protecting these wetlands and its ecosystems in the delta. 

Considering the increasing salinity trends in the region, 

the threshold values of water salinity for the Sundarbans 

case has been analyzed. In this study, 13 potential river 

basins were investigated and it has been asserted that 11 

rivers have crossed the water salinity threshold line 

(43220 dS/m) in 2003. The previous average water salinity 

value was 54025 dS/m, whereas the present highest water 

salinity value is 69152 dS/m which is harmful and poses 

threats to mangrove wetland ecosystems. The saline affected 

areas extend from south to north and east to west 

direction and the iso-haline map is gradually changing 

because of increasing salinity trends (Figs. 4 and 5). The 

Ganges water availability in the basin and water salinity 

trends of the downstream show the cyclic increasing behavior 

in the Sundarbans Rivers. It clearly indicates and 

forecasts the message that the upstream freshwater supply 

is necessary for the protection of the mangrove wetland 

ecosystems in the Sundarbans region. It has been indicated 

that there is a strong relationship between freshwater 

supply and the quality of water in the Sundarbans 

and water quality and ecosystems management are more 

closely related. The Ganges water flow line and salinity 

increasing line crossed at a certain point (Fig. 7), which is 

recognized as optimal point and optimal line. In conclusion, 

it can be said that if the water level does not cross the 

optimal line then there will be no problem for the mangrove 

ecosystems. This is why the Ganges freshwater supply 

in the Ganges delta in Bangladesh is necessary for the 

protection of coastal resources and mangrove wetland 

ecosystems. The findings of this study would be a potential 

contribution in formulating a comprehensive interdisciplinary 

management plan for the long-term 

conservation and protection of mangrove wetland ecosystems 

in the Sundarbans region in the Ganges Delta in 

Bangladesh. 

Acknowlegements The authors would like to thank different persons 

met at Sundarbans Biodiversity Conservation Project and the 

Department of Environment and Forest, Bangladesh. The financial support 

for this study was partly provided by APN Mega Delta Project. We 

acknowledge APN Mega Delta Project and give special thanks to Dr. 

Zhongyuan Chen of APN Mega Delta Project Leader and Professor of 

East China Normal University, Shanghai, China. 

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