C.A.P.E. - The Conservation of Freshwater ... - Biodiversity GIS
C.A.P.E. - The Conservation of Freshwater ... - Biodiversity GIS
C.A.P.E. - The Conservation of Freshwater ... - Biodiversity GIS
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Part 1<br />
<strong>Freshwater</strong> Research Unit, UCT<br />
92 Cape Action Plan for the Environment<br />
<strong>Freshwater</strong> Component
<strong>Freshwater</strong> Research Unit, UCT Part 1<br />
<strong>Freshwater</strong> Research Unit<br />
• Large database <strong>of</strong> relevant references (Helen Dallas, Rebecca Tharme, Jackie<br />
King, Southern Waters).<br />
• Great deal <strong>of</strong> research has been and is being conducted here.<br />
Albany Museum<br />
• Has provided distribution records for a variety <strong>of</strong> invertebrate taxa.<br />
• Ongoing processing <strong>of</strong> invertebrate samples.<br />
• Ongoing research into invertebrate taxonomy<br />
Martin Villet’s website: Aquatic insects and Mites <strong>of</strong> South Africa<br />
(http://www.ru.ac.za/departments/zooento/Martin/Aquatics.html)<br />
• Catalogue <strong>of</strong> South African aquatic insects and relevant contact names for<br />
various taxa.<br />
• Includes comprehensive species and generic lists, usually with some<br />
commentary on broad distribution in South Africa.<br />
Biobase (Dallas and Janssens 1998)<br />
• Includes biological (macroinvertebrate) data, relevant chemical and physical<br />
parameters <strong>of</strong> the waterbody.<br />
• Several other features included are Bioregions, water quality management<br />
regions, sub-regions etc and data related to SASS4 (South African Scoring<br />
System).<br />
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Table 8.1<br />
A list <strong>of</strong> aquatic insect and mite orders for which electronic checklists<br />
are available. Taken from the web-site:<br />
http://www.ru.ac.za/departments/zooento/Martin/Aquatics.html<br />
Class Order Compiled by<br />
ACARINA • Hydrachnellae (water mites) • Arthur Harrison<br />
INSECTA • Ephemeroptera (mayflies) • Helen James<br />
• Odonata (damselflies & dragonflies) • Tanya Crouch & Tessa Hedge<br />
• Plecoptera (Stoneflies) • Martin Villet<br />
• Orthoptera (crickets &<br />
grasshoppers)<br />
•<br />
• Hemiptera (true bugs) • Martin Villet & Patric Reavell<br />
• Coleoptera (beetles)<br />
• Arthur Harrison & Stuart<br />
Mangold<br />
• Neuroptera (antlions & lacewings)<br />
• Megaloptera (dobsonflies &<br />
alderflies)<br />
• Martin Villet<br />
• Trichoptera (caddisflies) • Ferdie de Moor<br />
• Diptera (true flies)<br />
seems fairly limited. <strong>The</strong>re are a few exceptions to this however. For example, Dr.<br />
Barbara Cook (Stellenbosch University) can provide the <strong>Freshwater</strong> Research Unit<br />
with relatively comprehensive distribution data for crabs <strong>of</strong> the CFK, which at the<br />
very least could help to pinpoint wetlands. Furthermore, the database on molluscs is<br />
fairly extensive and this may be <strong>of</strong> similar use. Biobase, which was developed by Ms<br />
Helen Dallas and Dr. Jenny Day provides fairly comprehensive data on invertebrates<br />
for much <strong>of</strong> the CFK. Of the remaining invertebrate taxa, the trichoptera,<br />
ephemeroptera and simulidae are probably the most useful as they are the most well<br />
known.<br />
8.3 Important sources <strong>of</strong> information<br />
<strong>The</strong> list provided below summarises the sources <strong>of</strong> information that have been<br />
particularly useful for water-associated mammals during the first phase <strong>of</strong> the project<br />
and which will probably be <strong>of</strong> great use when prioritising important conservation<br />
areas during the next. For a comprehensive list <strong>of</strong> people what have been contacted<br />
in connection with avifaunal data see Appendix 10.5.<br />
90 Cape Action Plan for the Environment<br />
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<strong>Freshwater</strong> Research Unit, UCT Part 1<br />
CHAPTER 8: AQUATIC INVERTEBRATES<br />
K. Goldberg and G.D.P. van Nieuwenhuizen<br />
8.1 Taxonomic data<br />
Aquatic invertebrates <strong>of</strong> the CFK display a high degree <strong>of</strong> both diversity and<br />
endemicity. <strong>The</strong>se taxa have received great emphasis in freshwater research at<br />
various institutes in South Africa, including the Albany Museum and the <strong>Freshwater</strong><br />
Research Unit at the University <strong>of</strong> Cape Town.<br />
Invertebrates have been found to be extremely good indicators <strong>of</strong> water quality and<br />
the general condition <strong>of</strong> riverine systems. A comprehensive inventory <strong>of</strong> this taxon for<br />
the entire CFK would therefore have been an ideal tool for assessing the integrity <strong>of</strong><br />
aquatic systems in the region under investigation. In attempting to collect existing<br />
information on this taxon, however it has become evident that the taxonomy is under<br />
constant revision and that many species remain undescribed. Furthermore,<br />
comprehensive taxonomic inventories have been carried out only in specific areas<br />
(most <strong>of</strong> the research has focussed on rivers <strong>of</strong> the southestern Cape) and<br />
furthermore, inventories are lacking for virtually all wetlands <strong>of</strong> the region. It therefore<br />
makes little sense to compile species checklists <strong>of</strong> invertebrates found in various<br />
areas <strong>of</strong> the CFK since these will undoubtedly be incomplete and be greatly skewed<br />
by sampling bias. Bearing this in mind, however, a web-site co-ordinated by Martin<br />
Villet (see reference list) provides an excellent preliminary list <strong>of</strong> the aquatic insects<br />
and mites <strong>of</strong> South Africa and gives associated web-sites for many insect orders.<br />
Table 8.1 lists the orders for which there is a relevant web-site.<br />
In addition to this, the Albany Museum have provided us with a number <strong>of</strong><br />
distribution databases for various invertebrate taxa found in various river systems.<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Freshwater</strong> Research Unit is a particularly rich source <strong>of</strong> information on<br />
invertebrate data (see Appendices 10, 10.1 and 10.5 for more details).<br />
8.2 Indicator species<br />
It is well established that invertebrate taxa are excellent indicators <strong>of</strong> water quality<br />
and the general state <strong>of</strong> freshwater systems. However, as already mentioned,<br />
inventories <strong>of</strong> this nature are relatively scarce, even in the Western Cape where a<br />
great deal <strong>of</strong> research has been conducted. <strong>The</strong>refore, the usefulness <strong>of</strong> invertebrate<br />
data as indicators either <strong>of</strong> wetland localities or condition <strong>of</strong> freshwater systems<br />
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National Herbarium, Pretoria<br />
• contact person Mrs. René Glen<br />
• has given us a list <strong>of</strong> aquatic plants occurring in southern Africa (which include<br />
only bryophytes, pteridophytes and angiosperms<br />
• has provided us with a distribution list <strong>of</strong> plants endemic to the Western Cape<br />
• can provide a list <strong>of</strong> plants which can be used as indicators <strong>of</strong> wetland types<br />
• can provide distribution records for selected aquatic plants which are mostly<br />
accurate to the nearest quarter-degree<br />
• can provide information on the conservation status <strong>of</strong> selected plants.<br />
Compton, Natal, Bolus Herbaria<br />
• can provide distribution records for selected aquatic plants taken from<br />
herbarium sheets.<br />
List <strong>of</strong> wetland-related expertise in South Africa (van der Walt 1997)<br />
• gives contact information for individuals involved with aquatic plants, some <strong>of</strong><br />
whom are listed in Appendix 10.4<br />
88 Cape Action Plan for the Environment<br />
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Table 7.4<br />
A list <strong>of</strong> some plant species that can be used as possible indicators <strong>of</strong><br />
various wetland conditions.<br />
Species Wetland type Temp/perm<br />
Frankenia pulverulenta saline waters Temporary<br />
Frankenia repens saline waters Temporary<br />
Hypertelis arenicola saline waters Temporary<br />
Paspalum distichum saline waters Temporary<br />
Poecilolepis ficoidea saline waters Temporary<br />
Poecilolepis maritima saline waters Temporary<br />
Zostera capensis saline waters Temporary<br />
Salicornia meyeriana saline waters Temporary and Permanent<br />
Salicornia natalensis saline waters Temporary and Permanent<br />
Salicornia pillansi saline waters Temporary and Permanent<br />
Althenia filiformis saline waters Permanent<br />
Ruppia maritima saline waters Permanent<br />
Ruppia spiralis saline waters Permanent<br />
Samolus porosus saline waters Permanent<br />
Zannichellia aschersoniana saline waters Permanent<br />
Berzelia lanosa<br />
seeps and marshes<br />
Cannomois virgata<br />
seeps and marshes<br />
Chondropetalum mucronatum seeps and marshes<br />
Chondropetalum tectorum seeps and marshes<br />
Disa cylindrica<br />
seeps and marshes<br />
Disa elagans<br />
seeps and marshes<br />
Disa ophryda<br />
seeps and marshes<br />
Disa racinosa<br />
seeps and marshes<br />
Disa reticulata seeps and marshes Temporary<br />
Disa rufescens<br />
seeps and marshes<br />
Disa uniflora<br />
seeps and marshes<br />
Juncus lomatophyllus seeps and marshes<br />
Kniph<strong>of</strong>ia uvaria<br />
seeps and marshes<br />
Nitorella foetida<br />
seeps and marshes<br />
Osinitopsis<br />
seeps and marshes<br />
Phragmites australis<br />
seeps and marshes<br />
Xiris capensis<br />
seeps and marshes<br />
Cotula pusilla Fresh water Temporary<br />
Eleocharis limosa Fresh water Temporary<br />
Ficina elatior Fresh water Temporary<br />
Isolepis brevicaulis Fresh water Temporary<br />
Isolepis natans Fresh water Temporary<br />
Isolepis striata Fresh water Temporary<br />
Lachenalia salteri Fresh water Temporary<br />
Limosella grandiflora Fresh water Temporary<br />
Onixotis stricta Fresh water Temporary<br />
Oxalis natans Fresh water Temporary<br />
Oxalis trichophyllis Fresh water Temporary<br />
Spiloxene aquatica Fresh water Temporary<br />
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Table 7.3<br />
Continued.<br />
Order Family Species Status<br />
Hydrocotyle<br />
ranunculoides<br />
Berula erecta subsp.<br />
thunbergii<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
Menyanthaceae (Marais &<br />
Verdoorn 1963; Aston 1969;<br />
Raynal 1974)<br />
Asteraceae (Hilliard 1977)<br />
Nymphoides indica<br />
subsp. occidentalis<br />
Cotula coronopifolia<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
7.2 Indicator species<br />
Aquatic and/or riparian species should be excellent indicators <strong>of</strong> different wetland<br />
types since their habitat requirements can be very specific and since they are not<br />
mobile, plants <strong>of</strong>ten indicate general longer-term characteristics <strong>of</strong> an environment.<br />
Very little documentation exists on precise habitat requirements <strong>of</strong> wetland plants,<br />
however, and we therefore rely on the expertise <strong>of</strong> specialists to identify species<br />
which will be reliable indicators. We have managed to compile a preliminary list <strong>of</strong><br />
aquatic species that may be useful in indicating the location and particular<br />
characteristics <strong>of</strong> wetlands in the CFK (Table 7.4). This list may be expanded or<br />
edited using expertise from various institutions such as the National Herbarium (NBI,<br />
Pretoria). If required distribution data for selected species can be obtained from the<br />
National Herbarium (NBI, Pretoria), the Compton Herbarium (NBI, Kirstenbosch) and<br />
the Bolus-Herbarium (University <strong>of</strong> Cape Town). Other sources and references will<br />
also be incorporated. It should be noted that the distribution data for plants is<br />
generally relatively coarse and may therefore not be able to pinpoint wetlands with<br />
great precision. Furthermore, data is held by various sources and it may be beyond<br />
the scope or time-frame <strong>of</strong> this project to collate the data into a comprehensive<br />
database.<br />
7.3 Sources <strong>of</strong> information<br />
<strong>The</strong> list provided below summarises the sources <strong>of</strong> information that have been<br />
particularly useful for aquatic plants. For a comprehensive list <strong>of</strong> people what have<br />
been contacted in connection with avifaunal data see Appendices 9, 9.1 and 9.4<br />
86 Cape Action Plan for the Environment<br />
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Table 7.3<br />
Continued.<br />
Order Family Species Status<br />
Lagarosiphon major<br />
Lagarosiphon<br />
muscoides<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
Araceae (Brown 1897) Pistia stratiotes Invader<br />
Angiospermae:<br />
Monocotyledonae<br />
Lemnaceae (Landolt 1986)<br />
Lemnaceae (Landolt 1986)<br />
Spirodela polyrrhiza<br />
Spirodela punctata<br />
Lemna<br />
aequinoctialis<br />
Lemna gibba<br />
Lemna minor<br />
Wolffia arrhiza<br />
Wolffia globosa<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
Pontederiaceae (Obermeyer<br />
1985; Cook 1989)<br />
Eichhornia crassipes<br />
Pontederia cordata<br />
var. ovalis<br />
Invader<br />
Invader<br />
Angiospermae:<br />
Dicotyledonae<br />
Polygonaceae (Graham 1958,<br />
Wilson 1990)<br />
Persicaria<br />
senegalensis forma<br />
albotomentosa<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
Nymphaeaceae (Verdcourt<br />
1989)<br />
Nymphaea nouchali<br />
var. caerulea<br />
Nymphaea<br />
mexicana (Cultivar)<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
Invader<br />
Onagraceae (Goldblatt & Raven<br />
1997; Raven 1978)<br />
Ludwigia stolonifera<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
Haloragaceae (Mendes 1978)<br />
Myriophyllum<br />
aquaticum<br />
Invader<br />
Apiaceae (Burtt 1991; Cannon<br />
1978)<br />
Hydrocotyle<br />
americana<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
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Several aquatic plants found in southern Africa are particularly opportunistic weedy<br />
species and <strong>of</strong>ten indicate fairly disturbed (usually highly eutrophic) aquatic systems.<br />
In addition, certain plant species have a negative affect on natural communities due<br />
to their invasive characteristics. <strong>The</strong> presence and distribution <strong>of</strong> these species are<br />
therefore worthy noting as they give some idea <strong>of</strong> the ecological state <strong>of</strong> aquatic<br />
systems. Distribution data for selected species may be useful in identifying rivers or<br />
wetlands that are in particularly bad health and that would require substantial input<br />
for rehabilitation. Table 7.3 therefore lists some <strong>of</strong> the aquatic species which are<br />
known either to be invasive or opportunistic.<br />
Table 7.3<br />
A preliminary list <strong>of</strong> some opportunistic or invasive aquatic plant<br />
species found in southern Africa. Taken from Appendix 11.<br />
Order Family Species Status<br />
Pteridophyta Salviniaceae (Burrows 1990) Salvinia molesta Invader<br />
Azollaceae (Burrows 1990;<br />
Saunders & Fowler 1992, 1993)<br />
Azolla filiculoides Invader<br />
Salviniaceae (Burrows 1990) Salvinia molesta Invader<br />
Azollaceae (Burrows 1990;<br />
Saunders & Fowler 1992, 1993)<br />
Azolla filiculoides<br />
Azolla pinnata<br />
subsp. africana<br />
Invader<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
Angiospermae:<br />
Monocotyledonae<br />
Typhaceae (Anderson 1966)<br />
Potamogetonaceae (Obermeyer<br />
1966)<br />
Typha capensis<br />
Potamogeton<br />
crispus<br />
Potamogeton<br />
pectinatus<br />
Potamogeton<br />
pusillus<br />
Potamogeton<br />
schweinfurthii<br />
Potamogeton<br />
thunbergii<br />
Potamogeton<br />
trichoides<br />
Najas horrida<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
Opportunistic<br />
plant<br />
Hydrocharitaceae (Obermeyer<br />
1966; Den Hartog 1970;<br />
Symoens & Triest 1983)<br />
Egeria densa<br />
Invader<br />
84 Cape Action Plan for the Environment<br />
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Table 7.1<br />
Continued.<br />
Order Family Species Status<br />
Utricularia tortilis<br />
Utricularia welwitschii<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Asteraceae (Hilliard 1977) Cadiscus aquaticus Endangered<br />
Cotula myriophylloides<br />
Vulnerable<br />
Table 7.2<br />
A preliminary list <strong>of</strong> endemic plants found in the Western Cape.<br />
Aponogeton angustifolius Aiton<br />
Aponogeton distachyos L.f.<br />
Cadiscus aquaticus E.Mey. ex DC.<br />
Carex clavata Thunb.<br />
Carpha glomerata (Thunb.) Nees<br />
Chamaegigas intrepidus Dinter ex Heil<br />
Eleocharis limosa (Schrad.) Schult.<br />
Fissidens fasciculatus Hornsch.<br />
Isoetes capensis A.V. Duthie var. capensis<br />
Isoetes capensis A.V. Duthie var. stephanseniae (A.V. Duthie) Schelpe & N.C. Anthony<br />
Isoetes stellenbossiensis A.V. Duthie<br />
Isolepis digitata Schrad.<br />
Isopterygium strangulatum (C. Mll.) Broth.<br />
Limosella vesiculosa Hilliard & B.L. Burtt<br />
Prionium serratum (L.f.) DrŠge ex E. Mey.<br />
Pseudalthenia aschersoniana (Graebn.) Hartog<br />
Ranunculus capensis Thunb.<br />
Romulea aquatica G.J. Lewis<br />
Romulea multisulcata M.P. de Vos<br />
Schoenoplectus scirpoideus (Schrad.) Browning<br />
Spiloxene aquatica (L.f.) Fourc.<br />
Wardia hygrometrica Harv. & Hook.<br />
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Table 7.1<br />
Continued.<br />
Order Family Species Status<br />
Oxalis natans<br />
Endangered<br />
Oxalis simplex<br />
Endangered<br />
Scrophulariaceae (Philcox<br />
1970; Fisher 1992)<br />
Limosella africana<br />
Vulnerable<br />
Limosella vesiculosa<br />
Vulnerable<br />
Lindernia conferta<br />
Vulnerable<br />
Chamaegigas intrepidus<br />
Vulnerable<br />
Lentibulariaceae (Taylor<br />
1989)<br />
Genlisea hispidula<br />
Utricularia arenaria<br />
Utricularia australis<br />
Utricularia benjaminiana<br />
Utricularia bisquamata<br />
Utricularia cymbantha<br />
Utricularia firmula<br />
Utricularia foliosa<br />
Utricularia gibba<br />
Utricularia inflexa<br />
Utricularia livida<br />
Utricularia prehensilis<br />
Utricularia reflexa<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Utricularia sandersonii<br />
Vulnerable<br />
Angiospermae:<br />
Dicotyledonae<br />
Lentibulariaceae (Taylor<br />
1989)<br />
Utricularia scandens<br />
Utricularia subulata<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
82 Cape Action Plan for the Environment<br />
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Table 7.1<br />
Continued.<br />
Order Family Species Status<br />
Eriocaulaceae (Obermeyer<br />
1985)<br />
Xyris nivea<br />
Xyris rehmannii<br />
Eriocaulon africanum<br />
Eriocaulon angustisepalum<br />
Eriocaulon maculatum<br />
Eriocaulon setaceum<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Rare<br />
Rare<br />
Vulnerable<br />
Vulnerable<br />
Pontederiaceae<br />
(Obermeyer 1985; Cook<br />
1989)<br />
Amaryllidaceae (Verdoorn<br />
1973)<br />
Monochoria africana<br />
Crinum campanulatum<br />
Crinum paludosum<br />
Crinum variabile<br />
Rare<br />
Rare<br />
Vulnerable<br />
Vulnerable<br />
Iridaceae (Goldblatt 1979,<br />
De Vos 1983)<br />
Romulea aquatica<br />
Romulea multisulcata<br />
Galaxia stagnalis<br />
Vulnerable<br />
Rare<br />
Vulnerable<br />
Angiospermae:<br />
Dicotyledonae<br />
Angiospermae:<br />
Dicotyledonae<br />
Podostemaceae<br />
(Obermeyer 1970; Cusset<br />
1980; 1997)<br />
Podostemaceae<br />
(Obermeyer 1970; Cusset<br />
1980; 1997)<br />
Tristicha trifaria subsp.<br />
Trifaria<br />
Ledermanniella<br />
warmingiana<br />
Vulnerable<br />
Vulnerable<br />
Letestuella tisserantii Vulnerable <br />
Sphaerothylax algiformis Vulnerable <br />
Hydrostachyaceae<br />
(Obermeyer 1970)<br />
Hydrostachys polymorpha Vulnerable <br />
Oxalidaceae (Salter 1944)<br />
Oxalis disticha<br />
Vulnerable<br />
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Table 7.1<br />
Continued.<br />
Order Family Species Status<br />
Angiospermae:<br />
Monocotyledonae<br />
Cyperaceae (Archer in<br />
prep.)<br />
Bolboschoenus nobilis<br />
Eleocharis acutangula<br />
Eleocharis dulcis<br />
Eleocharis limosa<br />
Eleocharis naumanniana<br />
Eleocharis retr<strong>of</strong>lexa<br />
subsp.subtilissima<br />
Carpha glomerata<br />
Cladium mariscus subsp.<br />
Jamaicense<br />
Scleria angusta<br />
Scleria greigiifolia<br />
Scleria lacustris<br />
Scleria poiformis<br />
Carex acutiformis<br />
Carex austro-africana<br />
Carex clavata<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Arecaceae (Glen in press) Raphia australis Vulnerable<br />
Lemnaceae (Landolt 1986) Wolffiella denticulata Rare<br />
Wolffiella hyalina Vulnerable<br />
Wolffiella welwitschii<br />
Vulnerable<br />
Xyridaceae (Lewis &<br />
Obermeyer 1985)<br />
Xyris anceps<br />
Xyris capensis<br />
Xyris gerrardii<br />
Xyris natalensis<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
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Table 7.1<br />
Continued.<br />
Order Family Species Status<br />
Cyperus pectinatus<br />
Cyperus prolifer<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Cyperus sensilis<br />
Rare<br />
Angiospermae:<br />
Monocotyledonae<br />
Cyperaceae (Archer in<br />
prep.)<br />
Pycreus mundii<br />
Oxycaryum cubensis<br />
Schoenoplectus articulatus<br />
Schoenoplectus<br />
brachyceras<br />
Schoenoplectus<br />
corymbosus<br />
Schoenoplectus erectus<br />
Schoenoplectus muricinux<br />
Schoenoplectus<br />
muriculatus<br />
Schoenoplectus paludicola<br />
Schoenoplectus<br />
praelongatus<br />
Schoenoplectus pulchellus<br />
Schoenoplectus roylei<br />
Schoenoplectus scirpoides<br />
Schoenoplectus<br />
senegalensis<br />
Schoenoplectus<br />
tabernaemontani<br />
Schoenoplectus triqueter<br />
Isolepis digitata<br />
Isolepis fluitans<br />
Bolboschoenus glaucus<br />
Bolboschoenus maritimus<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
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Table 7.1<br />
A preliminary list <strong>of</strong> threatened aquatic plants found in southern Africa.<br />
Plant status taken from Hilton-Taylor 1996 or directly from Appendix 8.<br />
Order Family Species Status<br />
Bryophyta Hypnaceae (Sim 1926) Isopterygium strangulatum Rare<br />
Pteridophyta Isoetaceae (Burrows 1990) Isoetes aequinoctialis Rare<br />
Isoetes capensis var.<br />
capensis<br />
Rare<br />
Isoetes capensis var.<br />
stephansenii<br />
Rare<br />
Isoetes giessii<br />
Rare<br />
Isoetes schweinfurthii<br />
Isoetes stellenbossiensis<br />
Isoetes transvaalensis<br />
Isoetes welwitschii<br />
Isoetes wormaldii<br />
Rare<br />
Rare<br />
Vulnerable<br />
Rare<br />
Endangered<br />
Pteridophyta Isoetaceae (Burrows 1990) Marsilea coromandelina Rare<br />
Marsilea distorta<br />
Rare<br />
Marsilea fenestrata<br />
Endangered<br />
Marsilea minuta<br />
Rare<br />
Marsilea nubica var. nubica<br />
Vulnerable<br />
Marsilea schelpeana<br />
Vulnerable<br />
Angiospermae:<br />
Monocotyledonae<br />
Zannichelliaceae<br />
(Obermeyer 1966)<br />
Pseudalthenia<br />
aschersoniana<br />
Rare<br />
Aponogeton ranunculiflorus<br />
Rare<br />
Cyperaceae (Archer in<br />
prep.)<br />
Lipocarpha abietina<br />
Lipocarpha chinensis<br />
Websteria confervoides<br />
Cyperus articulatus<br />
Cyperus denudatus<br />
Cyperus papyrus<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
Threatened<br />
habitat<br />
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CHAPTER 7: AQUATIC AND RIPARIAN VEGETATION<br />
K. Goldberg and G.D.P. van Nieuwenhuizen<br />
7.1 Taxonomic data<br />
It appears that relatively little work has been done on developing a database or<br />
creating a centre that holds information for aquatic and riparian vegetation in<br />
southern Africa. <strong>The</strong> National Botanical Institute (NBI) in Pretoria has only recently<br />
approved a proposal to develop a database <strong>of</strong> this nature. While some information<br />
does exist on water-dependent plants, widespread expertise on these taxa appears<br />
to be lacking.<br />
While it is relatively easy to identify aquatic plants that have an obligate dependence<br />
on waterbodies it is more difficult to produce a comprehensive checklist that includes<br />
all plants that have close associations with water. An attempt has in fact been made<br />
by the NBI and Appendix 11 provides an unpublished list <strong>of</strong> aquatic plants occurring<br />
in Southern Africa. This list covers only those plants “<strong>of</strong> which the physiologically<br />
active parts are permanently or at least for several months <strong>of</strong> each year submerged<br />
or float on the surface <strong>of</strong> water” (Appendix 11). Riparian vegetation is therefore not<br />
included; nor are phytoplankton, blue-greens or algae.<br />
Distribution data for all types <strong>of</strong> vegetation in South Africa that is housed at NBI,<br />
Pretoria, has been collated in the PRECIS database. This information can be made<br />
available if required and can be augmented by information obtained from the Bolus<br />
and Compton Herbaria as well as checklists from various references and sources<br />
(see Appendices 10, 10.1 and 10.4 for more details).<br />
As with other taxonomic data, the presence <strong>of</strong> threatened or endemic aquatic plant<br />
species at various sites or areas can be used in prioritising areas <strong>of</strong> potential<br />
conservation concern. Table 7.1 provides a preliminary list <strong>of</strong> threatened aquatic<br />
plants found in the Western Cape. However, due to the scarcity <strong>of</strong> surveys and<br />
information for this type <strong>of</strong> plant, the species list and associated distribution records<br />
are by no means comprehensive. Furthermore it only includes aquatic plants as<br />
defined above and therefore does not include riparian plants or many other species<br />
closely associated with waterbodies or moist waterlogged environments. Similarly the<br />
list <strong>of</strong> endemic species (Table 7.2) is taken directly from Appendix 12 and is probably<br />
incomplete.<br />
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Table 6.2<br />
List <strong>of</strong> threatened water-associated mammals found in the CFK.<br />
Present conservation status is based on the criteria laid out by<br />
Smithers (1986) while Previous <strong>Conservation</strong> Status is according to<br />
Meester (1976) or Skinner et al (1977).<br />
Present <strong>Conservation</strong> status<br />
Previous <strong>Conservation</strong><br />
Status<br />
Water rat Indeterminate Rare<br />
Verreaux's mouse<br />
Rare<br />
Leopard Rare Rare<br />
Cape Mountain Zebra Vulnerable Endangered<br />
Bontebok Rare Rare<br />
Hippototamus Rare Special Case<br />
Table 6.3<br />
Endemicity <strong>of</strong> water-associated mammals recorded in the CFK.<br />
Cape Floristic<br />
South African<br />
Southern African<br />
Sub-Saharan<br />
Kingdom endemic<br />
endemic<br />
endemic<br />
endemic<br />
• Water rat<br />
spp Dasymys<br />
incomptus<br />
capensis is<br />
endemic to the<br />
southwestern<br />
Cape<br />
• Bontebok<br />
• Cape Mountain<br />
Zebra<br />
Confined to Mnt<br />
Zebra NP & mtns<br />
in Gamka,<br />
• Grey climbing<br />
mouse<br />
• Mountain<br />
Reedbuck<br />
disjunct distributions<br />
• Spotted-necked<br />
otter<br />
restricted to SW<br />
Cape, mainly<br />
Kamanassie,<br />
Kouga and<br />
• Large-spotted<br />
Genet<br />
• Cape Clawless<br />
Otter<br />
bet. Bredasdorp<br />
and Cape<br />
Agulhas<br />
• Verreaux's<br />
mouse<br />
Baviaansklo<strong>of</strong><br />
• Cape Molerat<br />
high conc in the<br />
CFK<br />
• Vlei rat<br />
• Water mongoose<br />
• Bushpig<br />
• Bushbuck<br />
• Hippopotamus<br />
• Cape Dune<br />
Molerat<br />
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further serves to highlight those species which, due to either their restricted ranges or<br />
their Red Data Status, need consideration in the planning phases <strong>of</strong> this project.<br />
Table 6.2 therefore provides information on the Red Data Status <strong>of</strong> the relevant<br />
species listed in Smithers (1986), while Table 6.3 provides information on the degree<br />
<strong>of</strong> endemicity <strong>of</strong> the relevant species.<br />
6.2 Important sources <strong>of</strong> information<br />
<strong>The</strong> list provided below summarises the sources <strong>of</strong> information that have been<br />
particularly useful for water-associated mammals during the first phase <strong>of</strong> the project<br />
and which will probably be <strong>of</strong> great use when prioritising important conservation<br />
areas during the next. For a comprehensive list <strong>of</strong> people what have been contacted<br />
in connection with avifaunal data see Appendices 10, 10.1 and 10.3.<br />
SA Museum<br />
• has provided all distribution records available for water-associated mammals<br />
which fall within the CFK. Usually includes site name and geographical coordinates<br />
to the nearest quarter-degree.<br />
Caffrarian Museum<br />
• has provided all distribution records available for water-associated mammals<br />
which fall within the CFK. Usually includes geographical co-ordinates to the<br />
nearest minute or second.<br />
<strong>The</strong> mammals <strong>of</strong> southern Africa (Skinner and Smithers, 1990).<br />
• provided the information required to identify water-associated mammals in the<br />
CFK.<br />
<strong>The</strong>sis on the conservation status <strong>of</strong> small endemic mammals in South Africa<br />
(Gelderblom 1993)<br />
• provides spatial distribution data <strong>of</strong> small endemic mammals <strong>of</strong> South Africa<br />
• assesses areas which should receive priority in terms <strong>of</strong> conserving these<br />
animals.<br />
Two volumes <strong>of</strong> the historical incidence <strong>of</strong> mammals in the Cape Province<br />
(Skead 1987)<br />
• provides records <strong>of</strong> sightings which have been used to trace the distribution <strong>of</strong><br />
mammals in the Cape Province at the time <strong>of</strong> the first settlers.<br />
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Table 6.1<br />
A list <strong>of</strong> all water-associated mammals recorded in the CFK. Taken<br />
from Skinner and Smithers (1990).<br />
Common name<br />
Cape Dune Molerat<br />
Cape Molerat<br />
Vlei rat<br />
Water rat<br />
Verreaux's mouse<br />
Grey climbing mouse<br />
Leopard<br />
Cape Clawless Otter<br />
Spotted-necked otter<br />
Large-spotted Genet<br />
Large Grey Mongoose<br />
Water mongoose<br />
Cape Mountain Zebra<br />
Bushpig<br />
Bontebok<br />
Bushbuck<br />
Mountain Reedbuck<br />
Hippopotamus<br />
Species name<br />
Bathyergus suillis<br />
Georychus capensis<br />
Otomys irroratus<br />
Dasymys incomtus<br />
Myomyscus verreauxii<br />
Dendromys melanotis<br />
Panthera pardus<br />
Aonyx capensis<br />
Lutra mucalicollis<br />
Genetta tigrina<br />
Herpestes ichneumon<br />
Atilax paludinosus<br />
Equus zebra<br />
Potamochoerus porcus<br />
Damaliscus dorcas<br />
Tragelaphus scriptus<br />
Redunca fulvorutula<br />
Hippopotamus amphibius<br />
taxon at this stage. Distribution data have however been sought and collected from<br />
several museums as it may be <strong>of</strong> use in the later phases <strong>of</strong> the project when more<br />
detailed information for specific areas may be required.<br />
While available distribution data will probably serve a limited function at this point,<br />
information <strong>of</strong> the species found within the CFK and their relative conservation status<br />
will provide useful background information on the faunal diversity <strong>of</strong> the region. It<br />
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CHAPTER 6: WATER-ASSOCIATED MAMMALS<br />
Karen Goldberg<br />
6.1 Taxonomic data<br />
Table 6.1 provides a list <strong>of</strong> water-associated mammals recorded in the CFK. It<br />
includes species that may not be considered to be “aquatic” organisms. However all<br />
species that usually inhabit or utilise aquatic habitats and those that are usually not<br />
found very far from water have been included since they do rely to some extent on<br />
the healthy functioning <strong>of</strong> aquatic systems. For example the Cape dune molerat<br />
(Bathyergus suillis) and Cape Molerat (Georychus capensis) both occur mainly in<br />
sandy substrates. <strong>The</strong>y therefore utilise coastal dunes, sandy flats and alluvial sand<br />
along river systems. Thus while they are not directly associated with water, the<br />
hydrological state <strong>of</strong> river systems has important consequences for the distribution <strong>of</strong><br />
these species. Similarly, while the leopard (Panthera pardus) is independent <strong>of</strong> water<br />
supplies it tends to utilise water-courses extensively, especially in drier regions where<br />
sufficient prey animals occur. In the CFK it is commonly found to inhabit forested<br />
klo<strong>of</strong>s.<br />
Note that the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) no longer occurs in the CFK.<br />
However its historical occurrence in the area has potential consequences for the<br />
conservation plan since reintroduction <strong>of</strong> the species may be considered and<br />
investigated at a later stage.<br />
As with birds, data on the distribution <strong>of</strong> water-associated mammals was initially<br />
thought to be <strong>of</strong> relatively little use in aiding the selection <strong>of</strong> priority areas for<br />
conservation for the same reasons as mentioned previously. Examination <strong>of</strong> existing<br />
available data has revealed that the information has not been adequately<br />
synthesised for inclusion in the prioritisation <strong>of</strong> areas in the broadscale study. This is<br />
because distribution records are relatively sparse since this data, unlike bird<br />
distribution records rely on verification in the form <strong>of</strong> actual specimens housed at<br />
various museums. Bird distributions in contrast are largely based on sightings from<br />
reliable sources and due to extensive and thorough expeditions the data is more<br />
likely to be comprehensive and can be used as presence-absence data with a fair<br />
level <strong>of</strong> confidence. Furthermore mammal distribution data have not been compiled<br />
into one database as has been done for birds, and, given the time constraints <strong>of</strong> this<br />
project it will not be possible to create a comprehensive distribution database for this<br />
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<strong>GIS</strong> coverage <strong>of</strong> IBAs.<br />
IBA Report (Barnes 1998).<br />
• comprehensive document detailing all newly-proclaimed Important Bird Areas<br />
<strong>of</strong> southern Africa and the reasons why each site has been included as an IBA<br />
• provides extensive information on the location, topography, edaphic features,<br />
habitat and dominant vegetation type <strong>of</strong> each area<br />
• provides lists <strong>of</strong> threatened and endemic birds and for wetland sites includes<br />
all species whose populations either exceed 0.5% or 1% <strong>of</strong> a biogegraphical<br />
or global population<br />
• provides extensive information on other threatened/endemic wildlife and<br />
important conservation issues such as threats to the area<br />
• provides comprehensive reference list <strong>of</strong> all relevant literature pertaining to the<br />
site<br />
• provides lists <strong>of</strong> globally and nationally threatened species as well as<br />
restricted-range species and biome-restricted assemblages.<br />
Rallid report (Taylor 1997a, b).<br />
• report on the secretive water-rails which inhabit palustrine wetlands throughout<br />
South Africa<br />
• provides data on the distribution, movement, habitat requirements, population,<br />
important sites, threats, conservation status, habitat management and<br />
recommended action for each species<br />
• provides data on the location and habitat <strong>of</strong> selected palustrine wetlands as<br />
well as a list <strong>of</strong> all rallids observed at each site, potential threats and overall<br />
evaluation <strong>of</strong> the site<br />
CWAC report (Taylor et al 1999 in press).<br />
• comprehensive data <strong>of</strong> waterbird counts for more than 40 wetlands in the CFK<br />
• provides location and brief notes on all wetlands surveyed<br />
• provides the minimum and maximum populations recorded for summer and<br />
winter counts<br />
• indicates populations which exceed 0.5% or 1% <strong>of</strong> a biogegraphical or global<br />
population.<br />
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Table 5.3<br />
A preliminary Red Data List <strong>of</strong> threatened bird species that have been<br />
recorded on rivers and wetlands in the CFK using the latest IUCN<br />
criteria. Information obtained from Barnes (1998).<br />
Globally threatened species<br />
Globally vulnerable<br />
Blue Crane*<br />
Globally near-threatened<br />
African Black Oystercatcher*<br />
Lesser Flamingo*<br />
Nationally threatened species<br />
Nationally endangered<br />
Roseate Tern<br />
Kerguelen Tern<br />
Nationally vulnerable<br />
Pinkbacked Pelican<br />
Whitebacked Night Heron<br />
African Marsh Harrier<br />
Blue Crane*<br />
Crowned Crane<br />
African Finfoot<br />
African Black Oystercatcher<br />
Caspian Tern<br />
Nationally near-threatened<br />
White Pelican<br />
Cape cormorant<br />
Black Stork<br />
Greater Flamingo<br />
Lesser Flamingo*<br />
Crowned Eagle<br />
Painted Snipe<br />
Chestnutbanded Plover<br />
Halfcollared Kingfisher<br />
Barlow’s Lark*<br />
Agulhas Longbilled Lark*<br />
Range-restricted species (only in<br />
Barlow’s Lark*<br />
South Africa)<br />
Agulhas Longbilled Lark*<br />
Biome-restricted assemblages:<br />
Agulhas Longbilled Lark*<br />
Note:<br />
* Denotes species that occur under other Red Data categories<br />
Italics– Denotes species which are either not closely associated with rivers and wetlands, or<br />
species which are vagrants or only occasional visitors to the CFK.<br />
Digitized Bird Atlas data (obtained from the ADU)<br />
• <strong>GIS</strong> coverages <strong>of</strong> all water-associated birds in quarter-degree grid squares for<br />
the Western and Eastern Cape<br />
• will provide data <strong>of</strong> biodiversity as well as distribution data for important<br />
indicator species.<br />
A list <strong>of</strong> indicator species compiled by Mr. James Harrison.<br />
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list <strong>of</strong> species to help us differentiate various wetland types and assist in pinpointing<br />
particular characteristics <strong>of</strong> waterbodies. For a detailed report and list <strong>of</strong> relevent<br />
indicator species for the CFK, see Appendix 9.<br />
Digitized Bird Atlas Data from these lists <strong>of</strong> indicator species can then be used to<br />
both locate wetlands and to identify, at least to some extent, different types <strong>of</strong><br />
wetlands that exist at a quarter-degree grid scale. Although using this scale has<br />
some limitations in that it is impossible to pinpoint the number and precise location <strong>of</strong><br />
different wetlands in one grid square, it will at least give some indication <strong>of</strong> the range<br />
<strong>of</strong> wetlands that occur in any given area. Further, by using species richness or an<br />
adjusted measure <strong>of</strong> biodiversity (ADU has used a derivation <strong>of</strong> the Shannon-Weiner<br />
Index to accommodate reporting rates in the equation), one should be able to infer<br />
either the size or the relative abundance <strong>of</strong> various wetlands.<br />
5.3 Important sources <strong>of</strong> information<br />
<strong>The</strong> list provided below summarises the sources <strong>of</strong> information that were particularly<br />
useful for birds during the first phase <strong>of</strong> the project. For a comprehensive list <strong>of</strong><br />
people that have been contacted in connection with avifaunal data see Appendices<br />
10, 10.1 and 10.2.<br />
Atlas <strong>of</strong> Southern African Birds (Harrison et al 1997).<br />
• reporting rates for all southern African species in quarter-degree squares<br />
• has provided information on the distribution <strong>of</strong> all water-associated birds in<br />
southern Africa and has allowed us to identify all waterbirds found in the CFK<br />
• gives an indication <strong>of</strong> core areas for relevant species<br />
• Gives an indication <strong>of</strong> the relative importance <strong>of</strong> the fynbos vegetation type<br />
(which covers the geographical extent <strong>of</strong> the CFK) for relevant species.<br />
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environments. <strong>The</strong>se are then further subdivided into birds that are restricted to the<br />
exposed shore, or found either in emergent vegetation or on the open water. Other<br />
categories which may be useful in terms <strong>of</strong> indicating particular habitats <strong>of</strong><br />
importance are birds associated with riverine woodland or moist grassland. Using<br />
distribution data for relevant species, waterbodies can be located and in some cases,<br />
characteristics <strong>of</strong> the waterbody can be inferred. A list <strong>of</strong> these indicator species is<br />
provided in Appendix 8.<br />
In addition to the species chosen from the aforementioned classification scheme<br />
Keith Barnes (Sugarbird Avifaunal Consultants pers. comm.) has provided us with a<br />
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Table 5.2<br />
Continued.<br />
Common Name Species name Robert’s bird no.<br />
Blacksmith Plover Vanellus armatus 258<br />
Turnstone Arenaria interpres 262<br />
Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos 264<br />
Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatitus 269<br />
Greenshank Tringa nebularia 270<br />
Curlew Sandpiper Calidris ferruginea 272<br />
Little Stint Calidris minuta 274<br />
Ruff Philomachus pugnax 284<br />
Ethiopian Snipe Gallinago nigripennis 286<br />
Bartailed Godwit Limosa lapponica 288<br />
Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta 294<br />
Blackwinged Stilt Himantopus himantopus 295<br />
Water Dikkop Burhinus vermiculatus 298<br />
Greyheaded Gull Larus cirrocephalus 315<br />
Hartlaub's Gull Larus hartlaubii 316<br />
Caspian Tern Hydropogne caspia 322<br />
Antarctic Tern Sterna vittata 329<br />
Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybridis 338<br />
Whitewinged Tern Chlidonias leucopterus 339<br />
Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis 428<br />
Giant Kingfisher Megaceryle maxima 429<br />
Halfcollared Kingfisher Alcedo semitorquata 430<br />
Malachite Kingfisher Alcedo cristata 431<br />
Brownthroated Martin Riparia paludicola 533<br />
African Marsh Warbler Acrocephalus baeticus 631<br />
Cape Reed Warbler Acrocephalus gracilirostris 635<br />
African Sedge Warbler Bradypterus baboecala 638<br />
Levaillant’s Cisticola Cisticola tinneus 677<br />
Red Bishop Euplectus orix 824<br />
Common Waxbill Estrilda astrild 846<br />
Mallard Anas platyrhynchos 891<br />
Note:<br />
This list has been compiled from the following sources:<br />
1. James Harrison’s classification <strong>of</strong> indicator species (Avian Demography Unit, University <strong>of</strong><br />
Cape Town, unpubl.)<br />
2. CWAC report (Taylor et al 1999)<br />
3. Barnes 1998.<br />
4. Harrison et al, 1997.<br />
5.2.2 Indicator species<br />
A classification scheme developed by James Harrison <strong>of</strong> the ADU has been used to<br />
identify birds that can be used as indicator species. His classification identifies birds<br />
that are obligately or facultatively associated with aquatic environments and further<br />
divides these according to whether they are restricted to lotic or lacustrine<br />
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Table 5.2<br />
A list <strong>of</strong> all bird species closely associated with rivers and wetlands in<br />
the Cape Floristic Kingdom. Birds that are generally not closely<br />
associated with aquatic inland systems or have catholic habitat<br />
requirements are excluded. Species which are occasional visitors or<br />
vagrants to the region or whose core area falls well outside the CFK<br />
are also excluded.<br />
Common Name Species name Robert’s bird no.<br />
Great Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus 006<br />
Black-Necked Grebe Podiceps nigricollis 007<br />
Dabchick Tachybaptus ruficollis 008<br />
White Pelican Pelicanus onocrotalis 049<br />
Whitebreasted Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo 055<br />
Reed Cormorant Phalacrocorax africanus 058<br />
Darter Anhinga melanogaster 060<br />
Grey Heron Ardea cinerea 062<br />
Purple Heron Ardea purpurea 065<br />
Little Egret Egretta garzetta 067<br />
Yellowbilled Egret Egretta intermedia 068<br />
Blackcrowned Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax 076<br />
Little Bittern Ixobrychus minutus 078<br />
Hamerkop Scopus umbretta 081<br />
Sacred Ibis Threskiornis aethiopicus 091<br />
African Spoonbill Platelea alba 095<br />
Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber 096<br />
Lesser Flamingo Phoeniconaias minor 097<br />
South African Shelduck Tadorna cana 103<br />
Yellowbilled Duck Anas undulata 104<br />
South African Black Duck Anas sparsa 105<br />
Cape Teal Anas capensis 106<br />
Redbilled Teal Anas erythrorhyncha 108<br />
Cape Shoveller Anas smithii 112<br />
Southern Pochard Netta erythrophthalma 113<br />
Spurwinged Goose Plectropterus gambensis 116<br />
Maccoa Duck Oxyura maccoa 117<br />
African Fish Eagle Haliaeetus vocifer 148<br />
African Marsh Harrier Circus ranivorus 165<br />
Osprey Pandion haliaetus 170<br />
Blue Crane Anthropoides paradiseus 208<br />
African Rail Rallus caerulescens 210<br />
Black Crake Amaurornis flavirostris 213<br />
Redchested Flufftail Sarothrura rufa 217<br />
Purple Gallinule Porphyrio porphyrio 223<br />
Moorhen Gallinula chloropus 226<br />
Redknobbed Coot Fulica cristata 228<br />
African Black Oystercatcher Haematopus moquini 244<br />
Ringed Plover Charadrius hiaticula 245<br />
Chestnutbanded Plover Charadrius pallidus 247<br />
Kittlitz's Plover Charadrius pecuarius 248<br />
Threebanded Plover Charadrius tricollaris 249<br />
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contribution in the identification <strong>of</strong> priority areas. Birds are relatively conspicuous<br />
organisms and a great deal <strong>of</strong> research has been carried out regarding both their<br />
distribution and their habitat requirements. <strong>The</strong> information available is therefore<br />
particularly comprehensive with the majority <strong>of</strong> data housed at the Avian<br />
Demography Unit (ADU).<br />
<strong>The</strong> Bird Atlas Data (recently produced by the ADU) provides detailed digitised<br />
information on the distribution <strong>of</strong> all southern African birds at a quarter degree grid<br />
scale. Various other sources <strong>of</strong> information such the CWAC report, <strong>The</strong> Important<br />
Bird Areas <strong>of</strong> southern Africa (Barnes 1998) and bird checklists from nature reserves<br />
and national parks provide valuable and complementary data to the Bird Atlas Data.<br />
In addition to providing an idea <strong>of</strong> the pattern <strong>of</strong> biodiversity in the CFK, bird data can<br />
also potentially be used to assess invertebrate diversity, since different bird species<br />
tend to feed on different sizes <strong>of</strong> invertebrate prey (P.A.R. Hockey, pers.comm.).<br />
Thus areas or sites with high bird diversity will probably possess a relatively high<br />
degree <strong>of</strong> invertebrate diversity.<br />
With the ADU as the main source <strong>of</strong> information, we set ourselves the task <strong>of</strong><br />
collating the following data.<br />
• A checklist <strong>of</strong> all water-associated bird species found in the CFK<br />
• A list <strong>of</strong> Red Data species<br />
• A list <strong>of</strong> IBAs which are important in terms <strong>of</strong> inland waters<br />
• A list <strong>of</strong> water-associated birds endemic to southern Africa<br />
<strong>The</strong> checklist <strong>of</strong> water-associated birds <strong>of</strong> the CFK (Appendix 7) includes all birds<br />
that have been recorded on inland waters in the CFK. This list therefore includes<br />
species such as most <strong>of</strong> the terns and gulls that are predominantly marine or<br />
estuarine that are not closely associated with freshwater systems. Table 5.2 thus lists<br />
only those species that are thought to have close associations with inland aquatic<br />
systems. Birds with either catholic habitat requirements, or species that are<br />
occasional visitors, or vagrants to the region, are excluded. Sea and estuarine birds<br />
are generally also excluded, except for those species for which inland waters provide<br />
important breeding sites.<br />
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Table 5.1<br />
List <strong>of</strong> Important Bird Areas (IBAs) relevant to inland waters and<br />
estuarine systems in the Cape Floristic Kingdom.<br />
Site<br />
Number<br />
Site Name<br />
Primary Relevance To<br />
Aquatic Systems<br />
SA093 Kouga-Baviaansklo<strong>of</strong> Complex Includes riverine habitat<br />
SA096<br />
Swartkops Estuary, Redhouse and Chatty<br />
Saltpans<br />
Wetland IBA<br />
SA098 Tsitsikamma National Park Includes riverine habitat<br />
SA099 Olifants River Estuary Wetland IBA<br />
SA101 Cedarberg-Koue Bokkeveld Complex Includes riverine habitat<br />
SA103 Velorenvlei Wetland IBA<br />
SA104 Lower Berg River Wetlands Wetland IBA<br />
SA105<br />
West Coast National Park and Saldanha Bay<br />
Islands<br />
Wetland IBA<br />
SA107 Eastern False Bay Mountains Includes riverine habitat<br />
SA111 Rietvlei Wetland Reserve Wetland IBA<br />
SA112 Outeniqua Mountains Includes riverine habitat<br />
SA113 Southern Langeberg Mountains Includes riverine habitat<br />
SA114 Wilderness-Sedgefield Lakes Complex Wetland IBA<br />
SA115 Overberg Wheatbelt Wetland IBA<br />
SA116 False Bay Park Wetland IBA<br />
SA118 Botriviervlei and Kleinmond Estuary Wetland IBA<br />
SA119 De Hoop Nature Reserve Wetland IBA<br />
SA121 Heuningsnes River and Estuary Systems Wetland IBA<br />
Note:<br />
This table has been derived directly from: K.N. Barnes (ed). 1998.<br />
5.2 Water-associated birds<br />
5.2.1 Taxonomic lists<br />
It was initially thought that birds would probably not be particularly useful in assisting<br />
with identifying priority areas since they generally have a relatively wide distribution<br />
and because <strong>of</strong> their high degree <strong>of</strong> mobility. This may seem particularly true for<br />
water-associated birds which tend to be migratory, and this is highlighted by the fact<br />
that there are no water-associated species which have a range totally restricted to<br />
the CFK (Barnes 1998). Closer investigation <strong>of</strong> the available data on birds suggests<br />
however that this information should not be overlooked in terms <strong>of</strong> its potential<br />
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r<br />
O l i f a n t s R i v e r<br />
E s t u a r y<br />
r<br />
V e r l o r e n v l e i<br />
r<br />
r<br />
L o w e r B e r g R i v e r W e t l a n d s<br />
r<br />
r<br />
C e d a r b e r g - K o u e<br />
B o k k e v e l d C o m ple x<br />
W e s t C o a s t N a t i o n a l P a r k &<br />
S a l d a n h a B a y I s l a n d s<br />
E a s t e r n F a l s e<br />
R i e t v l e i W e t l a n d<br />
B a y M o u n t a i n s<br />
r<br />
R e s e r v e<br />
r<br />
F a l s e B a y P a r k<br />
O v e r b e r g W heatbelt<br />
B o t r i v i e r v l e i & r<br />
K l e i n m o n d E s t u a r y<br />
r<br />
r<br />
Sout he rn La ngebe rg<br />
Mo untain s<br />
r<br />
H e u nin gnes R iver &<br />
E s tuary System<br />
De H oo p Nature Res er ve<br />
Out eniqua M o u n t a i ns<br />
r<br />
r<br />
Wilder n e s s - S e dg efie ld<br />
Lak es C o m p l e x<br />
Koug a- Bavia ansklo<strong>of</strong> Comp lex<br />
r<br />
r<br />
Tsit sika mma<br />
Nationa l Park<br />
Sw ar tko ps Es tuary<br />
r<br />
Fig 5.1<br />
Important Bird Areas associated with freshwater ecosystems in the CFK.<br />
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CHAPTER 5: FRESHWATER BIRDS<br />
Important areas for the conservation <strong>of</strong> birds associated with freshwater ecosystems.<br />
Karen Goldberg, K.N. Barnes and G.D.P. Van Nieuwenhuizen<br />
5.1 Introduction<br />
A report <strong>of</strong> the Important Bird Areas (IBAs) <strong>of</strong> southern Africa (Barnes 1998)<br />
highlights areas <strong>of</strong> global conservation value with regard to birds and therefore is<br />
useful as a starting point for identifying key freshwater areas in the CFK. In Table 5.1,<br />
we highlight all IBAs that are relevant to aquatic systems in the CFK. <strong>The</strong>se are<br />
displayed graphically in Figure 5.1 using the digital coverages supplied by the Avian<br />
Demographic Unit (ADU) at UCT. While not all listed IBA’s are aquatic, they include<br />
all those areas where birds benefit either directly or indirectly from the presence <strong>of</strong><br />
aquatic habitats. <strong>The</strong> Cedarberg- Koue Bokkeveld Complex was chosen as an<br />
aquatic IBA, for example, based largely on the numerous range-restricted and biomerestricted<br />
assemblages to which it is home. While this region does not support any<br />
wetland or water-dependent assemblages, it includes the Olifants River Catchment,<br />
whose riverine thicket provides food, shelter and breeding habitats for many species<br />
and further provides a corridor along which numerous birds are able to move. <strong>The</strong><br />
aquatic habitat in this region therefore performs an important function in maintaining<br />
the avian diversity <strong>of</strong> the region.<br />
Since the criteria for classifying an area as an IBA are particularly restricted,<br />
waterbodies, that do not meet the standards <strong>of</strong> an IBA may still be important on a<br />
national level. <strong>The</strong>refore a more detailed investigation <strong>of</strong> rivers and wetlands is<br />
required to identify other areas <strong>of</strong> potential importance for birds within the CFK.<br />
In addition, while there are no waterbirds endemic to the CFK (Barnes, 1998),<br />
probably largely because many <strong>of</strong> these species are migratory, there are three<br />
species whose distribution is restricted to southern Africa. <strong>The</strong>se are the Cape<br />
Shoveller (Anas smithii), the South African Shelduck (Tadorna cana) and the Blue<br />
Crane (Anthropoides paradiseus), which is not closely closely associated with aquatic<br />
habitats.<br />
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workshop discussions and associated maps <strong>of</strong> areas <strong>of</strong> conservation importance.<br />
Everybody who helped with technical data capture and input, as well as database<br />
related aspects are thanked as well.<br />
Secondly, we acknowledge the technical support by members <strong>of</strong> the various<br />
museums and institutions which made it possible to collate the current herpetological<br />
database upon which this report is based. In particular, the South African Museum<br />
(Cape Town), John Ellerman Museum (University <strong>of</strong> Stellenbosch), Port Elizabeth<br />
Museum, and Marius Burger (formerly Eastern Cape Nature <strong>Conservation</strong>) are<br />
thanked for supplying data for the database.<br />
Andrew Turner, database consultant to Cape Nature <strong>Conservation</strong>'s Scientific<br />
Services Division, is thanked for supplying valuable input both during the<br />
development phase <strong>of</strong> the project and the workshop.<br />
This project formed part <strong>of</strong> the Aquatic Component <strong>of</strong> the Cape Action Plan for the<br />
Environment executed by the University <strong>of</strong> Cape Town. <strong>The</strong> Global Environmental<br />
Facility is thanked for providing funding for non-Cape Nature <strong>Conservation</strong> members<br />
<strong>of</strong> the team <strong>of</strong> authors, students and consultants. Finally, the Director, Cape Nature<br />
<strong>Conservation</strong> is thanked for permission to CNC members to take part in the CAPE<br />
project.<br />
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biodiversity both in- and outside statutory conservation areas. This includes<br />
regulating the control over the utilization <strong>of</strong> biodiversity too. Also, provincial<br />
authorities take the responsibility as regional CITES Management Authority, and<br />
where capacity exists, Scientific Authority as well. At local government level, the<br />
provincial government has the option <strong>of</strong> delegating certain powers and<br />
responsibilities to Regional Councils, Local Substructures, and/or Municipalities. <strong>The</strong><br />
law enforcement sections <strong>of</strong> these authorities usually take responsibility for the<br />
enforcement <strong>of</strong> any environmental legislation and regulations.<br />
Para-statal organisations such as museums and universities have an important role<br />
to play in herpet<strong>of</strong>auna conservation in that inventories and research executed by<br />
them, may yield information necessary to compile effective conservation strategies<br />
and action plans, the implementation <strong>of</strong> which, resides mainly with conservation<br />
authorities. Taxonomic research may for example identify a new taxon with a very<br />
restricted range and narrow habitat requirements. This information has to be<br />
incorporated into any strategy aimed at alleviating the conservation plight <strong>of</strong> the<br />
taxon. Non-governmental organisations (such as wildlife societies, TRAFFIC, etc.)<br />
also have an important role to play in a so-called "watchdog" capacity, pointing out<br />
environmentally sensitive sites and issues, and mustering support for conservation in<br />
general.<br />
<strong>The</strong> conservation <strong>of</strong> land in private ownership can be somewhat difficult to achieve.<br />
First one needs an interested and dedicated private individual whose conservation<br />
ethic is strong enough to drive any effort towards the conservation <strong>of</strong> a natural<br />
element(s) on his/her property. Secondly, the property (for example in the case <strong>of</strong> a<br />
production unit such as a farm) should be able to function viably despite the fact that<br />
part <strong>of</strong> the farm has been zoned as a conservation area, and thirdly, the landowner<br />
should be able to derive a tangible benefit from conserving part <strong>of</strong> his/her farm (for<br />
example in the form <strong>of</strong> a tax break). In other words, the landowner should be able to<br />
afford not to utilise the conservation area on his property for production <strong>of</strong> crops.<br />
This has proven difficult in many cases and has in all probability been one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
main factors contributing to the fragmentation <strong>of</strong> especially lowland habitats in the<br />
CFK.<br />
4.13 Acknowledgements<br />
<strong>The</strong> scientific input and technical support by members <strong>of</strong> the team <strong>of</strong> authors is<br />
acknowledged, especially that <strong>of</strong> Annelise le Roux who played a major role in the<br />
collation <strong>of</strong> museum and institutional data, and supplied the information base for the<br />
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Apart from national parks, which are proclaimed at central government level, the<br />
provincial governments <strong>of</strong> the Western, Northern and Eastern Cape Provinces are<br />
statutory bodies in the CFK which are responsible for the proclamation <strong>of</strong> statutory<br />
nature conservation areas. <strong>The</strong> provincial authorities may further assist in (and<br />
encourage) the proclamation <strong>of</strong> private and local nature reserves on private and local<br />
authority properties, respectively.<br />
In the Western Cape Province, the four taxa currently recognised as Endangered, are<br />
contained in some form <strong>of</strong> conservation area, for example the micro frog (one local<br />
authority nature reserve), Cape platanna (Cape <strong>of</strong> Good Hope Nature Reserve,<br />
incorporated into the Cape Peninsula National Park), Table Mountain ghost frog<br />
(Cape Peninsula National Park) and geometric tortoise (four provincial and two<br />
private nature reserves). Herpetologists <strong>of</strong> Cape Nature <strong>Conservation</strong> are involved in<br />
conservation efforts targeted towards these taxa. Monitoring <strong>of</strong> population status<br />
continues, but a lack <strong>of</strong> capacity is hampering the effectiveness <strong>of</strong> some efforts.<br />
4.12 Organizations, institutions and other roleplayers involved in the<br />
conservation <strong>of</strong> CFK herpet<strong>of</strong>auna<br />
It is somewhat difficult to quantify all the different organisations, institutions and<br />
roleplayers involved in the conservation <strong>of</strong> CFK herpet<strong>of</strong>auna. In a broad sense,<br />
however, these may be organised into three major categories, namely, governmental,<br />
para-statal and private.<br />
Firstly, conservation can be achieved at first-, second- or third-tier government. <strong>The</strong><br />
national Department <strong>of</strong> Environmental Affairs & Tourism is primarily responsible for<br />
the conservation <strong>of</strong> biodiversity in South Africa. By signing for example the<br />
Convention on <strong>Biodiversity</strong> and the CITES convention, the South African Government<br />
has pledged itself towards biodiversity conservation and control <strong>of</strong> biodiversity trade,<br />
but has devolved certain powers and responsibilities to provincial and local<br />
governments. National policy guidelines towards the utilization <strong>of</strong> the South African<br />
herpetological resource are currently being drafted through a consultation process.<br />
As a national, statutory conservation body, South African National Parks also<br />
contributes to herpetological conservation through the in situ conservation <strong>of</strong> habitats<br />
ranging from coastal forests to West Coast strandveld in national parks within the<br />
CFK biogeographical boundary.<br />
At secondary government level, the provincial nature conservation authorities, take<br />
responsibility for conservation at a provincial scale. This involves the conservation <strong>of</strong><br />
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4.10 Recommendations towards the conservation <strong>of</strong> CFK herpet<strong>of</strong>auna<br />
<strong>The</strong> above section, together with Appendix 6 and the mapped sites and areas <strong>of</strong> high<br />
diversity and/or sensitivity (Figure 4.1) contain recommendations towards improving<br />
the conservation status <strong>of</strong> some taxa considered to be at risk. It would be wise for<br />
conservation authorities to develop, in consultation with experts in the field, action<br />
plans and/or conservation strategies to enhance current efforts towards conserving<br />
the herpetodiversity <strong>of</strong> the CFK.<br />
4.11 Ongoing research and conservation actions targeted towards CFK<br />
herpet<strong>of</strong>auna<br />
<strong>The</strong> following organisations and academic institutions are currently involved in<br />
herpetological research and/or conservation activities in the CFK:<br />
• Cape Nature <strong>Conservation</strong> (biodiversity inventories and monitoring <strong>of</strong><br />
threatened taxa, conservation policy and planning, as well as law<br />
enforcement)<br />
• University <strong>of</strong> Cape Town (terrestrial tortoise systematics and genetics, frog<br />
atlassing)<br />
• University <strong>of</strong> Stellenbosch (mainly frog and lizard systematics, physiology,<br />
ecology and behaviour)<br />
• University <strong>of</strong> the Western Cape (frog systematics and taxonomy, terrestrial<br />
tortoise systematics, ecology and physiology, freshwater terrapin breeding<br />
biology)<br />
• Villanova University, USA (gecko systematics and phylogeny, general<br />
herpet<strong>of</strong>aunal biogeography)<br />
• Port Elizabeth Museum (biodiversity inventories, herpetological<br />
systematics and biogeography)<br />
• Various natural history museums providing curation facilities for CFK<br />
herpetological specimens<br />
Private landowners who own property within the biogeographical boundaries <strong>of</strong> the<br />
CFK possess a large proportion <strong>of</strong> the remaining natural habitats <strong>of</strong> the three<br />
southern provinces, namely the Western, Northern and Eastern Cape. By protecting<br />
and managing natural habitats on their properties carefully and correctly, interested<br />
private landowners can make a tremendous contribution towards the conservation <strong>of</strong><br />
CFK biodiversity, and herpetodiversity in particular. In situ habitat conservation is the<br />
single most important aspect in securing the survival <strong>of</strong> many taxa.<br />
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plants. Although some records indicate that they occur in conservation<br />
areas, more areas where these taxa occur need to be incorporated into<br />
statutory conservation areas.<br />
• Tsitsikamma and Kareedouw Mountains (see Figure 4.1, area no. 17<br />
– Tsitsikamma Mountains) This area has been identified as containing<br />
isolated populations <strong>of</strong> the endangered Smith's dwarf chameleon<br />
(Bradypodion taeniabronchum) and proper management <strong>of</strong> mountain<br />
fynbos habitats is important in ensuring the continued survival <strong>of</strong><br />
suitable habitats for this taxon.<br />
• Coastal area between Kromme River estuary and Chelsea Point,<br />
Eastern Cape (see Figure 4.1, area 20 – St Francis Bay coast)<br />
Peringuey's gecko, Cryptactites peringueyi, was recently re-discovered<br />
here after an approximately 50 years' absence from the herpetological<br />
scene (Branch and Bauer, 1992). It appears to be dependent on the<br />
salt marsh habitat within the estuarine boundary, as well as coastal<br />
fynbos communities adjacent to estuaries, and is potentially at risk due<br />
to coastal development, pollution and general habitat disturbance and<br />
degradation. No records occur more than 100 m from tidal zones.<br />
Cognisance <strong>of</strong> its distribution and conservation status should be taken<br />
during the compilation <strong>of</strong> coastal structural development plans, and<br />
representative samples <strong>of</strong> its range should be included into statutory<br />
conservation areas.<br />
• Coastal Fynbos habitats West <strong>of</strong> Port Elizabeth (see Figure 4.1,<br />
area no. 62 – West <strong>of</strong> Port Elizabeth) This area has been identified as<br />
containing a probable cryptic species, FitzSimons' seps, Tetradactylus<br />
africanus fitzsimonsi (currently under investigation). This taxon appears<br />
to be restricted to the coastal fynbos habitats West <strong>of</strong> Port Elizabeth - a<br />
habitat type currently threatened by the extension <strong>of</strong> urban<br />
development and agricultural small-holdings, as well as the increasing<br />
number <strong>of</strong> man-induced fires in the region, stimulated in part by the<br />
increased communal grazing <strong>of</strong> goats and cattle by informal<br />
communities, specifically those adjacent to the Bridgemead area. This<br />
seps seems not to occur in any conservation area and measures<br />
should be implemented to incorporate a representative example <strong>of</strong> its<br />
range in a statutory conservation area(s).<br />
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• Ratel River Estate and Hagelkraal wetlands (see Figure 4.1, area no.<br />
10 and 11 – Ratel River wetlands and Hagelkraal wetlands) <strong>The</strong>se<br />
wetlands incorporate important habitats for numerous frog genera and<br />
also contain the two above-mentioned endangered frogs (micro frog<br />
and Cape platanna). <strong>The</strong> endemic, restricted and possibly endangered<br />
southern adder, Bitis armata, also occurs in the area (Branch, in press).<br />
<strong>The</strong> continued healthy state <strong>of</strong> these wetlands and continued proper<br />
maintenance <strong>of</strong> the surrounding landscape (clearing <strong>of</strong> alien vegetation,<br />
etc.) is important. Furthermore, they are situated adjacent to existing<br />
conservation areas and represent natural extensions to the latter. <strong>The</strong><br />
incorporation <strong>of</strong> these areas into current statutory conservation areas,<br />
e.g. Walker Bay conservation area, is strongly recommended.<br />
• Limestone fynbos habitats between Gansbaai and Infanta,<br />
including De Hoop Nature Reserve (see Figure 4.1, area no. 16 –<br />
Gansbaai-De Hoop coast) This area has been identified as important<br />
coastal habitats for the endemic, restricted and possibly threatened<br />
southern dwarf adder, Bitis armata (Branch, in press). Apparently<br />
extinct from the Cape Flats, the limestone, calcrete and coastal fynbos<br />
habitats along the southwestern Cape coastline support isolated<br />
populations <strong>of</strong> this taxon. More samples <strong>of</strong> the habitats where this<br />
taxon occurs should be included into statutory conservation areas.<br />
• Algoa Bay Basin coastal lowlands (falls partly within CFK) (see<br />
Figure 4.1, area no. 15 – Algoa Bay basin) Similar to coastal lowlands<br />
in the Western Cape, this region is at risk due to development pressure<br />
in the coastal zone. A number <strong>of</strong> reptile and amphibian taxa occur<br />
there and are at risk due to general habitat disturbance and destruction,<br />
specifically strip mining for limestone, development <strong>of</strong> an industrial<br />
zone, and rapid urbanization. It is important that conservation<br />
measures be undertaken to include representative examples <strong>of</strong> the<br />
distribution ranges <strong>of</strong> the threatened herpet<strong>of</strong>auna occurring there, in<br />
statutory conservation areas.<br />
• Longmore-Otterford Forest Area (incorporating the<br />
Vanstadensberg) Eastern Cape (see Figure 4.1, area no. 6 –<br />
Longmore-Otterford) <strong>The</strong> endangered Hewitt's ghost frog (Heleophryne<br />
hewitti) and Smith's dwarf chameleon (Bradypodion taeniabronchum)<br />
occur in this area, with the latter taxon also in the Tsitsikamma<br />
Mountains, Eastern Cape Province (see Figure 4.1, area no. 17 –<br />
Tsitsikamma Mountains). Within the region, both taxa are critically<br />
threatened by afforestation and the encroachment <strong>of</strong> invasive alien<br />
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access. Extension <strong>of</strong> the current statutory conservation area is<br />
proposed.<br />
• Greater Landdroskop area, Hottentots Holland Mountains (see<br />
Figure 4.1, area no. 60 - Landdroskop) This area is <strong>of</strong> high scientific<br />
importance because it contains melanistic animal taxa which are<br />
important indicators <strong>of</strong> changing climates, etc. A recently-described<br />
crag lizard species from there, Pseudocordylus nebulosus, (Mouton and<br />
Van Wyk, 1995) appears at risk due to its very restricted range (
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Hout Bay valley) <strong>The</strong>se areas were identified as important for the<br />
continued existence <strong>of</strong> frog breeding habitats, especially for the<br />
Western Cape population <strong>of</strong> the leopard toad, Bufo pardalis. Evidence<br />
suggest that this may be a separate taxonomic entity isolated from the<br />
Eastern Cape population by the Southern Cape coastal lowlands. If<br />
this is indeed the case, then the conservation status <strong>of</strong> this population<br />
may move into a higher category. Its breeding habitats are threatened<br />
by degradation and destruction, mainly through urban development<br />
throughout, as well as river course canalization. Because these<br />
animals undertake mass migrations to the breeding sites, many also<br />
succumb to road traffic. Adequate buffer zones around breeding sites<br />
and corridors connecting individual wetlands are important<br />
considerations. Representative examples <strong>of</strong> its range should be<br />
included into statutory conservation areas such as the Cape Peninsula<br />
National Park.<br />
• Kenilworth Race Course wetlands (see Figure 4.1, area no. 12 –<br />
Kenilworth Race Course) <strong>The</strong>se wetlands contain a good<br />
representative example <strong>of</strong> frogs <strong>of</strong> Cape Flats region - an area which<br />
has largely been disturbed and converted beyond rehabilitation. This<br />
site contains a population <strong>of</strong> the endangered micro frog - the last<br />
surviving population on the Cape Flats. <strong>The</strong> continued existence <strong>of</strong><br />
these wetlands is considered important, and statutory arrangements for<br />
its inclusion into a conservation area, such as the Cape Peninsula<br />
National Park, are recommended.<br />
• Remaining West Coast Renosterveld isolates (see Figure 4.1, areas<br />
no. 21-59) <strong>The</strong> remaining isolated patches <strong>of</strong> West Coast renosterveld,<br />
known to support numerous endemic and threatened plant taxa, as well<br />
as geometric tortoises, Psammobates geometricus, and Cape cacos,<br />
Cacosternum capense, should be targeted for inclusion in the analysis<br />
in an attempt to incorporate as much <strong>of</strong> what is left <strong>of</strong> this threatened<br />
habitat type into statutory conservation areas or conservancies as<br />
possible. It is imperative that this lowland habitat be actively targeted<br />
for conservation due to the increasing rate <strong>of</strong> habitat deterioration and<br />
habitat loss.<br />
• Top <strong>of</strong> Dasklip Pass (see Figure 4.1, area no. 19 – Dasklip Pass)<br />
This site contains an isolated population <strong>of</strong> Oel<strong>of</strong>sen's girdled lizard, a<br />
melanistic, montane relict lizard taxon which appears at risk due to a<br />
restricted distribution range, possible commercial value and easy road<br />
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potentially the reptile trade. <strong>The</strong> conservation <strong>of</strong> these taxa should be<br />
catered for in coastal development structure plans, and representative<br />
examples <strong>of</strong> their distributions should, where possible, be incorporated<br />
into statutory conservation areas.<br />
• Greater Saldanha region and limestone coastal fynbos (see Figure<br />
4.1, area no. 18 – Saldanha limestone area) This area is important<br />
because it contains a number <strong>of</strong> reptile species which are at<br />
considerable conservation risk. <strong>The</strong> endemic, restricted and possibly<br />
endangered southern adder, Bitis armata, occurs in the area (Branch,<br />
W.R. in press.). <strong>The</strong> limestone coastal plant communities are at risk<br />
too, and development pressure is building in this general area.<br />
Furthermore, it contains a scientifically important "contact zone"<br />
between two lizard species, one a relict, melanistic taxon, occurring<br />
only there and on the Cape Peninsula. This contact zone is threatened<br />
by habitat disturbance and coastal development. Its inclusion in a<br />
statutory conservation area is <strong>of</strong> scientific and conservation importance.<br />
<strong>The</strong> conservation <strong>of</strong> these taxa should be catered for in coastal<br />
development structure plans, and representative examples <strong>of</strong> their<br />
distributions should where possible, be incorporated into statutory<br />
conservation areas.<br />
• Cape Peninsula (see Figure 4.1, area no. 1 – Cape Peninsula) <strong>The</strong><br />
Cape Peninsula with its topographically and biologically diverse<br />
landscape contains numerous reptile and amphibian taxa, some <strong>of</strong><br />
which are threatened and endangered. <strong>The</strong> endangered Cape<br />
platanna (Xenopus gilli) and Table Mountain ghost frog (Heleophryne<br />
rosei) both occur there, while the southern-most, isolated population <strong>of</strong><br />
the black girdled lizard, Cordylus niger are also found there. <strong>The</strong><br />
continued existence <strong>of</strong> suitable habitats in the new Cape Peninsula<br />
National Park, especially that <strong>of</strong> the threatened taxa, is important to the<br />
survival <strong>of</strong> these, and many other taxa.<br />
• Cape Point Nature Reserve (see Figure 4.1, area no. 13 – Cape Point<br />
wetlands) This reserve contains critical habitat <strong>of</strong> the endangered Cape<br />
platanna. <strong>The</strong> continued existence <strong>of</strong> these pristine blackwater<br />
lakelets, and proper management <strong>of</strong> the surrounding landscape to<br />
prevent eutrophication, invasion by invasive alien plants, etc. is very<br />
important. Although part <strong>of</strong> the Cape Peninsula National Park, the<br />
panel was <strong>of</strong> the opinion that this area warrants special attention.<br />
• Fish Hoek/Noordhoek corridor, Hout Bay Valley and Cape Flats<br />
(see Figure 4.1, areas no. 3 and 4 – Fish Hoek-Noordhoek corridor and<br />
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the unsustainable use <strong>of</strong> this resource may affect the ecosystem integrity in the long<br />
term.<br />
In addition, the analysis should also consider the potential negative impacts on<br />
general biodiversity <strong>of</strong> the sectoral activities listed in Table III (pp. 46-49) <strong>of</strong> the<br />
White Paper on the <strong>Conservation</strong> and Sustainable Use <strong>of</strong> South Africa's Biological<br />
Diversity (Anonymous, 1997).<br />
4.8 Constraints towards conserving CFK herpet<strong>of</strong>aunal biodiversity<br />
In general, the following constraints towards the conservation <strong>of</strong> CFK herpetological<br />
biodiversity have been identified:<br />
• Lack <strong>of</strong> resources, both in human and financial capacity<br />
• Lack <strong>of</strong> uniform, national guiding principles, policies and legislation towards<br />
herpetological conservation<br />
• Lack <strong>of</strong> implementation <strong>of</strong> international conservation legislation and<br />
Conventions<br />
• Lack <strong>of</strong> conservation law enforcement capacity, especially at ports <strong>of</strong><br />
import and export<br />
• Fragmented (and outdated) provincial conservation legislation<br />
• Lack <strong>of</strong> institutional capacity (mainly financial) to procure conservation land<br />
• Lack <strong>of</strong> environmental education with regard to herpetological issues<br />
• Lack <strong>of</strong> incentives for private land owners to conserve threatened habitats<br />
• Lack <strong>of</strong> communication between role players<br />
• Lack <strong>of</strong> training<br />
4.9 Biodiverse, sensitive or threatened geographical areas regarding<br />
herpet<strong>of</strong>auna within the CFK<br />
<strong>The</strong> following geographical areas within the CFK have been identified as biodiverse,<br />
sensitive or threatened (Refer to Appendix 6 and Figure 4.1):<br />
• Coastal lowlands from Lambert's Bay and Graafwater, southwards<br />
towards the Driefonteinberg (see Figure 4.1, area no. 61 – Elands<br />
Bay coastal flats) <strong>The</strong>se coastal lowlands, including the coastal region<br />
from Lambert's Bay to Eland's Bay contain a number <strong>of</strong> reptile taxa (see<br />
Appendix 6 for taxa listed as indicators <strong>of</strong> West Coast herpetological<br />
species assemblage) which are at considerable conservation risk<br />
mainly due to coastal development pressure (habitat destruction) and<br />
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Another critical component linked to habitat disturbance, is the influence <strong>of</strong> invasive<br />
alien vegetation. Unchecked invasion by many alien plant species, especially the<br />
inconspicuous alien grasses and herbs, has a detrimental effect on habitat status.<br />
In this regard monocultures <strong>of</strong> alien grasses and herbs, and dense stands <strong>of</strong><br />
invasive alien trees have led to a number <strong>of</strong> taxa becoming threatened.<br />
Related to alien vegetation infestation is the alteration <strong>of</strong> water tables and the<br />
reduction <strong>of</strong> run-<strong>of</strong>f. <strong>The</strong> construction <strong>of</strong> dams and roads, the damming <strong>of</strong> streams<br />
and alteration <strong>of</strong> drainage lines also all contribute to a lowering <strong>of</strong> the water table<br />
and reduction in run-<strong>of</strong>f. Together these have serious implications for, in particular,<br />
taxa dependant on sensitive wetland habitats.<br />
Fire regime is another component which remains important to a number <strong>of</strong> CFK<br />
reptiles and amphibians because <strong>of</strong> both the direct and indirect impact it has on<br />
populations. For example, in isolated and fragmented lowland renosterveld habitats<br />
wildfires have the potential <strong>of</strong> wiping out viable populations <strong>of</strong> taxa such as the<br />
endangered geometric tortoise and endangered plants. Besides lowering<br />
populations to a critical threshold <strong>of</strong> survival (direct impact), populations may be<br />
unable to recover because <strong>of</strong> lower recruitment and inadequate corridors to facilitate<br />
recolonisation. Following fire, habitat disturbance such as overgrazing, trampling,<br />
etc. may further affect the habitat status in an indirect (and negative) way. Fire in<br />
mountain areas also has the potential to alter habitats crucial to the survival <strong>of</strong><br />
certain montane species. If not managed correctly, fires could change vegetation<br />
cover in the medium to long term, which in turn may affect run-<strong>of</strong>f and threaten for<br />
example seepages, sponges and other damp areas which may be important to the<br />
survival <strong>of</strong> taxa dependent on these habitats.<br />
<strong>The</strong> utilization <strong>of</strong> components <strong>of</strong> the CFK herpet<strong>of</strong>auna for commercial purposes<br />
(specifically the international pet trade) is a very real threat because <strong>of</strong> the relatively<br />
high number <strong>of</strong> endemic taxa found there. As collectors' items, geometric tortoises,<br />
Oel<strong>of</strong>sen's girdled lizards, dwarf crag lizards, armadillo lizards, dwarf adders (Bitis<br />
spp, including the berg adder and adders <strong>of</strong> the Bitis cornuta complex), and many<br />
others, could be targeted to supply an ever-increasing demand world wide. More<br />
and more international attention is being turned to South Africa because <strong>of</strong> the<br />
dwindling supply from countries which have been over-exploited (for example,<br />
627 718 ball pythons and 10 039 pancake tortoises imported into the USA from<br />
Africa during 1983-1995: Hoover, 1998). Except in certain justified cases (e.g. the<br />
common platanna for biological research purposes), the commercial exploitation <strong>of</strong><br />
CFK herpet<strong>of</strong>auna should only be allowed under very special conditions, because<br />
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and urban purposes appears irreversible, and this calls for drastic measures to<br />
prioritise and include the few remaining natural habitats in conservation areas.<br />
Agricultural legislation towards natural resource conservation must be enforced<br />
because what remains <strong>of</strong> natural lowland habitats is currently in the hands <strong>of</strong> private<br />
landowners. <strong>The</strong>ir co-operation in the conservation <strong>of</strong> these habitats must be<br />
prioritised.<br />
On the surface, conservation legislation appears to be effective towards curbing the<br />
illegal trade in and utilization <strong>of</strong> herpet<strong>of</strong>auna, but a severe lack <strong>of</strong> enforcement<br />
capacity is seriously hampering effective conservation. <strong>Conservation</strong> legislation<br />
needs to be revised in order to become more practical and "user-friendly", not only<br />
in an effort to control the sustainable utilization <strong>of</strong> herpet<strong>of</strong>auna, but also to stimulate<br />
interest and improve the transfer <strong>of</strong> information about these animals.<br />
<strong>The</strong> recent announcement <strong>of</strong> regulations in terms <strong>of</strong> the Environmental<br />
<strong>Conservation</strong> Act by which the unauthorised development <strong>of</strong> natural resources is<br />
prohibited, has been a positive step towards habitat conservation in general. Any<br />
development, with a few exceptions, must go through a scoping process to<br />
investigate the potential impact <strong>of</strong> the proposed development on the environment. It<br />
has become a challenge to environmentalists and conservationists to provide<br />
developers with a clear indication <strong>of</strong> sensitive habitats and biodiverse sites in order<br />
to strike a mutually agreeable (and beneficial) compromise, if indeed the<br />
development must go ahead. <strong>The</strong> intention <strong>of</strong> this report and <strong>of</strong> the accompanying<br />
report on the CFK freshwater fishes (chapter 3) is to identify centres <strong>of</strong> biodiversity,<br />
sensitive habitats and sites <strong>of</strong> special interest should be followed by other<br />
disciplines.<br />
4.7 Critical components and threats to the conservation <strong>of</strong> CFK<br />
herpet<strong>of</strong>auna<br />
Following the workshop to select those taxa which may be threatened and/or<br />
indicators <strong>of</strong> sensitive habitats and/or sites within the CFK, it was clearly evident that<br />
habitat degradation and destruction was the most important and critical component<br />
threatening the continued survival <strong>of</strong> many taxa. This is illustrated by Appendix 6<br />
which indicates that in more than 60% <strong>of</strong> cases, habitat degradation and destruction,<br />
especially in the lowlands, constitute the major threat. Habitat conservation<br />
strategies are therefore crucially important to target those sites, habitats and<br />
ecosystems in need <strong>of</strong> protection and mitigation against habitat disturbance and<br />
degradation.<br />
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<strong>The</strong>re is unfortunately very little information available regarding the use <strong>of</strong> reptiles<br />
and amphibians in traditional medicine in the CFK. Items such as python and<br />
leguaan skin and fat, leguaan claws, dried chameleons, etc. regularly appear in<br />
traditional healers' catalogues, but there are no quantifying data available for the<br />
CFK as yet. This has the potential to become a significant threat to the conservation<br />
status <strong>of</strong> at least some <strong>of</strong> the rarer taxa. Cape Nature <strong>Conservation</strong> has<br />
representation on the Cape Traditional Healers' Association forum and attempts to<br />
stay abreast <strong>of</strong> developments in this field. According to information received, it is<br />
believed that TRAFFIC South and East Africa has initiated a study towards the<br />
utilization <strong>of</strong>, amongst other, reptiles and amphibians by traditional healers.<br />
<strong>The</strong> CFK herpet<strong>of</strong>auna is also utilized in a non-consumptive manner, for example by<br />
members <strong>of</strong> the public hiking on mountain trails, private landowners and an<br />
increasing number <strong>of</strong> public facilities such as restaurants, wineries, guest houses,<br />
guest farms, etc. More and more people realise that frogs, tortoises, lizards and<br />
snakes can act as drawcards to the increasing ecotourism industry that South<br />
Africa, and especially the CFK, is experiencing. <strong>The</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Stellenbosch has<br />
initiated a post-graduate study investigating the "ecotourism potential" <strong>of</strong><br />
herpet<strong>of</strong>auna and the implications and spin-<strong>of</strong>fs for conservation, as well as the<br />
potential impact (positive and/or negative) <strong>of</strong> a better public awareness on the status<br />
<strong>of</strong> these animals.<br />
4.6 Effectiveness <strong>of</strong> current conservation<br />
Current conservation <strong>of</strong> the CFK herpetological resource is unintentionally biased<br />
towards montane species included in the vast statutory mountain catchment areas<br />
and nature reserves. For example, statistics on the percentage vegetation types<br />
conserved in the Western Cape Province indicate that >20% <strong>of</strong> mountain fynbos in<br />
the province is contained in statutory conservation areas, but that only 0.46% and<br />
0.56% <strong>of</strong> West Coast renosterveld and Sand Plain Fynbos, respectively, is<br />
conserved. <strong>The</strong>se great imbalances are specifically evident in the lowlands <strong>of</strong> the<br />
CFK, and a concerted effort should be made towards the inclusion <strong>of</strong> more<br />
representative samples <strong>of</strong> lowland habitats and vegetation types into an optimally<br />
designed reserve system.<br />
Looking at the current CFK reserve system, it is clear that reptiles and amphibians in<br />
montane habitats fare much better than their lowland counterparts, but there still is a<br />
definite need to manage mountain habitats properly in an effort to maintain these<br />
species assemblages. <strong>The</strong> conversion <strong>of</strong> lowland habitats mainly for agricultural<br />
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• Animal Protection Act<br />
• Performing Animals Act<br />
• Provincial Nature <strong>Conservation</strong> Ordinances<br />
• Land Use Planning Ordinance<br />
• Relevant conservation authority policies towards herpetological conservation<br />
This list may be incomplete.<br />
4.5 Utilization <strong>of</strong> CFK herpet<strong>of</strong>auna<br />
As far as we know, the utilization <strong>of</strong> herpet<strong>of</strong>auna in the CFK is relatively limited. All<br />
reptiles and amphibians, except for the venomous snake genera, in the Western,<br />
Northern and Eastern Cape Provinces are classified as either Endangered or<br />
Protected Wild Animals by the Cape Nature <strong>Conservation</strong> Ordinance (No. 19 <strong>of</strong><br />
1974). Venomous snakes, however, are protected by the fact that no wild animal<br />
may be collected, transported, etc. without valid permits.<br />
<strong>The</strong> utilization <strong>of</strong> herpet<strong>of</strong>auna may be categorised as follows: a) the collection (and<br />
export) <strong>of</strong> animals for scientific and educational purposes by universities, museums<br />
and other institutions, b) the possession there<strong>of</strong> for private purposes (mainly to keep<br />
as pets), and c) the medicinal use there<strong>of</strong> by traditional healers.<br />
In the Western Cape Province (and largely in the CFK), policy and legislation<br />
towards the utilization <strong>of</strong> herpet<strong>of</strong>auna for scientific and educational purposes<br />
regulate the collection, possession, transportation and export <strong>of</strong> reptiles and<br />
amphibians. Valid permits are required for the above activities. Many reptiles, in<br />
particular tortoises such as the angulate and leopard tortoises, are kept as pets by<br />
members <strong>of</strong> the public. Snakes are the next most popular as pets, while lizards and<br />
frogs appear to be far less popular. However, one abundant and wide-spread frog<br />
species, the common platanna, Xenopus laevis, is extensively utilized for biological<br />
research. <strong>The</strong> limited herpetological expertise in the Northern and Eastern Cape<br />
provincial conservation authorities is worrying, but Western Cape conservation<br />
herpetologists are consulted from time to time for recommendations concerning<br />
permit applications, policy advice and legislation. Valid permits from Western,<br />
Northern and Eastern Cape conservation authorities are required to keep any <strong>of</strong> the<br />
above in captivity, and regulations control the legal requirements, e.g. cage sizes,<br />
etc.<br />
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Cape coastal towns and inland in Pietermaritzburg, Bloemfontein, Pretoria and at<br />
Gariep Dam. Thirdly, the flowerpot snake, Ramphotyphlops braminus from<br />
Australasia, has colonised many oceanic islands and most continents, including<br />
southern Africa, where small populations have been found in a few coastal cities,<br />
e.g. Cape Town and Durban.<br />
For the purpose <strong>of</strong> this report, the status <strong>of</strong> those amphibian and reptile taxa listed in<br />
the South African Red Data Book (Branch, 1988) was not considered, but a revision<br />
<strong>of</strong> the current status <strong>of</strong> CFK herpet<strong>of</strong>auna yielded a number <strong>of</strong> new, proposed IUCN<br />
Red List taxa (Appendix II). Three indigenous taxa, Fisk's house snake Lamprophis<br />
fiskii, the yellow-bellied house snake Lamprophis fuscus, and the Namaqua plated<br />
lizard Gerrhosaurus typicus, currently listed on the IUCN Red List, have not been<br />
included in Appendix II due to the fact that they have relatively wide distribution<br />
ranges beyond the CFK boundary and were not considered threatened, sensitive<br />
and/or indicator taxa in terms <strong>of</strong> the analysis.<br />
Cognisance should also be taken <strong>of</strong> monotypic genera such as Poyntonia,<br />
Microbatrachella, Cryptactities and others which should be considered <strong>of</strong> scientific<br />
importance, some <strong>of</strong>ten endemic to the CFK, while others occupy relatively small<br />
distribution ranges.<br />
4.4 Legislation protecting CFK herpet<strong>of</strong>auna<br />
<strong>The</strong> following legislative controls, which may have an influence on herpetological<br />
conservation within the CFK, have been identified:<br />
• RAMSAR Convention<br />
• CITES<br />
• Convention on <strong>Biodiversity</strong><br />
• Environmental <strong>Conservation</strong> Act (plus revision = CONNEP)<br />
• Environmental Management Act (and Regulations)<br />
• SA Whitepaper on <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong><br />
• Water Act<br />
• Forest Act<br />
• Mountain Catchment Areas Act<br />
• Sea Shore Act<br />
• Sea Fisheries Act<br />
• Resource <strong>Conservation</strong> Act<br />
• Animal Diseases Act<br />
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Endemic to CFK<br />
56%<br />
Endemic to Africa<br />
11%<br />
Endemic to southern<br />
Africa<br />
11%<br />
Endemic to South<br />
Africa<br />
20%<br />
Near endemic to CFK<br />
2%<br />
Fig 4.2<br />
Endemicity <strong>of</strong> the indigenous amphibians <strong>of</strong> the Cape Floral Kingdom.<br />
Endemic to South<br />
Africa<br />
29%<br />
Endemic to southern<br />
Africa<br />
27%<br />
Near endemic to<br />
CFK<br />
8%<br />
Endemic to CFK<br />
19%<br />
Alien to CFK<br />
2%<br />
Endemic to Africa<br />
15%<br />
Fig 4 3<br />
Endemicity <strong>of</strong> the indigenous reptiles <strong>of</strong> the Cape Floristic Kingdom.<br />
<strong>The</strong> three non-indigenous taxa comprise firstly, the Cape dwarf gecko, Lygodactylus<br />
capensis capensis which is endemic to southern Africa but has been introduced to<br />
urban centres outside <strong>of</strong> its natural distribution range, such as Port Elizabeth,<br />
Grahamstown and Bloemfontein. Secondly, introduced colonies <strong>of</strong> the tropical<br />
house gecko, Hemidactylus mabouia, occurring in KwaZulu/Natal northwards into<br />
southeastern Africa, but also on Madagascar, other Indian Ocean islands and the<br />
east coast <strong>of</strong> South and Central America have been recorded in various eastern<br />
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Another aspect where there is uncertainty, but which has to be accepted for the<br />
interim, is the matter <strong>of</strong> the so-called "confirmed absence" <strong>of</strong> taxa from certain<br />
geographical areas. In other words, does no record(s) from a particular area mean a<br />
particular taxon does not occur there, or does it mean that it has not yet been<br />
recorded there Bearing in mind, however, the fact that one could, with a reasonable<br />
amount <strong>of</strong> certainty and accuracy, "predict" the absence <strong>of</strong> certain taxa, especially<br />
specialised endemics, from certain areas (e.g. dwarf crag lizards absent from lowlying<br />
coastal fynbos communities, or geometric tortoises and micro frogs from<br />
montane habitats), it may be useful to map the confirmed absence <strong>of</strong> certain taxa to<br />
aid in the analysis process.<br />
Because South Africa is still very much in its alpha phase <strong>of</strong> herpetological inventory,<br />
more and more data could be added to the database to increase our knowledge<br />
about the distribution and conservation status <strong>of</strong> taxa (especially population status<br />
figures). At the time <strong>of</strong> the workshop, the panel considered the 20 096 herpetological<br />
records currently in the database (<strong>of</strong> which 58% and 10% are accurate to seconds<br />
and minutes latitude and longitude, respectively) to reflect a reasonably accurate<br />
picture <strong>of</strong> the herpetological distribution within the CFK.<br />
With further emphasis on herpetological inventories and taxonomic research in South<br />
Africa, specifically in the CFK, as well as better funding, our knowledge about the<br />
taxonomic status <strong>of</strong> many taxa will improve, hopefully to the point one day where<br />
descriptions <strong>of</strong> new taxa will reach a plateau (for example, some 83 new<br />
herpetological taxa have been described during the past 10 years: Branch, 1998).<br />
Additionally, with regard to determining the conservation status <strong>of</strong> taxa, it is important<br />
that monitoring be undertaken on the population status <strong>of</strong> threatened, endemic taxa<br />
in particular.<br />
4.3.2 Herpetological statistics for the Cape Floristic Kingdom<br />
Figure 4.2 indicates the relevant percentages <strong>of</strong> endemicity <strong>of</strong> the 44 indigenous<br />
amphibians known to occur in the CFK. It is important to note the relatively high<br />
percentage <strong>of</strong> endemic frog taxa. <strong>The</strong>re are also currently no non-indigenous (alien)<br />
frog taxa known to occur in the CFK.<br />
4.3.3 Region<br />
Figure 4.3 indicates the relevant percentages <strong>of</strong> endemicity <strong>of</strong> the 142 indigenous<br />
and 3 non-indigenous (alien) reptiles known to occur in the CFK.<br />
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Reptiles<br />
Amphibians<br />
Study Area<br />
ð N<br />
W<br />
S<br />
E<br />
Fig 4.1<br />
Critical areas for the conservation <strong>of</strong> amphibians and reptiles.<br />
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deliberations upon. Besides the obvious errors as mentioned above, it remains<br />
uncertain as to what level specimens in museums have been accurately identified.<br />
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This report is based largely on the results obtained from an analysis <strong>of</strong> a CFK<br />
biodiversity database and a workshop held between a panel <strong>of</strong> experts in the<br />
herpetological field (see list <strong>of</strong> authors and Acknowledgements). <strong>The</strong> CFK<br />
biodiversity database was compiled by the Scientific Services Division <strong>of</strong> Cape<br />
Nature <strong>Conservation</strong>, along with data from the various museum and institutional<br />
sources as listed in the Acknowledgements. A checklist <strong>of</strong> amphibians and reptiles<br />
known to occur in the CFK was generated from the biodiversity database and from<br />
the available literature on CFK herpet<strong>of</strong>auna (Appendix 5). This checklist also<br />
contains information about indigenous and non-indigenous taxa, as well as their level<br />
<strong>of</strong> endemicity in relation to the CFK, South Africa, southern Africa and Africa. For the<br />
purposes <strong>of</strong> this report, taxa with up to 75% <strong>of</strong> their distribution ranges falling within<br />
the CFK boundary are regarded as near-endemics. It became apparent that the bulk<br />
<strong>of</strong> information on the occurrence <strong>of</strong> herpet<strong>of</strong>auna in statutory conservation areas<br />
comprises unconfirmed records. It would therefore be misleading to include this<br />
information for biogeographical analytical purposes. This important aspect could not<br />
be addressed in time for this project, but is receiving attention for future conservation<br />
planning. For the purpose <strong>of</strong> the biogeographical analysis <strong>of</strong> CFK biodiversity, all<br />
marine herpet<strong>of</strong>auna (sea turtles and snakes) was excluded.<br />
An annotated checklist <strong>of</strong> those CFK herpetological taxa regarded as sensitive and/or<br />
threatened and which may be useful indicators <strong>of</strong> habitats/landscapes in need <strong>of</strong><br />
conservation attention was also drawn up (Appendix 6). <strong>The</strong> panel evaluated the<br />
checklist with regard to the composition and conservation status <strong>of</strong> those taxa listed,<br />
and assigned proposed IUCN Red List Categories (Mace and Lande, 1994) to those<br />
regarded in need <strong>of</strong> conservation attention. In addition, specific habitats and/or sites<br />
and areas known to be sensitive and/or vulnerable to disturbance and habitat<br />
degradation, or which are known to support a diverse herpet<strong>of</strong>auna, were identified<br />
and mapped at the 1:50 000 scale and incorporated in the Cape Nature <strong>Conservation</strong><br />
Geographical Information System (Figure 4.1).<br />
4.3 Results and discussion<br />
4.3.1 Accuracy and status <strong>of</strong> knowledge<br />
For very obvious reasons, the outcome <strong>of</strong> the biodiversity database analysis is only<br />
as good (and complete) as the amount <strong>of</strong> accurate data in the database. Despite<br />
numerous errors encountered during the process <strong>of</strong> museum data collation (outdated<br />
taxonomy, vague locality descriptions, misplaced localities, and obvious<br />
misidentifications or specimen labelling mistakes), the panel was satisfied that the<br />
level <strong>of</strong> accuracy <strong>of</strong> records supplied was sufficient to base their discussions and<br />
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herpetology is still very much in its alpha phase, since distribution surveys and<br />
taxonomic research continuously turn up new taxonomic entities. This is also due to<br />
improved molecular techniques which are useful for identifying biological diversity.<br />
<strong>The</strong> past approximately 10 years <strong>of</strong> herpetological research in South Africa has seen<br />
valuable work done on the general taxonomy, distribution, ecological and<br />
physiological aspects <strong>of</strong> reptiles and amphibians, while the conservation <strong>of</strong><br />
herpet<strong>of</strong>auna has mainly been targeted at specific species and issues.<br />
<strong>The</strong> conservation <strong>of</strong> CFK biodiversity is primarily concentrated in the mountainous<br />
areas where the past establishment <strong>of</strong> nature reserves, state forests and other<br />
conservation areas, as well as the declaration <strong>of</strong> mountain catchment areas, has<br />
resulted in the establishment <strong>of</strong> a reserve system biased towards mountain habitats.<br />
Mountains, however, play a significant role in harbouring biodiversity, and human<br />
influences, such as urban and agricultural development (two <strong>of</strong> the main culprits in<br />
the loss <strong>of</strong> biodiversity), are limited by the sheer nature and hostility <strong>of</strong> the terrain.<br />
Specific areas within montane habitats act as significant refugia where for example,<br />
biogeographically related phenomena, such as melanism, relict populations, etc. may<br />
be conserved. In contrast, the rate <strong>of</strong> biodiversity loss in the coastal zone and<br />
lowlands is high, whilst the conservation <strong>of</strong> biodiversity in these regions is patchy and<br />
fragmented, and <strong>of</strong>ten seriously compromised due to development pressure in these<br />
regions.<br />
This report constitutes the herpetological contribution to the Cape Action Plan for the<br />
Environment (CAPE), a biogeographical analysis <strong>of</strong> CFK biodiversity executed by the<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Cape Town. <strong>The</strong> work which this report is based upon was done as part<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Aquatic Component <strong>of</strong> the CAPE project. <strong>The</strong> report aims to review the<br />
distribution and status <strong>of</strong> reptiles and amphibians in the CFK, and to identify those<br />
species, habitats and sites which are in need <strong>of</strong> conservation attention. Various<br />
issues <strong>of</strong> threat and constraint will be discussed, while legislation towards and<br />
effectiveness <strong>of</strong> conservation will be highlighted. Finally, the report will supply<br />
recommendations towards the effective conservation <strong>of</strong> herpet<strong>of</strong>aunal biodiversity<br />
within the CFK, that will be included in the biogeographical analysis <strong>of</strong> biodiversity<br />
conservation in the CFK (hereafter "the analysis"). It must be stressed that this is a<br />
review report and is not aimed at a full and detailed discussion <strong>of</strong> all the issues<br />
pertaining to herpetological conservation in the CFK.<br />
4.2 Methods<br />
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CHAPTER 4: AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES<br />
A review <strong>of</strong> the amphibians and reptiles <strong>of</strong> the Cape Floristic Kingdom as indicators<br />
<strong>of</strong> centres <strong>of</strong> biodiversity,sensitive habitats and sites <strong>of</strong> special interest<br />
Ernst H.W. Baard, 1 William R. Branch 2 , Alan C. Channing 3 , Atherton L. de Villiers 1 , Annelise<br />
le Roux 1 and P. le Fras N. Mouton 4<br />
1 Cape Nature <strong>Conservation</strong>, Private Bag X5014, Stellenbosch 7600<br />
2 Port Elizabeth Museum<br />
3 University <strong>of</strong> the Western Cape<br />
4 University <strong>of</strong> Stellenbosch<br />
4.1 Introduction<br />
<strong>The</strong> Cape Floristic Kingdom (CFK), which also includes the well-known Fynbos<br />
Biome, is one <strong>of</strong> the six Plant Regions <strong>of</strong> the World. With its tremendous botanical<br />
wealth (approximately 8 500 spp.), and more specifically its extraordinarily high<br />
diversity per unit area, it features high on global biodiversity conservation priority lists.<br />
<strong>The</strong> recent establishment <strong>of</strong> the Kogelberg Biosphere Reserve (South Africa's first) is<br />
an important first step to securing the medium- to long-term conservation <strong>of</strong> the most<br />
diverse part <strong>of</strong> the CFK, namely the Kogelberg Mountains and surrounding<br />
landscape.<br />
<strong>The</strong> CFK is not only diverse with regard to the variety <strong>of</strong> plant species occurring<br />
there, but also contains a wide diversity <strong>of</strong> animal species, biogeographical zones,<br />
landscapes and natural features. In addition to the topographical diversity <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Cape Fold Mountains, the coastal zone and lowlands, and their transition into<br />
surrounding habitats, the CFK experiences a wide climatic diversity too. <strong>The</strong>se<br />
features have resulted in an extensive and complex diversity <strong>of</strong> habitat types which<br />
explains the rich biological diversity within the CFK. Past climatic changes on a<br />
global scale have also influenced systems and processes within the CFK to the<br />
extent where it is believed that vicariant speciation processes during global climatic<br />
changes have resulted in evolutionary driving forces that have had significant impacts<br />
on the biodiversity within the biogeographical boundaries <strong>of</strong> the CFK.<br />
<strong>The</strong> reptiles and amphibians <strong>of</strong> the CFK are also recognised as a truly diverse group<br />
with a relatively high number <strong>of</strong> endemic species. On a global scale, the distribution<br />
ranges <strong>of</strong> many endemic species are obviously miniscule, but in terms <strong>of</strong> the long<br />
term conservation <strong>of</strong> biodiversity, their conservation ranks very high on conservation<br />
priority lists. <strong>The</strong>y are also good indicators <strong>of</strong> centres <strong>of</strong> biodiversity. South African<br />
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would also like to thank WWF-SA for funding the Olifants River system fish survey<br />
work (grant number ZA515) and Sally Terry at the J.L.B. Smith Institute.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Director <strong>of</strong> WCNC is thanked for permission to publish this report.<br />
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• A dedicated funding base for freshwater fish conservation within the CFK is<br />
required to allow urgent research projects and field surveys to proceed. Little<br />
is yet known about the biology and ecology <strong>of</strong> several highly threatened<br />
species This could be administered by an organisation such as WWF-SA and<br />
managed by a dedicated working group.<br />
• It is essential that voucher specimens are collected during studies and lodged<br />
in recognised museums for long-term curation. Most <strong>of</strong> the distribution records<br />
that form the basis <strong>of</strong> this study are from museum records.<br />
• River rehabilitation projects, specifically involving alien fish removal from<br />
critical fish conservation areas, are urgently required. Sufficient funding and<br />
collaborative projects with the Department <strong>of</strong> Water Affairs and Forestry are<br />
needed to erect barrier weirs in sensitive tributaries followed by eradication <strong>of</strong><br />
alien fish above these weirs.<br />
• Law enforcement has been neglected resulting in little control over the<br />
movement <strong>of</strong> live fish between inland waters and habitat damage to rivers by<br />
activities such as bulldozing. Capacity in this area needs immediate<br />
strengthening together with a greater will to act against <strong>of</strong>fenders.<br />
• Environmental education and public awareness needs specific attention to<br />
change the way in which land-owners, anglers and the broader public view<br />
rivers and our indigenous fishes. A sense <strong>of</strong> custodianship <strong>of</strong> natural<br />
resources must be developed together with innovative methods <strong>of</strong> promoting<br />
the resource value <strong>of</strong> indigenous fishes.<br />
3.15 Acknowledgements<br />
<strong>The</strong> World Bank and Global Environment Facility (GEF) are especially thanked for<br />
funding this long overdue and essential study. <strong>The</strong> authors believe that this project<br />
<strong>of</strong>fers the greatest hope towards securing effective conservation for the unique and<br />
threatened freshwater fishes <strong>of</strong> the CFK.<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>GIS</strong> section <strong>of</strong> Western Cape Nature <strong>Conservation</strong> (Helen de Klerk, Riki de<br />
Villiers, Peter Hill and Tim Sutton) are thanked for supplying IT and database design<br />
support. <strong>The</strong> Albany Museum, J.L.B. Smith Institute <strong>of</strong> Ichthyology, South African<br />
Museum and WCNC are thanked for providing their freshwater fish databases for this<br />
study.<br />
Andrew Turner, technical consultant to WCNC’S Scientific Services section, is<br />
thanked for providing valuable input during the development phase <strong>of</strong> this project.<br />
Peter Lloyd <strong>of</strong> WCNC is thanked for editorial comments. One <strong>of</strong> the authors (IRB)<br />
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Private: non-governmental organisations such as WWF-SA, the Wildlife and<br />
Environment Society <strong>of</strong> S.A. and certain angling clubs (e.g. Federation <strong>of</strong> South<br />
African Flyfishers, Cape Piscatorial Society) play valuable roles in promoting<br />
indigenous fish conservation and acting as “environmental watchdogs” by reporting<br />
incidences <strong>of</strong> pollution and other negative impacts on rivers. Land-owners are playing<br />
an increasingly positive role by purchasing areas <strong>of</strong> scenic beauty and conserving<br />
associated biota. Examples include the Visgat Natural Heritage Site on the upper<br />
Olifants River and Bushmansklo<strong>of</strong> Private Nature Reserve in the Cedarberg (also a<br />
Natural Heritage Site).<br />
3.14 Recommendations for the future conservation <strong>of</strong> CFK freshwater<br />
fishes<br />
<strong>The</strong> indigenous freshwater fishes <strong>of</strong> the Cape Floristic Kingdom are probably the<br />
most threatened and endemic component <strong>of</strong> its biota, yet have been neglected to<br />
date in strategies and decisions to conserve the region. This is because most <strong>of</strong> the<br />
species are small, have little in the way <strong>of</strong> charismatic features, have no immediate<br />
economic value, are “out <strong>of</strong> sight” (i.e. underwater), coupled with the difficulties<br />
associated with conserving river systems. Several <strong>of</strong> these unique fishes face<br />
extinction in the near future, should this neglect continue and capacity inadequacies<br />
within organisations involved in river and fish conservation in the CFK not be<br />
addressed.<br />
<strong>The</strong> key recommendations to be addressed to improve the conservation status <strong>of</strong><br />
these fishes comprise the following:<br />
• Develop a reserve network that includes key aquatic systems for fish<br />
conservation (see Figure 3.1). According to Skelton et al. (1995) the following<br />
aspects are important: (i) ideally a reserve should encompass the entire<br />
catchment <strong>of</strong> the affected area; (ii) the reserve must secure the minimum<br />
water quantity and quality requirements <strong>of</strong> the entire biotic community <strong>of</strong> the<br />
aquatic ecosystem; (iii) natural hydrological cycles must be maintained, (iv)<br />
high-impact alien predators such as bass and trout must be eradicated and (v)<br />
reserves placed higher in the catchment will be better protected and easier to<br />
manage than downstream reserves.<br />
• Capacity inadequacies within organisations (especially nature conservation<br />
authorities) involved in conserving freshwater fishes <strong>of</strong> the CFK must be<br />
addressed without further delay. Staff complements need to be strengthened<br />
with suitably qualified people.<br />
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critical capacity and funding constraints within the nature conservation agencies. <strong>The</strong><br />
main activities involve monitoring, environmental education (including land-owner<br />
awareness) and collaboration with ongoing research projects. However, this is done<br />
on an ad hoc basis.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is an urgent need to empower the aquatic scientific sections <strong>of</strong> the nature<br />
conservation authorities, so that pro-active work that focusses on the critical<br />
conservation issues becomes the operational focus, rather than a strategy that is<br />
never realised. <strong>The</strong> past focus on single-species conservation (e.g. Clanwilliam<br />
yellowfish B. capensis) and on promoting alien fishes prior to the 1980’s (see Hey<br />
1995) has prevented WCNC from attaining its true conservation objectives. <strong>The</strong>re is<br />
an urgent need to focus on ecosystem conservation and the conservation <strong>of</strong> aquatic<br />
biodiversity, including genetic diversity. This is now being achieved within the limits <strong>of</strong><br />
WCNC capacities.<br />
This report is expected to culminate in a series <strong>of</strong> specific conservation actions that<br />
need urgent attention within the CFK together with a realistic timetable <strong>of</strong> actions.<br />
Projects need to be critically evaluated in an open and objective forum (the Internet is<br />
a possibility) so that expert advice is available on a wide range <strong>of</strong> issues from a<br />
variety <strong>of</strong> people.<br />
3.13 Organisations, institutions and other role players involved in<br />
conservation programmes<br />
<strong>The</strong> quantification <strong>of</strong> all role players involved in conservation programmes is difficult,<br />
but in general they can be divided into three loose categories, namely government,<br />
parastatal and private.<br />
Government: involvement is achieved at first (national Department <strong>of</strong> Environmental<br />
Affairs and Tourism (DEA&T)), second (provincial nature conservation authorities)<br />
and third tier level (local government e.g. municipalities). DEA&T has primary<br />
responsibility for biodiversity conservation in South Africa, the delegation <strong>of</strong> which is<br />
usually carried out by provincial nature conservation authorities, both within and<br />
outside statutory conservation areas, and S.A. National Parks. Some local authorities<br />
manage important areas for river and fish conservation.<br />
Parastatal: museums and universities play a vital role here by developing and<br />
managing collections, conducting surveys and undertaking fundamental research in a<br />
wide range <strong>of</strong> fields.<br />
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Table 3.6 Recent and current research and conservation management<br />
programmes for freshwater fishes <strong>of</strong> the Cape Floristic Kingdom.<br />
Species Current research Current conservation actions<br />
Austroglanis<br />
barnardi<br />
systematic & biology study Detailed surveys <strong>of</strong> Olifants tributaries<br />
A. gilli systematic & biology study Detailed surveys <strong>of</strong> Olifants tributaries<br />
Barbus andrewi genetics, systematics Stocking <strong>of</strong> farm dams<br />
B. anoplus<br />
JLB has a growing collection<br />
<strong>of</strong> DNA material for this<br />
Detailed surveys in Olifants System<br />
species<br />
B. calidus biology, genetics<br />
Detailed surveys <strong>of</strong> Olifants tributaries,<br />
translocation into Bushmansklo<strong>of</strong> Private Game<br />
B. capensis<br />
B. erubescens<br />
B. pallidus<br />
Systematics <strong>of</strong> yellowfish,<br />
water releases from dam to<br />
study effect on spawning<br />
behaviour (Cambray et al.<br />
1997 and King et al.1998)<br />
Marriott’s 1997 thesis is<br />
presently being published (2<br />
papers), genetics<br />
Bloomer and Fouche (genetics<br />
work)<br />
B. serra Ecology, genetics, systematics<br />
Pseudobarbus series <strong>of</strong> life history papers by<br />
afer<br />
Cambray and workers<br />
P. asper as for P. afer<br />
P. burchelli<br />
P. burgi Genetics<br />
genetics, Bills & Kaiser hope<br />
P. phlegethon to start breeding and feeding<br />
project at J.L.B. Smith Institute<br />
P. tenuis<br />
Galaxias<br />
zebratus<br />
Labeo seeberi<br />
L. umbratus<br />
Sandelia<br />
capensis<br />
life history and populations<br />
genetics<br />
Reserve (BPGR)<br />
Detailed surveys in Olifants tributaries,<br />
controlled water releases from Clanwilliam dam<br />
recommended to DWAF to trigger spawning in<br />
downstream yellowfish sanctuary. Stocking <strong>of</strong><br />
farm dams, translocations into BPGR<br />
Detailed biological and ecological study, yet<br />
recommendations have not been addressed<br />
Detailed surveys in Olifants tributaries, stocking<br />
<strong>of</strong> farm dams and translocations (BPGR)<br />
Detailed surveys <strong>of</strong> Olifants tributaries<br />
Small stone weir erected on Krom River to<br />
prevent bass moving upstream. Cambray<br />
recommended conservation <strong>of</strong> 2 small<br />
populations in Gamtoos/Kouga and Krom<br />
Rivers<br />
Detailed surveys <strong>of</strong> Olifants tributaries<br />
focused on the phylogenetics <strong>of</strong> the family. <strong>The</strong> B. erubescens study was undertaken<br />
as an MSc study (Marriott 1997) and funded by WCNC as part <strong>of</strong> its contract<br />
research programme and the J.L.B. Smith Institute.<br />
Table 3.6 reveals that few active conservation projects are being undertaken despite<br />
their urgent need. <strong>The</strong> main reasons have already been discussed and are due to<br />
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• innovative marketing projects are developed to promote awareness <strong>of</strong> their<br />
ecological and recreational value;<br />
• increasing utilisation by anglers and divers leads to the development <strong>of</strong><br />
associated tourism infrastructure (e.g. chalets, day tickets for anglers or<br />
divers); and<br />
• financial incentives, which are presently lacking, should be investigated to<br />
reward land-owners who conserve fish habitat in sensitive areas, or at least<br />
utilise such habitat sustainably.<br />
3.11 Effectiveness <strong>of</strong> current conservation management<br />
Current conservation management <strong>of</strong> freshwater ecosystems and their fishes cannot<br />
be regarded as effective. Inadequate capacity and funding from statutory sources is<br />
the major cause for this situation which appears unlikely to change in the near future,<br />
unless the recommendations listed in this report are implemented. <strong>The</strong>se<br />
inadequacies affect operational capabilities in Western and Eastern Cape Nature<br />
<strong>Conservation</strong> in the following ways:<br />
• inability to undertake regular survey work;<br />
• inability to undertake priority research projects;<br />
• inability to purchase land to conserve freshwater aquatic systems, particularly<br />
hot spots;<br />
• inability to undertake or implement species or habitat recovery plans;<br />
• poor communication and co-operation with riparian land-owners and angling<br />
clubs;<br />
• insufficient public awareness campaigns; and<br />
• poor enforcement capability.<br />
3.12 Ongoing research and conservation actions<br />
Current research on CFK freshwater fishes and actions taken to conserve species<br />
and associated habitats are shown in Table 3.6. This table shows that active<br />
research is being undertaken in the fields <strong>of</strong> population genetics, distribution and<br />
general biological studies e.g. Austroglanis (Bills 1998), B. andrewi (Impson &<br />
Bloomer in press), B. calidus (Nthimo 1997, Swartz in prep.), B. erubescens (Marriott<br />
1997), G. zebratus (Waters & Cambray 1997), P. burgi (Bloomer & Impson in press),<br />
P. phlegethon (Swartz in prep.) and yellowfish (Naran 1997). <strong>The</strong> Austroglanis study<br />
is being undertaken by one <strong>of</strong> the authors (IRB) to look at the conservation biology<br />
and status <strong>of</strong> the two species and the initial phase was funded by WWF-SA, J.L.B.<br />
Smith Institute and WCNC. This has now developed into a broader PhD study mainly<br />
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<strong>The</strong> indigenous fishes, in contrast, are poorly utilised for recreational or subsistence<br />
purposes. <strong>The</strong>re are two reasons for this.<br />
• <strong>The</strong> CFK only has four species <strong>of</strong> large fish <strong>of</strong> potential angling or food value.<br />
Species such as B. capensis, B. serra and B. andrewi were historically popular<br />
with anglers (see Scott 1982), and to an extent with subsistence fishermen<br />
and farm workers.<br />
• Since the 1960’s, alien invasive fishes such as M. dolomieu began to<br />
dominate the ichthy<strong>of</strong>auna <strong>of</strong> the larger rivers. <strong>The</strong> result has been that<br />
potential indigenous angling species are now difficult to locate and <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
restricted to relatively inaccessible areas.<br />
However, increasing numbers <strong>of</strong> landowners and anglers are becoming aware <strong>of</strong> the<br />
value <strong>of</strong> CFK fishes and the contribution they can make to conserving these fishes.<br />
Applications and enquiries are regularly received about stocking farm dams and<br />
garden ponds with indigenous fishes in preference to alien species. <strong>The</strong> Federation<br />
<strong>of</strong> South African Flyfishers (FOSAF), an organisation historically concerned with<br />
promoting flyfishing for trout, established a yellowfish working group in 1997. <strong>The</strong>ir<br />
main aim was to promote environmentally responsible angling for yellowfishes<br />
(including B. serra and B. andrewi) and sustainable use <strong>of</strong> their habitat. <strong>The</strong> angling<br />
ethic <strong>of</strong> “catch and release” is gaining momentum for these indigenous fishes and is<br />
mandatory in terms <strong>of</strong> WCNC’s Ordinance <strong>of</strong> 1974.<br />
A further area <strong>of</strong> growth is underwater diving trails for CFK freshwater fishes. Many<br />
perennial fynbos streams are clear, warm and slow flowing in summer which are<br />
ideal conditions for diving. A marketing drive will be necessary to encourage the large<br />
numbers <strong>of</strong> divers who visit the sea to extend their interests to freshwater habitats.<br />
Alien fishes such as O. mykiss, M. dolomieu and C. carpio are relatively widespread<br />
and abundant in most large rivers and associated dams <strong>of</strong> the CFK and are hence<br />
popular with anglers. <strong>The</strong>y form the basis <strong>of</strong> a significant socio-economic recreational<br />
fishery.<br />
3.10 Economic incentives to conserve CFK freshwater fishes<br />
<strong>The</strong> economic incentives to conserve CFK fishes are not immediately obvious as<br />
they do not presently form the basis <strong>of</strong> a significant recreational fishery or ecotourism<br />
industry. However, they have considerable economic potential provided that:<br />
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beds and use surface or ground water for irrigation. <strong>The</strong>ir actions can have a major<br />
influence on river processes and biotic diversity.<br />
<strong>The</strong> previous government did little in terms <strong>of</strong> legislative development to promote<br />
sustainable utilisation <strong>of</strong> aquatic resources culminating in a landowner philosophy <strong>of</strong><br />
resource ownership rather than custodianship <strong>of</strong> resources. Few landowners have an<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> river functioning and the ecological needs <strong>of</strong> rivers and thus at<br />
present are unable to contribute to conserving rivers and indigenous fishes. Rivers<br />
are regularly bulldozed for flood control purposes and to create weirs, a practice <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
referred by farmers as “Ons maak die rivier skoon” (we are cleaning the river!!).<br />
Similarly, some highly sensitive tributaries have abstraction points that remove the<br />
entire surface flow <strong>of</strong> the river during summer. <strong>The</strong> ecological impacts <strong>of</strong> such<br />
practices appear to be <strong>of</strong> little concern to many farmers as their focus is on<br />
production and making a pr<strong>of</strong>it. Farm dams are <strong>of</strong>ten stocked with fish without nature<br />
conservation permits, resulting in the further spread <strong>of</strong> invasive species such as bass<br />
and trout.<br />
<strong>The</strong> attitude and activities <strong>of</strong> many freshwater anglers is also <strong>of</strong> concern. <strong>The</strong> CFK<br />
has few indigenous freshwater fishes <strong>of</strong> angling value and the three species that are<br />
so regarded are not being easily accessible to the general public. Hence alien<br />
species are targeted and, being popular and accessible, are the ones that are<br />
stocked into new waters. Few stockings are legal (i.e. undertaken with the approval<br />
<strong>of</strong> conservation authorities) resulting in the continual spread <strong>of</strong> harmful invasive<br />
species such as carp (C. carpio), sharptooth catfish (Clarias gariepinus Burchell<br />
1822), bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque 1819), Micropterus spp.,<br />
Salmo trutta and Onchorychus. mykiss into new habitats. In the majority <strong>of</strong> cases,<br />
anglers stock fish without being aware <strong>of</strong> the legislative requirements and the<br />
ecological consequences but some anglers stock fish without permits fully aware <strong>of</strong><br />
the illegality <strong>of</strong> their actions.<br />
3.9 Utilisation <strong>of</strong> CFK freshwater fishes<br />
<strong>The</strong> rivers <strong>of</strong> the CFK are critically important to the economic development <strong>of</strong> the<br />
region. This is because many areas, especially the south-western Cape region, have<br />
hot dry summers when agricultural production <strong>of</strong> most crops (e.g. deciduous fruits<br />
and grapes) reach their peak. Rivers are heavily utilised to supply water to farms,<br />
towns and industries. Winter water is stored in farm and larger irrigation dams while<br />
the small summer base flows may be entirely utilised.<br />
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Table 3.5<br />
Main threats to freshwater fishes <strong>of</strong> the Cape Floristic Kingdom.<br />
Type <strong>of</strong> threat<br />
Instream dams<br />
Bulldozing <strong>of</strong> rivers<br />
Unsustainable<br />
water abstraction<br />
Excessive use <strong>of</strong><br />
pesticides and<br />
herbicides<br />
Excessive use <strong>of</strong><br />
fertilizers<br />
Alien invasive<br />
fishes<br />
Alien invasive<br />
plants<br />
Lack <strong>of</strong> education<br />
and awareness<br />
Impact on fish or ecosystem<br />
Barrier to upstream migration, alteration <strong>of</strong> flow patterns and water chemistry<br />
downstream <strong>of</strong> dam, refuge for alien invasive fishes during floods<br />
Localised destruction <strong>of</strong> instream and riparian habitat, reduces habitat diversity<br />
and quality, increased turbidities and sedimentation<br />
Rivers pumped dry or flow severely reduced during dry season resulting in<br />
major loss <strong>of</strong> habitat during peak times <strong>of</strong> recruitment<br />
Poorly studied but rivers with good habitat adjacent to large orchards appear to<br />
be devoid <strong>of</strong> fishes (e.g. Suurvlei River, Cedarberg)<br />
Eutrophication and mineralization <strong>of</strong> CFK rivers which are characteristically<br />
oligotrophic and acidic in nature<br />
Elimination or severe reduction <strong>of</strong> indigenous fish populations through<br />
predation, competition or habitat alteration<br />
Invade catchment, riparian and instream areas reducing water yield and stream<br />
flow (e.g. pines Pinus spp.), out-competing and eliminating indigenous flora<br />
(e.g. black wattle Acacia mearnsii), altering nutrient cycles (e.g. A. mearnsii)<br />
and reducing light and oxygen penetration to surface waters (e.g. water<br />
hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes)<br />
Local communities and anglers are <strong>of</strong>ten unaware <strong>of</strong> local indigenous fishes<br />
and their importance. This can be overcome through effective environmental<br />
education programmes<br />
<strong>The</strong> WCNC contract research programme funds outside researchers enabling<br />
collaborative research on projects identified by scientists within the department. This<br />
programme has been successful but is dependent on internal funding for its<br />
operation. This important work is now in jeopardy as a 34% funding cut on contract<br />
research programmes was made in 1998.<br />
Fishes poorly conserved Fish distribution maps generated during this analysis show<br />
that the vast majority <strong>of</strong> records fall outside formally conserved areas. Rivers are<br />
generally poorly conserved and especially so in their middle and lower reaches. <strong>The</strong><br />
main reasons for this are threefold: (i) their value for irrigation purposes gave riparian<br />
land a premium value; (ii) freshwater fishes are not as visible and charismatic as<br />
large mammal species; and (iii) there are difficulties associated with conserving a<br />
longitudinal ecosystem.<br />
Lack <strong>of</strong> public awareness <strong>The</strong> two most important public groups involved in<br />
freshwater fish utilisation and management in the CFK are farmers (especially<br />
riparian landowners) and anglers. Farmers own catchment areas, riverbanks and<br />
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3.8 Constraints to conserving CFK freshwater fishes<br />
Invasive alien fishes: <strong>The</strong> impact <strong>of</strong> invasive alien fishes is possibly the greatest<br />
constraint to the effective conservation <strong>of</strong> indigenous freshwater fishes in the CFK.<br />
Once a fish species has established itself it becomes almost impossible to eradicate<br />
as biological control agents are not available and poisons such as Rotenone cannot<br />
be safely administered throughout a system. Projects to eradicate alien fishes from<br />
parts <strong>of</strong> certain systems are feasible and are urgently required.<br />
Capacity: Critical capacity shortages have emerged at conservation authorities since<br />
1990 due to severance packages being <strong>of</strong>fered by the state to reduce the size <strong>of</strong> the<br />
public service and vacated posts not being filled due to budgetary constraints. In<br />
1992, WCNC had nine scientists and technicians in their aquatic section – presently<br />
there are two. <strong>The</strong> situation in the Eastern Cape is also unsatisfactory. <strong>The</strong> province<br />
is home to a small portion <strong>of</strong> the CFK that includes six fish species, but presently has<br />
no freshwater aquatic scientists or dedicated technical support staff. <strong>The</strong>se statistics<br />
<strong>of</strong> inadequate manpower are alarming, given the high percentage <strong>of</strong> endemic fishes,<br />
their imperilled conservation status and the rich and unique diversity <strong>of</strong> aquatic<br />
invertebrates in the CFK. Clearly, freshwater systems cannot be effectively managed<br />
without sufficient and appropriate expertise.<br />
Funding: WCNC funding has been progressively reduced in real terms since 1990.<br />
Funding constraints have prevented the filling <strong>of</strong> posts and have restricted the<br />
number <strong>of</strong> fish surveys undertaken due to budget cuts in mileage and other incidental<br />
costs. This has adversely affected monitoring and research on fishes. River systems<br />
that were monitored every two to three years (e.g. Breede & Olifants systems) are<br />
now monitored at five- to seven-year intervals. This is unacceptable given the rapid<br />
slide <strong>of</strong> several species towards extinction. Some <strong>of</strong> the smaller systems that may<br />
contain genetically distinct populations <strong>of</strong> fishes have not been surveyed for more<br />
than a decade.<br />
A number <strong>of</strong> research projects have been recently completed or are being<br />
undertaken (see section 3.12) which are providing valuable insights into the biology<br />
and population genetics <strong>of</strong> several threatened species. <strong>The</strong>se projects have been<br />
supported by WCNC’s contract research programme, World Wide Fund for Nature –<br />
South Africa (WWF-SA), JLB Smith Institute <strong>of</strong> Ichthyology, Department <strong>of</strong><br />
Ichthyology and Fisheries Science (DIFS, Rhodes University) and Albany Museum.<br />
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3.6 Protective legislation<br />
Key legislation affecting the conservation <strong>of</strong> CFK fishes and associated ecosystem is<br />
the Water Act <strong>of</strong> 1998, Section 21 Regulations (Listed Activities requiring impact<br />
assessments) <strong>of</strong> the Environmental <strong>Conservation</strong> Act <strong>of</strong> 1989, WCNC’s Ordinance 19<br />
<strong>of</strong> 1974 and guideline documents within WCNCs “Aquatic Research Programme<br />
1990”.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Water Act regulates the use <strong>of</strong> water (e.g. abstractions, construction <strong>of</strong> dams,<br />
inter-basin water transfers) and its discharge into the natural environment. <strong>The</strong><br />
ecological needs <strong>of</strong> the water resource (e.g. river, aquifer and lake) are recognised<br />
and catered for. <strong>The</strong> “Environmental Reserve” enjoys the only right to water usage<br />
and comprises the ecological needs <strong>of</strong> the resource provider and basic human<br />
needs.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Section 21 Regulations ensure that impact assessments are undertaken and<br />
permits issued for a range <strong>of</strong> proposed activities (e.g. bulldozing <strong>of</strong> rivers,<br />
construction <strong>of</strong> farm dams & aquaculture) prior to their implementation.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Nature <strong>Conservation</strong> Ordinance 19 <strong>of</strong> 1974 controls, by means <strong>of</strong> a permit<br />
system, the transport <strong>of</strong> aquatic biota between inland waters, the import or export <strong>of</strong><br />
biota into the Province and the capture <strong>of</strong> indigenous aquatic biota.<br />
Western Cape Nature <strong>Conservation</strong> has a series <strong>of</strong> guideline or “policy” documents<br />
within its 1990 Aquatic Research Programme that are used to guide fish stockings <strong>of</strong><br />
various alien species.<br />
Other relevent legislation includes the Convention on <strong>Biodiversity</strong>, CITES, the S.A.<br />
White Paper on <strong>Biodiversity</strong> <strong>Conservation</strong>, Mountain Catchment Areas Act,<br />
<strong>Conservation</strong> <strong>of</strong> Agricultural Resources Act and the Environmental Management Act.<br />
3.7 Threats to CFK freshwater fishes<br />
<strong>The</strong> IUCN World <strong>Conservation</strong> Strategy (IUCN 1980, in Skelton 1987) recognises six<br />
broad categories <strong>of</strong> threats to the survival <strong>of</strong> vertebrates <strong>of</strong> which two (habitat<br />
destruction or degradation and the impacts <strong>of</strong> introduced species) have had severe<br />
impacts on CFK freshwater fishes. Threats to South African fishes and rivers are<br />
discussed in detail by Bruton & Van As (1986), Skelton (1987) and Davies & Day<br />
(1998). A summary <strong>of</strong> the impacts <strong>of</strong> these threats on CFK fishes is presented in<br />
Table 3.5.<br />
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Table 3.4<br />
State <strong>of</strong> knowledge <strong>of</strong> Cape Floristic Kingdom freshwater fishes.<br />
Species<br />
Recommended<br />
Status<br />
Rating <strong>of</strong> confidence<br />
in recommended<br />
status<br />
Rating <strong>of</strong> present<br />
knowledge <strong>of</strong><br />
distribution<br />
Knowledge gaps<br />
Austroglanis<br />
barnardi<br />
EN 90% 100%<br />
Breeding, feeding<br />
biology, phylogenetics<br />
A. gilli EN 90% 90% As for A. barnardi<br />
Barbus andrewi EN 90% 70%<br />
present distributions,<br />
biology<br />
B. anoplus NL<br />
80% (if species<br />
complex-reassess)<br />
60%<br />
Taxonomy, genetics,<br />
distribution<br />
B. calidus EN 80% 95% Biology<br />
B. capensis VU 80%<br />
70% (lower Olifants<br />
unknown)<br />
Genetics, mainstream<br />
distribution<br />
B. erubescens CR 95% 100% Captive rearing projects<br />
B. pallidus NL 80% 70% Genetics<br />
B. serra EN 90% 70%<br />
Genetics, biology,<br />
mainstream distribution<br />
Pseudobarbus<br />
afer<br />
VU 80% 50%<br />
Genetics, taxonomy,<br />
distribution<br />
P. asper VU 80% 50%<br />
P. burchelli EN 90% 80%<br />
P. burgi EN 95% 90 %<br />
P. phlegethon EN 95% 95%<br />
Genetics, taxonomy,<br />
distribution<br />
Genetics, taxonomy,<br />
distribution<br />
Biology, detailed<br />
surveys<br />
Breeding & feeding<br />
biology<br />
P. tenuis EN 80% 50% Genetics, distribution<br />
Galaxias<br />
zebratus<br />
LR (nt)<br />
80% (if species<br />
complex-reassess)<br />
40%<br />
Taxonomy, genetics,<br />
distribution<br />
Labeo seeberi EN 60% 50%<br />
Distributions, population<br />
estimates, biology<br />
L. umbratus NL 80% 50% Genetics, distribution<br />
Sandelia<br />
capensis<br />
NL 50% 40%<br />
Genetics, taxonomy,<br />
distribution<br />
Recent genetic studies (e.g. Waters & Cambray 1997, Impson & Bloomer in press,<br />
Bloomer & Impson in press, Swartz unpubl.) have revealed that several species<br />
consist <strong>of</strong> distinct populations and in the case <strong>of</strong> G. zebratus these may represent a<br />
species complex (Waters & Cambray 1997). This aspect <strong>of</strong> biodiversity conservation<br />
for CFK fishes needs urgent attention and may show that the region is home to a far<br />
greater freshwater fish diversity with greater endemicity than is presently<br />
acknowledged.<br />
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burgi). Without a good understanding <strong>of</strong> the life history requirements <strong>of</strong> these<br />
species, it is impossible to develop and implement effective species and habitat<br />
recovery.<br />
Table 3.3<br />
Contribution <strong>of</strong> formal conservation areas in the Cape Floristic<br />
Kingdom towards freshwater fish conservation at the species level.<br />
No. <strong>of</strong> C.A.P.E.<br />
No. <strong>of</strong> C.A.P.E.<br />
No. <strong>of</strong> C.A.P.E. local<br />
Species<br />
national parks in<br />
provincial nature<br />
authority reserves in<br />
which recorded<br />
reserves recorded in<br />
which recorded<br />
Austroglanis<br />
barnardi<br />
A. gilli 2<br />
Barbus andrewi 4 1<br />
B. anoplus 6<br />
B. calidus 2<br />
B. capensis 3<br />
B. erubescens<br />
B. pallidus 3 2<br />
B. serra 2<br />
Pseudobarbus<br />
afer<br />
1 6<br />
P. asper 7<br />
P. burchelli 5 3<br />
P. burgi 2<br />
P. phlegethon 1<br />
P. tenuis 2<br />
Galaxias<br />
zebratus<br />
3 12 3<br />
Labeo seeberi 2<br />
L. umbratus 4<br />
Sandelia<br />
capensis<br />
16 5<br />
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Table 3.2<br />
Contribution <strong>of</strong> formal conservation areas in the Cape Floristic<br />
Kingdom towards conserving freshwater fish diversity.<br />
<strong>Conservation</strong> area<br />
No <strong>of</strong><br />
species<br />
%<br />
species<br />
No <strong>of</strong> IUCN<br />
species<br />
% IUCN<br />
species<br />
Cape Floristic Kingdom 19 100 15 100<br />
C.A.P.E* Provincial reserves 17 89 13 87<br />
C.A.P.E. National Parks 2 10 1 7<br />
C.A.P.E. Local authority<br />
nature reserves<br />
5 26 3 20<br />
3.4 Critical areas for conservation<br />
River areas <strong>of</strong> critical importance to the conservation <strong>of</strong> CFK fishes were mapped at<br />
the 1:50 000 scale. <strong>The</strong> key considerations were biodiversity hotspots within larger<br />
catchments such as the Olifants and Gourits River systems as well as river areas <strong>of</strong><br />
critical importance to the conservation <strong>of</strong> a species or unique population <strong>of</strong> a species.<br />
<strong>The</strong> most important areas are shown in Figure 3.1 and are listed in Appendix 4.<br />
3.5 Accuracy and status <strong>of</strong> knowledge<br />
<strong>The</strong> successful outcome <strong>of</strong> a biodiversity analysis such as this one is dependent on a<br />
good overall knowledge <strong>of</strong> the freshwater ichthy<strong>of</strong>auna at a community, species and<br />
population level. <strong>The</strong> panel was fortunate to tackle a relatively small faunal group<br />
comprising only 19 species. Our knowledge <strong>of</strong> the distribution <strong>of</strong> CFK species is good<br />
but <strong>of</strong> the biology and ecology <strong>of</strong> most species is unsatisfactory (Table 3.4).<br />
Some species and systems (especially the smaller systems) have been undersampled.<br />
A recent detailed survey <strong>of</strong> the tributaries <strong>of</strong> the Olifants River system by<br />
one <strong>of</strong> the authors (IRB) is the type <strong>of</strong> monitoring required in future. Greater<br />
institutional capacity and funding is required to ensure that our knowledge <strong>of</strong> species<br />
distributions remains updated and accurate.<br />
Capacity and funding limitations are the primary reasons for the poor knowledge <strong>of</strong><br />
the biology and ecology <strong>of</strong> most species. This is <strong>of</strong> particular concern for those poorly<br />
studied species that appear to be at greatest risk (e.g. B. andrewi, L. seeberi & P.<br />
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<strong>Freshwater</strong> fishes <strong>of</strong> the CFK, including threatened species, would appear to be well<br />
conserved as only two <strong>of</strong> the 19 indigenous species, both critically endangered<br />
(spotted rock catfish Austroglanis barnardi and Twee River redfin Barbus<br />
erubescens), have not been recorded from formally conserved areas (Table 3.2).<br />
Some species are relatively well conserved, for example the widespread S. capensis<br />
(in 16 provincial nature reserves and five local authority nature reserves) and Cape<br />
galaxias (Galaxias zebratus) (Table 3.3). This table shows that S.A. National Parks<br />
within the CFK make a negligible contribution to the conservation <strong>of</strong> indigenous CFK<br />
fishes (two species recorded) compared to the moderate contribution <strong>of</strong> local<br />
authority nature reserves (five species) and substantial contribution <strong>of</strong> provincial<br />
nature reserves (PNR’s) (17 <strong>of</strong> the19 species recorded). Of concern are the few<br />
records we have in conservation areas <strong>of</strong> several highly threatened species, for<br />
example the Clanwilliam redfin Barbus calidus (two PNR’s), Clanwilliam sandfish<br />
Labeo seeberi (two PNR’s) and Berg River redfin Pseudobarbus burgi (also two<br />
PNR’s).<br />
Few, if any, <strong>of</strong> the formally protected areas within the CFK were designed to<br />
conserve representative and functional riverine ecosystems and their fishes. Skelton<br />
et al. (1995) identified attributes that a formal conservation area requires to be<br />
effective for conserving riverine fishes. <strong>The</strong>se are discussed in more detail in the<br />
recommendations section at the end <strong>of</strong> this report. Regarding CFK freshwater fishes,<br />
the following deficiencies in the existing reserve system were noted:<br />
• Only a small proportion <strong>of</strong> indigenous fish distribution records are within<br />
reserves.<br />
• In several cases, CFK indigenous fishes share reserve habitat with predatory<br />
invasive alien fishes such as bass (Micropterus spp.) and trout (brown trout<br />
Salmo trutta Linnaeus 1758 and rainbow trout O. mykiss).<br />
• Existing manpower and funding make eradication <strong>of</strong> alien species extremely<br />
difficult.<br />
• Highly threatened species such as B. erubescens, L. seeberi and P. burgi are<br />
poorly conserved.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is an almost total bias towards conserving montane areas and their associated<br />
headwater river zones. <strong>The</strong> middle and lower reaches <strong>of</strong> rivers, where endangered<br />
species such as the whitefish (Barbus andrewi), sawfin (B. serra) and Labeo seeberi<br />
occur, are highly impacted and poorly conserved.<br />
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Lande 1994) as well as to identify river areas <strong>of</strong> critical importance to the<br />
conservation <strong>of</strong> these fishes. <strong>The</strong> authors then used a desk-top analysis to<br />
summarise existing knowledge <strong>of</strong> other issues <strong>of</strong> relevance to the conservation <strong>of</strong><br />
CFK fishes and their associated ecosystems.<br />
3.3 Results and discussion<br />
3.3.1 Statistics for indigenous freshwater fishes <strong>of</strong> the CFK<br />
<strong>The</strong> CFK is home to relatively few indigenous freshwater fishes (19 species), mostly<br />
endemic (see Figure 3.2), and an alarmingly high number <strong>of</strong> alien fish species (16<br />
species), including invasive species (12 species) (Appendix 2).<br />
<strong>The</strong> highly endemic freshwater fishes <strong>of</strong> the CFK are also increasingly threatened.<br />
Appendix 3 provides a review <strong>of</strong> the current and proposed conservation status <strong>of</strong><br />
CFK freshwater fishes and threats and conservation recommendations specific to<br />
each species. <strong>The</strong> proposed list <strong>of</strong> threatened species comprises 11 species as<br />
critically endangered or endangered (previously 9), 3 as vulnerable (previously 4) and<br />
1 as near-threatened (previously 2). Only the chubbyhead barb Barbus anoplus,<br />
goldie barb Barbus pallidus, moggel Labeo umbratus and Cape kurper Sandelia<br />
capensis are regarded as safe, although some populations <strong>of</strong> each <strong>of</strong> these species<br />
are under threat. Several <strong>of</strong> these populations are in isolated tributaries and are<br />
probably genetically distinct.<br />
Endemic to SA<br />
11%<br />
Endemic to<br />
southern Africa<br />
5%<br />
Endemic to CFK<br />
84%<br />
Fig 3 2<br />
Endemicity <strong>of</strong> the 19 indigenous freshwater fish species <strong>of</strong> the Cape<br />
Floristic Kingdom.<br />
24 Cape Action Plan for the Environment<br />
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Table 3.1<br />
Primary indigenous freshwater fishes <strong>of</strong> the Cape Floristic Kingdom.<br />
Family<br />
Austroglanididae<br />
"<br />
Cyprinidae<br />
"<br />
"<br />
"<br />
"<br />
"<br />
"<br />
"<br />
"<br />
"<br />
"<br />
"<br />
"<br />
"<br />
"<br />
Galaxiidae<br />
Anabantidae<br />
Species<br />
Austroglanis barnardi<br />
(Skelton 1981)<br />
Austroglanis gilli<br />
(Barnard 1943)<br />
Barbus andrewi<br />
Barnard 1937<br />
Barbus anoplus Weber<br />
1897<br />
Barbus calidus Barnard<br />
1938<br />
Barbus capensis A.<br />
Smith 1841<br />
Barbus erubescens<br />
Skelton 1974<br />
Barbus pallidus A.<br />
Smith 1841<br />
Barbus serra Peter<br />
1864<br />
Labeo seeberi Gilchrist<br />
& Thompson 1911<br />
Labeo umbratus (A.<br />
Smith 1841)<br />
Pseudobarbus afer<br />
Peters 1864<br />
Pseudobarbus asper<br />
(Boulenger 1911)<br />
Pseudobarbus burchelli<br />
(A. Smith 1841)<br />
Pseudobarbus burgi<br />
Boulenger 1911<br />
Pseudobarbus<br />
phlegethon Barnard<br />
1938<br />
Pseudobarbus tenuis<br />
Barnard 1938<br />
Galaxias zebratus<br />
Castelnau 1861<br />
Sandelia capensis<br />
(Cuvier 1831)<br />
Common<br />
name<br />
Distribution (from<br />
Skelton 1993)<br />
IUCN<br />
status*<br />
CFK<br />
Endemic<br />
Spotted rock<br />
catlet<br />
Olifants River system CR Yes<br />
Clanwilliam<br />
rock catlet<br />
Olifants system VU Yes<br />
Whitefish Berg & Breede systems VU Yes<br />
Chubbyhead<br />
barb<br />
Widespread in S.A. NL No<br />
Clanwilliam<br />
redfin<br />
Olifants system EN Yes<br />
Clanwilliam<br />
yellowfish<br />
Olifants system VU Yes<br />
Twee River<br />
redfin<br />
Olifants system CR Yes<br />
Coastal systems <strong>of</strong> E. Cape,<br />
Goldie barb also Vaal, Limpopo and NL<br />
No<br />
Tugela<br />
Sawfin Olifants system EN Yes<br />
Clanwilliam<br />
sandfish<br />
Olifants system CR Yes<br />
Moggel Widespread in S.A. NL No<br />
Eastern Cape Coastal rivers <strong>of</strong> CFK from<br />
redfin Mossel Bay to Sundays River<br />
LR (nt) Yes<br />
Small-scale<br />
redfin<br />
Gourits & Gamtoos systems VU Yes<br />
Burchell’s redfin<br />
Breede & Duiwenhoks<br />
systems<br />
EN<br />
Yes<br />
Berg River Berg, Verlorevlei, Langvlei &<br />
redfin Eerste (now extinct) systems<br />
CR Yes<br />
Fiery redfin Olifants system EN Yes<br />
Slender redfin<br />
Gourits & Keurbooms<br />
systems<br />
EN<br />
Yes<br />
Cape galaxias Widespread in CFK LR (nt) Yes<br />
Cape kurper Widespread in CFK NL Yes<br />
* from Baillie & Groombridge 1996; where CR = critically endangered, EN = endangered, VU = vulnerable,<br />
LR (nt) = lower risk, near threatened & NL = not listed.<br />
WCNC, J.L.B. Smith Institute <strong>of</strong> Ichthyology and Albany Museum (including South<br />
African Museum records) were amalgamated. Fish distribution maps were developed<br />
for the CFK using a geographical information system (<strong>GIS</strong>) package (Arc View 3.1)<br />
which included overlays <strong>of</strong> the rivers and formally conserved areas. At the workshop,<br />
these maps and other parameters (e.g. population size <strong>of</strong> species and threats) were<br />
used to evaluate fish conservation status (using IUCN Red List categories, Mace &<br />
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(Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum 1792) and competitors such as carp (Cyprinus<br />
carpio Linnaeus 1758). Permanent eradication <strong>of</strong> these species is necessary within<br />
reserves to effectively conserve CFK fishes.<br />
Rivers, especially their middle and lower reaches, are poorly conserved within the<br />
CFK, resulting in their biota encountering ever-increasing levels <strong>of</strong> anthropogenic<br />
disturbance. <strong>The</strong> longitudinal nature <strong>of</strong> rivers makes them extremely difficult to<br />
conserve (Davies et al. 1993), as ideally whole systems, including their catchments<br />
require protection.<br />
Legislative improvements in the form <strong>of</strong> the Impact Assessment Regulations <strong>of</strong> 1996,<br />
the Water Act <strong>of</strong> 1998 and severe penalties for illegal fish stockings within Western<br />
Cape Nature <strong>Conservation</strong>’s (WCNC) Ordinance 19 <strong>of</strong> 1974 should enhance the<br />
ability <strong>of</strong> regulatory authorities to conserve the rivers <strong>of</strong> the CFK. However, crucial<br />
shortages <strong>of</strong> trained staff at both Western and Eastern Cape Nature <strong>Conservation</strong><br />
(ECNC) need to be addressed for legislation and conservation management to be<br />
effective.<br />
This report constitutes the freshwater fish contribution to the Cape Action Plan for the<br />
Environment (C.A.P.E.), an analysis <strong>of</strong> the biodiversity and identification <strong>of</strong><br />
biodiversity hotpsots <strong>of</strong> the CFK, executed by the University <strong>of</strong> Cape Town (UCT).<br />
<strong>The</strong> primary purpose <strong>of</strong> the report is to review the distribution records and<br />
conservation status <strong>of</strong> CFK freshwater fishes and identify river areas <strong>of</strong> critical<br />
importance for the future survival <strong>of</strong> these fishes. Other issues which have an<br />
important influence on the conservation <strong>of</strong> freshwater fishes <strong>of</strong> the CFK and<br />
associated ecosystems are highlighted, including their threats, the constraints to the<br />
conservation <strong>of</strong> this fauna, the status and accuracy <strong>of</strong> our knowledge, and research<br />
and conservation actions being undertaken. <strong>The</strong> report is concluded with<br />
recommendations for the effective conservation <strong>of</strong> these fishes.<br />
<strong>The</strong> report should be seen as a review <strong>of</strong> conservation needs for the unique and<br />
imperilled freshwater fishes <strong>of</strong> the CFK and not a detailed discussion and analysis <strong>of</strong><br />
all the issues and literature pertaining to freshwater fish conservation in the CFK.<br />
3.2 Methods<br />
<strong>The</strong> report is based on the results <strong>of</strong> a detailed CFK freshwater fish database<br />
analysis and associated workshop attended by the authors. Distribution records at<br />
22 Cape Action Plan for the Environment<br />
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Gifberg<br />
Jan Dissels-Kliphuis River Systems<br />
Verlorenvlei-Langvlei<br />
Driehoeks-Matjies River System<br />
Twee River System<br />
Piketberg-Berg River tributaries<br />
Upper Olifants River<br />
Twentyfour-Leeu River Systems<br />
Fish(rev)cfr.shp<br />
Outline.shp<br />
Sundays-Wit-Krom River Systems<br />
Sanddrif -Hex River Sysytem<br />
Gamka-Seweweeks-Nel-Huis Rivers<br />
Witte River System<br />
Groot River System<br />
Kammanassie River System<br />
Brandvlei Dam<br />
Gamtoos-Groot-Kouga River Sy tems<br />
Kogmansklo<strong>of</strong>-Kigna River Systems<br />
Keurbooms-Bietouu River Systems Lower Gamtoos tributaries<br />
Upper Berg System<br />
Buffeljags-Tradouw River Systems<br />
Southern Cape coastal rivers Krom River System Baakens River System<br />
Riviersonderend River System Goukou River System<br />
Heuningnes River System<br />
Fig 3.1<br />
Identified areas <strong>of</strong> high conservation value containing viable populations <strong>of</strong> indigenous freshwater fish.<br />
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help conserve them if they share their habitat with predatory alien species such as<br />
smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu Lacepède 1802) and rainbow trout<br />
20 Cape Action Plan for the Environment<br />
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CHAPTER 3: FRESHWATER FISHES<br />
<strong>The</strong> primary freshwater fishes <strong>of</strong> the Cape Floristic Kingdom: conservation needs for<br />
a unique and highly threatened fauna<br />
N. Dean Impson 1 , I. Roger Bills 2 , Jim A. Cambray 3 & Annelise le Roux 1<br />
1 Cape Nature <strong>Conservation</strong>, Private Bag X5014, Stellenbosch 7600<br />
2 JLB Smith Institute <strong>of</strong> Ichthyology, Private Bag 1015, Grahamstown 6140<br />
3 Department <strong>of</strong> Ichthyology, Albany Museum, Grahamstown 6139.<br />
3.1 Introduction<br />
<strong>The</strong> indigenous freshwater fish fauna <strong>of</strong> the Cape Floristic Kingdom (CFK) (see<br />
Figure 3.1 for area outline), although species depauperate, is arguably its most<br />
threatened biotic component. Of its 19 primary freshwater fish species, 14 (73%) are<br />
threatened and 12 (63%) are endangered. <strong>The</strong> fish fauna <strong>of</strong> the CFK, like the flora,<br />
has a high level <strong>of</strong> endemicity (16 <strong>of</strong> 19 species) (84%) and is thus reliant on effective<br />
conservation <strong>of</strong> the region for their survival.<br />
<strong>The</strong> south-western Cape, where most <strong>of</strong> these species occur, is recognised as a<br />
centre for a distinct “Cape” component <strong>of</strong> the ichthy<strong>of</strong>auna <strong>of</strong> Africa (Skelton 1994).<br />
<strong>The</strong> fauna is dominated by cyprinids (15 species) with two austroglanids, an<br />
anabantid and a galaxiid (Table 3.1). Taxonomic groups characteristic <strong>of</strong> the CFK<br />
include Pseudobarbus Smith 1841 (the CFK has 6 <strong>of</strong> its 7 species) and Sandelia<br />
Castelnau 1861. Galaxias zebratus Castelnau 1861 is regarded as a Gondwana relic<br />
with its closest relatives in South America (Waters & Cambray 1997). Likewise,<br />
Austroglanis (Skelton et al. 1984) has been hypothesised to be the sister-group to<br />
the relict family Horabagrus from southern India (De Pinna 1993).<br />
<strong>The</strong> ichthy<strong>of</strong>auna is characterised by isolated and geographically restricted ranges,<br />
high levels <strong>of</strong> endemicity, inflexible life history styles and a low resilience to<br />
disturbance (Skelton 1987). <strong>The</strong> most notable endemic fish hotspot in southern Africa<br />
is the Olifants River system <strong>of</strong> the CFK (Skelton et al. 1995), which supports 10<br />
species, 8 <strong>of</strong> which are endemic and all <strong>of</strong> which are threatened with extinction.<br />
<strong>The</strong> major threats to fishes <strong>of</strong> the CFK are predation by, and competition with,<br />
invasive alien fishes; habitat degradation; and destruction by inappropriate<br />
agricultural development. Placing indigenous fishes within nature reserves does not<br />
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18 Cape Action Plan for the Environment<br />
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rr<br />
Rietfontein<br />
Papendorp<br />
r r<br />
Kobee<br />
r<br />
Olifants<br />
r<br />
<strong>The</strong>e<br />
r<br />
r<br />
Jakkals r Oudste<br />
Twee<br />
r<br />
r<br />
Biedou<br />
r<br />
Tra-Tra<br />
r r<br />
r<br />
Wadrifr<br />
r<br />
rr<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
rr<br />
Matjies<br />
r<br />
Verlorenvlei<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
Kruismans<br />
BrandkraalsWind Heuvel<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
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r r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
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rr<br />
r<br />
r<br />
rr<br />
Wit<br />
Vlei<br />
Nels<br />
Bietou<br />
r<br />
Grootdam<br />
Keisies<br />
Wit<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
Boesmans<br />
Klues<br />
r r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
Leeu<br />
DoringSwart<br />
Bloukrans Kukoerie<br />
Dwariega<br />
Wit Els<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
Geelbek<br />
Groot<br />
rr<br />
r<br />
r r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r r Koekedou De Vlakte<br />
Duiwenshoeks Waterklo<strong>of</strong><br />
r r<br />
r r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
Kariega<br />
r r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
Bok<br />
r Hex<br />
r<br />
Kango<br />
Baviaansklo<strong>of</strong><br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
rr<br />
r r<br />
r<br />
Modder<br />
Platdrif Jan du Toits"<br />
Moeras<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
rr<br />
Nuy<br />
r<br />
Kouga<br />
Sundays<br />
Touws<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r r<br />
r<br />
Holsloot<br />
Kaaimans<br />
Loerie<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r r<br />
Tradouw<br />
Keurbooms<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
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r<br />
r<br />
r r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
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Diep<br />
Diep<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
rr<br />
Rietvlei Meul Klip<br />
Langtou Weyers Meul<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r r rr<br />
r<br />
r r<br />
r rr<br />
Elands<br />
r r<br />
r r<br />
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r r r r r<br />
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rrr<br />
r<br />
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Diep<br />
r r<br />
rr<br />
r<br />
r<br />
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r r r rr r<br />
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r r<br />
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rr<br />
r<br />
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r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
rr<br />
r r<br />
r r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
Riviersonderend<br />
Bosklo<strong>of</strong><br />
r r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r Gwaing Crooks Elands<br />
Maitland<br />
r r<br />
r<br />
r r<br />
r<br />
Rondevlei<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
Sand Huis<br />
Soutpan Voëlvlei<br />
r<br />
r<br />
rr<br />
r Blinde<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r r r<br />
rr<br />
r r r r r<br />
rrr<br />
r rrr<br />
r<br />
r Bree<br />
Klipdrif (O os) Slang<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
Krom<br />
De Hoop<br />
Gouriqua<br />
r r r r r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r r<br />
r<br />
Bot<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
De Hoopvlei Kafferkuils<br />
r r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
Slang<br />
Kars<br />
r<br />
r r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
Gansbaai<br />
r r<br />
r<br />
r<br />
r r rr<br />
r De Mond-Heuningnes<br />
r<br />
r<br />
Wetl(cnc)alb.shp<br />
W etl(deat)alb.shp<br />
Outline(alb).shp<br />
Fig 2.3<br />
Major wetlands <strong>of</strong> the CFK (Sources: Department <strong>of</strong> Environmental Affairs & Tourism and Cape Nature <strong>Conservation</strong>).<br />
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Clinning, 1995; Williams & Randall, 1995; Underhill, 1995). This means that usable<br />
data are sketchy. Furthermore, at the scale (1:250 000) used here, a great<br />
percentage <strong>of</strong> the smaller wetlands in the area cannot be identified, while the use <strong>of</strong><br />
aerial photographs is very time consuming and requires verification in the field.<br />
<strong>The</strong> data set eventually used in the present project was presented by the<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) in a directory <strong>of</strong> (major)<br />
South African Wetlands (Cowan and Van Riet 1998), which forms part <strong>of</strong> the South<br />
African Wetlands <strong>Conservation</strong> Programme. This database, while incomplete, was<br />
the most comprehensive available at this scale. Major wetlands identified by DEAT<br />
and CNC are displayed in Fig 2.3.<br />
Given the remarkable degree <strong>of</strong> diversity <strong>of</strong> wetlands in the CFK, it will be necessary<br />
to classify them if we are to be able to conserve adequate representatives <strong>of</strong> the<br />
different types. At present no suitable classification system is available, although a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> systems are being developed for one purpose or another. A detailed<br />
classification <strong>of</strong> the vegetation <strong>of</strong> the area has been produced as part <strong>of</strong> the CAPE<br />
project (Cowling et al, 1999), however and can be used to some extent to predict the<br />
types <strong>of</strong> wetlands in each area. In this way we the diversity <strong>of</strong> minor wetlands will be<br />
accounted for through the conservation analysis <strong>of</strong> the terrestrial ecosystems.<br />
Furthermore, a preliminary classification exercise has been undertaken as part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
detailed study <strong>of</strong> the wetlands <strong>of</strong> the Agulhas Plain (Jones, 2000).<br />
We consider that one <strong>of</strong> the major subjects that still needs to be addressed in a<br />
comprehensive conservation plan for the CFK is a more detailed analysis <strong>of</strong> the<br />
wetlands <strong>of</strong> the CFK.<br />
16 Cape Action Plan for the Environment<br />
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• the substrate should be nonsoil and should be saturated with water or covered<br />
by shallow water at some time during the growing season.<br />
In practical terms, since no true lakes occur in the CFK we have assumed for the<br />
purposes <strong>of</strong> this project that all aquatic ecosystems other than rivers are wetlands.<br />
2.5.1 Wetlands in the CFK<br />
<strong>The</strong> nature <strong>of</strong> specific wetlands is determined by both abiotic and biotic factors.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se include geology, vegetation, altitude, slope, climate and hydrology.<br />
Vegetation is a good indicator <strong>of</strong> the types <strong>of</strong> wetland one might expect to find in a<br />
certain area because vegetation is a reflection <strong>of</strong> all the abiotic factors that influence<br />
wetlands. This also explains why vegetation is considered to be an important<br />
component in the classification <strong>of</strong> wetlands.<br />
<strong>The</strong> wetlands in the CFK form a suite <strong>of</strong> remarkably different types. In size they vary<br />
from minute temporary potholes in eroded rocks to large permanent coastal lakes,<br />
from intertidal estuarine salt flats to high-altitude pools, and from alkaline salt pans,<br />
both seasonal and perennial, to peat-stained acidic marshes.<br />
<strong>The</strong> geomorphology and climate <strong>of</strong> the region ultimately determine the distribution <strong>of</strong><br />
wetlands in the south-western Cape. <strong>The</strong> flat dry plateau in the north east, the lowlying<br />
Karoo and the coastal plain all favour the formation <strong>of</strong> pans. Perennial<br />
endorheic wetlands are more common in the moister southern coastal regions, while<br />
conditions <strong>of</strong>ten favour wetland formation along seeps and streams in the foothills <strong>of</strong><br />
the sandstone mountains. Finally, coastal sandbars, forming estuarine lagoons and<br />
salt marshes, may dam rivers at sea level.<br />
Wetlands are under serious threat in the CFK. Huge areas <strong>of</strong> seasonal wetlands<br />
have been filled in and built upon in urban areas such as Cape Town, while in rural<br />
areas many <strong>of</strong> them have been put to the plough. <strong>The</strong> construction <strong>of</strong> farm dams has<br />
greatly changed the hydrology <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> the fertile valleys in the south and the once<br />
palustrine environments <strong>of</strong> marsh and vlei are now dominated by the lacustrine<br />
habitats <strong>of</strong> pond and lake (King and Silberbauer, 1991).<br />
2.5.2 Data on wetlands<br />
Remarkably little information is available on the wetlands <strong>of</strong> the CFK as ecosystems<br />
(e.g. Silberbauer & King, 1991; Cowan et al., 1995), although a fair number <strong>of</strong><br />
papers deal with them as habitats for water birds (see, for instance, references in<br />
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<strong>of</strong> waterlogged soil conditions. It is far more difficult to distinguish them from aquatic<br />
ecosystems, although the depth <strong>of</strong> permanent free water, which restricts the<br />
development <strong>of</strong> emergent vegetation, is important in some wetlands and the<br />
impermanence <strong>of</strong> free water is important in others. Indeed, although most wetlands<br />
have certain common characteristics such as a high water table, hydric soils,<br />
hydrophilic vegetation and reducing conditions in the soil and water, they vary<br />
enormously from small to large, from permanent to ephemeral, from saline to fresh<br />
and from being associated with rivers to being free-standing and inward draining<br />
(endorheic). For a discussion on the definition <strong>of</strong> wetlands see Cowardin et al. (1979)<br />
and Davies & Day (1998).<br />
As a contracting party to the Ramsar convention South Africa presently makes use <strong>of</strong><br />
Cowardin’s (1979) definition:<br />
Wetlands are areas <strong>of</strong> marsh, fen, peat or water, whether natural or artificial,<br />
permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or<br />
salt, including areas <strong>of</strong> marine water the depth <strong>of</strong> which at low tide does not<br />
exceed six metres.<br />
<strong>The</strong> definition <strong>of</strong> wetlands used in the present study is that used by South Africa’s<br />
National Wetlands inventory (Cowan et al., 1998) modified from (Cowardin et al.,<br />
1979):<br />
Wetlands are defined as lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic<br />
systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is<br />
covered by shallow water and deep-water habitats: permanently flooded<br />
lands lying below the deepwater boundary <strong>of</strong> wetlands. <strong>The</strong>y include<br />
environments where surface water is permanent and <strong>of</strong>ten deep, so that<br />
water, rather than air, is the principle medium within which the dominant<br />
organisms live, whether or not they are attached to the substrate.<br />
In order for an area to be classified as a wetland, Cowardin et al. (1979) stated that it<br />
must meet at least one <strong>of</strong> the following criteria:<br />
• the land, at least periodically, must support predominantly hydrophytes;<br />
• the substrate should be predominantly hydric soil;<br />
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Mountain stream<br />
Foothill river<br />
Transitional river<br />
Lowland river<br />
0 100<br />
Kilometers<br />
N<br />
Fig 2.2<br />
Geomorphological (sub-regional) classification <strong>of</strong> rivers in the Cape Floristic Kingdom.<br />
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that were readily available or could be captured within the timeframe <strong>of</strong> the project.<br />
This classification system lends itself to this purpose.<br />
Although segments may be composed <strong>of</strong> a composite <strong>of</strong> reach types as a result <strong>of</strong><br />
variations in local control variables, a recognisable commonality within a segment<br />
was achieved by using a uniform set <strong>of</strong> driving forces, namely slope, discharge and<br />
sediment load (Rowntree et al., 1998). Perennial rivers were digitised from 1:250 000<br />
topographical maps and classified into four geomorphological categories according to<br />
the following criteria:<br />
• Mountain stream (gradient 0.01 – 0.07): steep gradient; stream dominated by<br />
bedrock and boulders with step-pool morphology, waterfalls, rapids and pools;<br />
locally cobble or coarse gravels forming plane beds; floodplain generally<br />
absent but lateral bench-type features may occur; sinuous channel pattern<br />
• Foothill river (gradient 0.002 – 0.008): moderately steep gradient;<br />
gravel/cobble bed commonly with pool-riffle or pool-rapid morphology; locally<br />
bedrock-controlled; narrow floodplain <strong>of</strong> sand or gravel normally present;<br />
channel pattern meandering or braided<br />
• Transitional river (gradient 0.001 – 0.0036): lower-gradient mixed-bed alluvial<br />
channel with sand or cobble/gravel, pool-riffle morphology, sandbars;<br />
floodplain <strong>of</strong>ten present<br />
• Lowland river (gradient 0.0002 – 0.002): low-gradient alluvial sand-bed<br />
channel, fully developed meandering pattern (<strong>of</strong>ten tortuous) within a distinct<br />
floodplain increased silt content in bed or banks.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Geomorphological (sub-regional) classification <strong>of</strong> rivers in the CFK may be seen<br />
in Fig 2.2.<br />
2.5 Wetlands<br />
Wetlands occupy an intermediate position in the continuum between terrestrial and<br />
aquatic environments. Since the continuum is variable in space and time, it is not<br />
surprising that ‘there is not one single, correct, indisputable, ecologically sound<br />
definition for wetlands’ (Cowardin et al 1997).<br />
<strong>The</strong> prime feature that separates wetlands from terrestrial systems is the persistence<br />
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suitable for agriculture, they are probably less impacted by human activities than are<br />
the rivers <strong>of</strong> any <strong>of</strong> the other bioregions in the CFK<br />
2.4.1.4 <strong>The</strong> Southern Inland bioregion<br />
<strong>The</strong> Southern Inland bioregion includes two groups <strong>of</strong> rivers:<br />
• those such as the Couga, Baviaansklo<strong>of</strong> and Olifants rivers <strong>of</strong> the inland<br />
corridor between the Outeniqua mountains and the Swartberge, where rainfall<br />
is low (200-600mm per annum); characterised by neutral, clear water, and low<br />
conductivities.<br />
• shorter coastal rivers, such as the Klein Brak, Keurbooms, Diep, Swart and<br />
Langtou rivers, which rise in ‘false fynbos’ close to the coast and mostly drain<br />
shales.<br />
Little is known about these rivers or their biotas although the larger rivers are<br />
particularly heavily impacted by agricultural activities.<br />
2.4.1.5 <strong>The</strong> Arid Interior<br />
<strong>The</strong> Arid Interior bioregion encompasses the lower Olifants and Sout Rivers. Rainfall<br />
is very low so most rivers are ephemeral, and therefore support a limited biota. <strong>The</strong><br />
lower Olifants River has a less limited, but still rather depauperate, invertebrate fauna<br />
and is heavily impacted by damming, abstraction <strong>of</strong> water and other agricultural<br />
activities.<br />
2.4.1.6 <strong>The</strong> Drought Corridor<br />
As suggested by the name, the Drought Corridor bioregion is characterised by erratic<br />
rainfall and seasonal rivers. It encompasses the Great Fish, Sundays, Kowie and<br />
Bushmans Rivers, several <strong>of</strong> which are seriously salinised as a result <strong>of</strong> irrigation<br />
over many years. Little is known about the biotas <strong>of</strong> these systems.<br />
2.4.2 Sub-regional classification<br />
<strong>The</strong> sub regional classification <strong>of</strong> the rivers <strong>of</strong> the CFK (Fig. 2.2) was performed<br />
specifically for this project and was based on a model for the classification <strong>of</strong> South<br />
African rivers developed by Kate Rowntree and Roy Wadeson <strong>of</strong> the Geography<br />
Department at Rhodes University, Grahamstown. This system was chosen because<br />
it is compatible with the National Biomonitoring initiatives, was approved in concept<br />
by the Department <strong>of</strong> Water Affairs and Forestry, and is ecologically based. At the<br />
scale <strong>of</strong> the CFK and the CAPE project, it was necessary to limit detail to the data<br />
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Arid Interior<br />
Fynbos<br />
Drought Corridor<br />
Alkaline Interior<br />
Southern Inland<br />
Southern Coastal<br />
Fig 2.1 Bioregions <strong>of</strong> the CFK based on Bioregions <strong>of</strong> South Africa, National Biomonitoring Programme (Brown et al, 1996).<br />
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2.4.1 Bioregional classification<br />
Classification <strong>of</strong> the land into bioregions (Brown et al, 1996) is based on the broad<br />
biogeographic patterns exhibited by riverine biotas and gross differences in the<br />
physical structure <strong>of</strong> rivers (See fig 2.1 Bioregions <strong>of</strong> the CFK). On this basis the CFK<br />
has been divided into the following bioregions by the National Biomonitoring<br />
Programme (Brown et al, 1996).<br />
2.4.1.1 <strong>The</strong> Fynbos bioregion<br />
<strong>The</strong> Fynbos region is bordered in the north by the mouth <strong>of</strong> the Olifants River, in the<br />
northeast by the channel <strong>of</strong> the Doring River and in the southeast by the mouth <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Breede River. It is characterised by a Mediterranean climate with predominately<br />
winter rainfall, which tends to become more aseasonal to the east and north-west.<br />
Rainfall varies between 600 and 2000 mm per annum. Rivers are characterised by<br />
oligotrophic (nutrient-poor) waters, which are <strong>of</strong>ten peat-stained and acidic, some<br />
having pH values as low as 4. Many <strong>of</strong> the rivers in the west are seasonal or<br />
ephemeral. Endemism <strong>of</strong> several animal taxa is known to be very high. <strong>The</strong> largest<br />
rivers in the bioregion are the Olifants, the Berg and the Breede, all <strong>of</strong> which are<br />
heavily impacted by damming and abstraction <strong>of</strong> water, as well as agricultural<br />
activities and the effects <strong>of</strong> urban development.<br />
2.4.1.2 <strong>The</strong> Alkaline Interior<br />
<strong>The</strong> Alkaline Interior region stretches from the main channel <strong>of</strong> the Doring River in the<br />
west to the Gamtoos River in the east. It completely encircles the Southern Inland<br />
and Southern Coastal bioregions, extending to the coast only in the vicinity <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Gouritz and Gamtoos Rivers. Most <strong>of</strong> the rivers, except those near the coast, are<br />
seasonal or ephemeral, with alkaline waters and poorly known biotas. Virtually all<br />
are impacted to a greater or lesser extent by agricultural activities.<br />
2.4.1.3 <strong>The</strong> Southern Coastal bioregion<br />
<strong>The</strong> Southern Coastal bioregion stretches along the south coast. Rivers are generally<br />
short (< 20 km), peat-stained and acid and probably have biogeographical affinities<br />
with the upper zones <strong>of</strong> the rivers <strong>of</strong> the Fynbos bioregion. <strong>The</strong>y occur on sea-facing<br />
slopes that drain Table Mountain Sandstone. Rainfall is aseasonal and varies<br />
between 600 and 2000mm per annum. <strong>The</strong> rivers have clear, NaCl-dominated, peatstained,<br />
acid waters (pH < 6) low in TDS. Examples <strong>of</strong> these rivers are the<br />
Bloukraans, Elands, Silwer, Kaaimans, Duiwe, Homtini and Touws rivers. Because<br />
these rivers are short and steep, and their catchments generally not particularly<br />
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ecosystems.<br />
Spatial data used during this study were collated from a variety <strong>of</strong> sources. Appendix<br />
1 contains a description, source, scale and technical; information relating to all the<br />
data sets used here.<br />
2.4 Rivers<br />
Rivers are complex four-dimensional systems, comprising longitudinal, lateral (crosssectional)<br />
and vertical spatial components that change over time and within which<br />
biotic communities must exist and respond to a variety <strong>of</strong> fluctuating environmental<br />
variables. We have organised the rivers <strong>of</strong> the CFK into ecologically similar units by<br />
classifying them into bioregions and sub-regions so that the conservation value and<br />
conservation status <strong>of</strong> like systems can be compared.<br />
An ecologically-based classification system <strong>of</strong> rivers was used in order to prevent<br />
inappropriate comparisons <strong>of</strong> disparate systems. For instance if one were to divide<br />
rivers into arbitrary segments and rate the relative importance <strong>of</strong> each, large<br />
differences might be found between the units merely as a result <strong>of</strong> natural differences<br />
between rivers. A 5-km stretch <strong>of</strong> lowland river could, for instance, inevitably provide<br />
fewer habitats and support less biotic diversity than the same length <strong>of</strong> mountain<br />
stream could and would therefore appear to be <strong>of</strong> lower conservation importance. If<br />
the assessment is restricted to a comparison between ecologically similar ‘river<br />
types’, then the natural variability between the systems will be low and comparisons<br />
more likely to be valid (Brown et al., 1996; Eekhout, 1997).<br />
<strong>The</strong> classification system used here was developed by a number <strong>of</strong> South African<br />
river scientists during a workshop forming part <strong>of</strong> the ‘National Biomonitoring<br />
Program’ (NBP). Brown et al (1996) discuss the classification framework, a threetiered<br />
hierarchy in which each “river type” is identified and can be described with<br />
reference to a bioregion, a sub-region and a type. For example Fynbos-Foothillperennial<br />
refers to one particular ‘river type’ which includes all sections <strong>of</strong> river within<br />
the fynbos bioregion that exhibit the geomorphological characteristics and biotic<br />
attributes characteristic <strong>of</strong> a foothill zone, and are perennial.<br />
When once the rivers <strong>of</strong> the CFK have been classified in this way it was possible to<br />
set conservation goals or targets for each type (for instance, the conservation <strong>of</strong> 10%<br />
<strong>of</strong> all fynbos bioregion mountain streams) and to determine priority areas by<br />
overlaying <strong>GIS</strong> coverages <strong>of</strong> threats and features such as fish populations.<br />
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status <strong>of</strong> aquatic ecosystems.<br />
• <strong>The</strong> conservation value <strong>of</strong> a site is an indication <strong>of</strong> the contribution that a<br />
specific site can make towards achieving the conservation target for a<br />
particular type <strong>of</strong> habitat.<br />
• Given the patchy nature <strong>of</strong> the data at hand, some key taxa can be used as<br />
surrogates when assessing conservation value. For rivers, for instance, we<br />
have relied very heavily on data regarding fish, which are the best known<br />
animal taxon in the inland waters <strong>of</strong> the CFK.<br />
• Furthermore, rivers and wetlands are not independent entities but reflect the<br />
nature <strong>of</strong> their catchments. Thus rather than using the quarter-degree grid as<br />
a unit, we have chosen to use quaternary catchments (as defined by the<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Water Affairs and Forestry -DWAF).<br />
• In a similar vein, we have assumed that, for the most part, conserving whole<br />
stretches <strong>of</strong> a catchment will adequately conserve its rivers and wetlands too.<br />
• This is a broad-scale study at 1:250 000 scale, which is aimed at presenting<br />
an overview <strong>of</strong> the conservation status and value <strong>of</strong> freshwater ecosystems in<br />
the CFK. Detailed conservation planning should be undertaken at cadastral<br />
level or 1:10 000 – 1:50 000<br />
• In the CFK, <strong>Freshwater</strong> ecosystems can be divided into wetlands, which are<br />
mostly standing waters, and rivers, which normally contain running water for at<br />
least part <strong>of</strong> most years.<br />
• Some <strong>of</strong> the data presented here have been used for preliminary analysis in<br />
this report, but the main aim was to collate and organize all available datasets<br />
for detailed conservation planning by the implementing agencies using a<br />
method called C-plan (Cowling et al, 1999)<br />
<strong>The</strong> terms ‘aquatic ecosystem’, ‘freshwater ecosystem’ and ‘inland waters’ are used<br />
interchangeably in this document although it is not entirely correct to do so. All <strong>of</strong> the<br />
systems we deal with are inland waters in the sense that they are not marine, and<br />
aquatic ecosystems in that they hold water at least on occasion, but many inland<br />
waters are very saline and so do not really fit the category <strong>of</strong> ‘freshwater’<br />
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Plettenberg Bay and the other between Plettenberg Bay and the mouth <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Bashee River.<br />
• Endemism is extremely high. Almost a quarter (22.5%, or 59 out <strong>of</strong> 262) <strong>of</strong> the<br />
species examined in the ‘true capensis’ bioregion are endemic. <strong>The</strong>se include<br />
6 species <strong>of</strong> ephemeropteran, 40 <strong>of</strong> trichopteran, 4 <strong>of</strong> simuliid, 4 <strong>of</strong> mollusc, 3<br />
<strong>of</strong> fish and 2 <strong>of</strong> riparian plant. Endemism is less extreme, but still remarkable,<br />
in the ‘Namaqua capensis’ bioregion, at 14.4% (18 out <strong>of</strong> 125 species),<br />
including 7 species <strong>of</strong> trichopteran, 2 <strong>of</strong> simuliid, 1 <strong>of</strong> mollusc and 8 <strong>of</strong> fish.<br />
• A preliminary subdivision at regional level showed that geomorphological<br />
features provide a useful sub-regional classification, dividing rivers into upland<br />
(mountain) streams, foothill streams, and lower rivers. This aspect <strong>of</strong> the work<br />
<strong>of</strong> Eekhout et al. (1997) has been extended and incorporated in the present<br />
project.<br />
Other sets <strong>of</strong> data are available for rivers but none were comprehensive enough, or<br />
in suitable form, for immediate use in the present project. <strong>The</strong>se include the<br />
‘Biobase’, a database that links co-occurrences <strong>of</strong> invertebrate and chemical data<br />
(e.g. Dallas, Janssens & Day, 1999).<br />
2.3 Our approach<br />
An early decision was made to use <strong>GIS</strong> tools for the terrestrial component <strong>of</strong> the<br />
project. Since integration <strong>of</strong> the terrestrial and aquatic data is imperative for<br />
conservation purposes, we also had to use <strong>GIS</strong>-based tools, which are very sensitive<br />
to ‘gaps’ - areas for which data are not available. We were thus unable to use much<br />
<strong>of</strong> the existing information on riverine organisms because <strong>of</strong> its fragmentary nature.<br />
We therefore started by distinguishing broad biogeographic regions or ‘bioregions’.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se in turn were divided into sub-regions, based on physical habitats, which could<br />
be compared with regard to conservation value and status.<br />
We made the following fundamental assumptions.<br />
• It is possible to assess the degree to which a system has been altered through<br />
anthropogenic activities. This can be considered to be its conservation status.<br />
<strong>The</strong> higher the conservation status the greater its biodiversity relative to some<br />
‘pristine’ norm for that kind <strong>of</strong> ecosystem within the same bioregion.<br />
• It is possible to identify the threats to the continued protection or conservation<br />
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CHAPTER 2: FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS<br />
Van Nieuwenhuizen, G.D.P. and Day, J.A<br />
2.1 Introduction<br />
A wide range <strong>of</strong> factors influence the diversity <strong>of</strong> freshwater ecosystems. <strong>The</strong>se<br />
include the geology, topography, climate and vegetation <strong>of</strong> the catchment, as well as<br />
the temporal variability and predictability <strong>of</strong> factors such as rainfall. <strong>The</strong> specific<br />
characteristics <strong>of</strong> each aquatic ecosystem are dependent not only on these abiotic<br />
factors but also on the species composing their biotas and on the interactions<br />
between those species and their environments. Aquatic ecosystems are thus<br />
dynamic, being constantly affected by climatic conditions as well as by natural and<br />
anthropogenic changes to the vegetation and land use in their catchments.<br />
Since rivers and wetlands physically form the drains and sinks <strong>of</strong> their catchments,<br />
they are intimately affected by virtually everything that occurs in the landscape. As a<br />
result, they suffer both from the impacts that threaten terrestrial ecosystems and also<br />
from other, more specific, threats that do not affect terrestrial ecosystems. In an arid<br />
region such as the CFK, it is particularly necessary to anticipate and counteract such<br />
threats to the integrity <strong>of</strong> its aquatic ecosystems.<br />
2.2 Existing information on the biodiversity <strong>of</strong> the CFK<br />
Prior to the beginning <strong>of</strong> the CAPE project, our knowledge <strong>of</strong> the biodiversity <strong>of</strong><br />
aquatic ecosystems <strong>of</strong> the CFK was very limited, especially with regard to wetlands.<br />
<strong>The</strong> most comprehensive information on the species diversity <strong>of</strong> rivers resulted from<br />
a national project that developed a preliminary biological classification <strong>of</strong> South<br />
African rivers (Eekhout et al., 1997). At the time the most comprehensive data<br />
existed for riparian plants, ephemeropterans, trichopterans, simuliids, aquatic<br />
molluscs, and fish. Most <strong>of</strong> these data were unsuitable for inclusion in the present<br />
analyses but some important conclusions did emerge from the work, as follows.<br />
On the basis <strong>of</strong> these taxa the quarternary catchments <strong>of</strong> the CFK can be divided into<br />
two ‘bioregions’: the ‘True capensis’ and the ‘Namaqua capensis’ regions.<br />
<strong>The</strong> riverine invertebrates <strong>of</strong> the ‘true capensis’ bioregion represent two<br />
biogeographically distinct subgroups, one centred between the west coast and<br />
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<strong>Biodiversity</strong> associated with freshwater ecosystems is however affected by a wide<br />
range <strong>of</strong> factors that are attributable not only to the specific characteristics <strong>of</strong> the<br />
localized habitat but also to the processes that occur in the catchment. It is therefore<br />
obvious that any conservation effort aimed at conserving freshwater ecosystems<br />
should not be undertaken in isolation but should include the terrestrial ecosystems<br />
that affect them. By looking at ecosystem processes we were able to identify the<br />
specific threats that relate to each process and set targets for its conservation. This<br />
integration <strong>of</strong> the freshwater data with terrestrial is a crucial step towards the<br />
conservation <strong>of</strong> all aspects <strong>of</strong> biodiversity in the CFK. This process will happen after<br />
completion <strong>of</strong> this project during the implementation phase.<br />
<strong>Conservation</strong> value refers to the contribution that conserving a specific habitat can<br />
make towards the overall targets for conservation. In this regard we relied on the<br />
opinion <strong>of</strong> experts for three broad groups tha identified habitats and viable<br />
populations.<br />
However, conservation value, on its own does not necessarily indicate that an area<br />
should receive priority in conservation action. On the one hand it can be assumed<br />
that an ecosystem that is most the natural will contain the highest relative biodiversity<br />
in that ecosystem type and bioregion. But it was found that in most cases the same<br />
type <strong>of</strong> systems has been altered for most bioregion that they occur in. For instance,<br />
most mountain streams in the fynbos bioregion is still fairly pristine but almost all the<br />
lowland rivers <strong>of</strong> the same bioregion is greatly imperiled. <strong>The</strong> question then arises<br />
which one should receive conservation priority.<br />
By overlaying the areas identified for its conservation value and the conservation<br />
status they can be ranked in terms <strong>of</strong> conservation priority. This final map can be<br />
used as a starting point to identify the different conservation actions that can be<br />
applied to these different areas.
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Inland water ecosystems support characteristic biotas that are quite different from<br />
those <strong>of</strong> their terrestrial counterparts. In the CFK, for instance, the aquatic plants are<br />
not particularly speciose, while whole suites <strong>of</strong> aquatic animals add to the overall<br />
biodiversity <strong>of</strong> the region. As well as the more obvious taxa such as fish and<br />
amphibians, these animals include aquatic invertebrates such as insects, molluscs,<br />
crabs and worms. As is the case with the terrestrial plants, many <strong>of</strong> the aquatic<br />
animals show extremes <strong>of</strong> endemism, some being confined to as small an area as a<br />
single tributary <strong>of</strong> a single river. Although the freshwater fish are not speciose, a<br />
remarkable 73% <strong>of</strong> the species are endemic to the CFK. <strong>The</strong>se taxa, and the<br />
systems that support them, are thus worthy <strong>of</strong> conservation in their own right.<br />
Although this study will not be driven purely by species diversity, biological data had<br />
to be collected in order to assess the extent to which the area has been adequately<br />
studied and determine the areas that need more attention. Presence-absence data<br />
that covers the entire Cape Floral Kingdom (CFK) would have been the most useful<br />
for the purposes <strong>of</strong> this project. This has been done for some taxa such as birds but<br />
at a very coarse scale.<br />
Biological data can indicate the specific conditions inherent in certain systems that<br />
cannot be assessed from abiotic factors alone. It also indicates specific requirements<br />
<strong>of</strong> certain systems that will be taken into account when determining reserve<br />
configurations. Spatial data were collected from a variety <strong>of</strong> sources and at different<br />
scales.<br />
<strong>The</strong> quality data that is needed for objective analysis is extremely important and<br />
overall the data found was comprehensive enough. In this regard it was decided to<br />
combine expert opinion and <strong>GIS</strong> analysis in order to get the best possible result.<br />
Apart from accuracy, the two main criteria for data sets is that it must be presence<br />
absence data and give some indication <strong>of</strong> the ecological integrity <strong>of</strong> the habitat in<br />
question.<br />
It was found that extensive studies exist for the conservation needs for some <strong>of</strong> the<br />
groups for instance Birds and Amphibians, which are included here. <strong>The</strong>se can<br />
however not be used in the analysis as indicative <strong>of</strong> pristine habitats in the case <strong>of</strong><br />
birds and presence absence data in the case <strong>of</strong> amphibians. Fish was the only group<br />
that were found to have been sampled throughout the area and can therefore be<br />
used as presence absence data and is a good indicator <strong>of</strong> the integrity <strong>of</strong> the habitat.<br />
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION<br />
1.1 Introduction<br />
In November 1998 the <strong>Freshwater</strong> Research Unit at the University <strong>of</strong> Cape Town<br />
(UCT) was approached by <strong>The</strong> World Wide Fund: South Africa, to do a situation<br />
assessment on the conservation <strong>of</strong> biodiversity associated with freshwater<br />
ecosystems in the Cape Floral Kingdom (CFK), as part <strong>of</strong> the Cape Action Plan for<br />
the Environment (CAPE). CAPE comprises three components: situation assessments<br />
on aquatic (this report, Griffith 2000 and Prochaska 2000) and terrestrial<br />
environments (Cowling 1999) and a financial and institutional component (CSIR ).<br />
This initial phase <strong>of</strong> the study was funded by the Global Environmental Fund.<br />
<strong>The</strong> overall objective was to initiate a systematic approach to conservation planning,<br />
whereby a set <strong>of</strong> reserves is established that contains an accurate representation <strong>of</strong><br />
all aspects <strong>of</strong> biodiversity in the Floral Kingdom. (Cowling 1999).<br />
To this end the first step was to collate the information developed for individual<br />
projects into a comprehensive database that can be used for future systematic<br />
conservation planning. Several studies have been undertaken in specific aspects or<br />
areas <strong>of</strong> the Kingdom but newer before a conservation planning exercise for the<br />
entire area.<br />
<strong>The</strong> scale <strong>of</strong> the study area necessitated a certain level <strong>of</strong> coarseness. In order to not<br />
let the scale influence the quality <strong>of</strong> outcomes we relied on expert opinion to identify<br />
priority areas for the conservation <strong>of</strong> specific groups and habitats. <strong>The</strong> conservation<br />
status analysis, however, was conducted using recent satellite imagery and<br />
Geographic Information Systems (<strong>GIS</strong>).<br />
This report has been divided into two parts, part one contains the information<br />
collated and part two analysis <strong>of</strong> the data to determine conservation status and<br />
priorities.<br />
In part one <strong>of</strong> this report the aim was to collate information and determine the<br />
conservation value <strong>of</strong> species and habitats. Taxonomic information was collected for<br />
the entire region in order to provide a basis that may be used for later species<br />
diversity analysis.
Fig 12.6<br />
Priority areas for conservation overlaid with areas <strong>of</strong> conservation<br />
value to depict the extent <strong>of</strong> the contribution to conservation priorities<br />
<strong>of</strong> both conservation status and value. 167
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Fig 11.20 Frequency histogram <strong>of</strong> the percentage <strong>of</strong> quaternary catchments<br />
represented in each level <strong>of</strong> conservation status. 145<br />
Fig 11.21 <strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong> quaternary catchments in the CFK (see<br />
table 4.23 for detail on categorization <strong>of</strong> conservation status). 146<br />
Fig 11.22 <strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong> quaternary catchments within Southern<br />
Coastal Bioregion. (Derived from Fig 4.22 <strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong><br />
quaternary catchments in the CFK. 148<br />
Fig 11.23 <strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong> quaternary catchments within Southern<br />
Coastal Bioregion. (Derived from Fig 4.22 <strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong><br />
quaternary catchments in the CFK. 149<br />
Fig 11.24 <strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong> quaternary catchments within Southern<br />
Coastal Bioregion. (Derived from Fig 4.22 <strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong><br />
quaternary catchments in the CFK. 150<br />
Fig 11.25 <strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong> quaternary catchments within Southern<br />
Coastal Bioregion. (Derived from Fig 4.22 <strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong><br />
quaternary catchments in the CFK. 151<br />
Fig 11.26 <strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong> quaternary catchments within Southern<br />
Coastal Bioregion. (Derived from Fig 4.22 <strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong><br />
quaternary catchments in the CFK. 152<br />
Fig 11.27 <strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong> quaternary catchments within Southern<br />
Coastal Bioregion. (Derived from Fig 4.22 <strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong><br />
quaternary catchments in the CFK. 153<br />
Fig 12.1 Proportion <strong>of</strong> each river type conserved within existing protected<br />
areas in the CFK. 156<br />
Fig 12.2 Rivers <strong>of</strong> the CFK overlaid with existing conserved areas. 158<br />
Fig 12.3 <strong>Conservation</strong> Value <strong>of</strong> individual quaternary catchments. Each<br />
catchment was ‘flagged’ for the contribution that it could make<br />
towards the conservation <strong>of</strong> fish, amphibians and birds. Data<br />
derived from three studies identifying priority areas for the<br />
conservation <strong>of</strong> fish (see chapter 3), amphibians (see chapter 4),<br />
and birds (see chapter 5). 163<br />
Fig 12.4 Hypothetical diagram <strong>of</strong> conservation value versus conservation<br />
status. (Adapted from O’Keeffe 1986). 164<br />
Fig 12.5 <strong>Conservation</strong> priorities derived by integrating conservation status<br />
(fig 11.x) and value (fig 12.4)(see table 12.2) refer to appendix 14<br />
via catchment numbers for information relating to threats,<br />
conservation status, value and priority. 166<br />
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Fig 11.10<br />
Fig 11.11<br />
Fig 11.12<br />
Fig 11.13<br />
Fig 11.14<br />
Fig 11.15<br />
Fig 11.16<br />
Fig 11.17<br />
Fig 11.18<br />
Fig 11.19<br />
Number <strong>of</strong> dams per catchment area normalised / 100. Source:<br />
Dams: IWQS (DWAF) and Quaternary catchments: DWAF. 132<br />
Percentage <strong>of</strong> areas covered by urban areas per catchment.<br />
Sources, Urban areas: ARC and IPC and quaternary catchments:<br />
DWAF. 133<br />
<strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong> quaternary catchments in terms <strong>of</strong><br />
longitudinal flow processes (= Extent <strong>of</strong> each threat to seasonal<br />
flow per catchment ‘score’ X ‘weight’ <strong>of</strong> threat i.t.o effect on<br />
longitudinal flow) see Table 0.4: Integration <strong>of</strong> threats and<br />
ecosystem processes. 136<br />
<strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong> quaternary catchments in terms <strong>of</strong> seasonal<br />
flow processes (= Extent <strong>of</strong> each threat to seasonal flow per<br />
catchment ‘score’ X ‘weight’ <strong>of</strong> threat i.t.o effect on seasonal flow)<br />
see Table 0.4: Integration <strong>of</strong> threats and ecosystem processes. 137<br />
<strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong> quaternary catchments in terms <strong>of</strong> wetland<br />
hydrology (= Extent <strong>of</strong> each threat to seasonal flow per catchment<br />
‘score’ X ‘weight’ <strong>of</strong> threat i.t.o effect on wetland hydrology) see<br />
Table 0.4: Integration <strong>of</strong> threats and ecosystem processes. 138<br />
<strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong> quaternary catchments in terms <strong>of</strong> nutrient<br />
dynamics (= Extent <strong>of</strong> each threat to seasonal flow per catchment<br />
‘score’ X ‘weight’ <strong>of</strong> threat i.t.o effect on nutrient dynamics) see<br />
Table 0.4: Integration <strong>of</strong> threats and ecosystem processes. 139<br />
<strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong> quaternary catchments in terms <strong>of</strong> sediment<br />
dynamics (= Extent <strong>of</strong> each threat to seasonal flow per catchment<br />
‘score’X ‘weight’ <strong>of</strong> threat i.t.o effect on sediment dynamics) see<br />
Table 4: Integration <strong>of</strong> threats and ecosystem processes. 140<br />
<strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong> quaternary catchments in terms <strong>of</strong> life<br />
history processes (= Extent <strong>of</strong> each threat to seasonal flow per<br />
catchment ‘score’ X ‘weight’ <strong>of</strong> threat i.t.o effect on life history<br />
processes) see Table 4: Integration <strong>of</strong> threats and ecosystem<br />
processes. 141<br />
<strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong> quaternary catchments in terms <strong>of</strong> population<br />
processes (= Extent <strong>of</strong> each threat to seasonal flow per catchment<br />
‘score’ X ‘weight’ <strong>of</strong> threat i.t.o effect on population processes)<br />
see Table 4: Integration <strong>of</strong> threats and ecosystem processes. 142<br />
<strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong> quaternary catchments in terms <strong>of</strong> community<br />
processes (= Extent <strong>of</strong> each threat to seasonal flow per catchment<br />
‘score’ X ‘weight’ <strong>of</strong> threat i.t.o effect on community processes)<br />
see Table 4: Integration <strong>of</strong> threats and ecosystem processes. 143
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LIST OF FIGURES<br />
Fig 2.1 Bioregions <strong>of</strong> the CFK based on Bioregions <strong>of</strong> South Africa, National<br />
Biomonitoring Programme (Brown et al, 1996). 10<br />
Fig 2.2 Geomorphological (sub-regional) classification <strong>of</strong> rivers in the Cape<br />
Floristic Kingdom. 13<br />
Fig 2.3 Major wetlands <strong>of</strong> the CFK (Sources: Department <strong>of</strong> Environmental<br />
Affairs & Tourism and Cape Nature <strong>Conservation</strong>). 17<br />
Fig 3.1 Identified areas <strong>of</strong> high conservation value containing viable<br />
populations <strong>of</strong> indigenous freshwater fish. 20<br />
Fig 3 2 Endemicity <strong>of</strong> the 19 indigenous freshwater fish species <strong>of</strong> the Cape<br />
Floristic Kingdom. 23<br />
Fig 4.1 Critical areas for the conservation <strong>of</strong> amphibians and reptiles. 38<br />
Fig 4.2 Endemicity <strong>of</strong> the indigenous amphibians <strong>of</strong> the Cape Floral<br />
Kingdom. 44<br />
Fig 4 3 Endemicity <strong>of</strong> the indigenous reptiles <strong>of</strong> the Cape Floristic Kingdom. 44<br />
Fig 5.1 Important Bird Areas associated with freshwater ecosystems in the<br />
CFK. 62<br />
Fig 11.1 Geographical extent <strong>of</strong> threats to freshwater ecosystems in the<br />
CFK. (See Table 10.1 for source and scale details). 119<br />
Fig 11.2 Percentage <strong>of</strong> major threats found per river type. 120<br />
Fig 11.3 <strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong> perennial rivers <strong>of</strong> the CFK, based on <strong>GIS</strong><br />
analysis overlaying “threats layers” see fig 11.1 Threats to freshwater<br />
ecosystems and digitized rivers <strong>of</strong> the CFK see fig 2.2. 121<br />
Fig 11.4 Quaternary Catchments as Selection Units. 123<br />
Fig 11.5 High-density aliens along rivers. 125<br />
Fig 11.6 Percentage area covered by ‘high density’ alien vegetation per<br />
catchment. (Sources: “High-density Aliens”: ARC and IPC,<br />
Quaternary catchments: DWAF). 126<br />
Fig 11.7 <strong>The</strong> number <strong>of</strong> species <strong>of</strong> alien fish per catchment (Sources: Alien<br />
Fish: CNC, Quaternary catchments: DWAF). 127<br />
Fig 11.8 Percentage <strong>of</strong> area covered by cultivated land per catchment<br />
(Sources: Cultivated land ARC and IPC, Quaternary catchments:<br />
DWAF). 129<br />
Fig 11.9 Percentage <strong>of</strong> area covered by plantations per catchment.<br />
(Sources: Plantation ARC and IPC, Quaternary catchments: DWAF). 130<br />
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specific ecosystem process (see chapter 9: threats to freshwater<br />
ecosystems). 135<br />
Table 11.10 Classification <strong>of</strong> catchments ito conservation status. 145<br />
Table 12.1 <strong>The</strong> length <strong>of</strong> each river type conserved within existing<br />
protected areas. 156<br />
Table 12.2 Summary <strong>of</strong> the method used to determine conservation<br />
priorities. 165<br />
Appendix Tables<br />
Table A1.1 Geographic Information Systems (<strong>GIS</strong>). 183<br />
Table A10.1 A list <strong>of</strong> important contacts regarding general information on<br />
inland waters in the CFK. 242<br />
Table A10.2 A list <strong>of</strong> important contacts regarding bird diversity in the CFK. 243<br />
Table A10.3.1 A list <strong>of</strong> important contacts regarding mammal diversity in the<br />
CFK. 244<br />
Table A10.3.2 A list <strong>of</strong> people who may still be contacted and their relevant<br />
field <strong>of</strong> expertise (information provided by Mike H<strong>of</strong>fmann). 244<br />
Table A10.4 A list <strong>of</strong> important contacts regarding plant diversity in the CFK. 245<br />
Table A10.5 A list <strong>of</strong> important contacts regarding invertebrate diversity in<br />
the CFK. 246<br />
Table A11 <strong>The</strong> aquatic plants <strong>of</strong> southern Africa. 251<br />
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Table 7.4 A list <strong>of</strong> some plant species that can be used as possible<br />
indicators <strong>of</strong> various wetland conditions. 85<br />
Table 8.1 A list <strong>of</strong> aquatic insect and mite orders for which electronic<br />
checklists are available. Taken from the web-site:<br />
http://www.ru.ac.za/departments/zooento/Martin/Aquatics.html 88<br />
Table 9.1 Summary <strong>of</strong> threats to flow regime 94<br />
Table 9.2 Summary <strong>of</strong> threats to nutrient and sediment dynamics 96<br />
Table 9.3 Summary <strong>of</strong> threats to Life history processes 103<br />
Table 9.4 Summary <strong>of</strong> threats to Population processes 105<br />
Table 9.5 Summary <strong>of</strong> threats to Community processes 107<br />
Table 10.1 Cumulative table from tables 9.1-9.5, showing the various<br />
threats to freshwater ecosystems. Threats in italics have a direct<br />
effect on a particular process; threats in normal font have an<br />
indirect effect: because <strong>of</strong> the interaction between various<br />
ecosystem processes, threats to one process will are also threats<br />
to other processes. For example, changes in flow regime due to<br />
dams will change the quantity and velocity <strong>of</strong> water, which alters<br />
the amount <strong>of</strong> sediment and nutrients and other aspects <strong>of</strong> water<br />
chemistry. This alters habitat and thus affects which organisms<br />
can survive, the movement <strong>of</strong> these organisms up and<br />
downstream and ultimately the entire aquatic community. 116<br />
Table 11.1 Sources <strong>of</strong> data used to generate maps <strong>of</strong> identified threats,<br />
together with the scales <strong>of</strong> originals. IWQS = Institute for Water<br />
Quality Studies (DWAF), ARC= Agricultural Research Council,<br />
CNC = Cape Nature <strong>Conservation</strong> and IPC = Institute for Plant<br />
<strong>Conservation</strong> (UCT). 118<br />
Table 11.2 <strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong> the river types in each bioregion. 122<br />
Table 11.3 Weighting <strong>of</strong> alien vegetation per catchment. 124<br />
Table 11.4 Categorization <strong>of</strong> extent <strong>of</strong> cultivated land per catchment. 128<br />
Table 11.5 Categorization <strong>of</strong> extent <strong>of</strong> plantations per catchment. 128<br />
Table 11.6 Categorizing dams per catchment based on the number <strong>of</strong><br />
dams per catchment area. 131<br />
Table 11.7 Weighting the extent <strong>of</strong> urban areas per quaternary catchment. 131<br />
Table 11.8 Classification <strong>of</strong> catchments to conservation status <strong>of</strong><br />
ecosystem processes. 134<br />
Table 11.9 Integration <strong>of</strong> threats and ecosystem processes. Spatial extent<br />
and ‘scores’ <strong>of</strong> threats are illustrated in section 10.4. Weighting<br />
<strong>of</strong> threats in terms <strong>of</strong> its real impact on ecosystem process were<br />
based on whether the threats impacts directly or indirectly on that
Part 1<br />
<strong>Freshwater</strong> Research Unit, UCT<br />
LIST OF TABLES<br />
Table 3.1 Primary indigenous freshwater fishes <strong>of</strong> the Cape Floristic<br />
Region. 22<br />
Table 3.2 Contribution <strong>of</strong> formal conservation areas in the Cape Floristic<br />
Region towards conserving freshwater fish diversity. 25<br />
Table 3.3 Contribution <strong>of</strong> formal conservation areas in the Cape Floristic<br />
Region towards freshwater fish conservation at the species level. 26<br />
Table 3.4 State <strong>of</strong> knowledge <strong>of</strong> Cape Floristic Kingdom freshwater fishes. 27<br />
Table 3.5 Main threats to freshwater fishes <strong>of</strong> the Cape Floristic Kingdom. 30<br />
Table 3.6 Recent and current research and conservation management<br />
programmes for freshwater fishes <strong>of</strong> the Cape Floristic Kingdom. 34<br />
Table 5.1 List <strong>of</strong> Important Bird Areas (IBAs) relevant to inland waters and<br />
estuarine systems in the Cape Floristic Kingdom. 62<br />
Table 5.2 A list <strong>of</strong> all bird species closely associated with rivers and<br />
wetlands in the Cape Floristic Kingdom. Birds that are generally not<br />
closely associated with aquatic inland systems or have catholic<br />
habitat requirements are excluded. Species which are occasional<br />
visitors or vagrants to the region or whose core area falls well<br />
outside the CFK are also excluded. 65<br />
Table 5.3 A preliminary Red Data List <strong>of</strong> threatened bird species that have<br />
been recorded on rivers and wetlands in the CFK using the latest<br />
IUCN criteria. Information obtained from Barnes (1998). 68<br />
Table 6.1 A list <strong>of</strong> all water-associated mammals recorded in the CFK.<br />
Taken from Skinner and Smithers (1990). 72<br />
Table 6.2 List <strong>of</strong> threatened water-associated mammals found in the CFK.<br />
Present conservation status is based on the criteria laid out by<br />
Smithers (1986) while Previous <strong>Conservation</strong> Status is<br />
according to Meester (1976) or Skinner et al (1977). 74<br />
Table 6.3 Endemicity <strong>of</strong> water-associated mammals recorded in the CFK. 74<br />
Table 7.1 A preliminary list <strong>of</strong> threatened aquatic plants found in southern<br />
Africa. Plant status taken from Hilton-Taylor 1996 or directly<br />
from Appendix 7. 76<br />
Table 7.2 A preliminary list <strong>of</strong> endemic plants found in the Western Cape. 81<br />
Table 7.3 A preliminary list <strong>of</strong> some opportunistic or invasive aquatic<br />
plant species found in southern Africa. Taken from Appendix 10. 82<br />
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LIST OF ACRONYMS<br />
CNC<br />
CMC<br />
IPC<br />
SW<br />
FRU<br />
DWAF<br />
DEA&T<br />
IWQS<br />
CFK<br />
UCT<br />
KNPRRP<br />
Cape Nature <strong>Conservation</strong><br />
Cape Metropolitan Council<br />
Institute for Plant <strong>Conservation</strong>, UCT<br />
Southern Waters Ecological Research and Consulting cc<br />
<strong>Freshwater</strong> Research Unit, UCT<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Water Affairs and Forestry<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Environmental Affairs and Tourism<br />
Institute for Water Quality Studies, DWAF<br />
Cape Floristic Kingdom<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Cape Town<br />
Kruger National Parks Rivers Research Programme<br />
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Acknowledgements<br />
<strong>The</strong> authors would like to thank the following individuals and organisations for their<br />
inputs and contribution that enabled us to complete this project.<br />
Belinda Day (FRU), Andrea Plos (UCT Zoology), Annelies Le Roux (WCNC), Nick<br />
Lindenberg (<strong>GIS</strong> lab at UCT), Sally Archibald (FRU), Karen Goldberg (FRU),<br />
Charlene Coulsen (FRU), Sandra Sudh<strong>of</strong>f, Genevieuve Jones (FRU), Dean Impson<br />
(WCNC), Amanda Younge (WWF-SA).<br />
Members <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Freshwater</strong> Research Unit (FRU), Southern Waters Consulting c.c.<br />
and the Institute for Plant <strong>Conservation</strong> at the University <strong>of</strong> Cape Town (UCT) made<br />
information available and providing advice. Western Cape Nature <strong>Conservation</strong><br />
Board provided technical support, data sets and facilitated workshops. <strong>The</strong> Institute<br />
for Water Quality Studies <strong>of</strong> the Department <strong>of</strong> Water Affairs and Forestry provided<br />
valuable information and spatial data sets. WWF (SA) managed the overall project<br />
and the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) funded the project. <strong>The</strong> South African<br />
Water Research Commission continues to provide support for our research.
Part 1<br />
<strong>Freshwater</strong> Research Unit, UCT<br />
If an area has a high conservation value and a high conservation status (fairly<br />
natural), therefore, that area will not be a priority for conservation in the immediate<br />
future. <strong>The</strong> conservation action required should focus on prevention <strong>of</strong> developments<br />
that might negatively impact the area <strong>of</strong> conservation importance. If, however, an<br />
area has a low conservation status score (has been extensively altered) and is <strong>of</strong><br />
high conservation value, then that area should receive further detailed investigation.<br />
Such areas are therefore highlighted in the report as priority areas.<br />
In summary, the aquatic biota <strong>of</strong> the CFK is diverse, with a high degree <strong>of</strong> endemism,<br />
and are greatly threatened by loss <strong>of</strong> habitat, pollution, water abstraction and alien<br />
invasive species. Aquatic ecosystems are highly diverse, dynamic and intricately<br />
dependent on the integrity <strong>of</strong> their catchments. This report provides an initial<br />
assessment <strong>of</strong> some aspects <strong>of</strong> the diversity <strong>of</strong> both the biotas and the aquatic<br />
ecosystems that support them, and indicates the different conservation actions<br />
required for freshwater ecostsems in the CFK. <strong>The</strong> data sets that have been collated<br />
here are in formats that are compatible with that <strong>of</strong> the terrestrial component this<br />
project. It is essential that they be integrated in the implementation phase <strong>of</strong> this<br />
project where c-plan will be used to desigh a set <strong>of</strong> reserves that is representative <strong>of</strong><br />
all aspects <strong>of</strong> biodiversity in the CFK.<br />
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We started <strong>of</strong>f by collating a map <strong>of</strong> the threats to freshwater ecosystems. <strong>The</strong> major<br />
threats that were addressed spatially at this scale are: water reservoirs (dams), exotic<br />
plantations, invasive alien vegetation, alien fish, urban areas and cultivated land.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se threats were weighted in terms <strong>of</strong> their relative impact on ecosystem<br />
processes. <strong>The</strong>se were then overlaid with a map <strong>of</strong> quaternary catchments, which<br />
were categorised in terms <strong>of</strong> the extent <strong>of</strong> each <strong>of</strong> the threats within each catchment.<br />
A matrix was developed to integrate the scores. For instance cultivated land has a<br />
different impact on life history processes than on sediment dynamics. Cultivation<br />
therefore received different weightings in terms <strong>of</strong> its effect on these processes. All<br />
the quaternary catchments were then evaluated in terms <strong>of</strong> the spatial extent<br />
(percentage <strong>of</strong> area covered) multiplied by the specific effect weight. This analysis<br />
was repeated for each <strong>of</strong> the biotic and abiotic ecosystem processes mentioned<br />
above. In the final analysis conservation status, the totals for the different processes<br />
were added up. This total score derived for each catchment can be considered as a<br />
measure <strong>of</strong> its conservation status.<br />
Fewer than 15% <strong>of</strong> catchments are classified here as “relatively intact” and all <strong>of</strong><br />
these occur in areas <strong>of</strong> lowest rainfall in the study area. Thirty-five percent can be<br />
considered to be “relatively stable”, while the remaining 50% have been altered to a<br />
greater degree through anthropogenic activities and contain most <strong>of</strong> the perennial<br />
rivers <strong>of</strong> the CFK. If one considers the fact that most anthropogenic activities occur<br />
on the lower reaches <strong>of</strong> rivers (which paints a bleak picture for the ecological integrity<br />
<strong>of</strong> our lowland rivers), the need for rehabilitation and guidelines for future<br />
development becomes a clear priority. <strong>The</strong> conservation status <strong>of</strong> a catchment is a<br />
reflection <strong>of</strong> the percentage <strong>of</strong> area per catchment that has been altered, and the<br />
consequent effects on ecosystem processes. If, for instance, 50% <strong>of</strong> a catchment has<br />
been altered, it is likely that the alterations have occurred almost entirely in the entire<br />
lowland areas, thus affecting lowland rather than upland aquatic ecosystems.<br />
Ecosystems with a high conservation value but a low conservation status (high level<br />
<strong>of</strong> alteration) deserve the most urgent conservation action. In order to identify<br />
conservation priorities we used a matrix that integrates conservation value and<br />
status. If a catchment was been identified as an important area for the conservation<br />
<strong>of</strong> fish, amphibians or birds it received a high score for conservation value. This score<br />
was multiplied by the score for conservation status <strong>of</strong> each catchment. According to<br />
the resulting score, catchments were categorised into five different conservation<br />
priority classes: low, medium, high, very high and critical.
Part 1<br />
<strong>Freshwater</strong> Research Unit, UCT<br />
An important shift in perspective in recent years has been a move from conserving<br />
species to a consideration <strong>of</strong> conservation <strong>of</strong> more complicated aspects <strong>of</strong><br />
biodiversity, particularly <strong>of</strong> habitats and <strong>of</strong> ecosystem processes. At any one point in<br />
a river all its components, both biotic and abiotic, are completely dependent on<br />
conditions and processes upstream <strong>of</strong> that point, and also on the catchment outside<br />
<strong>of</strong> the river itself. <strong>The</strong> conservation <strong>of</strong> freshwater ecosystems therefore depends on<br />
the management <strong>of</strong> their catchments.<br />
It is now recognised that species cannot be adequately conserved without a<br />
consideration <strong>of</strong> the processes that govern and shape their environments. This issue<br />
is quite difficult to get to grips with, both because our understanding <strong>of</strong> 'ecosystem<br />
processes' is still in its infancy, and because it is difficult to find practical ways <strong>of</strong><br />
ensuring the conservation <strong>of</strong> key ecosystem processes. We started by making a<br />
broad distinction between biotic and abiotic processes, because, while they are<br />
related, they need to be addressed in different ways. Abiotic processes are very<br />
important in aquatic ecosystems, <strong>of</strong>ten being the main factors controlling community<br />
composition and biodiversity. Hydrology, nutrient and sediment dynamics are the<br />
fundamental abiotic processes that govern the functioning <strong>of</strong> rivers and wetlands,<br />
although the biota will also shape and affect abiotic conditions.<br />
Biotic processes occur at various scales: organisms (individual life histories),<br />
populations (population dynamics and genetic drift), and communities (food-web<br />
dynamics, competition). <strong>The</strong> spatial aspect to the conservation <strong>of</strong> these processes<br />
involves identifying the type <strong>of</strong> habitat required for the functioning <strong>of</strong> these various<br />
processes, and then assessing the amount <strong>of</strong> land required and how it is distributed<br />
over the landscape.<br />
When dealing with a life-supporting resource, conservation cannot be seen as<br />
something separate from development. Not only is freshwater a resource but the<br />
ecological integrity <strong>of</strong> freshwater ecosystems is a direct reflection <strong>of</strong> the manner in<br />
which the resource is utilised.<br />
<strong>Conservation</strong> status gives an indication <strong>of</strong> the degree to which a specific habitat has<br />
been altered through anthropogenic activities. It therefore indicates a level <strong>of</strong><br />
pristineness or biotic integrity and <strong>of</strong> the need for conservation intervention where, for<br />
example, most <strong>of</strong> the habitats <strong>of</strong> the same type have been seriously altered. In<br />
identifying conservation priorities it is paramount that the conservation status <strong>of</strong> the<br />
catchments be determined and integrated with information about conservation value.<br />
In this way it is possible to rank each area with regard to conservation priority.<br />
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Aquatic biodiversity in the CFK is protected primarily in mountainous areas, where<br />
most nature reserves, state forests and other conservation areas, as well as<br />
mountain catchment areas, are concentrated. Mountains do, however, play a<br />
significant role in harbouring biodiversity, since human influences, such as urban and<br />
agricultural development (two <strong>of</strong> the main culprits in the loss <strong>of</strong> biodiversity), are<br />
limited by the sheer nature and hostility <strong>of</strong> mountainous terrain. Specific areas within<br />
montane habitats act as significant refugia where, for example, biogeographically<br />
related phenomena, such as melanism, relict populations, etc., may be conserved. In<br />
contrast, the rate <strong>of</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> biodiversity is significant in the coastal zone and the<br />
lowlands, where conservation <strong>of</strong> biodiversity is patchy and fragmented, and <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
seriously compromised due to development pressure in these regions, where greatly<br />
threatened species such as whitefish (Barbus andrewi) and sandfish (Labeo seeberi)<br />
occur.<br />
Important Bird Areas (IBAs) <strong>of</strong> southern Africa are areas <strong>of</strong> global conservation value<br />
with regard to birds and were therefore is useful for identifying key freshwater areas<br />
in the CFK. While not all listed IBA’s are aquatic, they include all those areas where<br />
birds benefit either directly or indirectly from the presence <strong>of</strong> aquatic habitats.<br />
A list <strong>of</strong> water-associated mammals recorded in the CFK is provided and includes<br />
species that, while not truly aquatic, do rely to some extent on functioning aquatic<br />
systems.<br />
Relatively little collated information is available for aquatic and riparian vegetation in<br />
southern Africa and, while some information does exist on water-dependent plants,<br />
widespread expertise on these taxa appears to be lacking. Distribution data for South<br />
African vegetation, housed at the National Botanical Institute, Pretoria, has been<br />
collated in the 'PRECIS' database and can be made available for more detailed<br />
conservation planning, together with other checklists from various sources.<br />
Aquatic invertebrates <strong>of</strong> the CFK are both diverse and highly endemic. A lot <strong>of</strong> work<br />
has been done on invertebrates at various institutions, including the Albany Museum<br />
and the <strong>Freshwater</strong> Research Unit at the University <strong>of</strong> Cape Town. Since<br />
invertebrates are good indicators <strong>of</strong> water quality and the general condition <strong>of</strong> riverine<br />
systems, a comprehensive inventory <strong>of</strong> this taxon would be an ideal tool for<br />
assessing the integrity <strong>of</strong> aquatic systems in the region under investigation. Data are<br />
not available for the entire region, though, and so this aspect has not been included<br />
in the present work.
Part 1<br />
<strong>Freshwater</strong> Research Unit, UCT<br />
Frogs are useful surrogates because, as both aquatic and terrestrial organisms, their<br />
habitat requirements range across the habitat requirements <strong>of</strong> many other species.<br />
Certain species <strong>of</strong> fish are also useful as surrogates because they require<br />
longitudinal continuity <strong>of</strong> habitat (e.g. between river and floodplain or between main<br />
stem and tributaries). Conserving their habitat thus provides longitudinal migration<br />
routes for other organisms between different stretches <strong>of</strong> river.<br />
<strong>Conservation</strong> value refers to the contribution that the conservation <strong>of</strong> a specific<br />
habitat can make towards achieving conservation targets for a specific habitat type or<br />
species. Our assessment <strong>of</strong> conservation value was based on expert opinion<br />
regarding the conservation needs <strong>of</strong> specific taxa. In this study, areas <strong>of</strong><br />
conservation value were derived from studies identifying priority areas for the<br />
conservation <strong>of</strong> fish, amphibians, and birds.<br />
Indigenous freshwater fishes are a priority group for conservation within the CFK<br />
because 16 <strong>of</strong> the 19 species are endemic and the majority <strong>of</strong> these are threatened<br />
(73%). Alarmingly, 12 species are endangered or critically endangered. This<br />
ichthy<strong>of</strong>anua is also unique within an African context, including both Gondwanan<br />
relicts and endemic genera. <strong>The</strong> chapter on the conservation needs <strong>of</strong> fish is based<br />
on a detailed analysis <strong>of</strong> the CFK freshwater fish database, mainly based on museum<br />
specimens, using a geographic information system combined with expert opinion.<br />
<strong>The</strong> major threats to fishes <strong>of</strong> the CFK are predation by, and competition with,<br />
invasive alien fishes and habitat degradation and destruction by inappropriate<br />
agricultural development. Placing indigenous fishes within nature reserves does not<br />
help conserve them if they share their habitat with predatory alien species such as<br />
smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu) or rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) or<br />
competitors such as carp (Cyprinus carpio). Permanent eradication <strong>of</strong> these species<br />
is necessary within reserves to effectively conserve CFK fishes.<br />
<strong>The</strong> reptiles and amphibians <strong>of</strong> the CFK are recognised as a truly diverse group with<br />
a relatively high number <strong>of</strong> endemic species. On a global scale, the distribution<br />
ranges <strong>of</strong> many endemic species are obviously miniscule, but in terms <strong>of</strong> the longterm<br />
conservation <strong>of</strong> biodiversity, their conservation ranks very high on conservation<br />
priority lists. <strong>The</strong>y are also good indicators <strong>of</strong> centres <strong>of</strong> biodiversity. South African<br />
herpetology is still very much in its alpha phase, distribution surveys and taxonomic<br />
research continuing to turn up new taxonomic entities.<br />
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We know that in different regions <strong>of</strong> the study area different conditions occur,<br />
resulting in differences in the nature and biological composition <strong>of</strong> ecosystems.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se can be grouped together into broad areas with similar physical characteristics<br />
and biological communities. Such regions are called bioregions. Different stretches <strong>of</strong><br />
the perennial rivers within each bioregion in turn support entirely different sets <strong>of</strong><br />
organisms, influenced by the physical characteristics <strong>of</strong> the specific habitat type. For<br />
instance the organisms that are able to survive in fast-flowing mountain streams are<br />
different from those adapted to the sluggish warm waters <strong>of</strong> a lowland river. In this<br />
study, we classified the riversinto four different types: mountain streams, foothill<br />
rivers, transitional rivers and lowland rivers.<br />
Remarkably little information is available on the wetlands <strong>of</strong> the CFK as ecosystems,<br />
although a fair amount is known about them as habitats for water birds. This means<br />
that usable data are sketchy. Given the remarkable degree <strong>of</strong> diversity <strong>of</strong> wetlands in<br />
the CFK, it will be necessary to classify them if we are to be able to conserve<br />
adequate representatives <strong>of</strong> the different types. At present, though, no suitable<br />
classification system is available. A detailed classification <strong>of</strong> the vegetation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
area has been produced as part <strong>of</strong> the CAPE project (see the accompanying<br />
document by Cowling et al., 1999), however, and was used in our study to some<br />
extent to predict the types <strong>of</strong> wetlands in each area. We have assumed that the<br />
diversity <strong>of</strong> minor wetlands will be accounted for through the conservation <strong>of</strong><br />
surrounding terrestrial ecosystems. Furthermore, a preliminary classification exercise<br />
has been undertaken as part <strong>of</strong> the detailed study <strong>of</strong> the wetlands <strong>of</strong> the Agulhas<br />
Plain. One <strong>of</strong> the major subjects that still needs to be addressed in a comprehensive<br />
conservation plan for the CFK is a more detailed analysis <strong>of</strong> the wetlands <strong>of</strong> the CFK.<br />
Since <strong>GIS</strong> was used for the terrestrial component <strong>of</strong> the project, and since integration<br />
<strong>of</strong> the terrestrial and aquatic data is imperative for conservation purposes, we also<br />
used <strong>GIS</strong>-based tools. <strong>GIS</strong>-based systems are very sensitive to ‘gaps’ in the data -<br />
areas for which data are not available. We were thus unable to use much <strong>of</strong> the<br />
existing information on riverine organisms because <strong>of</strong> its fragmentary nature.<br />
When, in the future, C-plan is used identify the minimum set <strong>of</strong> reserves<br />
representative <strong>of</strong> freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems, only presence-absence data<br />
can be used. This limits the taxa that can usefully be included in the data set to fish,<br />
amphibians and birds. We have assumed, though, that if an area is large enough to<br />
support a viable population <strong>of</strong> a larger organism such as a fish, it will also provide<br />
adequate protection for smaller animals, such as insects, for example.
Part 1<br />
<strong>Freshwater</strong> Research Unit, UCT<br />
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY<br />
This report addresses the diversity <strong>of</strong> freshwater ecosystems in the Cape Floral<br />
Kingdom, as well as the processes that threaten their integrity, and priorities for their<br />
conservation. <strong>The</strong> report was the final product <strong>of</strong> the freshwater component <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Cape Action Plan for the Environment (CAPE).<br />
<strong>The</strong> primary aim <strong>of</strong> the project was to produce a map and associated data sets, at a<br />
scale <strong>of</strong> 1:250 000, identifying areas <strong>of</strong> particular importance for the conservation <strong>of</strong><br />
biodiversity associated with freshwater ecosystems in the Cape Floral Kingdom. This<br />
aim could be met only by understanding the diversity <strong>of</strong> ecosystems systems in the<br />
CFK, and the complexity <strong>of</strong> threats that impact on or alter them, which we did by<br />
performing a situation assessment.<br />
<strong>The</strong> nature and biological composition <strong>of</strong> freshwater ecosystems is shaped by a wide<br />
range <strong>of</strong> factors attributable not only to the specific characteristics <strong>of</strong> a freshwater<br />
habitat but also to the processes that occur in the surrounding landscape <strong>of</strong> its<br />
catchment. <strong>The</strong>se include geology, topography, vegetation, climate and the<br />
organisms that inhabit them. But it is not only these natural aspects that shape<br />
freshwater ecosystems: they are also very sensitive to human activities and the<br />
ecological integrity <strong>of</strong> a system is <strong>of</strong>ten a direct reflection <strong>of</strong> the land-use in the<br />
catchment.<br />
Since rivers and wetlands physically form the drains and sinks <strong>of</strong> their catchments,<br />
they are intimately affected by virtually everything that occurs in the landscape. As a<br />
result, they suffer both from the impacts that threaten terrestrial ecosystems and also<br />
from other, more specific, threats that do not affect terrestrial ecosystems. In an arid<br />
region such as the CFK, it is particularly necessary to anticipate and counteract such<br />
threats to the integrity <strong>of</strong> its aquatic ecosystems.<br />
Rivers are complex four-dimensional systems, comprising longitudinal, lateral (crosssectional)<br />
and vertical spatial components that change over time and within which<br />
biotic communities must exist and respond to a variety <strong>of</strong> fluctuating environmental<br />
variables. We classified the rivers <strong>of</strong> the CFK into ecologically similar units by dividing<br />
them into bioregions and sub-regions so that the conservation value and<br />
conservation status <strong>of</strong> like systems could be compared.<br />
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Appendix 13<br />
Database containing information used in the <strong>GIS</strong> analysis to<br />
compile conservation priority map (figure 12.5). Catchment<br />
numbers are colour coded for easy reference to its conservation priority<br />
as illustrated in figure 12.5. 269<br />
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12.4 <strong>Conservation</strong> status 160<br />
12.5 <strong>Conservation</strong> value 160<br />
12.6 <strong>Conservation</strong> priorities 164<br />
13 Reference List 169<br />
Appendices 183<br />
Appendix 1 Spatial data 183<br />
Appendix 2 Origin <strong>of</strong> the freshwater fishes recorded within the Cape Floristic<br />
Kingdom. 189<br />
Appendix 3 <strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong> and threats to freshwater fishes <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Cape Floristic Kingdom. 191<br />
Appendix 4 Critical areas including biodiversity hotspots for the<br />
conservation <strong>of</strong> primary freshwater fishes <strong>of</strong> the Cape Floristic Kingdom.<br />
193<br />
Appendix 5 Biogeographic status <strong>of</strong> amphibian and reptile taxa in the Cape Floristic<br />
Kingdom. 201<br />
Appendix 6 An annotated checklist <strong>of</strong> Cape Floristic Kingdom (CFK)<br />
amphibians and reptiles regarded as sensitive and / or<br />
threatened, and which may be useful indicators <strong>of</strong> habitats / landscapes in<br />
need <strong>of</strong> conservation attention. List compiled by Ernst Baard (CNC), Bill<br />
Branch (PEM), Alan Channing (UWC), Atherton de Villiers (CNC) & le<br />
Fras Mouton (US). Listed in descending proposed IUCN Category order.<br />
209<br />
Appendix 7 A list <strong>of</strong> water-associated birds. 221<br />
Appendix 8 South African bird “indicator species” associated with rivers<br />
or wetlands in South Africa. (Sensu Harrison unpubl.) 225<br />
Appendix 9 Birds as bio-indicators for wetlands in the Western and<br />
Eastern Cape Provinces. 230<br />
Appendix 10 Important sources <strong>of</strong> information. 240<br />
Appendix 10.1 General contacts 242<br />
Appendix 10.2 Contacts for birds 243<br />
Appendix 10.3 Contacts for mammals. 244<br />
Appendix 10.4 Contacts for aquatic vegetation 245<br />
Appendix 10.5 Contacts for invertebrates 246<br />
Appendix 11 Aquatic plants <strong>of</strong> southern Africa. 251<br />
Appendix 12 <strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong> individual river systems. 264
Part 1<br />
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Part 2<br />
9 Ecosystem processes 91<br />
9.1 Introduction 91<br />
9.2 Abiotic processes – rivers 92<br />
9.3 Abiotic processes- wetlands 96<br />
9.4 Biotic processes- rivers and wetlands 102<br />
10 Threats to freshwater ecosystems 109<br />
10.1 Introduction 109<br />
10.2 Dams 109<br />
10.3 Farm dams 110<br />
10.4 Inter-basin transfers (IBTs) 110<br />
10.5 Water abstraction 110<br />
10.6 Afforestation, invasive alien vegetation and destruction <strong>of</strong> indigenous<br />
vegetation 111<br />
10.7 Channel alteration 112<br />
10.8 Agriculture and livestock farming 112<br />
10.9 Pollution 112<br />
10.10 Alien organisms 113<br />
10.11 Eutrophication 114<br />
10.12 Clearing <strong>of</strong> vegetation 114<br />
10.13 Dumping, reclaiming, and draining 114<br />
10.14 Sedimentation 115<br />
11 <strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong> freshwater ecosystems 117<br />
11.1 Introduction 117<br />
11.2 Threat layers 118<br />
11.3 <strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong> rivers 118<br />
11.4 <strong>Conservation</strong> status analysis <strong>of</strong> quaternary catchments in terms <strong>of</strong> the<br />
extent <strong>of</strong> threats 123<br />
11.5 <strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong> catchments in terms <strong>of</strong> ecosystems processes 134<br />
11.6 <strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong> quaternary catchments 144<br />
11.7 <strong>Conservation</strong> status <strong>of</strong> bioregions 147<br />
12 <strong>Conservation</strong> priorities 155<br />
12.1 Introduction 155<br />
12.2 <strong>The</strong> current system <strong>of</strong> reserves 155<br />
12.3 <strong>Conservation</strong> targets 157<br />
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3.14 Recommendations for the future conservation <strong>of</strong> CFK freshwater fishes 36<br />
3.15 Acknowledgements 37<br />
4 Amphibians and reptiles 39<br />
4.1 Introduction 39<br />
4.2 Methods 40<br />
4.3 Results and discussion 41<br />
4.4 Legislation protecting CFK herpet<strong>of</strong>auna 45<br />
4.5 Utilization <strong>of</strong> CFK herpet<strong>of</strong>auna 46<br />
4.6 Effectiveness <strong>of</strong> current conservation 47<br />
4.7 Critical components and threats to the conservation <strong>of</strong> CFK herpet<strong>of</strong>auna 48<br />
4.8 Constraints towards conserving CFK herpet<strong>of</strong>aunal biodiversity 50<br />
4.9 Biodiverse, sensitive or threatened geographical areas regarding<br />
herpet<strong>of</strong>auna within the CFK 50<br />
4.10 Recommendations towards the conservation <strong>of</strong> CFK herpet<strong>of</strong>auna 56<br />
4.11 Ongoing research and conservation actions targeted towards CFK<br />
herpet<strong>of</strong>auna 56<br />
4.12 Organizations, institutions and other roleplayers involved in the<br />
conservation <strong>of</strong> CFK herpet<strong>of</strong>auna 57<br />
4.13 Acknowledgements 58<br />
5 <strong>Freshwater</strong> birds 61<br />
5.1 Introduction 61<br />
5.2 Water-associated birds 63<br />
5.3 Important sources <strong>of</strong> information 67<br />
6 Water-associated mammals 71<br />
6.1 Taxonomic data 71<br />
6.2 Important sources <strong>of</strong> information 73<br />
7 Aquatic and riparian vegetation 75<br />
7.1 Taxonomic data 75<br />
7.2 Indicator species 84<br />
7.3 Sources <strong>of</strong> information 84<br />
8 Aquatic invertebrates 87<br />
8.1 Taxonomic data 87<br />
8.2 Indicator species 87<br />
8.3 Important sources <strong>of</strong> information 88
Part 1<br />
<strong>Freshwater</strong> Research Unit, UCT<br />
TABLE OF CONTENTS<br />
Table <strong>of</strong> contents<br />
Executive summary<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
List <strong>of</strong> acronyms<br />
List <strong>of</strong> tables<br />
List <strong>of</strong> figures<br />
i<br />
vii<br />
xiv<br />
xv<br />
xvii<br />
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Part 1<br />
1 Introduction 1<br />
1.1 Introduction 1<br />
2 <strong>Freshwater</strong> ecosystems in the CFK 5<br />
2.1 Introduction 5<br />
2.2 Existing information on the biodiversity <strong>of</strong> the CFK 5<br />
2.3 Our approach 6<br />
2.4 Rivers 8<br />
2.5 Wetlands 12<br />
3 <strong>Freshwater</strong> fishes 19<br />
3.1 Introduction 19<br />
3.2 Methods 21<br />
3.3 Results and discussion 23<br />
3.4 Critical areas for conservation 25<br />
3.5 Accuracy and status <strong>of</strong> knowledge 25<br />
3.6 Protective legislation 28<br />
3.7 Threats to CFK freshwater fishes 28<br />
3.8 Constraints to conserving CFK freshwater fishes 29<br />
3.9 Utilisation <strong>of</strong> CFK freshwater fishes 31<br />
3.10 Economic incentives to conserve CFK freshwater fishes 32<br />
3.11 Effectiveness <strong>of</strong> current conservation management 33<br />
3.12 Ongoing research and conservation actions 33<br />
3.13 Organisations, institutions and other role players involved in conservation<br />
programmes 35<br />
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Cape Action Plan for the Environment:<br />
<strong>The</strong> conservation <strong>of</strong> freshwater ecosystems in the Cape<br />
Floral Kingdom<br />
G.D.P. van Nieuwenhuizen and J. A. Day (editors)<br />
<strong>Freshwater</strong> Research Unit<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Cape Town