PROCEEDINGS - Academia Oamenilor de Stiinta din Romania

ACADEMY OF ROMANIAN SCIENTISTS 

C O N F E R E N C E 

P R O C E E D I N G S 

O F T H E A C A D E M Y O F 

R O M A N I A N S C I E N T I S T S 

VOLUME 1 2009 NUMBER 2 

ISSN 2067 - 2160 

E d i t u r a 

ACADEMIEI OAMENILOR DE ȘTIINȚĂ DIN ROMÂNIA 

B u c u r e ş t i

Editori: 

Prof. Dr. Vasile CÂNDEA 

Prof. Dr. Doru Sabin DELION 

E D I TURA ACADEMIEI OAMENILOR DE ȘTIINȚĂ DIN ROMÂNIA 

Adresa: Splaiul Independenței, nr. 54, sectorul 5, cod 050094, București, România 

Șef de serviciu: 

Redactor: 

Documentarist: 

Tehnoredactori: 

Liviu Mihai SIMA, ing., drd. 

Andrei D. PETRESCU, prof., drd. 

Ioan BALINT, ing. 

Mihail CĂRUȚAȘU, ing. 

Mihai SINDILE, ing. 

I S S N 2 0 6 7 - 2160 

Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, București, 2009

National Scientific Session of the Academy of Romanian Scientists Spring – 2009 3 

FOREWORD 

Ladies and Gentleman, 

Dear Colleagues, 

I want to start by thanking our colleagues and friends in this old capital 

of Valachia for hosting the Spring Scientific Session of the Academy of Romanian 

Scientists. I take this opportunity to express our appreciations for the activity of the 

Târgovişte branch of the ARS and our special thanks for Professor Florea Oprea for the 

way he coordinates this activity. At the same time, we address our thanks to the University 

of Târgovişte leaders, first of all to Rector Ion Cucui for his constant support for the 

actions of the Academy, to professor doctor engineer Popescu and to all the professors of 

this university. 

The theme of our session is of a special interest and of great actuality. 

Indeed, technology and information science are characteristics at a higher and higher 

level for our contemporary society. Modern technology is more and more present in 

scientific activities without limiting at it; it dominates with authority all the other fields of 

human presence and activity. Revolution in informatics and technology determines fast 

and profound changes in the premises of our lives as individuals and species. They are at 

the basis of the globalization processes and, in their turn, owe globalization their dimensions 

and many of their characteristic. 

Under these circumstances, it is normal for science to give full attention to 

the way technology and informatics challenges the society. I have in view science 

in its unity and diversity at the same time. I say “science in its unity and diversity” 

because the object of human knowledge is simultaneous, unique and divers. 

The individual, through his features that make his nature is unique, but one the other hand 

multiplies himself by billions every generation. Human being, as a species, living in the 

society, is the result and at the same time the creator of the conditions that are modeling 

his live being reproduces, as a tendency at least, everywhere. That is why, after having 

lived its moment of glory, in the age of Renaissance encyclopedic approach has progressively 

but surely given way to an increased specialization. A greater and greater number 

of domains and sub domains of the reality have become the object of distinct sciences. 

Because these domains of reality were not and are not isolated one against 

the other they became border sciences. These border sciences have developed 

in multidiscipline and interdisciplinary domains, capable to put together investigation 

methods and explanatory theories having the benefits of the results of related scientific 

disciplines. In other words, together with the increasing diversity of human preoccupations 

in knowledge, the tendencies towards the unity of knowledge, both at conceptual 

and practical level, have become a necessity. 

Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2009 

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4 National Scientific Session of the Academy of Romanian Scientists Spring – 2009 

Such a multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approach is a must in the case of 

the technological and informational society. I do not think that there a science or a group 

of sciences that can claim not the exclusive, but even the priority study of the contemporary 

society. On the contrary, such a study involves the necessity of joint, even common 

efforts of all branches and sub branches of human knowledge – from mathematic 

methods of modeling economic processes to the latest developments of the communication 

theory, from the historical to the futurist perspective, from technical to behaviorist 

sciences, from sociological investigation to philosophical dilemma interrogation, from 

theories on the evolution of nations and national states under the circumstances of integration 

and globalisation, to the concepts of peace and war. 

Certainly, we could carry on with this enumeration. I will stop here, being convinced 

that what I have already stated demonstrates that the contemporary technology and 

informatics society claims, even imposes, joint intellectual capacity and material efforts 

in the field of scientific research. Also, that they strongly point out how adequate, how 

suitable our Academy is for such a multidisciplinary approach, first of all, not only by its 

structure but by its scientific potential as well. Indeed, the Academy of Romanian Scientists 

virtually covers all the fields of scientific knowledge. It expresses in a direct and 

convincing manner the idea of unity and diversity of science. In this spirit, the present 

session, aims to analyze, with the help of specialists of various sections belonging to the 

Academy, the impact of technology on the environment and on the quality of life, the 

present and the future of informatics society, the problem of alternative energy, the effects 

of globalization on human condition. I want to highlight the fact that topics written 

in the programme do not avoid the stringent and serious problem of the world financial 

and economic crisis directly affecting Romania already. 

I hope that the works of the Sessions will be rich in scientific information, 

in pertinent analyses and bring new and fertile points of view. Equally, I hope that they 

prove the utility and efficiency of a multidisciplinary approach of such 

a complex and controversial topic. 

And I also hope that our Session, through its results, stimulates and encourages 

common preoccupations for several disciplines within the Academy. I am convinced that 

at the section level there are lots of topics that might need convergent attention and action 

materialized by debates that can be put into value by the Annals and in the volumes 

edited by the Academy. I expect more initiative in this respect on behalf of the presidents 

of sections and branches, in general, on behalf of all those who are responsible for scheduling 

and preparing scientific activities in the Academy. 

With these thoughts, allow me to declare the works of the Spring Session 

of the Academy of Romanian Scientists open and to wish success to all 

the participants. 

Thank you. 

Prof. Dr. Vasile Cândea 

President of the Academy of Romanian Scientists 


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TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Foreword 3 

Table of contents 5 

Papers - Section V Informatics society - present and future 

Mihai GOLU 

Factors of stress in the technological and information society ................ 7 

Marius Augustin DRĂGHICI, Oana VASILESCU 

La société de l’information – dimensions épistémologiques ..................... 13 

Cristea DUMITRU 

Information technology and communications – the progress toward 

the information society ............................................................................... 23 

Henrieta Anişoara ŞERBAN, Claudiu ŞERBAN 

Information society beyond pessimism and optimism ............................... 35 

Ioan Constantin DIMA, Leonardo BADEA 

L’utilisation de l’intelligence artificielle en management ........................ 49 

Virgil POPA 

Data aligning in a supply chain through global data synchronization standards 

and EPC global coordinated by global commerce initiative .... 61 

Claudia IONESCU, Vasile DUMITRAŞ 

Current evolutions and impact of digital technologies ............................. 73 

Mariana MAN, Vergil CIUREA 

Systeme cybernetique utilise dans l’analyse du systeme national 

d’education ................................................................................................. 85 

Posters - Section I Environment factors and world ecologic crisis 

Mariana NICOLAE-BĂLAN, Cornelia SCUTARU-UNGUREANU 

Some considerations about the impact of the introduction ICT in 

the Romanian education system ................................................................ 95 

Liliana Denisa MARICESCU, Dumitru GOLDBACH 

Education – essential element in humanity development ......................... 107 

Posters - Section II Alternative energies 

Alexandru-Ionut CHIUŢA, Cristina STANCU 

Power line communication (PLC) overview ............................................. 113 

Posters - Section III Tehnological impact on environment and quality of life 

Ioan MUNTEANU, Gabriel M. LEŢ, Roxana VINTILĂ 

Using teledetection in agriculture – method of optimization for 

technologies in agricultural and horticultural exploitations for current 

property conditions ..................................................................................... 123 

Zorica BACINSCHI, Dorin LEŢ, Andreea STANCU, Bogdan MOISĂ 

Social and ethical implications of micro and nanotechnologies .............. 131 


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6 National Scientific Session of the Academy of Romanian Scientists Spring – 2009 

Elena Janina VILCEA, Rodica Mariana ION 

Aspects of flame retardants and their role in society ................................ 141 

Irina DUMITRIU, Rodica Mariana ION, 

Radu Claudiu FIERASCU, Marian NEATA 

Support materials in archaeometallurgy. Coin analysis .......................... 151 

Posters - Section IV Globalisation and human condition 

Marian PUIESCU, Ştefan FLOREA 

Communication ethics. The sacrality of communication ......................... 159 

Ciulei TOMIŢĂ 

Scientific knowledge and education epistemology ........................... 167 

Rada POSTOLACHE 

The competences of the national bank of Romania regarding 

the authorization of credit institutions ...................................................... 177 

Mihai GRIGORE 

The normative language ............................................................................ 189 

Ilioara GENOIU, Olivian MĂSTĂCAN 

Specific forms of consent in the field of liberalities .................................. 197 

Vergil CIUREA, George BĂICOIANU 

The cost of implementing the logistic study into the company ................. 207 

Dragoş PANAGOREŢ, Andreea COJOACĂ 

Systematic approach of company’s logistics ............................................. 213 

Gabriel CROITORU, Vasile CUMPĂNAŞU, Daniel MIHAI 

Social enterprise ......................................................................................... 221 

Ionuţ BARBU, Cosmin Mihai BUCUR 

Intercultural communication perfecting – harmonizing factor within 

globalization ............................................................................................... 227 

Gabriela-Elena MIHĂILĂ (PĂUNESCU), Gilda NICULESCU, 

Corina-Mihaela POPESCU 

The role of universities in integrating the corporate social responsibility 

concept ........................................................................................................ 237 

Nicoleta Valentina MĂRĂCINARU (FLOREA) 

Impact of globalization over the recruitment and selection processes of 

human resources ........................................................................................ 249 

Posters - Section V Informatics society - present and future 

Gabriel I. NĂSTASE, Dragoş Ionuţ NĂSTASE 

Interactiv role of information .................................................................... 259 

Authors’ Index Volume 2 269 


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National Scientific Session of the Academy of Romanian Scientists 

ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 7 

FACTORS OF STRESS 

IN THE TECHNOLOGICAL AND INFORMATION SOCIETY 

Mihai GOLU 1 

Abstract: As a rule it is admitted that the progress of technology and of knowledge 

has a major benefit for man and for improvement of the quality of life. But an objective 

analysis shows us, that this generates also serious negative consequences. One of them, 

which appear, at the individual psychological level, is the growing of the stress 

of adaptation and re-adaptation. The changes produced till now hast lead already 

to the alarming rise of the cases of inadaptation and neurotic troubles. 

In the future it is expected, that simultaneously with the new technological and informatic 

progress will raise in complexity and difficulty the neuropshyic tasks, making more high 

the level of individuals who couldn’t cope with them. As main factors, which will 

contribute to such phenomenon in this paper are considered the follow: 1) the rapidity 

of changes in the professional structures; 2) the rapidity of changes in the structure 

and volume of scientific information; 3) the acceleration of pace of performing mental 

and motor operations; 4) the rise of the instability of work places; 5) the deterioration 

of interpersonal relations; 6) the compromising of equality of chances; 7) the growth 

of distances and differences between socio-economical as structures, including the rise 

of frustration. 

It is concluded, that for becoming really benefic the technological and scientific progress 

must integrate even in its logical structure an ethical dimension: „No science without 

conscience” 

Despite the great discoveries and creations, despite the accumulation of a big 

amount of data about nature and man, at the end of first half of the XX-th century, 

the scientific knowledge was confronted with a serious inner crisis in its essence 

methodological. This crisis was caused by the limits of atomic descriptive and 

rigid partitioning paradigm on which the science has founded and developed its 

attempts. 

Two main constations were made in the given context, namely: 

1. The methodological fabliness and general negative consequence 

of hermetically closed of particular disciplines in they self and of fragmental 

isolation, which attained a such level, that as N. Wiener said, we couldn’t more 

call „mathematician”, „physicist” or „biologist” etc. without supplementary 

specifications; although occupied neighbouring offices, a specialist in algebra 

did not communicate with a specialist in geometry, they being not interested 

in what is doing each other; so between the disciplines such separated remained 

big of nobody territories; 

1 Ph.D. univ. prof., titulary member of the Academy of Romanian Scientists 


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8 Mihai Golu 

2. The non-universal character of the explanatory models imposed by the classic 

mechanics and physics and of the procedures of atomic analysis element by 

element based only on the univoque causal connexions, which had lead to the 

minimization or even to denial of the qualitative specificity of the whole in 

comparison with the parts and to the underestimation of the importance of the 

domains, like socio/humanistic, where cannot be applied the principle of univoque 

linear causality, but only a determinism based on the laws of probability. 

The way out from this crisis was not possible remaining inside of the same 

paradigm, but, as N. Wiener stated, only by adopting a new paradigm those 

coordinates were created by the general cybernetics and the General System 

Theory (L. von Bertanlaffy, J. von Neumann, R. Ashby, W. McCulloch, 

I. Prigogine etc.), and which is known as a system – cybernetics paradigm. 

Claiming that each concrete entity and the Universe as such must be considered 

and approached as systems, respectively, as a number of elements given in logic 

connexions each other, the new paradigm has determinated a deep restructuration 

of the future development of scientific knowledge. This restructuration 

can be concretized in the follow sequences: 

1) the remove of the barriers between the particular sciences and the 

establishment of the ways of communication and connexion between them 

and of the rapports of complementarity; 

2) the recognition of the necessity to approach the border's territories 

and to develop the corresponding disciplines on the basis of the principle of 

interdisciplinarity; 

3) the shifting of the center of attention during the process of analysis 

and interpretation from the elements considered separately to the connexions 

and interactions between them; 

4) the abstention to make the unilateral and categorical generalizations and the 

acceptance of the idea, that the same object (system) may be approached from 

different directions (points of view), but no one of them cannot be considered 

as a final and absolute explanatory model; 

5) the passing from the architectonic-anatomic description of the systems 

to the analysis of their functional and behavioural characteristics in relation with 

their environment, pointing out the mechanisms and regulatory processes 

mediated by information; 

6) the agreement, that the information is a objective dimension of the Universe 

and an essential factor of organization; 

7) the idea, that the analogies and reductions as a necessary steps 

in the knowledge process do not lead to the establishment of identities and to 

the ignoration of qualitative differences between real systems. 


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Factor of stress in the tehnological and information society 9 

The result of approving this paradigm consisted in a strong impulse given to the 

science and technology those development during the second half of XX-th 

century have (attained the rhythms and levels, which marked a revolutionary shift 

comparing with the prior period's, determining profound changes in the life of the 

society, which have made necessary to characterize it, now the beginning of the 

third millennium, as a technological and information society. 

Concerning the scientific knowledge, it can be said, that it begun to develope 

under the principle of integration, interdisciplinarity and globalization, it being 

realized not segmentarelly, individually, but on a large scale, by the basis 

of strategic programmes at national and international levels. 

As a distinct trait of such programmes may be mentioned that, besides the 

particular problems specific for one or other domain, they also include global 

problems which confront today mankind, like: the global hitting, the energy 

resources, the genetic illnesses, the food and water reserves, the terrorism etc. 

Concerning technology, we can say, that its development is characterized from 

one hand, by the incorporation and simulation in a more and more large measure 

of mental-cognitive functions of human brain making arise the role of the artificial 

intelligence in the economic processes and in the social activities, and on the other 

hand, by the improvement and sophistication of tools destinated to the scientific 

research as such, amplified its capacity to approach and solve the more and more 

complex problems so in the field of physic Universe as in the field of life. 

The computerization, the automatization, the robotization, the informatization 

represent the dominant coordinates of the society of XXI-st century. 

Is no doubt, that the recorded until now achievements in the field of science and 

technology has a real positive effect in the life of individuals and of society: had 

significantly low the weight of the physic effort, very seriously reduced 

the durations of execution of the operations specific to different productive 

processes and socio-economical activities; were considerably reduced the times to 

cover the distances; were improved and perfected the medical technics and 

procedures; were diversified and enlarged the means and networks of 

communication, giving us the possibility to take part in real time in the events 

anywhere these happen in the world; has been diversified and refined the field of 

consumption products and services, rising accordingly the desires and 

temptations; has been created a new kind of culture – the T-culture; were 

produced positive changes in the classified list and structure of the professions 

(appeared new professions and disappeared others, has changed the structure of 

early still remained professions) etc. Despite all these benefits, the scientific and 

technological progress of second half of XX-th century was accompanied also 

with the negative effects, which will tend to be accentuated during the first half of 

XXI-st century. 


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10 Mihai Golu 

Such effects are manifest both at the global-social level and at the individualpsychological 

one. 

The effect from the first category are concretized in the following forms: 

1. The rise of chemical, acoustic and radioactive pollution; 

2. The diminution of ozone-layer accompanied by the rise of global hitting; 

3. The rise of frequency and of area of manifestation of the extreme natural 

phenomena (prolonged and repeated droughts, catastrophic inundations, tornados, 

etc.); 

4. The diminution of the natural resources of energy and of food; 

5. The growth of economic, technological and information distance (difference) 

between the reach developed and poor undeveloped countries. 

It can be constated, that for the solving of these problems are not been yet 

elaborated the measures connected in a realistic and efficious programmes, the 

stay of things still remaining at the level of general statements. 

Therefore – we can admit, that respective problems would be transferred to the 

technological and information society, acting as serious factor of stress at the 

global level both upon the governments and upon the population as a whole. 

The effects from the second category are objectified in a paradoxical form: on the 

one hand, in the rise of span of life to an average of 75 years in the more 

developed countries, and on the other hand, in the weakening of the 

psychosomatic fiability, concomitant with the rise of the level of anxiety and of 

percentage of psychoneurotic disorders (the last being higher namely in the more 

developed countries-till 25% of population). It results, that the scientific and 

technological progress made till now permits us to live longer, but more 

tensioned, with more troubles and frustrations. 

The question is: the technological and information society will free us from these, 

will it eliminate the sources of stress Unfortunately the answer is not affirmative. 

First off all, as we already mentioned, the grave global unsolved problems will 

continue to act as stressors with amplified negative effects. 

Secondly, the changes and transformations which will be produced will generate 

new sources of stress at individual level. 

We will mention only some of them, with more serious psychological 

implications. 

1. The rapidity of changes in the professional structures. That gives to a rise for 

the individuals difficult tasks of perfection, adaptation and reconversion, which 

will caused the cares and tensions those magnitude is proportional with the age. 

As the studies and researches show, as such tasks appears at the more advanced 

age (after 40-45 years, for example), as the caused psychic stress becomes 

stronger, leading often to psychosomatic disorders and to crisis of adaptation. 


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Factor of stress in the tehnological and information society 11 

2. The rise of complexity of the machines, installations and aggregates in the 

field of production and utilities (services). This factor amplifies the participation 

of high cognitive functions of interpretation, evaluation and decision - reducing 

the possibility of access and handling them, and causing also the individual crises 

of professional adaptation and integration. 

3. The accelerated rhythm of growth of the information volume and scientific 

discoveries. 

By the time, that makes to over pas the capacity of more and more individuals to 

achieve them and to be in step with the new. We could expect, that the 

information stress will be amplified in the future, making imperious necessary 

both the reform of school curricula, and elaboration of coherent and adequate 

programmes of permanent education. 

It becomes more and more obvious the fact, that in education the accent must be 

deplaced from the storing of the information as such to the development of mental 

capabilities and strategies to evaluate, to select and to use the know ledges 

accordingly with the specific of situations and professional and social tasks. 

4. The technological improvement and refinement had and will lead in the future 

to the shortening of times and durations of execution of mental and motor 

operations and to the rise of level of vigilance (attention) of humans operators. 

That will act as a permanent stress at work, increasing the neuropsychic fatigue. 

5. The expansion of automation, informatization, and of the robots in the 

productive field will drastically reduce the work places especially of those with a 

lower level of qualification and with physical executive character, That will lead 

to the extension of the sphere of existential stress to find the sources to survive. 

6. The individuation and the isolation of the work places, associated with a hard 

competition will artifficilize the interpersonal relationships. That fact will 

generate and accentuate the feel of alienation and insecurity. The research data 

demonstrate even now, that the work in a isolated strictly determinated place 

affect the neurophysigical rhythms, diminish the mental efficiency and work 

motivation. 

7. The compromising of the principle of equality of chances. As a consequence 

of the phenomenon of division into fragments and of polarization of economic – 

material base of society, will amplify the differences between the socioeconomical 

statuses of individuals and groups, in the same time will arise 

the number of persons to whom are limited the possibility of self realization 

and self affirmation. 

The globalization and integration only apparently enlarge the chances 

of professional and social fulfillment, because, in fact, these are restricted 

and maintained at a low level. To the citizens from the poor countries are offered, 

in the reach countries where they are emigrated, the less qualified jobs, physical 

in essence, which the own citizens refuse or accept with a low involvement. 


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12 Mihai Golu 

8. The economic and financial egoism, which characterizes not only 

the individuals as such, but also the groups and even the states amplifies the 

tendencies to use the technology and information to obtain as much as possible 

profit to others detriment, ignoring the negative effects which could appears 

sooner or later. 

In the technological and information society arises in all its seriousness 

the problem of discrepancy between the progress of intellectual – cognitive 

capacity of man and the progress of his moral side, which is much behind. 

And namely this discrepancy makes possible that results of scientific knowledge 

to be utilized in case of the lack of control, against the man himself. 

In the given context becomes very actual the Einstein’s thought. He said: 

„There are two infinites: the infinite of the Universe and the infinite of stupidity. 

If in what concern the first we may still doubt, in what concern the second we 

must be sure, because we constate how every day destroy our self.” 

Concluding, it must be said, that for really to be in the favor of man, the science 

and the technology must adopt and integrate an ethical dimension too. Not more 

science without conscience! 

REFERENCES 

[1] Ashby, R. (1973), Introducere în cibernetică, Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti; 

[2] Bertanlanffly L. Von (1966), General System Theory: Foundations, Development, 

Applications, George Brasiler Inc. New-York; 

[3] Derevenco, P., Anghel, I. Băban, A. (1990), Stresul în sănătate şi boală: de la teorie la 

practică, Dacia, Cluj-Napoca; 

[4] Golu, M., (1975), Principii de psihologie cibernetică, Editura Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică, 

Bucureşti; 

[5] Janis, I.L. (1958), Psychological stress, New-York, Wiley; 

[6] Lazaus, R.S. (1991), Emotion and stress, Oxford and New-York, Oxford University Press; 

[7] Miclea, M., (1997), Stres şi apărare psihică, Presa Universitară Clujeană, Cluj-Napoca; 

[8] Neuefeld, R.W. (1989), Advances in the investigation of psychological stress, John Wiley, 

New-York; 

[9] Selye, H. (1956), The stress of life, Mc Graw-Hill Book Company, New-York; 

[10] Trigg, R. (1982), The Shaping of Man, Basil Blackwell, Oxford; 

[11] Wiener, N. (1966), Cibernetica, Editura Ştiinţifică, Bucureşti. 


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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 13 

LA SOCIÉTÉ DE L’INFORMATION 

– DIMENSIONS ÉPISTÉMOLOGIQUES 

Marius Augustin DRĂGHICI 1 , Oana VASILESCU 2 

Abstract. The study attempts to make a preliminary distinction between two different 

uses of the symtagma „Information Society” – the organization and what is usually 

understood by IT, ICT, CMC, HCI, CSCW etc. – in order to avoid further equivocations. 

It also attempts to disclose and to analyse the claims, the assumptions and, more 

important, the presuppositions of both of them. The study focuses on the epistemologic 

presuppositions and emphasizes their pre-eminence on the ethic, ontological and 

metaphysical ones. 

Le syntagme “société de l’information” peut produire involontairement au moins 

une confusion. D’une part, il s’agit de l’organisation ayant le meme nom et dont le 

premier congrès a eu lieu a Genève en 2004 – où il a été ratifiée la déclaration de 

principes pour la constitution de la „Société de l’information” (le sens a). D’autre 

part, il y a le sens b, qui envisage tout ce qu’on entend par HCI (Human – 

Computer – Interaction), CMC (Computer – Mediated – Communication), ICT 

(Information and Computer Technology – constituée par tout ce que la 

communication de l’information à travers les réseaux interconnectées à l’internet 

suppose), CSCW (Computer – supported – cooperative – Work), IT (Information 

Technology). 

Pour simplifier les choses, on va utiliser seulement le terme IT définissable en tant 

que technologie, constituée par la fusion de la transformation des informations et 

des télécommunications et surgie de la technologie électronique de l’information à 

travers les ordinateurs et la cybernétique. D’autres synonymes pour le IT: les 

systèmes de l’information, la technologie du média. 

Notre papier va traiter de tous les deux contenus désignés par les sens mentionés 

en-haut. Tout comme l’indique, d’ailleurs, le titre, notre recherche s’inscrit dans 

une perspective épistémologique – cela parce que, paradoxalement, aujourd’hui 

plus que Jamais, la nécessité d’aborder (dans tous les sens) d’une manière 

rigoureuse „l’information” est profondément grevée par l’absence des critères et 

des repères vraiment fonctionnels. Mais aussi parce que le phénomène IT en 

général, par son ampleur et ses influences extrêmement puissantes constatables 

dans le monde actuel, exige des considérations philosophiques – critiques. 

1 Researcher, Institute of Philosophy and Psychology „Constantin Rădulescu-Motru” 

of the Romanian Academy 

2 Researcher, Institute of Philosophy and Psychology „Constantin Rădulescu-Motru” 



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14 Marius Augustin Drăghici, Oana Vasilescu 

La question peut être posée aussi d’une autre façon, plus simple: dans quelle 

mesure les sujets individuels peuvent être capables de se situer en connaissance de 

cause par rapport à l’information (dans le sens le plus générique) potentiellement 

infinie à travers l’internet Comment peut – on discerner, en principe, la fidélité et 

la véridicité des „informations” etant donnée la multiplicité sans précédent des 

sources „garantes” Au-delà de l’utopie (au moins du point de vue technique) 

d’une police uneverselle de l’internet et d’autres moyens de communication de 

l’information – ce qui a partiellement réussi, d’ailleurs – on considère que la 

démarche d’une approche critique de ce problème n’est pas seulement nécessaire, 

mais aussi désirable. 

Le point de vue sur ce thème doit etre épistémologique d’autant plus que – dans le 

coeur meme du sens b du concept de société de l’information – les dimensions 

reliées à la connaisance en général, à l’acces à l’information en tant que moyen de 

surprasser des limites propres et au pratique de la connaissance comme forme 

d’accomplissement de l’homme sur le plan culturel et humain soient évidentes. 

Ainsi, la manière dont ce phénomène, si complexe aujourd’hui, se produit exige 

une approche lucide et sérieuse autant que possible, car l’information, surtout 

maintenant, signifie pouvoir et la production, la communication, le 

répandissement et la manipulation de l’information (par des moyens multiples) 

tiennent, d’une manière fondamentale, à tout ce que représente la société de 

l’information (le sens b). 

Le rapport de l’homme avec tout ce que la société de l’information suppose 

aujourd’hui n’est que le niveau actuel d’une évolution historique de l’engagement 

humain face à la technologie en général. Au début, le caractère ambivalent de cet 

engagement n’a pas été évident, mais à partir du siècle précedent la question s’est 

imposée telle quelle (on pense à la relation homme – machine ou mécanisme ou 

dispositif capable aussi de produire des préjudices incommensurables pour 

l’humanité et l’environnement: par exemple, la bombe atomique). 

En ce qui concerne le concept d’information, on peut y discerner deux sens 3 : 

le sens technique (restreint) et le sens sémantique (extensif). Le concept technique 

d’information est défini en tant que probabilité mathématiquement quantifiable de 

la transmission d’un signal du dispositif A au dispositif B. Cette definition a 

constituée le fondement pour la construction et l’analyse des dispositifs digitaux 

des ordinateurs et de tout un domaine des technologies de l’information et de la 

communication (par exemple: téléphonie, télévison, internet). Le concept 

sémantique d’information suppose une relation non seulement entre deux termes, 

mais entre trois termes, étant défini comme signal transmis entre deux dispositifs 

A et B qui communique quelque chose a quelqu’un (C). Le concept d’information 

3 C. Mitcham, „Philosophy of Information Technology”, en The Blackwell Guide to the 

Philosophy of Computing and Information, 2004, p. 327 – 336. 


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La société de l’information – dimensions épistémologiques 15 

peut être cité seulement entre quillemets, parce qu’il s’agit d’un concept 

problématique dans le contexte (qui est toujours le nôtre) de la façon dont on 

présente l’information et des moyens par lesquels on la transmet, et, par 

conséquence, on va s’en occuper de la sorte. 

Dans le domaine de la technologique, la relfexion philosophique dévoile 

l’existence d’une tension entre deux traditions 4 . La première est celle technique, 

c’est– à–dire la perspective expansionniste, qui soutient l’idée que la technologie 

soit profondément humaine et, donc, justement étendue dans tous les champs de 

l’activité humaine. De ce point de vue, on considère que la technologie se 

constitue de l’étude et du pratique systématiques de la production et de 

l’utilisation des artéfacts et, dans une certaine mesure, des artéfacts physiques 

mêmes (des marteaux aux machines et aux ordinateurs). En concernant la 

technologie de l’information, le théoriciens sont en faveur d’une extension 

critique. 

La deuxième tradition est celle humaniste qui envisage la tecnologie comme une 

dimension strictement circonscrite de l’humain. Dans cette perspective, le concept 

de technologie couvre en même temps la technique prémoderne – qui consiste 

dans une production (et une utilisation) intuitive et à petite échelle des artéfacts – 

et aussi la technolgie moderne – qui consiste dans un production (et une 

utilisation) scientifique et à grande échelle des artefacts. Dans ce dernier sens, la 

technologie se présente aussi en tant que connaissance, artéfact, activité, initiative. 

Les partisans de cette vision désirent une délimitation rigoureuse et une 

subordination prudente de la technologie de l’information. 

Pour la défense d’une position ou de l’autre, mais aussi pour la tentative de 

réaliser des liaisons entre les deux ont été utilisés des arguments de toute sorte: 

des arguments métaphysiques, épistémologiques, éthiques etc. 

L’ambivalence du rapport homme-artéfacts (outil, premièrement, et technologie, à 

la suite) peut être vue tout au long de l’histoire de l’humanité, par l’intermédiaire 

des mythes – tels que le mythe de Prométhée, le mythe d’Icare, le mythe de la 

Tour de Babel (qui montre les répercussions linguistiques destructives d’une 

poursuite excessive et insensée du pouvoir technologique) – mais aussi dans la 

philosophie. 

Par exemple, Platon 5 rejette la valeur de l’invention de l’écriture et, en même 

temps, de ses prétentions d’agrandissement et de stimulation de la capacité 

cognitive et de la mémoire humaines. Ce rejet trouve son fondement dans le 

modèle platonicien de chercher la vérité – modèle qui suppose nécessairement la 

voie ascensionnelle et intérieure (vers la véritè qui existe déja en nous, mais qu’on 

4 C. Mitcham, Thinking through Technology: The Path between Engineerign and Philosophy, 

Chicago, Unviersity of Chicago Press, 1994. 

5 Platon, Phaidros, 274 b – 277 a (le mythe de Théuth). 


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ignore) et la relation maïeutique (dialogique) entre le maître et le disciple (chacun 

qui veut s’engager sur la voie de la connaissance et de la recherche systématique 

de la véritè – dans un mot, sur la voie de la philosophie). 

Pendant le Moyen Âge, l’épanouissement des études sémantiques et le 

développement des technologies (inventions de toute sorte) ont été des processus 

paralèles. À l’époque, la relation entre les deux paraissait pleine de sens grâce aux 

ouvertures formidables occasionnées par le développement du côté herméneutique 

de l’homme, dont l’épicentre se trouvait dans les difficiles essais herméneutiques 

et sémantiques élaborés autour des textes sacrés. 

Le monde moderne s’ouvre, paradoxalement, sur une lutte que le progrès 

scientifique mène contre la créativité poétique. On assiste au rejet des métaphores 

au nom des choses réelles et des technologies de plus en plus puissantes et, 

simultanément, à la transformation de l’exégèse en criticisme et de l’analyse 

sémantique en recherche de clarté conceptuelle et en réforme des techniques de 

communication. L’invention du typographe produit une démocratisation de la 

lecture reliée a une multitude des transformations de toute sorte dans tous les 

domaines. 

D’après un point de vue assez répandu la philosophie linguistique aurait été 

devenue prépondérante au sein de l’espace même de la philosophie. D’une part, 

en Europe, en tant que herméneutique (rédéfinie par Schleiermacher comme 

interprétation non seulement des textes sacrés, mais de tous les textes), 

Geisteswissenschaften (domaine délimité par W. Dilthey), philosophie 

heideggerienne, science de la linguistique (langue envisagée par Saussure comme 

système des signes qui se définissent réciproquement par l’intermédiaire de leurs 

relations internes). Et d’autre part, dans l’espace anglo-saxone, en tant que 

philosophie du langage – sous l’influence de L. Wittgenstein, pour lequel le sens 

des mots se constiuie par l’usage et se dévoile dans des contextes multiples de 

communication (les „modes de vie”). 

La limitation – ou, au moins, la perception qu’il s’agit d’une telle limitation – de 

l’objet de la philosophie n’est pas déterminée seulement par le fait que toute une 

série de disciplines est sortie du corpus de la philosophie, à la suite du succès de 

l’experiment scientifique et des instrumentaires théoriques (des programmes de 

recherche qui se développaient tout en envahissant des différents domaines de la 

„réalité” et tout en esquissant, en même temps, le cadre des disciplines qui eurent 

été connues sous le nom de „sciences”). Ce n’est que le grand essor des sciences 

de la nature pendant le 19 ème siècle, en particulier le développement des 

mathématiques, et (aussi) l’augmentation d’une confiance sans le moindre doute 

dans les pouvoirs illimités de la science (le scientisme) qui ont vraiment fourni le 

fondement d’une telle limitation. 


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On trouve des dimensions épistémologiques non pas seulement dans le cadre 

d’une analyse telle quelle du problème de la société de l’information. Car le 

problème fondamental de l’éthique est relié à la façon dont il faut agir en accord 

avec la réalité, il y a des raisons sérieuses poru questionner la réalité et la 

correctitude épistémologique dévoilées par les technologies de l’information. Au 

dela de ou derrière les questions d’ordre éthique, ontologique ou métaphysique 

surgissent les questions d’ordre épistémologique: quelles sont les structures 

fondamentales du phénomène IT; qu’est-ce qu’il y a de réel et qu’est-ce qu’il y a 

de virtuel dans l’espace des technologies de l’information; mais surtout, quel est 

le contexte propice dans lequel l’information transmise par l’intermédiaire du IT 

garde son statut d’objectivité et sa valeur spécifiques. 

Albert Borgmann 6 fait une distinction entre trois types d’information: 

a) l’information naturelle (il s’agit de l’information sur la réalité); 

b) l’information culturelle (c’est-à-dire l’information utilisée pour la 

construction de la réalité); 

c) l’information technologique (ce type d’information qui devient une 

alternative à la réalité telle quelle et, en même temps, reste une réalité en 

soi, circonscrite par ses propres termes). 

Dans ce sens, la société de l’information est liée à la technologie de l’information, 

parce qu’elle fait partie intégrante de la communication de l’information par 

l’intermédiaire des technologies. 

Dans ce contexte qui regarde la nature et le sens de la technologie de 

l’information, on peut découvrir la meme différence entre les deux perspectives 

analysées en-haut (la perspective expansionniste et ce qu’on pourrait appeler la 

perspective „limitationniste”). L’origine de la perspective expansionniste se 

trouve dans la manière technique de concevoir les technologies de l’information. 

Au moins après 1948, que Norbert Wiener ait placé l’information, à côté de la 

matière et de l’énergie, parmi les constituants fondamentaux de la réalité, sont 

apparues des questions concernant le statut métaphysique de l’information. 

À partir de l’analyse de Wiener, on pourrait faire une distinction entre trois types 

fondamentaux de technologie: 

a) les technologies qui transforment la matière (des marteaux et des lignes 

d’assemblage); 

b) les technologies qui produisent et transforment l’énergie (des installations 

productrices d’énergie et des moteurs); 

6 Holding On To Reality: The Nature of Information at the Turn of the Millenium, Chicago, 

Unviersity of Chicago Press, 1999. 


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c) les technologies qui transforment l’information (des systèmes de 

communication et des ordinateurs). 

Une phénoménologie des relations homme – technologies (outils, machines, IT) 

montrerait que, si les outils sont dépendants de l’homme, les technologies de plus 

en plus sophistiquées sont de plus en plus indépendantes par rapport à l’homme. 

Les machines prennent de l’énergie des sources non-humaines, mais ont toujours 

besoin du guidage de l’homme. Par rapport aux machines, les technologies de 

l’information sont auto-régulatrices et indépendantes de l’homme en ce qui 

concerne l’énergie et le guidage – qui se réalise d’une manière indirecte, par la 

programmation. À ce point, les questions légitimes sont les suivantes: quel type 

d’intelligence est l’intelligence artificielle Est-ce que les ordinateurs pensent 

Les différentes formes d’intelligence artificielle (algorithmique, heuristique, 

„connexionniste” et incorporée) sont-elles des formes différentes d’intelligenge 

Cette succession des questions envoie a une autre qui concerne la possibilité 

meme d’établir une distinction entre les artéfacts HiTech (les cyborgs etc.) et les 

organismes vivants, mais aussi d’établir le statut de la biotechnologie - qui 

transcend la distinction classique d’Aristote entre né (l’arbre naturel, par exemple) 

et fait (le lit artificiel construit par l’artisan) – ou celui des agents artificiels 

autonomes capables de se reproduire tous seuls. 

De point de vue technique, l’information se trouve simultanément dans le monde 

artificiel et dans le monde réel. Mais, el mur qui existe entre les deux mondes 

disparaît au moment où le concept technique d’information devient une catégorie 

explicative dans le domaine de la biolgie. 

La perspective qu’on appèle „limitationniste” trouve ses origines dans l’attitude 

sceptique-critique de type socratique qui vise à questionner la nature et le sens de 

l’IT. Cette interrogation préssuppose quatre approches possibles. 

1) L’approche de nature éthique: est-elle réelle la menace de la vie privée; estce 

que le phénomène IT attente à l’assignation standard de la responsabilité 

qui s’établit en fonction des attitudes et des gestes moraux des gens 

2) L’approche de nature politique: l’internet est-il structuré d’une manière qui 

favorise la justice sociale par l’intermèdiaire de l’équite de l’accès; est-il 

compatible avec une démocratie réelle; tenant compte du fait que les 

technologies de l’information sont soutenues par une industrie massive qui, 

à son tour, s’appuye sur une exploitation insoutenable des resources et de 

l’envirronement, on doit se demander si l’équité et le bénéfice promis ne 

sont-ils pas définitivement compromis 

3) L’approche de nature psychologique (ou bien, anthropologique) – 

concernant les implications sociaux du fait de vivre une vie virtuelle; 

4) L’approche de nature épistémologique: l’augmentation exponentielle (non 

seulement) de l’accessibilité de l’information n’est-elle responsable d’une 


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très forte distorsion des possibilités humaines memes de donner un sens à la 

réalité environnante 

M. Heidegger 7 - l’un des plus importants représentants de cette perspective – 

considérait que l’abondance impossible d’arreter de l’information trasmise par les 

technologies produit, en effet, une illusion qui cache encore plus la réalité, 

devenant dangereuse pour l’etre humain. Dans la vision philosophique 

heideggerienne, l’information est comprise comme occultation de l’etre, de la 

nature fondamentale de la réalité et de la relation particuière entre l’homme et 

cette réalité. Le processus de l’oubli de l’etre – processus qui a commencé avec la 

métaphysique de Platon – continue et s’accomplit par l’apparition des 

technologies de l’information. Heidegger fait une distinction entre la pensée 

calculatoire – qui tient à tout ce que les technologies modernes peuvent imiter – et 

la pensée relfexive, contemplative par rapport au sens présent dans tout ce qu’il 

existe. La menace principale, fondamentale (et, par conséquence, la plus 

dangereuse) que apportent les technologies de l’information est justement la 

menace à la nature essentielle de l’homme, qui se réalise à travers l’occultation de 

la pensée contemplative. 

À partir de l’idée heideggerienne de la simultanéité du dévoilement et de 

l’ocultation, J. Derrida propose une déconstruction des concepts, des méthodes et 

des disciplines – y compris de ceux des technologies de l’information – surtout 

pour révéler les aspects ignorés dont ils dépendent implicitement. Sur le 

fondement de la pensée de Derrida, R. Coyne 8 construit une justification 

théorique pour l’abandon de la méthode rationnelle dans le domaine de la 

projection des technologies de l’information en faveur d’un renouvellement de la 

liaison avec la métaphore. En s’appuyant sur la conception de Heidegger et de 

Derrida, Coyne revalide la signification créative de la métaphore. Dans ce 

contexte, on peut citer à titre d’exemple la facon de concevoir les systèmes 

opérationnels des ordinateurs comme des fenetres (windows) ou l’esprit humain 

comme un ordinateur. 

Revenant au sens a de notre syntagme, on va analyser seulement trois points de la 

conception commune de la société de l’information des signataires de la 

déclaration des principes de Genève (2004). Il s’agit des principes 1, 2 et 15: 

1). Nous, représentants des peuples du monde, réunis à Genève du 10 au 12 

décembre 2003 pour la première phase du Sommet mondial sur la société de 

l'information, proclamons notre volonté et notre détermination communes 

d'édifier une société de l’information à dimension humaine, inclusive et 

7 “The question concerning technology”, cité par C. Mitcham, “Philosophy of Information 

Technology”, p. 333. 

8 Designing Information Technology in the Postmodern Age: From Method to Metaphor, 

Cambridge, MIT Press, 1995. 


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privilégiant le développement, une société de l'information, dans laquelle chacun 

ait la possibilité de créer, d'obtenir, d'utiliser et de partager l'information et le 

savoir et dans laquelle les individus, les communautés et les peuples puissent ainsi 

mettre en œuvre toutes leurs potentialités en favorisant leur développement 

durable et en améliorant leur qualité de vie, conformément aux buts et aux 

principes de la Charte des Nations Unies ainsi qu'en respectant pleinement et en 

mettant en oeuvre la Déclaration universelle des droits de l'homme. 

2). L'enjeu consiste pour nous à tirer parti des possibilités qu’offrent les 

technologies de l'information et de la communication (TIC) en faveur des 

objectifs de développement énoncés dans la Déclaration du Millénaire, à savoir 

éliminer l'extrême pauvreté et la faim, dispenser à tous un enseignement primaire , 

favoriser l'égalité entre hommes et femmes et rendre les femmes autonomes, lutter 

contre la mortalité infantile, améliorer la santé des mères, lutter contre le 

VIH/sida, le paludisme et d'autres maladies, assurer un environnement durable et 

élaborer des partenariats mondiaux pour parvenir à un développement propice à 

l'instauration d'un monde plus pacifique, plus juste et plus prospère. Nous 

renouvelons également notre engagement à parvenir à un développement durable 

et à atteindre les objectifs de développement définis dans la Déclaration de 

Johannesburg et son plan d'application et dans le consensus de Monterrey, ainsi 

que dans d'autres textes issus de sommets appropriés des Nations Unies. 

3). Dans l'évolution de la société de l'information, une attention particulière doit 

être accordée à la situation spéciale des peuples autochtones, ainsi qu'à la 

préservation de leur héritage et de leur patrimoine culturel. 

Au-della des visions optimistes ou pessimistes sur les objectifs généreux de 

l’organisation, les problèmes qui surgissent des principes mentionnés en-haut 

apparaissent clairement dans leur forme réelle par rapport aux questions 

(antérieurement analysés) qui regardent le sens b du syntagme ’’société de 

l’information”. La nécessité de discerner les dimensions épistémologiques quand 

on parle de la société de l’information est cruciale justement parce qu’elle peut 

soutenir une analyse sans aucun intérêt (théorique!) et, en meme temps, dévoiler 

le sens authentique du rapport homme-monde a travers la connaissance. Il s’agit 

de l’inclination naturelle de l’homme vers connaissance telle quelle. Dans ce 

contexte, l’invention et l’innovation ont, primordialement, le sens exclusif 

d’élargissement des frontières de la connissance humaine. Par exemple, le premier 

télé, le premier ordinateur etc. représentent des actes de culture au sens le plus 

propre du terme, car ils expriment le dépassement des frontières de la 

connaissance grâce à l’accomplissement et la finissage de l’expériment théorique 

novatoire. 

On trouve que cette perspective est correcte d’autant plus que la société de 

l’information (le sens b) est strictement reliée non pas seulement à la 


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concentration des connaissances et des années de recherche de ceux engagés dans 

ce processus de recherche et d’innovation de tous les temps, mais aussi au 

message subliminal extremement puissant qu’implique espécialement le 

phénomène des technologies de l’information: la garantie de la correctitude du 

message, de l’information émise en vue d’etre réceptionnée, assimilée et assumée. 

C’est facile d’observer la filiation scientiste (non)intentionnée, mais toujours 

présente et oferte à travers n’importe quel gadget de plus en plus sophistiqué et 

de plus en puls difficile à approcher d’une façon critique! Certainement, il ne 

s’agit que des pas qu’il faut faire pour arriver à comprendre le nouveau 

„environnement” et à posséder ce que tout le monde considère être un impératif 

catégorique, un rapport correct et naturel avec aux autres et au monde. 

Ainsi, en ce qui concerne le premier principe - ou l’accord à l’égard de la 

dimension humaine est unanime et le développement des individus et des 

communautés est privilégié – le phémomène des technologies de l’information a 

aussi d’autres types de réponses. La communauté des partisans radicaux de 

l’intelligence artificielle vise la construction des substitutifs supérieurs à l’esprit 

humain et minimailise le désaccord homme – ordinateur, qu’elle conçoit comme 

une étape seulement du processus de remplacement de l’homme par la machine. 

Le deuxième principe traite de l’utilisation des possibilités offertes par les 

technologies de l’information et de la communication en faveur des objectifs 

assumés. Parmi ces objectifs il y a le développement et l’éducation armonieuse et 

humaine des individus, l’accomplissement du potentiel humain et professionnel de 

l’être humain. Au quinzième point, il s’agit d’une attention particulière pour la 

situation spéciale des peuples „autochtones”. Dans ce contexte, il faut souligner le 

fait que le cyberspace constitue un danger (potentiel) majeur qui peut envahir et 

détruire par ses conséquences impérialistes, le corpus de valeurs et des traditions 

des cultures „mineures”. 

La nouvelle forme d’impérialisme – qui pourrait s’appeler „colonialisme 

médiatisé par l’ordinateur” – consiste dans l’imposition des valeurs et des 

préférences de communication sur toute la terre par l’intermédiaire des 

technologies CMC et CSCW. Des études récentes montrent les différrentes 

manières d’agir des cultures asiatiques en vue de préserver leur identité et leurs 

valeurs culturelles propres. Par exemple, le Japon fait des recherches pour réaliser 

ses propres technologies CMC et CSCW qui contiennent la majorité des éléments 

spécifiques de communication non-verbale fondamentaux dans la culture 

japonnaise. Sy 9 , sous l’influence philosophique de Habermas, attire l’attention sur 

les risques de la globalisation qui peut avoir comme effet la destruction des 

valeurs culturelles locaux. 

9 Cité par Ch. Ess, “Computer-mediated Communication and Human-Computer Interaction”, en 

The Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of Computing and Information, 2004, p. 83. 


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Il y a une préoccupation pour le dialogue entre les technologies CMC et HCI 

d’une part et les soucis des philosophes. La mise est justement notre conception 

fondamentale sur ce que signifie vraiment d’être individu humain! L’acceptation 

sans critique d’une conception déja donnée présuppose des risques trop 

importants. Donc, par conséquence, il n’est pas admissible que la décision soit 

prise pour nous le plus souvent seulement sur le fondement d’une argumentation 

circulaire qu’à la suite d’une analyse philosophique. 

Les technologies CMC nous provoquent de formuler et, peut-etre, même de 

changer des éléments de base de notre vision sur le monde – y compris nos 

présuppositions concernant l’identité, l’ontologie et l’épistémologie. La 

communication a travers l’internet impose aux utilisateurs de formuler des 

assomptions élémentaires à l’égard de l’identité, du temps et de l’espace et, en 

meme temps elle les aide à reconnaître le caractère tout-à-fait contingent de ces 

assomptions élémentaires. 

Ce type de communication implique une certaine modestie épistémologique. 


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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 23 

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND COMMUNICATIONS – 

THE PROGRESS TOWARD THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 

Cristea DUMITRU 1 

Abstract. Information Society is a concept with a dynamic evolution. All of us have 

different degrees of perception of the Information Society potential alongside with a 

continuous process of education according to the manifestation of the information age 

at the individual and society level. The expression of the information age is represented 

by the certainty of the IT&C development in all its forms and applications, conducting 

to the radical change of our lives by constantly creating new products and services, new 

ways of making business, new markets and new investments opportunities, new social 

and cultural expressions, as well as new channels of communications and interactions 

between citizens and governments. 

1. Introduction 

The Information Society is a collocation used by sociologists to describe 

the modern society which is affected among other things by extraordinary 

technological changes and the economical globalization. From our point of 

view, the Information Society is that kind of society wherein the information 

production and consumption are the most important types of activity, the 

information is recognized as main resource, information technology and 

communications (IT&C) are fundamental technologies, and the human living 

environment is made up of the information, the social and the ecological 

environments. 

We could assert that the Information Society being dominated by the technical 

and scientific paradigm has not the ability to identify and define the changes 

surrounding us. The technology represents, beyond any doubt, the main factor 

of change. To be more accurate, small IT&C innovations are considered to be 

responsible for the global transformations aroused in the economy, politics 

and culture structures. Most of the future prophecies are qualified by 

the technological determinism and the evolutionary thinking as being related 

to the Information Society. Actually, the Information Society represents a new 

1 Prof. PhD, corresponding member of the Academy of Romanian Scientists, Section Military 

Sciences (e-mail: dumitru.cristea@computerland.ro), Lieutenant-General (r.), former chief of 

Romanian Directorate of Communications and Information / General Staff (J.6). 


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24 Cristea Dumitru 

stage of the human society, a new and superior way of life, which implies 

an intensive use of information in every single field of human existence 

and activity, accompanied by a major social and economical impact. 

Attracted by the rhetoric of the IT&C potential in molding the society of 

the future, the governments all over the world invest substantial amounts 

of money in order to ensure the basic level for the universal access of their 

citizens to the benefits of the Information Society. Technology assimilation 

and implementation are dependent in every society to the social, cultural, 

affective, cognitive and even psychological factors of the human communities. 

In our opinion, all these factors are presently less considered, and the priority 

is to ensure the infrastructure elements. 

2. The Romanian Effort for the Implementation into the Information 

Society 

Information Society integrates the goals of the durable development, based 

on social justice and equal chances, ecological protection, freedom, cultural 

diversity and innovative development, reorganization of the industry and 

business environment. 

The measurement elements used to quantify the Information Society in 

Romania render a powerful ascending trend of diminution of the existing gaps 

between Romania and other European countries, and reveal a pronounced 

development of the IT&C field. 

In order to develop the Information Society as a fundamental instrument of 

the Knowledge Society, in accordance with the Lisbon Strategy and within 

the broader context of the European legal framework, the Romanian 

government established a series of governance strategic goals in the IT&C 

field. 

On the further side of these strategic goals, within the Romanian Ministry 

of Communications and Information Society a dedicated central directorate 

is established, the Intermediary Body for Information Society Promotion, this 

has as main mission the management of the projects funded by the Structural 

Funds, Axis 3: IT&C for private and public sectors, the Increase of the 

Economic Competitiveness. 

IT&C reformulates the fundamentals of the economy, trade, education, 

investments, and practically every aspect of the social and human life. 

Romania acts to stimulate all the measures that are meant to create 


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Information technology and communications – 

the progress toward the information society 25 

the fundamentals for the expression Information Society, according to the EU 

policy. IT&C for private and public sectors comprises three key areas 

of intervention, each of them structured on operational programs, as follows: 

- Supporting the IT&C Use intends to promote the broadband access and 

to strengthen the IT&C infrastructure, as well as the public access to it, 

especially in rural and small urban areas. 

- Developing and Increasing the Efficiency of Modern Electronic Public 

Services have in view to support the economic competitiveness and to 

encourage the interactions between citizens and public institutions by fully 

improvement and use of the potential of the IT&C and its related applications. 

- Sustaining the e-Economy intends to make the companies more efficient 

by reorganizing all the processes on information system basis and to bring 

in systems that use modern IT&C. This foundation will be an innovation 

enabler that will support the decision making process, the e-Commerce 

development, and the extended use of the on-line business training 

applications. 

3. Features of the Information Society 

In the last years, the fast development of IT&C had a growing impact on 

the society and the global economy, bringing in front fundamental changes 

of the manufacture and distribution models, of the trading conditions, labor 

force employment and day-to-day life. The global economy is presently part 

of a transition process from the industrial society to a new set of rules that lead 

to the appearance of the so called Information Society. 

The transition to the Information Society is given by the very powerful 

dynamism of a new type of economy where the digital technologies make the 

access, processing, storing and transmitting information easier and more 

affordable. 

This great amount of available information generates opportunities of their 

exploitation by creating new products and services, developing new activities 

and increasing the number of jobs. The new economy specific to the 

Information Society transforms the digital information into social and 

economical value, making new industries, modifying the existing ones and 

deeply affecting all the citizens’ life. 


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The features of the Information Society could be expressed from different 

perspectives, from global to individual: 

- From political point of view, Information Society is a democratic one; 

- From administrative point of view, Information Society provides new 

development opportunities for business and public administration; 

- from social point of view, Information Society gives to the population 

an easy access to education by developing the IT&C infrastructure; 

- From legal point of view, Information Society changes the very nature 

of the work, making conditions for the specific activities of the 

information era to unfold; 

- From economical point of view, Information Society determines the 

growth of the business potential and of the productivity; 

- From cultural point of view, Information Society is a knowledge society, 

ensuring the sponsorship of the human values (tradition, religion, human 

relations etc.); 

- From individual point of view, Information Society rends valuable 

the intelligence with small costs. 

4. Dimensions of the Information Society 

Making an objective assessment of the Information Society impact over the 

social life, we assert that Information Society has obvious expressions at the 

most levels of the social and human activity. We have identified a significant 

series of dimensions of the Information Society, as follows: 

- technological – infrastructure, services, applications 

- economical – the new digital economy 

- political and administrative – e-Governance 

- social – life standards 

- cultural – culture-technology interaction 

- legal – specific legislation 

These dimensions do not exclude some issues mainly determined by a low 

level of individual (and to a certain extent, of the society) adaptation to the 

conditions of the new economy. A faster and better adaptation could be built 

on an increased individual trust in organization and society, in the meantime 

with getting the necessary abilities to access the information and to use it 

efficiently. 

Despite the difficulty to analyze the unavoidable possible issues, it is consent 

over the transition of the modern society toward the Information Society. Part 


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of the futurologists forecasted a society based on telecommunications, virtual 

companies and remote working activities based on electronic communication, 

and easy and free access to information. Today we can affirm that the 

predictions were wrong in time, but exact in content, and some evolutions 

could prove them. 

Thus, the experience shows that the new technologies lead to economic growth 

and making of new jobs (there are more than 6 millions direct jobs in 

the companies running their activity on the Internet and considerable positive 

indirect effects). 

IT&C development, within the flexible work context, is a productivity driving 

factor and makes possible a long term powerful and non-inflationist economic 

development. This economic development should be harmonized with the 

cultural heritage preservation, combining the digital culture with the 

advantages of the telecommunications. 

5. The Nature of the Inter-Human Relations in the Information Society 

Changing the nature of the work and organizations is one of the transit 

conditions toward the Information Society. Work is no longer dependent of a 

certain field of activity and is also made of information in is nature. As a 

consequence, there is a need to perform activities such as gathering, 

processing, storing, modifying, creating and exchanging the information. As a 

conclusion, we could draw up the human information process completed of 

three distinct stages: identification of the information needs, information 

location, and use of information. This “status quo” is determined by the 

distribution of the knowledge and information inside the organizations 

collaborated with a steady activity of diverse sources information gathering. 

The Information Society will have an infrastructure allowing every social 

entity to participate in the information social existence. This infrastructure will 

include at the same time transport networks and information services, public 

users, private users and remote employee users. 

Introducing new IT&C might be a risk factor for the employed persons who 

could have a feeling of threat. Indeed, the IT&C brings resistance, since it can 

change the mind sets, the organizational culture, and can influence the real 

value of the skills. 


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In our opinion, the information importance will influence the social division in 

the meantime with the knowledge society. New social structures will appear 

composed of individuals not mentally able or without the necessary skills to 

use the information in their working process, eventually becoming the new 

unemployed persons. Information Society needs a large qualified working 

force, and as an immediate effect people should learn how to work with 

information. That will represent a major test for the educational institutions of 

the society, since every mature individual has to know at least three languages: 

an internationally largely used foreign language, the information language, 

and the artistic language. 

Information Society gives to each individual the possibility to receive 

information from various fields and to engage debates. That individual 

could assume some democratic responsibilities in the so called cybernetic 

democracy. 

New technologies open opportunities for new ideas and new personal opinions. 

IT&C allows people to use new channels of communications for worldwide, 

faster and easier social interactions. People will exchange information on 

fields of mutual interest that will lead to the enlargement and enrichment of the 

social life and quality of life, through the information advantages obtained via 

remote contacts. IT&C also enables people to adapt to different social aspects 

(family, religion, work, free time, civic responsibilities etc.) leading to the 

individual personality development. 

Electronic gathering and exchange data will determine a radical constriction of 

the traditional services with a consequent release of the working force and an 

increase of the unemployment level, if appropriate absorption programs are not 

foreseen. Multimedia and computer networks bring an unprecedented 

flexibility in the classical education, with a simultaneous time and space 

independence of the learning activity. The availability of the information and 

the role of the communication in the global and local networks will lead to a 

new variety of facility related to the educational process: 

- subjects could solve their homework using the available information; 

- subjects could ask questions in order to better know the world (geography, 

history, civilization, culture etc.); 

- subjects could discuss interactively each other; 

- didactic material is linked to a vast information support electronically 

available; 

- information is updated with minimum costs; 


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- subjects could organize their activity more efficiently, without any time 

constraints. 

The multimedia networks prove to be a viable solution in order to solve the 

educational issue of the dispersed and geographically isolated population, 

because the transportation to school, university or training centre is no longer 

necessary. IT&C can remove all the existing barriers in the adults’ education, 

allowing them to follow a process of education without interrupting their 

professional or private life. 

6. IT&C – Support for the Information Society 

Information Society is a business of most importance for the governments 

of the democratic states even it is still perceived with a surrealistic aura 

by the ordinary people. In European Union the development objectives 

to be fulfilled in order to access the Information Society were already defined. 

These objectives are designed to increase the living standard by using 

the advanced technologies, to grant the equal access of the people to the 

education and training promoted by the Information Society, to develop the 

legal framework needed for the implementation of the Information Society, 

and to ensure a sustainable development of the Information Society. 

Making an analysis of the key factors with their convergence almost fully 

defining a society of information, it is easy to observe that the IT&C represents 

the functional element for the correct implementation of the Information 

Society and for the transition to the new technological era and to the new 

economy. 

This new economy should be understood in the sense of economic activities 

transformation that take place meanwhile the digital technologies make easier 

and cheaper the access, process and storage of the information. In this context 

at least three way of describing the new economy could be defined, as follow: 

- digital economy 

- network economy 

- information-based economy 

The free flow of information is essential for the development of the 

Information Society. The rapid evolution of the IT&C created an 

unprecedented flow of information for the human society. As the information 

is even more available on Internet, it is still difficult to be accessed by the 

people who have insufficient infrastructure and training to make use of it. 


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IT&C could be a catalyst for the societal development, but it could be as well a 

driving factor of the digital exclusion, specific to the vulnerable groups. 

Presently, IT&C represents the most important industrial sector of the 

transition from the society based on mass production to the Information 

Society featured by globalization, flexibility and mobility. The unique impact 

of the IT&C consists in the role played for the economy and society 

transformation as a whole. The technologies and the global networks of 

communications transform the economical activities and determine the 

increase of the productivity, new economical opportunities and, consequently, 

new jobs. This perspective is valid both for the developing and the developed 

countries, only if a permissive legislative framework exists in order to take 

advantage of the new opportunities. The development of the IT&C industry in 

the last years was an exponential one, maybe the most spectacular in the 

history of industrial changes. 

For the implementation of the Information Society vision, we believe three 

major stages should be covered. These stages have the following main goals: 

- Employment of the IT&C and Information Society components in every 

single development sector of the society; 

- Obtaining a sustainable development of the Information Society; 

- Active participation at the debates on Information Society and the 

development, and continuous assessment of IT&C impact over the 

development. 

In order to employ IT&C in the entire society, basic information systems 

should be developed using the appropriate IT&C. It is also necessary to have 

functional e-services tailored in such a way that the use of up-to-date 

technology being accessible, trustful and transparent. 

According to the estimations, the IT&C industry is developing with more than 

5% faster than the other industrial sectors, getting a major contribution to the 

general economic growth. The huge amount of information changes the way 

the markets function, leads to the reorganization of the economic activities and 

make new opportunities, the use of the available information eventually 

creating the prosperity. 


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7. Rendering the Concept of Network Enabled Capability Valuable for 

the Civilian Society 

Network Enabled Capability (NEC) offers decisive advantage through the 

timely provision and exploitation of information and data to enable effective 

decision-making and agile actions. This concept is developed and under 

implementation in the armed forces of the NATO member states, and presently 

there are efforts for its adaptation for the EU military component. 

In our opinion, NEC represents the expression of the NATO military and 

political decision-makers’ efforts for a holistic translation of the military 

phenomenon into the Information Society age. However, NEC concept is not 

isolated from the civilian society, having rezoning components to its needs. 

We appreciate the fact that the experience stored by the military experts in 

NEC field should be rendered valuable accordingly, in order to reveal the path 

toward the Information Society. 

NEC will be implemented through the coherent and progressive development 

of equipment, software, processes, structures, and individual and collective 

training, underpinned by the development of a secure, robust and extensive 

network of networks. NEC has three overlapping and mutual dependent 

dimensions, all of which will require continued to achieve its full realization. 

The NEC core is made of a network of networks to distribute information. 

A networked information environment will provide a capability to acquire, 

generate, distribute, manipulate and utilize information. 

In a generic networked information environment information is gathered from 

a variety of sources, enters the network, is managed and after exploited leading 

to a decision to achieve a particular outcome. Whatever the desired outcome, 

the first step will be to acquire the appropriate information and then use 

the network to make it available to the planners and decision makers. 

Decisions makers, at all levels, will need to identify what information is 

required and available to support their decisions and know how to obtain it. As 

now, they also have to know, when a decision needs to be made, and how long 

they can afford to wait for more information. In essence, decision makers will 

still need to know how much information is required to make the optimal 

decision, whilst avoiding the risk of procrastination. The key to NEC is 

effective information management. The availability and use of information has 


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always been essential, but we have not always been as effective as we should 

be at making it available. 

As newer information systems are introduced, the function of information 

management will grow in importance and effective information management 

tools will become a key enabler. Decision support tools will help to reduce 

the cognitive workload of decision makers but, in the majority of situations, 

a person will still make the final decision. Decision support tools will help 

to assist in finding information, structure and present information in the most 

appropriate manner, and combine disparate types of information to draw 

inferences for presentation to decision maker. Networks are now 

demonstrating the ability to move information around quicker, and make it 

available to more people – often simultaneously. The potential advantage of 

this is recognized within NEC. To maximize the benefits of being able to share 

information, it is essential that common standards are developed and processes 

established to automate information sharing. 

The people dimension of NEC focuses on the requirement to educate and train 

all personnel so that they can use their skills, knowledge and experience to 

exploit it and to contribute to NEC future development. People will need to 

learn how to share and find information from multiple sources and then use 

that information to plan and then make decisions. Whilst it is true that we have 

always needed this skill, in future NEC will provide network-based 

information management and decisions support tools to help with the process. 

Training will be required to build trust and confidence between people across 

organizations who may have to collaborate on a distributed and temporary 

basis. Certain skills will be generic to all users, like IT&C fundamental skills, 

and elements of information management and information exploitation. In our 

opinion, there will also be a need for specialists in some areas, for example 

Computer Network Defence, to help to reduce the vulnerabilities of NEC and 

ensure continued confidence in the security and accuracy of information. The 

education process will need to emphasize the cumulative benefit of NEC to all 

customers, rather than to each individual. 

The ultimate benefit of NEC is the ability to generate better actions to realize 

better effects and thus lead to success. In the short term, as network capability 

improves, shared information will become more readily available. Routine 

tasks will be automated and new standard operating procedures and working 

practices will enable higher tempo decision-making processes. With the ability 

to reach to a broad range of information sources, we will be able to develop a 


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better shared understanding of the situation. This will enable improvements to 

the quality and tempo of decision-making, which in turn will lead to more 

coherent, concurrent and responsive actions, resulting in more timely and 

appropriate effects. The benefits chain shows how the fundamental NEC 

benefits are related. Each contributes to the next, resulting, ultimately in better 

effects in the operating space. 

As well as benefits, NEC will pose significant challenges. The primary 

challenge is to fully incorporate the human dimension in the development of 

NEC. All our people will require appropriate education and training to utilize 

increasingly available information. They will need to use all available system 

tools to exploit information, and they will need time to adapt to a more open 

culture, requiring greater sharing and trust between colleagues and partners. 

The procedural and technical challenges should not be underestimated. 

Capability development will often be complex and will require the integration 

of new and legacy systems. This will require more flexible acquisition 

processes. These challenges will be accompanied by the need to avoid 

information overload and guarantee a robust network. The growing threat from 

cyber attacks, to which we will become more vulnerable as our dependence on 

the network increases, must also be contained through new measures. Financial 

constraints will necessitate careful prioritization and rigorous balance of 

investment decisions. Although significant, these challenges should be viewed 

against a backdrop of evolutionary long term NEC development. 

8. Conclusions 

The features of Information Society are pointed out by the following reasons: 

a) Information Society evolves from the present society. 

b) New technologies will be found in many aspects of the day to day life, 

without noticing nonetheless an information revolution. A normal evolution 

is given by introducing IT&C according to the existing needs and 

opportunities. 

c) IT&C should be seen as a way of development and optimization of the 

human activity, by avoiding the technological determinism. 

d) The development of Information Society should have a deep 

anthropocentric character, although the organizations have mainly a techno 

centric character. 

e) Internet is one of the Information Society’s expressions, being both a 

source of documentation and inspiration. 


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f) Main issues to address refer to: 

- Working legislation; 

- Copyrights; 

- Improvement of population’s level of knowledge; 

- Development of the information infrastructure; 

- Searching for new forms and rules of the educational process and of 

the involved institutions; 

- Impact attenuation between geographical dispersion and the 

transportation of the working force; 

- Providing the involvement conditions of the population within the 

process of Information Society’s establishment and development. 

The implementation of the Information Society requires a close cooperation 

among academic, governmental, military, and business environment. 

University research could be the key of success for the new technology 

implementation at individual, organizational, and society level. 


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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 35 

INFORMATION SOCIETY BEYOND 

PESSIMISM AND OPTIMISM 

Henrieta Anişoara ŞERBAN 1 , Claudiu ŞERBAN 2 

Abstract. This study investigates the role and the stakes of the concept of Information 

Society, nowadays. Anthony Giddens or Ulrich Beck approach a rather optimistic vision 

in what concerns this concept, although seen not in idealistic terms and within the context 

of contemporary postmodern society, where the technological information is considered 

in our westernized societies to be similar as role and importance with the steam power 

within the societies of the industrial revolution. This concept of Information Society 

should be studied with the ideological complex context of globalization stirring up the 

optimism 

and 

the pessimism of certain positions beyond which incontestably remains the stake 

of information as power as it appeared clearly in the working documents from the World 

Summit on Information Society in 2003and 2005 and most certainly in 2009, too. 

Keywords: Information Society, ideology, globalization, World Summit on Information 

Society 


Could Information Society go beyond the optimism and the pessimism they trigger 

toward a more democratic reality And which are the interests and the stakes related 

to a settlement of the Information Society The stakes and the interests orient this 

theoretical approach, and not a sterile feverish cataloguing of some points of view, 

either optimistic or pessimistic. Thus, the apparent orientation toward the optimism 

stirred up by the subject is in fact nuanced by the selected ideas presented, 

characterized by a moderate, rational realistic and sensible optimism, if any, 

extremely suitable in emphasizing these stakes and interests animated by the race of 

globalization. 

2. Information Society: Revolutionized or Runaway 

Information Society has revolutionized our world. This is a clearly different one from 

that anticipated by the founding fathers of the modern society, namely the great 

figures of enlightenment who had a straightforward idea of the ends concerning the 

industrial revolution (related mainly to the control of nature for human benefit) and 

from the anticipations of the Marxist view on the change of history itself, as well for 

the benefit of the human being, and why not, seen in order to control even the future. 

1 Senior Researcher, Institute of Philosophy and Psychology „Constantin Rădulescu-Motru” 


2 Physicist, RONEXPRIM Bucharest 


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36 Henrieta Anişoara Şerban, Caludiu Şerban 

Such preliminary considerations bring this approach closer to the perspective 

sustained by Anthony Giddens, but also by Ulrich Beck, according to which 

technological information represents for contemporary societies something similar to 

the power of the steam for the societies of the industrial revolution. At present, this is 

an idea that we consider already common heritage in the consciousness of the people, 

“freed” of its complex philosophical sources, into the depths of society. 

Meanwhile, one can notice that we are far from mastering our fate, well beyond the 

rather abstract perimeter designed by the democratic citizenship’s freedoms and 

rights, while the world we inhabit is far from being ordered, escaping human control 

in several occasions. 

These two authors present two truths simultaneously sustainable: on the one hand, it 

is about the revolutionary power of computerized and technological information, as 

well as of that of technology itself, that could be interpreted in the sense of a 

humanity currently inscribed on a direction of progress (that is not necessarily a linear 

one, a simplistic progress without obstacles, turns or regress), and on the other hand 

we relate to a world where not only the future, but also the present are characterized 

much more by the uncertainties than by control. Both observations are included in the 

phrase runaway world, proposed by Anthony Giddens. 3 

This perspective acquires interesting meanings the moment one understands that this 

is not solely a remark, “Oh, the world we live in is characterized by uncertainties,” 

but it is to understand the fact that the source of the uncertainties seems strictly linked 

to the very progress of knowledge. 

Thus, nowadays dilemma would be that the world seems more difficult to unhidden 

than during the hegemony of the optimism induced by Enlightenment and, 

meanwhile that it seems that the very attempts to comprehend only add to the 

uncertainties, emphasizing the present-day value, for instance, of the Socratic 

philosophy, Lucian Blaga’s philosophy and of the scientific discoveries of the 

quantum physics in the 20th century. 

For A. Giddens, this line of reasoning sends to the introduction of the concept of 

„risk” in sociology, in correlation with the idea of uncertainty, a concept with 

interesting philosophical dimensions, too. He comments on two types of uncertainties 

or risks - „external” and „manufactured.” 

Accordingly to the vision sustained by Giddens the world evolved from one of the 

„external” risks toward one of the “manufactured” risks. Briefly put, the “external” 

risk originated in the external world, in nature and tradition (in the realm of the usual 

3 

See Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-identity. Self and Society in the Late Modern Age, 

Cambridge, Polity Press, 1991, Anthony Giddens, The Transformation of Intimacy. Sexuality, 

Love and Eroticism in Modern Societies, Cambridge, Polity Press, 1994 and A. Giddens, 

presentation on the BBC radio, available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/events/reith_99/ 


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Inforrmation society beyond pessimism and optimism 37 

forms of manifestation and action). The “manufactured” risk poses the question of the 

effects that human action has on nature, on social world, and even on the emotions 

that we experience in the contemporary world in a strict correlation with the 

phenomenon of globalization. 

Interesting is the fact that the British sociologist extends the definition of 

globalization beyond the aspects concerning the systematic tendency of the Western 

society to spread throughout the world, and beyond the impact of the global electronic 

market or the free market, including the changes, the series of changes that modify 

the manner in which people live nowadays, where the revolution observed in 

communications is considered a more important factor than the mere economic one. 

Another author preoccupied by the risk society is Ulrich Beck 4 . He analyzes, as 

Giddens does, the society of late modernity as a “risk society.” Nevertheless, for this 

author, more apparently than with Giddens, the society of late modernity, although it 

is as well characterized by a progress and a dynamics influenced by technology and 

by the informational globalization, it has a significant potential of producing 

catastrophic risks. 

Unlike Giddens, Ulrich positions mass media as an agent of a maximal importance 

within the processes unveiling risks, as well as in relationship with the processes of 

the social contestation of knowledge, which by itself induces risks, or with the 

processes correlated with the social challenges caused by the „ risk society.” 

Paradoxically, his ideas tend to be rather ignored by the researchers from media 

studies and risk communication, as well as by the specialists in environment and 

ecology. In a similar manner as with Giddens, the analysis of the „ reflexive 

modernity” sends to an analysis of the conditions of contemporary society offering 

valuable coordinates for the investigation that could be capitalized upon by the mass 

communication specialists, too. 

Giddens recalls significant details in this respect, such as the fact that the first satellite 

was launched by the end of the 60s, by the United States, although it was just an 

experimental satellite and only afterwards, there were the hundreds of satellites 

revolving around the Earth. On the one hand, the United States launched their first 

artificial satellite, Explorer 1, at 31 st of January 1958. 

On the other hand, it is extremely interesting to notice that the first satellite ever, was 

called Sputnik 1 and launched in fact by the Soviet Union at 4 th of October 1957. This 

observation opens a parallel discussion about the technology and Information Society 

as ideological and propagandistic tools and about the interests guiding knowledge. 

Giddens’s affirmation indicates simultaneously a Western protochronism and the 

Western attitude toward East. One may say that even the most objective scientists are 

influenced by this cultural hegemony characterized by a demeaning attitude of the 

4 Vezi mai ales Ulrich Beck, World Risk Society, Polity Press, 1999. 


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West toward the East that set the context of their socialization and have difficulties in 

associating the progress of information and technology with the backward East. 

The changes brought about by globalization affected also our emotions, our sense 

of self, the personal lives, the marriage and the family, the friendship and, actually, all 

the sectors of everyday life. 

The technological changes, the impact of science and scientific innovation are as well 

to be considered, provided they affect people lives at present, and they also have a 

huge potential of influence in the global future. The technological changes do not 

suppose just the hegemony of global technological information or the endowment of 

all the offices with PCs, but also the emergence of a new social class, specific for 

Information Society: the class of the “wired workers.” 

This class is different both from the former class of workers and from the new middle 

class. They are neither clerks and they are different from the other traditional classes, 

entertaining complex political views, rather left-wing oriented on certain subjects, and 

right-wing oriented in what it concerns others. Thus, the technological change 

imposes a change of the class structure of Western societies, changes that seem to 

transfer to the other countries, these with democracies more recently set on the path of 

democratization, in relationship with the degree of technological development. Such 

tendencies are imposing global Western-like changes. 

Giddens notices also that science itself tends to become global. He comments 

the aspect that scientific innovation affects the lives of the people more directly and 

more universally than before. In this respect the current technological age is also a 

cultural age. 

As a foundation for this idea of cultural age one may observe that, nowadays, there 

are many more scientists than before, and that they are to a greater extent connected 

due to the globalization of communication. At present, science does not function in 

the same insulation from everyday life as a generation ago. 

Again, for Giddens, science has become a sort of tradition. The more alert rhythm 

registered by the innovations and by science, generally, is an outcome 

of the globalization of the economic life, while the impact triggered 

by communication determines people to be more interrogative and to engage in more 

interrogative and dialogical relations with science and technology. 

These are not entirely a different world as before, and people do not depend anymore 

on experts to filter the discoveries for them, because they have to know right now and 

to be ready to react right now, although to a different extent than a scientist, all 

engaged in this turmoil of science and technology. Everyone learns from experience 

the abstract and philosophical principle of Karl Popper stating that science, as a 

particular form of the critical thought, is not based on the accumulation of certainties, 

but on the courage to question everything, and on the ability to either sustain or 

dismantle arguments, accordingly to the case. 


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Science is built on quick sand, theories are merely the most adequate explanations of 

the moment, scientists having the role to either rationally and adequately criticize or 

replace these theories and not to sustain them at all costs, as most of our fellows 

already know, from experience in what concerns contemporary world. As an 

example, people do not raise children and teenagers as 50 years ago. The rules and 

interdictions are nuanced and changed. Critical attitude becomes to a greater extent a 

normal part of everyday life. 

Tradition and customs determine now our lives less than before. People can live 

together without facing the same social reactions as a generation ago. Neither 

bachelors nor spinsters are at present cast outside the system. Marriage and love are 

now a part of the greater puzzle of uncertainties that has engulfed the entire human 

existence during the current age of the global information. 

Yet, it is not the globalization of the information that is inducing uncertainty and 

confusion, but the fact that everything appears much more complex and much 

nuanced than before. The globalization of the information decreases the redundant 

character of the information that becomes both nuanced and entropic. 

The questions raised under such circumstances are related to the manner in which 

people should answer to this entropy, to this “manufactured” world of uncertainty, 

artificially created. We are not fighting anymore against the uncertainty provoked by 

the natural forces, but with that determined by the more reputable force of the 

“manufactured” uncertainty released by the technological and information 

globalization, and then, only as a consequence of these two, by the globalization of 

the Western life style and of free market economy. 

Meanwhile, we should emphasize the question of how we should conceive the role of 

the governments in answering these changes. Anthony Giddens appreciates that at the 

level of daily life one should notice the phenomenon by which lives are daily 

reshaped at an emotional level (see marriage, family, and raising children as examples 

of emotional reconfigurations). Sexual relationships either heterosexual or 

homosexual, as well as friendship, are submitted to changes at the emotional level 

and they are interesting mostly because they generate “untraditionalized” relations, or 

post-traditional relations, that co-exist within an intricate fabric of benefices and 

advantages, where the opening toward the other and the structuring and the 

maintaining of the relationship occupy the central place. 

Within this perspective of the opening toward the other we understand today as well 

the human intimacy, based on this sort of opening where both the relationship based 

on trust and the activation of trust replaces almost entirely the passive performance of 

the traditional roles. And the return to a more traditional system, notices Giddens, is 

not expectancy except for the cases of fundamentalists or of people living within a 

more traditional culture and society, less affected by these contemporary changes. 


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Although such people and cultures exist, the transformations triggered by the 

information societies and by the information and technological globalization are 

taking place already at a global level. Returning to the example of the traditional 

family, and of the transformations experienced by the families nowadays, the author 

underlines that certain traditional elements are definitely tending to be maintained 

(such as, we would say, the role of mother, or certain traditions, for instance, to take a 

weekend meal in the family, or the close family relationships). 

3. The Democracy of Emotions and the “Good Conductors of Information” 

Giddens approaches the topic of the emergence of the democracy of emotions, 

as a manifestation of a specific contemporary civic culture and civic life 

complementary to the traditional ones and added to the current democratic life from 

the public sphere. 

We would explain these by the metaphor of the “laboratory” represented by the 

family life during late modernity. This “laboratory” is the place for the 

implementation of the late modern democratic values with relevance in the 

actualization and realization of the rights of women or of these of children, the new 

masculine roles, the rights of homosexuals and lesbians, or even the ecologist values. 

Within these contemporary families that are successfully lasting, the good 

relationships flourish, relationships between/among peers, based on communication, 

active trust, the capacity to respect the opinions of another person, all extremely 

valuable elements, both for personal life and for the public life, in democracy. 

These aspects may appear as far too optimistic and they may especially trigger critical 

reactions expressed more or less on the lines of the ideas voiced by 

Jean Baudrillard in his work named In the Shadow of the Silent Majorities. 5 

The majorities are rather absent with this author, for the mass absorbs all the social 

energy, but no longer refracts it nor reflects it more like a black hole of the social. 

It is characterized by unbearable silence, uninterested by information and just “good 

conductors of information.” Also, majorities do not have conscience and are without 

unconscious, therefore there is nothing further the idea of engagement or civic spirit. 

Within the Information Society the mass just enjoys the spectacle of politics, the 

ecstasy of communication. In their lack of civism these majorities are interpreted as 

terrorists. Baudrillard considers that any revolutionary or progressive message was 

hijacked by the media and the state, becoming now just a communication 

communicating itself. 

5 Jean Baudrillard, In the Shadow of the Silent Majorities [A l'ombre des majorités 

silencieuses] Semiotext(e), 1978, ed.a 2a, 2007. 


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In our view, this criticism is a metaphor underlining that the so-called “silent” 

majorities have often their own agenda, based on jouissance rather than on the civic 

sentiment of a fulfilled duty, more difficult to be disciplined than the Enlightenment 

majorities or than the modern ones. Postmodern majorities might just have their own 

agenda and consider more the values related to resistance, particularity, refusal of 

state, sometimes on bases of under-education, poverty, lack of civic and political 

culture, but not necessarily. 

Most often the attitude of resistance transcends levels of education and economic 

well-being, in a postmodern need to turn toward more or less well articulated and 

understood neo-anarchist views, in front of the disappointments related to the limited 

power of democracy to eradicate corruption and poverty, less successful in instituting 

itself as a regime of human dignity. 

From this perspective, the lament about the so-called declines of contemporary 

either Western or Romanian society is with more clarity a sterile one. Hedonism, the 

characteristic fingerprint of the contemporary culture is post-moral and it is only 

reasonable to see it composed, from a perspective sustained by Gilles Lipovetsky 6 , of 

the composition of two “opposed tendencies.” On the one hand, we have the tendency 

to relax and give in to the immediate pleasure: sex, drugs, pornography, craves for the 

accumulation of objects and media programs (“consumerism”). 

As a manifestation of the individualist cult, this manner of manifestation, 

this hedonism, undermines the value of work, sustaining the phenomena of 

de-socialization and marginalization of the ethnic group members of the metropolis 

areas and suburbs. As well, the obsession of quality and excellence is considered an 

expression of hedonism: related to the time management and to the management of 

the body, but also in attaining professionalism (first of all, obviously, in profession, 

and then, in every enterprise). These two forms of manifestation for hedonism are not 

mutually exclusive. 

Lipovetsky exposes the new portrait of the sinner, the “zapper,” rather anxious 

and stressed out than with a guilty conscience. For this character, duty is but 

an option among so many, and, the lack of a “happy face” or presenting his person 

out of shape are the real sins. 

This author points also to the apathy of the Western contemporary democracies. 

He identifies in the decentralized mobilization of contemporary democracies 

the complementary elements proving that, at present, the citizen has the position 

of the sports supporter both against public life and the moral dimension of politics. 

The same citizen of the present times tends to gather diverse competences unrelated 

directly (or necessarily) to the public life – the citizen became a jurist and a lobbyist. 

6 Gilles Lipovetsky, Le Crépuscule du devoir (The Twilight of Duty) , Gallimard, Paris, 1992, 

passim. 


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As a consequence, the democracy that such a citizen promotes is a “more modest 

democracy,” benevolent, ethical and narcissistic, yet, “dialogic.” “Modest 

democracy” is therefore characterized by dialogue and by the proliferation of the 

ethical codes and committees. 

Ernesto Laclau points out to the matter of the bleak versus optimistic perspectives 

on the Information Society in the chapter entitled „The Politics of Mass Media” 7 

in terms of the question „Information Society: salvation or damnation”. 

The author approaches the perspective of the effects of emancipation that Information 

Society may have. He shows that the modern Enlightenment discourse conceives 

communication as free and undistorted, considering at the same time that it has also a 

powerful emancipator effect. Yet, this effect needs to be protected from antimonopoly 

regulations, a critical education in what concerns the media and through 

heavily, ethically biased discourses, considering such requirements, and also the 

rather anarchical character of the Internet and intra-net networks a greater attention 

for the critical analyses of media in schools, public debate and scholarly debates 

might make a difference. 

The unregulated access to mass communication devices and the unveiling of the 

distortions present in all the forms of communication are perceived as manners to 

enlighten the “oppressed” and help them see the “light.” For Laclau, transparency 

(communicational, institutional and political) and revolution are two faces of the 

same coin in the discourse of modernity. 

On the other hand, the author notices that there is no absolute free and undistorted 

communication, the paradigm of constructivism, considering that all messages 

circulated through media are discursively constituted, in and through the powerknowledge 

complexes, points to the serious demand both for undistorted messages 

and for the act of freeing of the essentially human aspirations from the repressive 

forms of power unfolded and perpetuated through mass media that nevertheless 

remain. 

For this reason one has to ask which could be the field for the strategies of resistance, 

disagreement and pragmatic experimentation in what mass media is concerned, so 

that the current state of affairs to change further more in an closer agreement with the 

values we cherish Which is the potential for a mobilization of the subjugated forms 

of knowledge, for the confrontational situation of the different values and for the 

advancement of the new political projects 

During the last decades the answer to these questions was extremely pessimistic. 

Thus, the theories about media manipulation flourished during the 60s and the 70s, 

when media was described as the almighty force of social control, capable of 

7 Ernesto Laclau, „The Politics of Mass Media”, în Jacob Torfing, New Theories of Discourse: 

Laclau, Mouffe and Žižek, Oxford, Blackwell, 1999, pp.210-224. 


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imposing a tight ideological domination over the population. Indeed present day 

theories still sustain the possibility that media impedes somehow on the progress of 

the internalization of the political values that proved crucial for democracy, such as 

freedom and equality, by promoting nationalism, racism and sexism and by a 

naturalization of the current state of affairs, justifying the totalitarian tendencies, the 

lack of freedom and inequality. 

Nevertheless, the fragmentation of the public today in such a multitude of types of 

public allows for a relatively efficient resistance in front of the dominant effects of 

media configuration, by allowing more room for personalized interpretations and 

meanings. The content of the messages disseminated through the hegemonic media 

structures are only partially fixed. 

As a consequence, there is always a surplus of meaning and a multiplicity of voices, 

destabilizing the dominant meanings, providing material for the articulation of new 

ones, involved in the alternative political projects. 

The intellectuals in many countries have now a cheaper access to the means of text 

reproduction and mass communication devices. Within this context, a computer 

mediated communication could have the hoped democratic potential, although the 

realization of this aim depends heavily on the progress of the interactive forms of 

communication and on the degree of either political empowerment or 

disempowerment of the people throughout the world. 

Against this extremely optimistic vision, the author calls the attention for the fact that 

capitalism, mass media and technology combined to support the concentration of 

money, control and facilities in the hands of the multinational mass media 

corporations. These negative developments are to be met with resistance, on all the 

levels, and to be counter weighted by alternative forms of relation and alternative 

media networks. 

Even so, to the extent mass media corporations become more and more determined to 

capture the minds and the hearts of the types of public, the more the messages 

reticulated gain the form of generalized noise, emptied of meaning, triggering a 

generalized lack of trust and attention from the numerous types of public. 

As well against of the optimism related to the computer age, Laclau notices that 

the new and computer-mediated forms of communication tend to produce 

an ambiguous effect, offering not only the autonomy and diversity to an increasing 

selection for choice, but also new forms of surveillance and control. 

The control of the Internet has proved to be difficult up to this point, but not 

necessarily an emancipator, since the lack of censorship has mainly facilitated an 

intense circulation of discriminating and abusive texts. With time, we consider that 

the Internet shall either sustain or infirm both the thesis of the freedom of expression 

and that of the goodness of the human nature of the (neo-) anarchism. Meanwhile, 

neither the totalitarian fears, nor the hopes of emancipation related to the emergence 


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of the Information Society are so clearly a fate in the absence of articulated grass root 

political projects. 

4. Globalization and the Information Society 

Returning to Giddens, Information Society is a powerful factor that reshapes national 

identities. Globalization diminishes the economic power of the nation rendered “too 

small to solve global problems.” Meanwhile, globalization creates as well pressure 

for local autonomies, regionalism and nationalism all over the globe, as a reputable 

fragmenting force. 

Globalization creates new regions, new cultural and economic areas unrelated to the 

national borders. Catalonia both is and it is not a part of Spain, shows Giddens. The 

argument of the sociologist structures a plea for the „ cosmopolite nation.” Such a 

nation is characterized by the fact that it sustains its own identity, its cultural past that 

it cherishes, without the „reflexes of jealous territoriality” encountered at the 

“traditional nations,” accepting a world of multiple sovereignty. These multiple 

sovereignties are at Giddens interpreted as positive effects. The solutions offered to 

the tense situations such as that in the North Ireland would never be implemented 

unless this fuzzy and/or multiple overeignty. The structure of the peace agreement is 

based on the fact that everyone can simultaneously be a citizen of the North Ireland, 

Ireland and Europe. 

Information Society needs to take globalization seriously based on the profound 

transformations marking contemporary world, transformations as profound as these 

during and following the 18 th century industrial revolution because it has to answer 

globalization at a global level and not only national or local one. This answer could 

be forged within a second wave of democratization, inscribed in the construction of 

the second wave of democratization, inscribed in the construction of the world 

information society. 

In a global Information Society, there is much more difficult to maintain a closed 

political system. In this respect, Giddens gives the example of Milosevič in Serbia, 

but one may find easily other examples for this reality, such as the tweeter revolution 

in the Republic of Moldova, where the anti-Romanian official versions of the events 

are already not so easily sustainable. 

We would make the argument that the difficulty to maintain a closed political system 

is a consequence of the effect of democratization triggered by the Kantian and 

Habermasian role of the global public sphere which, to a certain extent, and not in 

absolute terms, plays the role of an ethical, democratic and critical forum. 

Life in a global Information Society, explains Giddens, impedes the less democratic 

governments to use old forms of symbolism and tradition as easily as a generation or 

two ago, even if some of the less democratic governments of the world rely on old 

forms of symbolism and tradition as much as a generation or two ago. 


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Kenneth Gergen in „The Saturated Self: Persons and Relationships in 

The Information Age” 8 , shoes that often we do not see the “costs” that come with the 

benefices of the new global technologies of the Information Society. There are 

multiple effects of the new communication technologies on social relations and 

personal identity. Nowadays personal relationships are electronically mediated, thus 

more numerous. People tend to maintain more friendships than generations ago. 

Unlike Giddens, Gergen states that people do not realize that also the knowledge they 

have of the others becomes more and more fragmented and the relationships less and 

less substantial. 

His argument is that our attention for the others is mediated through television, emails 

and other new communication technologies with more relations, more obligations, 

less depth and more stress. The more human identity is solicited in multiple 

directions, the more relationships are diluted, and we suffer from „multiphrenia” 

termed after „schizophrenia.” 

In what concerns the costs and the benefits of this (global) Information Society, 

Andrei Codrescu 9 offers two emblematic perspectives worth presenting briefly. 

One the one hand, there is this enthusiasm related to technology in general, spiritually 

described in the short story „The Dog with the Chip in His Neck.” There he 

emphasizes the progress toward a generalized connectivity and a communication 

man-machine and pet too, the conclusion of this approach being that to be a chip in 

somebody’s neck could become the highest compliment, since these devices will 

deservedly arrive at the centre of human existence. In the next short story he provides 

though the opposite perspective. 

There is the horror and hate experienced by the human being in front of the machine, 

robot and computer, a monstrous intrusion undermining all humanity, workplaces 

(recall the luddits in England), etc. in relation to this second perspective one has to 

analyze the fear of globalized information and technology, seen as the most 

significant step toward the generalized, absolute and authoritarian control, for a 

dictatorship of a information and technology Big Brother, heralding the end of the 

private sphere...But this subject is on the one hand, rich in itself and would deserve a 

separate discussion, and, on the other, it is already eroded by the lament that 

surrounds it. 

As stated above, global Information Society should answer to the globalization in a 

global manner within the context of a second wave of democratization, where the 

Resolution of the General UN Assembly no. 56/183 from the 21 st of December 2001, 

8 Kenneth Gergen, „The Saturated Self: Persons and Relationships in The Information Age” în J. 

Arthur, Morality and Moral Controversies: Readings in Moral, Social ans Political Philosophy, 

New Jersey, Prentice Hall, 2002, pp. 592-601. 

9 Andrei Codrescu, The Dog with the Chip in His Neck, St. Martin’s Press, New York, 1996, pp. 

85-88. 


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supporting the realization of a World Summit on the Information Society 10 or 

WSIS, with two phases. The first took place at Geneva, during 10 -12 December 

2003, and the second in Tunis, 16 - 18 November 2005. 

The objective of the first phase was to outline a clear declaration of political will in 

what concerns the UN position related to the global Information Society. The 

intention was to identify the steps to be followed in order to set the bases for a „ 

global information society (with benefices) for all,” reflecting as much as possible of 

the interests at play there, too. 

To this end WSIS works involved almost 50 heads of state and government, as well 

as vice-presidents, 82 ministers, 26 viceministers, but also higher level 

representatives of the international organizations, from the private sector and from the 

civil society, offering political support for two documents: the Declaration of 

Principles from Geneva and Geneva Action Plan, adopted at 12 th of December 2003. 

The Summit and the collateral events gathered over 11,000 participants from 175 

countries. Geneva Action Plan was correlated with aspects such as the role of the 

governmental authorities and of all the stakeholders 11 in promoting information and 

communication technologies (ICT) for development, the development of the 

information and communication infrastructure, access to information and knowledge, 

building capacities, increasing trust and security in using the ICTs, the stimulation of 

the information environment, promoting ICT applications (e-government, e-business, 

e-health, e-employment, e-environment, e-agriculture and e-science), promoting 

cultural and identity linguistic and local substance diversity, the study of the relation 

among mass media and Information Society, the ethical dimensions of Information 

Society, as well as regional and international cooperation. 

In the second phase, the aim was setting off Geneva Action Plan. This event involved 

about 50 heads of state and government, also vice-presidents, 197 ministers, viceministers, 

plus higher level representatives of the international organizations, from the 

private sector and from the civil society, in total, more than 19,000 participants from 

174 countries, in order to find the necessary solutions and arrive at understandings 

concerning good government, with the involvement of the civil society, business 

environments and of all the interested factors, using the Internet, with the analysis of 

the financing mechanisms to this end, as well as the continuation and further 

implementation of the documents from Geneva and Tunis. 

These steps advancing toward an even more connected world engages mechanisms of 

motivation in a democratic engagement and also in forming the partnerships of 

cooperation, responsible for the management of the challenges from this ICT sector. 

10 Vezi http://www.itu.int/wsis/basic/index.html 

11 This concept is not only boroughed from economy into the field od the theories of democracy 

with the reference to the awakened political identity, to the individual acting as if he or she has a 

personal and personalized stake in the good and democratic society. 


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The main challenge is the digital dichotomy of the world and the main related 

question posed by the UN summits is the following: Is this digital dichotomy going to 

become a source of opportunities for all, and how The dedication of the world 

leaders is tested right now. 

The countries are to exploit the potential of the ICT, many of them already 

progressing in fulfilling the connectivity ends promoted by WSIS. Problems appear in 

adapting the models and the policies proposed by the UN at these summits, as well as 

in what concerns the capacity to adapt themselves of the creators of policies and 

regulations at the national and local level. There is a data base with proposals and 

public policies related to this matter that might be extremely useful, although it 

already indicates the sustained efforts necessary to alleviate the digital gap among the 

nations, in order to offer the universal access to the ICTs. There is some progress 

concerning the offer of assistance in developing specific abilities and capacities, in 

increasing awareness related to the security of the informational systems and in 

preparing the emergence of a more sure and emocratic environment for an even 

better connectivity of the global information society. 

In 2009, WSIS Forum is to reunite at Geneva, 18-22 May, exploring precisely what 

Giddens named the next wave of democratization, through up-to-date 

conceptualizations, for instance, in the attempt to analyze the implementation of the 

term „multi-stakeholder”. 

in the good government, in the cosmopolite society, strictly connected with the 

global Information Society to which it relates with devotion. 

The accent should be placed on the stake of either accentuating, or alleviating the gap 

between poor and rich, aggravated by the gap between the informatized and 

uninformatized. There is the danger that with global Information Society and the 

fragmentation it triggers, the world of the rich people to become even more 

„insulated” and the other part to be hit even harder by the „runaway world”. 


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REFERENCES 

[1] Baudrillard, Jean, In the Shadow of the Silent Majorities, Semiotext(e), 1978, ed.a 2a, 2007. 

[2] Beck, Ulrich, World Risk Society, Polity Press, 1999. 

[3] Codrescu, Andrei, The Dog with the Chip in His Neck, St. Martin’s Press, New York, 1996. 

[4] Gergen, Kenneth „The Saturated Self: Persons and Relationships in The Information Age” 

in J. Arthur, Morality and Moral Controversies: Readings in Moral, Social ans Political 

Philosophy, New Jersey, Prentice Hall, 2002. 

[5] Giddens, Anthony, Modernity and Self-identity. Self and Society in the Late Modern Age, 

Cambridge, Polity Press, 1991. 

[6] Giddens, Anthony, The Transformation of Intimacy. Sexuality, Love and Eroticism in 

Modern Societies, Cambridge, Polity Press, 1994. 

[7] Laclau, Ernesto „The Politics of Mass Media”, in Jacob Torfing, New Theories of 

Discourse: Laclau, Mouffe and Žižek, Oxford, Blackwell, 1999. 

[8] Lipovetsky, Gilles, Le Crépuscule du devoir (The Twilight of Duty) , Gallimard, Paris, 

1992. 

[9] http://www.itu.int/wsis/basic/index.html 

[10] http://www.itu.int/wsis/documents/background.asplang=en&c_type=res 

[11] http://www.itu.int/wsis/follow-up/index.html 

Henrieta Anişoara Şerban, PhD from the Romanian Academy in 2006, is 

scientific researcher III at the Institute of Political Science and International 

Relations and at the Institute of Philosophy and Psychology “Constantin 

Rădulescu-Motru” of the Romanian Academy, Bucharest. Research interests: 

philosophy of communication, political communication, (soft) ideologies 

(feminism, ecologism, ironism). Authored books: Limbajul politic în democracy 

[Political Language in Democracy] in 2006 şi Paradigmele diferenţei în filosofia 

comunicării. Modernism si postmodernism [The Paradigms of Difference in the 

Philosophy of Communication. Modernism and Postmodernism] in 2007. 

Claudiu Şerban, physicist specialized in microscopy and spectrometry, 

preoccupied by the aspects related to the philosophy of science correlated with the 

quantum physics. Translation: Roy Sorensen, Experimentele mentale [Thought 

Experiments], in Construcţie şi deconstrucţie în filosofia americană 

contemporană [Construction and Deconstruction in Contemporary American 

Philosophy], coord. By Angela Botez, Henrieta Anişoara Şerban and Marius 

Drăghici, Bucharest, Editura Academiei, 2006, p.329-355. 


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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 49 

L’UTILISATION DE L’INTELLIGENCE ARTIFICIELLE 

EN MANAGEMENT 

Ioan Constantin DIMA 1 , Leonardo BADEA 2 , 

Résumé Dans les conditions de l’informatisation de la société humaine, les activités de 

management opérationnel peuvent être efficiantisés par l’utilisation de l’intelligence 

artificielle. Ainsi, on a proposé un système expert, pour l’industrie métallurgique, pour 

l’activité de coulage des pièces nécessaires pour l’industrie minière. 

Cinq mots-clef: système expert, intelligence artificielle, interface, moteur de chercher, 

implementation du système expert 

1. INTRODUCTION 

Le fonctionnement efficient des systèmes intégrés de production est fondé 

sur le raisonnement artificiel, comme prémisse de simulation du raisonnement 

humain et de remplacement du rôle essentiel de l’expert dans un domaine concret. 

L’expression de système expert évoque généralement les nouvelles techniques 

de gestion dans les diverse domaines d’activité et qui maintenant sont assimilées 

par la notion « contenu d’une gestion de bases ». 

La notion de « système expert » se réfère à un programme qui utilise toutes 

les connaissances spécifiques aux divers domaines d’activité dans le procès 

de l’élaboration d’une résolution pour chaque problème qui peut intervenir dans 

un domaine bien défini. Donc le système expert Mise l’accumulation de 

l’expérience et du raisonnement d’un expert humain pour son substitution. Cette 

accumulation représente le fondement de formation de la base de connaissances 

qui est une des composantes de base des ces systèmes. 

Le système expert est un système intelligent fondé sur la représentation 

symbolique 

de la connaissance, implémenté sur une structure hardware spécifique à 

l’application, qui traite une multitude de connaissances pour résoudre des 

problèmes spéciaux sur des activités difficilement à examiner. 

Indépendamment de la définition du système expert, il y a quatre caractéristiques 

qui classifient un programme comme système expert: il travaille au niveau expert 

de compétence ; il utilise un mécanisme d’inférence pour réaliser la déduction; 

l’expertise effectuée est fondée sur les connaissances spécialement acquises; 

1 Prof. Univ. Dr. l’Université «Valahia», Targoviste, Roumanie 

2 Conf. Univ. l’Université «Valahia», Targoviste, Roumanie 


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50 Ioan Constantin Dima, Leonardo Badea 

la programmation de tels systèmes implique la présentation des connaissances 

des experts dans le domaine, ces connaissances peuvent être gardées dans la base 

de données pour l’utilisation prochaine. 

L’architecture de quelque système expert doit contenir minimum trois modules 

principaux, modules qui déterminent le soi-disant système essentiel. Dans la 

figure no. 1 on a représenté un système expert adapté aux nécessités relatives 

au management opérationnel. 

Figure no. 1 

La représentation de principe d’un système expert pour le management opérationnel 


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L’intelligence artificielle en management 51 

Les modules principaux du système expert sont: 

> la base de connaissances – représente la composante qui stocke les 

connaissances de spécialité permanentes du système, fournies par l’expert dans le 

domaine respectif. La base de connaissances est formée de la base de faits et la 

base de règles englobant les connaissances relative à la résolution d’un problème 

dans un domaine particulier, les connaissances étant formées de faits (l’ensemble 

de données relatives au problème) et règles (lois, méthodes et éléments de 

raisonnement applicables aux faits) traitées par un moteur d’inférences afin de 

réaliser un objectif sollicité par le problème approché. 

> la base de règles et la base de faits sont composantes élémentaires de la base 

de connaissances. La base de règles est formée de la multitude de relations 

qui représentent les connaissances de l’expert et accomplit les significations 

suivantes: contient des règles par lesquelles on spécifie les liens entre les faits; 

les règles utilisent les faits initiaux (connus) pour déduire des faits nouveaux en 

vertu de procès inductifs et déductifs (lorsque les règles peuvent assurer la 

conduite et le contrôle de la manière dans laquelle autres règles sont appliquées, 

on souligne le concept métarègles). La base de faits contient tous les faits que le 

créateur du système a englobés dans celui-ci ou qui sont déduites pendant le 

raisonnement (le procès d’inférence). La base de faits est formée d’un ensemble 

de structures de données complexes chargées d’un certain sens, appelées 

génériquement « faits », relatives à un problème particulier pour lequel on 

demande une résolution par le système d’une base de connaissances. Les faits 

représentent l’ensemble des connaissances affirmatives nécessaires pour traiter le 

domaine approché; 

‣ le module d’acquisition de la connaissance permet la constitution de la base 

de connaissance du système. Régulièrement la connaissance spécifique au 

domaine est assumée des experts humains par un spécialiste dans l’ingénierie de 

la connaissance. Une autre modalité d’obtenir des connaissances spécifiques 

au domaine est de générer automatiquement ces connaissances en utilisant des 

diverses méthodes d’apprentissage; 

‣ Le moteur d’inférence est destiné à l’exploitation de l’ensemble de 

connaissances pour résoudre les problèmes et représente l’élément effectif de 

traitement dans le système expert, qui, en commençant à partir des faits (données 

d’entrée du problème) accélère les connaissances correspondantes de la base de 

connaissances, en constituant ainsi des raisonnements qui conduisent aux 

nouveaux faits appelés faits de sortie. En conclusion, le moteur d’inférence est un 

programme qui implémente des algorithmes de raisonnements du type déductif 

(dirigé par les faits), inductif (dirigé par les buts) et mixte (caractérisé par le 

déroulement d’un raisonnement inductif, suivie par un raisonnement déductif), 

mais qui est indépendant de la base de connaissances; 


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‣ Le mécanisme d’inférence constitue la partie exécutive du système expert 

qui utilise les connaissances codifiées de la base de connaissances pour former 

des inférences et tirer des conclusions. C’est un programme qui permet: 

l’exploitation des bases de connaissances, la coordination du raisonnement pour la 

déduction des nouveaux faits qui représentent la nouvelle base de connaissances 

du système, la construction dynamique du raisonnement et son explication, 

l’adoption des décisions sur les règles qui doivent être déclenchées et de l’ordre 

dans laquelle elles s’appliquent, l’acquisition de nouvelles connaissances. Le 

mécanisme d’inférence est, en fait, le noyau d’un système expert qui exécute des 

déductions dans le procès de résolution du problème par le parcours et 

éventuellement la modification et ajustement des éléments de la base de 

connaissances. 

Indépendamment de la manière de raisonnement utilisée, le cycle de base d’un 

moteur d’inférences comporte quatre étapes: la sélection extrait de la base de 

règles et de la base de faits les informations caractéristiques au sous-domaine de 

résolution du problème; le filtrage consiste dans la comparaison des prémisses, les 

règles sélectionnées antérieurement avec les faits qui caractérisent le problème a 

résoudre, pour déterminer le sous-ensemble des règles déclenchables; la 

résolution des conflits est nécessaire lorsque de l’étape de filtrage ont résulté 

plusieurs règles déclenchables et doit être choisie une pour être exécutée; 

l’exécution proprement-dite d’une règle consiste dans l’addition d’une ou 

plusieurs faits dans la base de faits. Il est aussi possible que dans cette étape on 

fasse appel aux procédures externes respectivement à l’accès aux données aux 

processeurs de tables, ou aux questions mises à l’utilisateur. 

L’apparition d’équipements informatiques et programmes performantes qui 

peuvent être achetés aux prix dérisoires permettent à chaque manager d’une 

firme industrielle de prendre en calcul l’utilisation de l’informatique sans 

assumer un risque financier trop grand. En pratique, il y a plusieurs modalités de 

choisir et utiliser un système expert. Ainsi, un premier choix doit suivre la 

possibilité du système expert de couvre l’écart du temps « t » ce qui existe entre la 

durée nécessaire pour obtenir une réponse et la durée nécessaire pour former 

des connaissances le moment où celui-ci est questionné . 

Le point de départ pour une certaine démarche a été la connaissance des 

principales caractéristiques de la technologie de coulage, comme modalité de 

familiarisation avec le procès proprement-dit d’exécution des opérations 

nécessaires pour obtenir les pièces coulées dans la forme finie, aux coûts le plus 

réduits possible et dans les conditions de la minimisation des risques d’apparition 

des defaults. 


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Ainsi, le coulage représente le procédé technologique de réalisation des pièces 

destinées aux outillages minières par la solidification du matériel fondu dans 

cavité d’une forme. Par comparaison avec les autres technologies, le coulage 

présente les avantages suivants: la possibilité d’obtenir des pièces avec une 

configuration complexe, d’une forme le plus possible prochaine de la forme finie; 

la quantité réduite de l’addition de traitement; l’utilisation des outillages de 

construction simple et bon marché; la réutilisation par fusion des déchets de 

matériel qui résultent pendant le procès technologique ou la récupération partielle 

de la valeur des rebuts; les coûts unitaires plus réduits des pièces coulées que 

ceux accomplies par autres procédés etc. Parmi les inconvenances associées à ce 

procédé technologique, les plus fréquents sont: les probabilités élevées d’obtenir 

des pièces avec défauts; les probabilités de résistance plus réduites envers les 

pièces forgées; véhiculer des quantités appréciables de matériaux pour obtenir les 

pièces, etc. 

La confection des formes représente l’opération d’impression du modèle de 

coulage dans le mélange de formation. Apres son extraction il reste l’anguille 

dans lequel on coule le métal fondu pour obtenir les pièces. C’est l’opération 

principale du procès technologique pour obtenir les pièces coulées et conditionnes 

décisivement leurs paramètres de qualité. La confection des formes peut être 

effectuée manuellement (dans des cadres, dans le sol ou avec le calibre) ou 

mécanisé (par jet, par foulage avec membrane, par secouement et pressage, par 

perforation etc.). 

Chez S.C. UTILAJUL S.A. on utilise la forme classique de formation manuelle 

dans des cadres caractérisée par coûts réduits afférents à la documentation, 

les matériaux de formation et les outils dans les conditions de la précision et de la 

qualité réduite des surfaces coulées. 

Le séchage des formes et des noyaux représente l’opération par lequel ceux-ci 

sont sujets au chauffage pour éliminer l’eau contenue dans les mélanges de 

formation et d’augmenter la capacité de liage des liants. Par séchage on réalise 

une augmentation considérable de la résistance mécanique du mélange de 

formation, mais aussi l’accroissement de la perméabilité et la limitation de la 

quantité des gazes qui se développent dans les formes pendant le coulage. Chez 

S.C. UTILAJUL S.A., le sécheur en lit fluidisant est utilisée tandis pour le 

séchage des noyaux que pour le séchage des formes. 

L’assemblage des formes afin d’être coulées consiste dans un tout unitaire des 

semi-formes et des noyaux. L’adossement des noyaux dans la cavité de la forme 

est fait par les marques, et lorsqu’elles manquent ou sont trop longues, par les 

supports en bois. Apres l’assemblage des formes et l’élaboration des alliages suit 

le coulage proprement-dit dans les formes. La prise du métal fondu du poche à 

couler et sa conduite dans la cavité de la forme est faite par la ligne de coulage. 


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Le décochage est l’opération par laquelle on sort la pièce du cadre de formation 

et on éloigne la majorité du mélange de formation de l’extérieur et le mélange 

de noyau dans les cavités intérieures des pièces. Le décochage des formes est 

effectué après le métal s’est solidifié et s’est rafraîchi à une température à laquelle 

ne peuvent pas apparaitre dangers de défauts, par un rafraîchissement plus rapide 

de la pièce en air. 

Le nettoyage est l’opération d’enlèvement du mélange de formation adhérent aux 

pièces coulées. D’habitude, le nettoyage est exécuté dans plusieurs étapes: 

le nettoyage sommaire réalisé afin de la démasselotter; le nettoyage préliminaire 

qui consiste dans l’enlèvement avancé du mélange de formation sur la pièce; le 

nettoyage final qui est exécuté après traitements thermiques appliqués et consiste 

dans l’enlèvement de tous les matériaux qui se trouvent encore sur la surface de la 

pièce (mélange de formation resté ou oxydes formés pendant le traitement 

thermique). 

Le nettoyage final mécanisé est réalisé chez S.C. UTILAJUL S.A. par les 

appareils de sablage qui dirigent un jet abrasif sur les pièces qui vont à être sujets 

à ce procès. 

Le démassolettage représente l’opération d’enlèvement des masselottes et du 

réseau de coulage sur la pièce. 

L’ébarbage présuppose l’enlèvement des bavures (le surplus de matériel qui 

apparait au plan de saturation de la forme) de la pièce coulée. 

Les traitements thermiques sont appliqués aux pièces coulées avec les buts 

suivants: l’élimination des tensions internes apparues au coulage; le soulagement 

du traitement par ciselage; l’amélioration des propriétés mécaniques lorsqu’on 

n’exécute plus autres traitements thermiques ou lorsqu’on suit la préparation de la 

structure afin d’obtenir des propriétés meilleures aux traitements thermiques 

ultérieures. 

La probabilité de l’apparition des defaults dans le coulage est plus élevée que dans 

les autres secteurs d’activité, raison pour laquelle le contrôle qualitatif doit 

se développer plus intensément. En tenant compte de cela, le contrôle qualitatif 

dans les fonderies est de deux types: le contrôle préliminaire, appliqué aux 

matériaux utilisés et aux opérations avant-coureurs au coulage de la pièce afin 

d’éliminer les possibilités d’apparition des defaults, respectivement le contrôle 

final, qui est exécuté sur la pièce coulée et doit se développer en deux étapes. 

Dans la première étape on suit la pièce en commençant du décochage et en 

passant par toutes les autres opérations pour dépister les éventuels défauts et pour 

adopter le plus rapidement possible les mesures correspondantes. Dans la 

deuxième étape, on exécute le contrôle sur les pièces, après que toutes les 

opérations pour obtenir la pièce brute coulée ont été finies, afin de retenir ces 


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pièces coulées qui ne correspondent pas aux traitements mécaniques, 

respectivement aux utilisation ultérieures. 

Ayant en vue ce que nous avons présenté avant, ensuite on a élaboré un système 

expert pour le management du procès technologique de coulage des métaux 

chez. UTILAJUL S.A. 

Système expert pour le management du procès technologique de coulage des 

métaux chez 

S.C. UTILAJUL 

/*LA BASE DE REGLES ET LA BASE DE FAITS*/ domains 

data_list=data_type* data_type=is(symbol,symbol); 

has(symbol,simbol); 

is in(symbol,symbol); 

is_on(symbol,symbol); 

is_by(symbol,symbol); 

cost(symbol,symbol); 

needs(symbol,symbol); 

predicates 

rule(integer,data_type,data_list,real) question(integer,data_type) 

clauses 

rule( 1 ,has(x,bad_form), 

[ison(x,sand_deposit)],l). 

rule(2,has(x,good_form), 

[is_by(x,models)],l). 

rule(2,has(x,good_form), 

[is_in(x,kernel)],l). 

rule(3,is(x,unsatisfactory), 

[has(x,bad form), 

has(x,reject)],l). 

rule(3,is(x,unsatisfactory), 

[has(x,badparameters)],l). 

rule(4,is(x,nice), 

[has(x, good_form), 

has(x,mechanical_debate)], 1). 


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rule(5,is(x,expensive), 

[cost(x,over_100)],l). 

rule(6,is(x,inexpensive), 

[cost(x,under_30)],l). 

rule(7,is(x,bad_part), 

[is(x,unsatisfactory), 

needs(x,repair)],l). 

rule(8,is(x,good_part), 

[is(x,inexpensive), 

has(x,processing)], 1). 

rule(8,is(x,bad_part), 

[is(x,nice), 

has(x,cleaning)], 1). 


[is(x,good_parameters), 

has(x,heat treatment)], 1). 


[is(x,expensive), 

has(x,processing), 

has(x,good_parameters)],l). 

question(l ,is_on(x,bad_part)):- 

write("Is",x," a bed part"). 

question(2 ,i s_by(x,sand_deposit): - 

write("Is ",x," into the sand deposit"). 

question(3,is_in(x,mixture):- 

write("Is ",x," in mixture"). 

question(4,has(x,good_part):- 

Write("Has ",x," good part"). 

question(5,cost(x,over_100)):- 

Write("Does it cost ",x," over 100"). 

question(6,cost(x,under_30)):- 

Write("Does it cost ",x," under 30"). 

question(7,needs(x,repair)):- 

Write("Needs ",x," repairs"). 

question(8 ,has(x,debate)): - 

Write("Has ",x," mechanical debate"). 


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question(9,has(x,heat_treatments)):- 

Write("Has ",x," heat treatments"). 

question(10,has(x,found_line)):- 

Write("Has ",x," found line"). 

question( 11 ,has(x,good processing)):- 

Write("Has ",x," good for processing"). 

/* LE MOTEUR D’INFERENCE ET INTERFACE UTILISATEUR * domains 

intl=integer* 

file=dest include "motor.kwl" database 

fact(data type) predicates 

proc user(char) 

startexp 

read_char(Char) 

interference(data_type,data list,intl,real) 

process rule(data_list,intl,integer) 

getresponse(symbol) 

validresponse(symbol,data_type,intl) 

get_first(data_list,data_type) 

delete(datatype,data_list,data_list) 

process(data_type) 

check ans(symbol,symbol) 

add_fact(datatype) 

check_fact(intl,data_type) 

process_why(intl) 

display rule(integer) clearfacts addl(integer,intl,intl) repeat 

convert(symbol,data_type) 

clauses 

start_exp:- 

makewindow(l,7,7,"Expert system", 1,1,20,20), repeat, 

write("i-init, a-add facts"), nl, write("q-quit, r-run"), nl, write("Enter your option: 

(i/a/q/r)"), read_char(char), procjiser(char). procuser('q'). proc_user('i'):-write("Clear all 

facts "), read char(Resp), Resp='y', clear_facts,fail. proc_user('a'):-write("Enter a fact:"), 

readln(S), convert(S,T), add_fact(T), !,fail. procuser('r'):-write("What's your query"), 

readln(Query), convert(Query,Term), process(Term), !, fail, clear_facts: - 

retractall(fact(_)). add_fact(T):-not(fact(T)), asserta(fact(T)). add fact(_) :_wr i te ("F ac t already 

exists"), nl. convert(S,T):- 


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openwrite(dest,"convt.dat"), write(S), closefüe(dest), openread(dest, "convt.dat"), 

readdevice(dest), 

closefile(dest), readdevice(keyboard). process(Query):- 

interference(Query, [Query], [] ,Prob), 

write("Your question",Query, 

"has been proved with", Prob, "probability"). process(Query):- 

write("Your question", Query, 

"cannot be proved"). interference(Query,Cond,Rlst,P):- 

check_fact(Rl st ,Q uery), 

delete(Query,Cond,NewCond), 

process j*ule(NewCond,Rlst,P). interference(Query,Cond,Rlst,P):- 

rule(Rno,Query,Condi,Prob), 

get_first(Condl,Q), 

addl(Rno,Rlst,Nrlst), 

interference(Q,Condl,Nrlst,Prob), 

delete(Query,Cond,NewCond), P1 =(P+Prob)/2, 

process rule(NewCond,Rlst,Pl). process _mle([],_,_). process_rule(Cond,Rlst,P):- 

get_first(Cond,Q), 

interference(Q,Cond,Rlst,P). getresponse(R):- 

readln(Ask), 

check_ans(Ask,Rep), !, 

R=Rep. getresponse(_):- 

write("Try another answer, please"), 

getresponse(R). check ans(yes,Y). check_ans(y,Y). check_ans(n,N). check_ans(n,no). 

check_ans(w, Why). check ans(W,Why). check_fact(_,Fact): - 

fact(Fact), 

write("Using fact -".Fact), nl. check fact(Rl st,Fact): - 

question(_,Fact), 

getresponse(Response), 

validresponse(Response,Fact.Rlist). validresponse( Y,_, _): -add fact(Fact). 

validresponse(W,Fact,Rlst):- 

process_why(Rlst),!, 

check_fact(Rlist,Fact). process_why([]). process why([Head|Tail]):- !, 

process_why(Tail), 

display_rule(Head). display_rule(H):- 

rule(H,Prop,_,_), 


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write("Procesing rule",H,":",Prop), nl. addl(Mem,L,[Mem|L]). get_first([H|J,H). 

delete(_,[],[]). 

delete(Head,[Head|Tail],Tail)> !. delete(Token,[Head|Tail],[Head|Result]):- !, 

delete(Token,Tail,Result). 

repeat. 

repeat:-repeat. 

Le système expert pour l’amélioration du management opérationnel afférent 

aux pièces coulées est destiné spécialement a l’assistance du personnel 

d’exploitation et de maintenance au diagnostic des défauts complexes qui peuvent 

apparaitre pendant le développement de ce procès et a l’efficacité des mesures 

techniquesqui doivent être entreprises après l’apparition des dysfonctions 

respectives. 

Ce système a l’avantage d’exploiter la mémoire des événements passés et 

l’expérience de plusieurs experts qui ont participé au fondement de la base de 

connaissance du système, sans être comprise dans un système expert, ces 

connaissances ne peuvent être transmises à ceux qui assurent l’utilisation du 

système par la suite. 

Les mutations complexes qui se produisent dans le contexte industriel actuel ont 

déterminé les firmes à révolutionner les stratégies, de chercher l’innovation 

permanente pour la préservation et/ou gagner des nouveaux segments de marché. 

Tout cela a lieu dans une période d’„explosion" des systèmes informatique, 

en accentuant la nécessité de l’intégration de toutes les activités de la firme à l’aide 

de l’ordinateur. Comme option stratégique dans le domaine du management 

opérationnel l’informatisation de l’activité par l’utilisation du système expert 

représente une modalité pragmatique d’efficience qui doit être exploitée par la 

suite chez S.C. UTILAJUL S.A., par faute des avantages incontestables tels que: 

la performance – les systèmes expert ne perdent pas leurs connaissances avec 

le passage du temps, étant capables de labourer sans cesse; la possibilité d’être 

multipliés – on peut faire aisément plusieurs copies d’un système expert, tandis 

que la création de nouveaux experts humains représente un procès long et couteux; 

l’efficience – présuppose des coûts réduits par comparaison avec l’effectuation 

des expertises par les spécialistes humains; la consistance – actions similaires sont 

travaillées et traitées de la même manière; l’objectivité – le système est 

non-influençable par comparaison avec les experts humains qui peuvent être 

subjectifs ; la documentation - un système expert peut offrir une documentation 

permanente du procès de décision; vitesse de travail grande etc. 


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REFERENCES 

[1] I.C. Dima – « Utilizarea sistemelor expert in management » – (Maison Éditrice « Scrisul 

Românesc », Craiova, Roumanie, 1997); 

[2] I.C. Dima – « Managementul activităţii industriale » – (Maison Éditrice « Academia 

Română », Bucarest, Roumanie, 1999); 

[3] I.C. Dima – « Abordarea sistemică a logisticii » – (Maison Éditrice « Arves », Craiova, 

Roumanie, 2008). 


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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 61 

DATA ALIGNING IN A SUPPLY CHAIN THROUGH GLOBAL 

DATA SYNCHRONIZATION STANDARDS 

AND EPC GLOBAL COORDINATED 

BY GLOBAL COMMERCE INITIATIVE 

Virgil POPA 1 

Abstract: The GDS vision it is focused around Master Data for “Article”, “Location”, 

and will be added soon after that. Master Data represents a set of data that describes the 

specification and structure of each Product (or Article) and Locations (or Parts) involved 

in the supply chain processes, through key identifiers, Global Trade Item Number (GTIN) 

and Global Location Number (GLN), Serial Shipping Container Code (SSCC). 

Global Registry of GS1 and interoperable Data Pool are the fundamental elements of the 

GDS process. The most important role of Global Registry oh GS1 is to make sure that the 

initial data are registered only one time, in one place. Data Pools allows the publication 

of certified standard data and the subscription to this data. 

Obtaining the benefits promised by ePC based on RFID will be possible if the networks 

solve also the inaccuracy data problem that exists today in the supply chains, mostly in 

retail. 

EPC GLOBAL develops standards for the radio frequents where RFID will operate to 

assure the global alignment of labels and readers. 

Key words: Supply Chain, Alignment, Efficient Consumer Response, Global 

Data Synchronization, Global Trade Item Number (GTIN), Global Location 

Number (GLN), Serial Shipping Container Code (SSCC), Global Commerce 

Initiative, RFID, EPC, Data Pools, Global Registry, Food Traceability, Data 

Traceability. 

The right moment for adapting a global systemic language in the fast moving 

consumer goods industry is now mature. From adopting and implementing 

these voluntary global systemic standards it will result benefices for the 

manufacturers and the suppliers, like income and productivity increasing, 

reducing working capital and the increasing consumer satisfaction. Especially 

Global Data Synchronization (GDS) will lead to a decreasing of the supply 

chain costs of 1.3%. 

A supply chain is optimized when the right quantity of products is available at 

the right place, at the right time. This dream can be reached now, by 

introducing GDS. The potential benefits are huge enormous. The industry can 

1 Prof. Ph. D. ECR Department Valahia University of Târgovişte 


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62 Virgil Popa 

substantially reduce (shrinkage) the waste and the costs, at the level of the 

supply chain links. This is the major benefit: better, faster and a lower price. 

The present reality is different. If the ideal is communicating instantly and 

facilitating exact data that are immediately understood, what exists now is a 

slaw and expensive communication with information that is often incomplete, 

inexact and misunderstood. Different language form a barrier for 

communication, creating a variety of costs: the time and money needed for the 

“translations”, the delays caused by the required corrections, and the inevitable 

blanks and the data’s misunderstanding. 

If we could have a choice, we would all choose the “high speed business” 

instead of a supply chain with confusion and data misunderstanding. Now, this 

alternative can become reality. With the existing technology as the Internet and 

the platforms based on it, the firms from the fast moving consumer goods 

industry have the unique opportunity to increase the efficiency level in the 

industry and distribution of the fast moving consumer goods. Using the best 

practices in ECR (Efficient Consumer Response) like CPFR (Collaborative 

Planning, Forecasting and Replenishment), this technologies can help the firms 

to make the dream about working better, faster and at a lower price, become 

reality. It appears the need of a common language for all these to be real 

efficient. If we will fail to realize this, the confusion, complexity and the 

current misunderstandings will increase. 

The potential benefits associated with the adaptation of the voluntary global 

standards will have an impact over a multitude of logistic processes, command 

management, catalogues maintenances and the category management. These 

benefits have been identified during the activity of developing the adaptation 

principles of the global standards and GDS. 

The basic building blocks of Global Trade Item Number (GTIN) and Global 

Location Number (GLN) have been around for a number of years whereas 

GDS is now being set in place. The GTIN is a single, unique number assigned 

to all products and services, so that these products and services can be easily 

and accurately identified by everyone, regardless of country, region or 

continent. The GLN provides businesses with a globally accepted method of 

identifying legal entities and locations, such as plants, offices, stores and any 

other shipping or receiving point. GDS is a process designed to help keep 

everyone in the industry on the same page by ensuring that basic data such as 

item and party information stored by one company matches the corresponding 

data in the systems of their business partners. 


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and EPC global coordinated by global commerce initiative 63 

The development of the business case rationale for GTIN/GLN/GDS led to a 

number of key conclusions: 

• Data synchronization is currently relatively underdeveloped. This situation 

is impeding further improvements in the supply chain. 

• Substantial benefits can be achieved. Even in the medium term, retailers 

and manufacturers can reduce their supply chain costs by 1 percent to 3 

percent, depending on their current state. In addition, there will be a 

positive impact on revenues from the recommended improvements. 

• The long-term benefits are even greater, as these foundational standards 

enable the large-scale implementation of collaborative business processes 

such as Collaborative Planning, Forecasting and Replenishment. 

• The benefits range from productivity gains and working capital reduction 

to revenue gains and customer satisfaction. 

• Companies of all sizes will enjoy the benefits. 

• The identification of the benefits makes it clear that the potential for 

improvement is comparable for manufacturers and retailers. The bottomline 

impact can be 10 percent to 15 percent for both. 

• To maximize the benefit potential, the industry must collaborate in order 

to improve end-to-end processes that involve item and party data 

exchange. 

• The implementation costs will vary considerably depending on the current 

state and ambition of each company. 

• Data accuracy is an absolute prerequisite for successful data 

synchronization. Without it, the process will only add costs. The 

development work also made clear the importance of taking a global 

approach. This global approach will result in less diversity in 

communication between existing trading partners (even locally), thereby 

reducing overhead. In addition, the ongoing growth of cross-regional 

trading within the industry will demand a global system language. And 

while a global approach to standards will make international trade easier 

and less prone to error, it will also provide these benefits within 

organizations that operate across regions. These objectives are achievable, 

but ongoing leadership and communication will be required to increase the 

awareness of GCI-endorsed standards and the benefits associated with 

adoption and implementation. Joint implementation projects between 

manufacturers and retailers will build credibility, accelerate the realization 

of benefits and lead to critical mass. The journey to implementation will 


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vary by company and can be mapped using the findings of the business 

case. It provides the elements to build your company specific justification 

for investments in these standards. 

The GDS Network consists of: 

• Interoperable, certified Data Pools 

• A Global Registry; provided by GS1 

• A set of EAN.UCC Standards, ensuring that all supply chain partners 

use common product descriptions and classification and the same message 

structures to exchange the data. 

Figure 1: The GCI Vision for GDS 

2. The Data Pool registers a product in 

the GS1 Global Registry and sends 

very basic information about the item. 

Registry 

3. The GS1 Global Registry holds 

this basic information about all 

items and the location of each 

items’ source Data Pool. 

Manufacturer 

1. A manufacturer will: 

•Align data internally 

•Prepare data for 

external publication in 

line with EAN.UCC 

standards 

•Publish item 

information to the 

source Data Pool 

•Synchronize changes 

to this date 

•Approve retailer 

requests to subscribe to 

date. 

5.The trading 

partners 

synchronize the 

item information 

between their 

respective Data 

P 

l 

Data 

pool Data 

pool 

Retailer 

6. The same process applies for 

synchronizing Party information, 

published by manufacturer or retailer, 

based on the GLN. 

4. A retailer will: 

•Search the GS1 Global 

Registry, via a selected 

Data Pool, for an item 

(by GTIN or by 

description) – the 

Registry returns the 

details of the items to the 

Data Pool 

• Request subscription 

to manufacturer data 

• Receive data and any 

subsequent changes 

• Align data with 

internal data. 

Source: ***, „An Integrated View of the Global Data Synchronisation Network and the 

Electronic Product Code Network”, Global Commerce Initiative, IBM, 2004 

The GS1 Global Registry and the interoperable Data Pools are at the heart of 

the GDS process. Their roles and functions are distinct but complementary. 

The key role of the GS1 Global Registry is to ensure that original data is 

registered once, at one place. Data Pools provide for the publication of 

certified standard data and subscription to this data. 

The Network works with the following principles: 

• The GS1 Global Registry and the Data Pools will be EAN.UCC certified 

• There is interoperability among all Data Pools and the GS1 Global 

Registry 


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• One single point of entry into the Network by all participants 

• Only the Data Pools will communicate with the GS1 Global Registry 

• Only GDS EAN.UCC Business Messages will be used within the 

Network. 

RFID-based EPC will fail in supply chains built on inaccurate data. 

Delivering the benefits promised by RFID-based EPCs will only be possible if 

trading networks also address the issue of inaccurate data that pervades today's 

supply chains, especially in the retail sector. There is little point in knowing 

that a case of goods with a particular EPC is speeding its way through the 

system if you think it is toothpaste when it is actually shampoo. Since the EPC 

is a GTIN based number, synchronizing the meaning of the GTIN during the 

order management process is critical to ensuring accurate fulfilment of that 

order and downstream supply chain processes based on EPC scanning. 

Figure 2. RFID technology 

Antenna: 

In inductive systems, a wafer-thin wire, the antena, is wound 

around the memory chip. The antena is used to send the 

information stored on the chip as well as to receive signal 

pules from the RFID reader. The unit comprising chip and 

antenna is referred to as a TAG or transponder. 

Microchip: 

A microscopically small data carrier can store a whole range 

of information (e.g. manufacturer, product version, serial 

number, expiry date, etc.) 

Depending on the kind of application and the chip, storage 

units can be repeatedly rewritten. 

Power supply: 

The power required to send and read the stored information 

is taken from the reader, which transmits electromagnetic 

waves. These are intercepted by the TAG and converted into 

energy in the chip using a mini-transformer. Alternatively, 

there are also TAGs that have an active power supply 

Reader: 

id d b i t b tt i t i th t i i 

The RFID reader communicates with the TAG with no contact or line-of-sight requirement. 

Installed at every point in the value chain, these interfaces independently process the data read 

and communicate with external data processing applications (such as inventory management 

systems, storage management, etc.) 

Source: ***, EPC Global Tag Data Standard, Powered by GS1, Standard Specification , 

2005 


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Therefore, prior to the implementation of RFID readers and tags, all retailers and 

their suppliers must adopt the single Global Data Synchronization (GDS) vision 

being promoted by the Global Commerce Initiative (GCI) 2 and EAN.UCC. 

EAN.UCC, the standards organization for retail, has not only developed a single 

standard for identifying products, the Global Trade Identification Number 

(GTIN), but also an infrastructure the Global Data Synchronization Network 

(GDSN)—to allow the retail industry to share data more easily. When fully 

implemented, GDS will allow detailed data about products from any supplier 

anywhere in the world to be accessed by any retailer anywhere in the world, 

through a network of locally held databases of GTINs called data pools. 

Table 1: A different Shelf Ready Packaging (SRP) with GTIN & EPC Bare Data 

2 The Global Commerce Initiative (GCI) is a voluntary body created in October 1999 to improve 

performance of the international supply chain for consumer goods through the collaborative 

development and endorsement of recommend standards and key business processes. 

GCI operates through an Executive Board composed of senior representatives of more than 45 

companies drawn equally from manufacturing and retailling and doing busines across continents 

organizations representating the interests of one million businesses, large and small. 

Four of the sporing bodies represent the interests of manufactures and retailers (AIM, CIES, GMA 

and FMI). Two sponsors (the ECR movements and VICS) develop working tools for the 

collaborative management of the supply chain. The other two bodies are the principal standards 

organisations, EAN Interantional and the Uniform Code Council, Inc. (UCC). 


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As with the barcode, a set of standards is emerging to govern the EPC data 

structure stored on RFID tags, so that a tag attached to a pallet by a supplier 

can be read and understood when that pallet reaches the customer. The format 

of EPCs is governed by EPC global, an RFID standards development joint 

venture between EAN International and Uniform Code Council. EPC global is 

also developing standards for the radio frequencies at which RFID tags will 

operate to ensure global interoperability of tags and readers. 

Electronic Product Code 

Figure 3. Structure of EPC: GTIN 14 Digits 

01 .0000A89 . 000 I 6 F . 00I69DC0 

Header Domain Manager Object Class Serial Number 

8 bits 28 bits 24 bits 36 bits 

Determines the 

structure of the 

following series 

of numbers 

Identifies the 

company or entity 

responsible for 

maintaining the 

subsequent number 

Used to identify an 

object class, which 

represents a group of 

products 

Unique object 

identification 

Indicator Digit EAN.UCC Prefix Product Number 

Check Digit 

Source: ***, „Electronic Product Code: RFID Drives The Next Revolution in Adaptive Retail 

Supply Chain Execution”, Global Exchange Services, 2004 

Decoding the number: 

Header-Used by readers to determine the type of data contained on the chip, ep., 

64-bit EPC vs. 96-bit EPC. 

Domain Manager-EAN.UCC Company Prefix 

Object Class-Combination of Product Hierarchy Indicator (00+UPCI2, or 

0+EAN 13) and Product Number (balance of GTIN minus check digit) 

Serial number-Consecutive number for each item produced. 

Note: The GTIN check digits is not encoded in an EPC. 


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RFID tags can be active, passive or semi-passive. Active tags include a battery 

that powers the antenna to broadcast a signal to be picked up by the reader. 

Passive tags have no battery but draw power from the reader, which sends out 

electromagnetic waves that induce a current in the tag's antenna. Semi-passive 

tags use a battery to run the chip's circuitry, but communicate by drawing power 

from the reader. Active and semi-passive tags can be read up to 100 feet (30 

meters) away while passive tags can only be read from within 10 feet (3 meters). 

Active and semi-passive tags are also much more expensive. This means they are 

economical for tracking high-value goods that need to be scanned from a distance 

but are not suitable for tagging very low cost items. 

By applying accepted standards, RFID is compatible with any network. And RFID 

is of most benefit when used across the board by every single partner along the 

value chain - from the manufacturer to the branch manager, working together 

hand-in-hand for fast, secure, free-flowing and cost-saving processes. 

Table 2: Overview of Benefits for Manufacturer and Retailer 

CORPORATE 

MANAGEMENT 

CATEGORY 

/PROMOTION 

MANAGEMENT 

ADMINISTRA 

TIV DATA 

HANDING 

LOGISTICS 

MANUFACTURER 

• Simplified corporate reporting 

• Expand geographic retailer base 

• Eliminate IT system redundancy 

• Opportunity for shared service creation 

• Improve visibility/stock-level planning 

• Product posting/maximize retail exposure 

• Reduce time spent on complaints/disputes 

• Simplified and enhanced category reporting 

• Reduce product introduction lead time 

• Reduce product promotion lead time 

• Eliminate need for cross-reference tables 

• Fewer invoice disputes 

• Fewer write-offs 

• Reduce accounts receivable 

• Fewer sales order defects 

• Simplified order tracking and tracing 

• Fewer return shipments 

• Improved rate of perfect orders 

• Fewer emergency orders 

• More accurate picking 

RETAILER 

• Simplified corporate reporting 

• Enable global sourcing 

• Corporate transparency/sales synergy 

• Eliminate IT system redundancy 

• Opportunity for shared service creation 

• Reduce need for local agents/intermediation 

• Expand supplier base 

• Corporate sourcing price transparency 

• Improve visibility/stock-level planning 

• Reduce time spent on complaints/disputes 

• Simplified and enhanced category reporting 

• Reduce product introduction lead time 

• Reduce product promotion lead time 

• Less catalogue maintenance 

• Eliminate need for cross-reference tables 

• Fewer invoice disputes 

• Fewer order defects 

• Improved fill rate 

• Error-free shipment receiving 

• Fewer return shipments 

• Fewer backorders 

• Less excess/safety stock 

• Optimized location dispatch 

• Optimized short-term planning 

Source: ***, „Creating the business Case for Global Data Synchronising in Your 

Company”, Cap Gemini Ernst & Young, Global Commerce Initiative, 2002 


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A GDS application in food traceability 

The Regulation 178/2002 on Food Safety 

The legal text says: “The traceability of food, feed, food-producing animals, and 

any other substance intended to be, or expected to be, incorporated into a food or 

feed shall be established at all stages of production, processing and distribution. 

Food and feed business operators shall be able to identify any person from whom 

they have been supplied with a food, a feed, a food producing animal, or any 

substance intended to be, or expected to be, incorporated into a food or feed. 

To this end, such operators shall have in place systems and procedures, which 

allow for this information to be made available to the competent authorities on 

demand. Food and feed business operators shall have in place systems and 

procedures to identify the other businesses to which their products have been 

supplied. This information shall be made available to the competent authorities on 

demand. Food or feed which is placed on the market or is likely to be placed on 

the market in the Community shall be adequately labelled or identified to 

facilitate its traceability, through relevant documentation or information in 

accordance with the relevant requirements of more specific provisions.” 

To assist material suppliers, manufacturers and retailers, EAN International has 

defined key traceability principles and produced an implementation grid which 

links them to enabling technologies and relevant EAN•UCC standards. The four 

key traceability principles are: 

1. Unique identification of products, logistic units and locations 

2. Traceability data capture and recording 

3. Links management and traceability data retrieval 

4. Traceability data communication 


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TRACEABILITY 

PRINCIPLES 

UNIQUE 

IDENTIFICATION 

DATA CAPTURE AND 

RECORDING 

LINKS MANAGEMENT 

DATA 

COMMUNICATION 

Table 3: EAN•UCC Traceability Implementation Grid 

ENABLING 

AUTOMATED 

IDENTIFICATION 

AUTOMATED DATA 

CAPTURE 

ELECTRONIC DATA 

PROCESSING 

ELECTRONIC DATA 

INTERCHANGE 

EAN.UCC SYSTEM 

TOOLS 

GTIN, SSCC, GLN, 

APPLICATIONS 

IDENTIFIERS 

EAN/UPC, 

UCC/EAN-128 

SOFTWARE 

APPLICATIONS 

EANCOM / XML 

• Source: ***, ECR – Using Traceability in the Supply Chain to Meet 

Consumer Safety Expectations, ECR Europe, 2004 

• 

Traceability links management and retrieval 

In a majority of supply chains, products are tracked and traced by their production 

lot, which has undergone the same transformation (production process) and by 

their transport/storage path (distribution process). 

Figure 4 shows the use of EAN•UCC standards for identifying locations (GLN), 

logistic units (SSCC – Serial Shipping Container Code), manufacturing lots (AI 

10) and consumer units (GTIN) in a production environment. Identification 

management in a production environment. 


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Figure 4: The food supply chain with the EAN.UCC Standards for 

identifying location logistic units & consumer units 

Source: ECR – Using Traceability in the Supply Chain to Meet Consumer Safety Expectations, 

ECR Europe, 2004 

Conclusions: 

The business cases developed either by ECR Europe, local EAN organizations or 

the Global Commerce Initiative have all shown the direct impact of the quality of 

the master data on the reliability of any supply chain process. 

The implementation of a master data synchronization process between all the 

partners, which may be involved in the traceability, withdrawal and recall 

processes, is crucial and highly recommended considering the sensitivity aspect of 

these processes linked to consumer safety and the absolute need for accurate and 

fast procedures. 


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REFERENCES 

[1] Popa Virgil, „Modelul global ECR privind trasabilitatea pe lanţul de distribuţie”, Sesiunea 

de comunicări ştiinţifice a cadrelor didactice, a cercetătorilor şi a practicienilor „Contribuţia 

majoră a lui J.M. Juran la managementul calităţii”, Târgovişte, 4-5 iunie 2004, Editura „Valahia 

University Press”, 2004; 

[2] Popa Virgil, Ionescu Aurelian, „RFID and EPC drives the next revolution in supply chain 

managemenet” , Le VI- eme Seminaire International, Universitatea Valahia din Targoviste & 

CEDIMES, 2004; 

[3] Popa Virgil „Evoluţia ECR. Standardizarea globală în procesele de afaceri.”, Primul 

Simpozion ECR Academic Partnership – România cu tema „Strategia ECR şi managementul 

lanţului logistic”, Târgovişte, 28-29 ianuarie 2005 Editura „Valahia University Press”, 2005; 

[4] Popa Virgil, Ionescu Aurelian, „Aplicaţii ale tehnologiei informaţiei şi comunicaţiilor în 

trasabilitatea produselor alimentare”, Simpozionul – Managementul calităţii produselor 

alimentare, Universitatea Valahia din Târgovişte, 17-18 iunie 2005, Editura „Valahia University 

Press”, 2005; 

[5] Popa Virgil, Ionescu Aurelian, „Strategic Alignment of Logistics Service Providers with 

Supply Chain Management – ECR Europe Standards”, Seminaire international “ESPACES 

EUROPEENS”, Târgovişte, Octobre, 2008 

[6] *** „Creating the business Case for Global Data Synchronising in Your Company”, Cap 

Gemini Ernst & Young, Global Commerce Initiative, 2002 

[7] *** „Electronic Product Code: RFID Drives The Next Revolution in Adaptive Retail 

Supply Chain Execution”, Global Exchange Services, 2004 

[8] *** „An Integrated View of the Global Data Synchronisation Network and the Electronic 

Product Code Network”, Global Commerce Initiative, IBM, 2004 

[9] *** „ECR – Using Traceability in the Supply Chain to Meet Consumer Safety 

Expectations”, ECR Eurpe, 2004 

[10] *** „EPC: A Shared Vision for Transforming Business Processes”, Global Commerce 

Initiative, IBM, 2005 

[11] *** „EPC Global Tag Data Standard”, Powerd by GS1, Standard Specification , 2005 


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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 73 

CURRENT EVOLUTIONS AND IMPACT OF DIGITAL 

TECHNOLOGIES 

CLAUDIA IONESCU 1 , VASILE DUMITRAŞ 2 

Abstract. Various observers describe today's global economy as one in transition to a 

knowledge economy, as an extension of an information society. The transition requires 

that the rules and practices that determined success in the industrial economy need 

rewriting in an interconnected, globalized economy where knowledge resources such as 

know-how and expertise are as critical as other economic resources. According to 

analysts of the knowledge economy, these rules need to be rewritten at the levels of firms 

and industries in terms of knowledge management and at the level of public policy as 

knowledge policy or knowledge-related policy. The digital and ICT revolutions are twin 

revolutions. Information and communications technology (ICT) refers to a broad field 

encompassing computers, communications equipment and the services associated with 

them. It includes the telephone, cellular networks, satellite communication, broadcasting 

media and other forms of communication. 

Keywords: knowledge, economy, digital, society, revolution 


One of the many challenges facing the countries today is preparing their societies 

and governments for globalization and the information and communication 

revolution. Policy-makers, business executives, academics, and ordinary citizens 

are increasingly concerned with the need to make their societies competitive in the 

emergent information economy. Technological breakthroughs have revolutionized 

communications and the spread of information. By the 1940s television was 

broadcasting both sound and visuals to a vast public. In 1943, the world’s first 

electronic computer was created. However, it was only with the invention of the 

microprocessor in the 1970s that computers became accessible to the public. In 

the 1990s, the Internet migrated from universities and research institutions to 

corporate headquarters and homes. All of these technologies deal with 

information storage and transmission. However, the one characteristic of 

computer technology that sets it apart from earlier analog technologies is that it is 

digital. Analog technologies incorporate a combination of light and sound waves 

to get messages across, while digital technology, with its system of discontinuous 

data or events, creates a universal model to represent information that is expressed 

by almost anything using light and sound waves. 

1 Academia de Studii Economice, Bucureşti 

2 Universitatea “Valahia” Târgovişte 


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74 Claudia Ionescu, Vasile Dumitraş 

To use an analogy, a digital world is a world united by one language, a world 

where people from across continents share ideas with one another and work 

together to build projects and ideas. More voluminous and accurate information is 

accumulated and generated, and distributed to an audience that understands 

exactly what is said. This in turn allows the recipients of the information to use it 

for their own purposes, to create ideas and to redistribute more ideas. The digital 

and ICT revolutions are twin revolutions. Information and communications 

technology (ICT) refers to a broad field encompassing computers, 

communications equipment and the services associated with them. It includes the 

telephone, cellular networks, satellite communication, broadcasting media and 

other forms of communication. Today, voice is translated into data packets, sent 

over networks to remote locations, sometimes thousands of kilometres away, and, 

upon receipt, translated back to voice. Even television is not immune to 

digitization. It is also possible to use the television to surf the Internet. The digital 

TV will allow people from different locations to chat with each other while 

watching a program. With everything becoming digital, television, voice 

telephony, and the Internet can use similar networks. 

2. The main characteristics of digital technology 

The main characteristics of digital technology are: 

Media Integrity. Data stored in analog formats cannot be reproduced without 

degradation. The more copies made, the worse the copies get. Digital data, on the 

other hand, do not suffer such deterioration with reproduction. For instance, 

movies, videos, music and audio files in digital format can be copied and 

distributed with a quality that is as good as the original. 

Media Integration. One of the major limitations of many conventional 

technologies is their inability to combine media types. With digital data, it is easy 

to combine media. Thus, phones with video, or interactive sound with pictures, 

become possible. Hence the term multimedia. 

Flexible Interaction. The digital domain supports a great variety of interactions, 

including one-on-one conferences, one-to-many broadcasts, and everything in 

between. In addition, these interactions can be synchronous and in real time. 

Transactions. The ability to combine the transactional capability of computers and 

computer networks with digital media is another interactive advantage of the 

digital domain. Placing an order and finalizing a transaction becomes as easy as 

filling in an electronic form and clicking a button. 


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Evolutions and impact of digital technologies 75 

Tailoring. Software developed for digital communications and interaction is 

designed so that users may tailor their use of the tool and the media in a manner 

not possible with conventional analog technologies. 

Editing . The conventional alternatives for manipulating text, sound, images, and 

video are almost always more cumbersome or limited than the new digital tools. 

Unlike the telephone, radio or television, the Internet is a many-to-many 

communication medium. 

The Internet is a network of networks. It is a global set of connections of 

computers that enables the exchange of data, news and opinion. Aside from being 

a communications medium, the Internet has become a platform for new ways of 

doing business, a better way for governments to deliver public services and an 

enabler of lifelong learning. The Internet has become the fastest growing mass 

medium. 

3. Some of the consequences of the digital and ICT revolutions 

The progressive digitization of mass media and telecommunications content 

begins to blur earlier distinctions between the communication of information and 

its processing, as well as between people and machines. Digitization makes 

communications from persons to machines, between machines, and even from 

machines to persons as easy as it is between persons. Also blurred are the 

distinctions among information types: numbers, words, pictures, and sounds, and 

eventually even sensations, all might be stored, processed, and communicated in 

the same digital format. 

On a societal level, the digital and ICT revolutions make possible better and 

cheaper access to knowledge and information. This speeds up transactions and 

processes and reduces their cost, which in turn benefit citizens and consumers. 

The ability of ICTs to traverse time and distance allows human beings to interact 

with each other in new ways. 

Technological revolutions are all characterized by their pervasiveness, that is by 

their penetration of all domains of human activity, not as an exogenous source of 

impact, but as the fabric in which such activity is integrated. 

New technologies threaten existing power and economic relationships, and those 

that benefit from these old relationships put up barriers to the spread of the new 

technologies. Moreover, laws can deter (or encourage) the spread of new 

technologies. For example, the lack of legal recognition for digital contracts and 

digital signatures is holding back electronic commerce. 


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The establishment of property rights is one of the most crucial events along the 

technological frontier. It allows the market to unfold in a predictable way, and 

gives pioneers a hefty dose of ownership and security. Most important, perhaps, 

the creation of property rights also marks the difference between pioneers and 

pirates, between those whose claim on the new technology is legitimate and those 

whose claim is not. 

4. The main features of the information economy 

The information economy is global. A historically new reality, the global 

economy has the capacity to work as a unit in real time on a planetary scale. 

Corporations and firms now have a worldwide base for skilled labour to tap. 

Capital flows freely between countries, and countries can utilize this capital in 

real time. 

However, some critics claim that a true global economy has yet to be achieved. 

Multinational corporations still maintain their assets and strategic command 

centers in their home nations, and capital is still limited by banking and finance 

laws. 

Even if globalization has not yet been fully realized, it will only be a matter of 

time before this happens. Globalization will be affected by government 

regulations and policies, which will affect international boundaries and the 

structure of the global economy. 

A second characteristic of the information economy is that it is highly productive. 

Productivity growth in the new economy sectors has made a significant 

contribution to economy-wide productivity growth. Some critics argue that there 

is no relationship between profitability and investment in ICT. 

A third characteristic of the information economy is the change in the manner of 

obtaining profits. Now profits come from speed of innovation and the ability to 

attract and keep customers. Where before the winners were big corporations, now 

the winners are small, highly flexible groups that devise great ideas, develop 

trustworthy branding for themselves and their products, and market these 

effectively. The winning competitors are those who are first at providing lower 

prices and higher value through intermediaries of trustworthy brands. But the 

winning is temporary, and the race is never over. Those in the lead cannot stop 

innovating lest they fall behind the competition. 


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5. Information economy, knowledge economy, digital economy or network 

economy 

The terms information economy, knowledge economy, digital economy, or the 

network economy are used interchangeably. Various observers describe today's 

global economy as one in transition to a knowledge economy, as an extension of 

an information society. The transition requires that the rules and practices that 

determined success in the industrial economy need rewriting in an interconnected, 

globalized economy where knowledge resources such as know-how and expertise 

are as critical as other economic resources. According to analysts of the 

knowledge economy, these rules need to be rewritten at the levels of firms and 

industries in terms of knowledge management and at the level of public policy as 

knowledge policy or knowledge-related policy. 

The initial foundation for the knowledge economy was first introduced in 1966 in 

the book The Effective Executive by Peter Drucker. The knowledge economy is a 

networked economy. The concept stresses the important role of links among 

individuals, groups and corporations in the new economy. It has been argued that 

networks have always been an ideal organizing tool due to their inherent 

flexibility and adaptability. 

A digital economy is an economy that is based on electronic goods and services 

produced by an electronic business and traded through electronic commerce. That 

is, a business with electronic production and management processes and that 

interacts with its partners and customers and conducts transactions through 

Internet and Web technologies. 

6. Electronic business 

Electronic Business, commonly referred to as eBusiness or e-Business, may be 

defined as the utilisation of information and communication technologies (ICT) in 

support of all the activities of business. Commerce constitutes the exchange of 

products and services between businesses, groups and individuals and hence can 

be seen as one of the essential activities of any business. Hence, electronic 

commerce or eCommerce focuses on the use of ICT to enable the external 

activities and relationships of the business with individuals, groups and other 

businesses. 

In practice, e-business is more than just e-commerce. While e-business refers to 

more strategic focus with an emphasis on the functions that occur using electronic 

capabilities, e-commerce is a subset of an overall e-business strategy. E-commerce 

seeks to add revenue streams using the World Wide Web or the Internet to build 

and enhance relationships with clients and partners and to improve efficiency. 


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Often, e-commerce involves the application of knowledge management systems. 

E-business involves business processes spanning the entire value chain: electronic 

purchasing and supply chain management, processing orders electronically, 

handling customer service, and cooperating with business partners. Special 

technical standards for e-business facilitate the exchange of data between 

companies. E-business software solutions allow the integration of business 

processes. E-business can be conducted using the Web, the Internet, intranets, 

extranets, or some combination of these. 

The software used for computers merely reorganizes traditional work, which had 

been based on experience. This is done through the application of knowledge, in 

particular systematic, logical analysis. Setting up an IT structure is not enough. To 

maintain leadership in the new economy, the social position of knowledge 

professionals and the social acceptance of their values should be guaranteed. 

Technological development, from better transportation and carrier services to the 

telephone and mass media, has created a smaller, more integrated world. Now, the 

ICT revolution is making the world even smaller and more integrated. 

Communications, trade and employment, personal and political transactions are 

now occurring on a global scale, in real time, ignoring boundaries between states. 

The ICT revolution has transformed not only how (and where) goods are 

produced but also how commodities are exchanged. E-commerce is buying and 

selling over the Internet or any transaction concluded through an information 

network involving the transfer of ownership or rights to use goods or services. 

More precisely, it includes all business transactions that use electronic 

communications and digital information processing technology to create, 

transform and redefine relationships for value creation between organizations, and 

between organizations and individuals. The different types of e-commerce are: 

business-to-business (B2B); business-to-consumer (B2C); business-togovernment 

(B2G); consumer-to-consumer (C2C); and mobile commerce (mcommerce). 

7. Collaborative Working Environment 

A Collaborative Working Environment (CWE) supports people in their individual 

and cooperative work. Research in CWE involves organizational, technical, and 

social issues. An emerging category of computer software, collaboration 

platforms are unified electronic platforms that support synchronous and 

asynchronous communication through a variety of devices and channels. 


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Collaboration platforms offer a set of software components and software services 

that enable individuals to find each other and the information they need and to be 

able to communicate and work together to achieve common business goals. The 

core elements of a collaboration platform are messaging (email, calendaring and 

scheduling, and contacts), team collaboration (file synchronization, ideas and 

notes, task management, full-text search), and real-time collaboration and 

communication (e.g., presence, instant messaging, Web conferencing, application/ 

desktop sharing, voice, audio and video conferencing), and Social Computing 

tools (e.g., blog, tagging, shared bookmarks).Actually, the Collaboration 

platforms could be proprietary or open source or free software, and tend to be 

used in a wider information and communication environments, representing the 

collaboration platform one module or package more to be integrate in a bigger 

platform. 

8. Content management systems 

A content management system (CMS) is a computer application used to create, 

edit, manage, and publish content in a consistently organized fashion. CMSs are 

frequently used for storing, controlling, versioning, and publishing industryspecific 

documentation such as news articles, operators' manuals, technical 

manuals, sales guides, and marketing brochures. The content managed may 

include computer files, image media, audio files, video files, electronic 

documents, and Web content. 

9. Standardization 

OASIS (Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards) 

is a not-for-profit consortium that drives the development, convergence and 

adoption of open standards for the global information society. The consortium 

produces more Web services standards than any other organization along with 

standards for security, e-business, and standardization efforts in the public sector 

and for application-specific markets. Founded in 1993, OASIS has more than 

5,000 participants representing over 600 organizations and individual members in 

100 countries. 

The Consortium hosts two of the most widely respected information portals on 

XML and Web services standards, Cover Pages and XML.org. OASIS was 

founded in 1993 under the name SGML Open as a consortium of vendors and 

users devoted to developing guidelines for interoperability among products that 

support the Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML). OASIS changed its 

name in 1998 to reflect an expanded scope of technical work, including the 

Extensible Markup Language (XML) and other related standards. 


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Electronic Business using eXtensible Markup Language, commonly known as e- 

business XML, or ebXML as it is typically referred to as, is a family of XML based 

standards sponsored by OASIS and UN/CEFACT whose mission is to provide an 

open, XML-based infrastructure that enables the global use of electronic business 

information in an interoperable, secure, and consistent manner by all trading 

partners. 

The ebXML architecture is a unique set of concepts; part theoretical and part 

implemented in the existing ebXML standards work. 

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has approved the 

following five ebXML specifications as the ISO 15000 standard, under the general 

title, Electronic business eXtensible markup language: 

ISO 15000-1: ebXML Collaborative Partner Profile Agreement 

ISO 15000-2: ebXML Messaging Service Specification 

ISO 15000-3: ebXML Registry Information Model 

ISO 15000-4: ebXML Registry Services Specification 

ISO 15000-5: ebXML Core Components Technical Specification, Version 2.01. 

10. Electronic Data Interchange 

Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) refers to the structured transmission of data 

between organizations by electronic means. The National Institute of Standards 

and Technology (NIST) defines Electronic Data Interchange as the computer-tocomputer 

interchange of strictly formatted messages that represent documents 

other than monetary instruments. EDI implies a sequence of messages between 

two parties, either of whom may serve as originator or recipient. The formatted 

data representing the documents may be transmitted from originator to recipient 

via telecommunications or physically transported on electronic storage media. 

Even in this era of technologies such as XML web services, the Internet and the 

World Wide Web, EDI is still the data format used by the vast majority of 

electronic commerce transactions in the world. The EDI standards were designed 

to be independent of communication and software technologies. EDI can be 

transmitted using any methodology agreed to by the sender and recipient. This 

includes a variety of technologies, including modem (asynchronous, and 

bisynchronous), FTP, Email, HTTP, AS1, AS2, etc. It is important to differentiate 

between the EDI documents and the methods for transmitting them. When they 

compared the bisynchronous protocol 2400 bit/s modems, CLEO devices, and 

value-added networks used to transmit EDI documents to transmitting via the 

Internet, some people equated the non-Internet technologies with EDI and 


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predicted erroneously that EDI itself would be replaced along with the non- 

Internet technologies. These non-internet transmission methods are being replaced 

by Internet Protocols such as FTP, telnet, and E-mail, but the EDI documents 

themselves still remain. 

There are four major sets of EDI standards: 

• The UN-recommended UN/EDIFACT is the only international standard 

and is predominant outside of North America. 

• The US standard ANSI ASC X12 (X12) is predominant in North America. 

• The TRADACOMS standard developed by the ANA (Article Numbering 

Association) is predominant in the UK retail industry. 

• The ODETTE standard used within the European automotive industry. 

11. Top 10 technologies to watch over the next three years 

At the recent Gartner Symposium 2008 ITxpo, Gartner analysts presented their 

insights into the top 10 technologies and trends to rule the world in 2009.With 

emphasis on virtualization, organizations should also pay close attention to cloud 

computing, green IT, Business Intelligence (BI) and social software — among 

other strategic trends. These technologies impact the organization’s long-term 

plans, programs and initiatives. They may be strategic because they have matured 

to broad market use, or because they enable strategic advantage from early 

adoption. 

Gartner definition: a strategic technology is one with the potential for significant 

impact on the enterprise in the next three years. Factors that denote significant 

impact include a high potential for disruption to IT or the business, the need for a 

major dollar investment, or the risk of being late to adopt. Companies should 

factor these technologies into their strategic planning process by asking key 

questions and making deliberate decisions about them during the next two years. 

Sometimes the decision will be to do nothing with a particular technology. In 

other cases it will be to continue investing in the technology at the current rate. In 

still other cases the decision may be to test/pilot or more aggressively 

adopt/deploy the technology. 

Gartner analysts gave a crowd of IT leaders at the Gartner Symposium ITxpo 2008 

a list of the top 10 technologies that will provide important strategic advantages to 

IT over the next three years. They encouraged the leaders to keep these 

technologies in mind as they formulate budgets and long-term plans. Companies 

should look at these 10 opportunities and evaluate where these technologies can 


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add value to their business services and solutions, as well as develop a process for 

detecting and evaluating the business value of new technologies as they enter the 

market.” 

The list in the presentation “Top 10 Strategic Technology Areas for 2009″ at the 

Orlando event contains: 

• Virtualization. Virtualization in storage and client devices is also moving 

rapidly. In addition, such virtualization trends as data deduplication can 

significantly decrease the cost of storage devices and media to hold 

information. Gartner notes that, despite ambitious deployment plans from 

many organizations, deployments of hosted virtual desktop capabilities will be 

adopted by fewer than 40% of target users by 2010.In the current economic 

slump, organizations can get more for implementing virtualization software 

rather than buying new servers. There are plenty of virtualization products on 

the market right now to help tight IT budgets. 

• Cloud Computing. With players like Amazon Web Services, Google Apps, 

IBM, HP and many others already in the cloud, cloud computing is another 

hot topic. As per Gartner, the key characteristics of cloud computing are: 

- SaaS capabilities 

- Delivery of services in a highly scalable and elastic fashion 

- Usage of Internet technologies and techniques to develop and 

deliver the services 

- Designing for delivery to external customers 

- Some of the potential benefits of cloud computing include cost 

savings and the built-in elasticity. These features allow for lower 

barriers to entry and quick scalability and growth. 

• Beyond Blade Servers Just like it was predicted earlier this year, green IT is 

much hyped about, and servers will continue to evolve in 2009 beyond the 

blade server stage that exists today. This evolution will simplify the 

provisioning of capacity to meet growing needs. It will also make it easier on 

the inventory of systems, eliminating the need to track and purchase various 

sizes and configurations. The result will be higher utilization because of 

lessened “waste” of resources that are in the wrong configuration, for example. 

• Green IT. Going hand in hand with growing beyond blade servers, shifting to 

more efficient products can allow for a greener energy footprint. Multiple 

regulations are out there designed to govern companies in building data 

centers due to their impact on power grids and carbon emissions. 

• Web-Oriented Architectures. With the continuing emergence of Web-centric 

technologies and standards, Gartner expects that continued evolution of the 


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Web-centric approach will enable its use “in an ever-broadening set of 

enterprise solutions during the next five years.” 

• Enterprise Mashups. Much in agreement with Forrester Research, Gartner 

believes that in 2009 enterprises may be taking mashups from Web 2.0 to 

Enterprise 2.0 levels “to augment their models for delivering and managing 

applications.” Through 2010, the enterprise mashups should experience 

significant development in a search for potential benefit they may offer to 

enterprises. 

• Specialized Systems. Heterogeneous systems seem to be an emerging trend in 

high-performance computing to address the requirements of the most 

demanding workloads. Gartner predicts that this approach will eventually 

reach the general-purpose computing market. Heterogeneous systems are 

viewed as specialized systems with the same single-purpose imitations of 

appliances, but the heterogeneous system is a server system, into which the 

owner installs software to accomplish its function. 

• Social Software and Social Networking. Social software - in all its shapes 

and forms of social networking, social collaboration, social media and social 

validation - is something organizations should consider along with mashups. 

Gartner thinks it’s better to adopt a social platform sooner, rather than later, 

because the greatest risk lies in failure to engage by coming too late to the 

party. 

• Unified Communications. According to Gartner, during the next five years 

the number of different communications vendors will be reduced by at least 

50% due to the increased capability of application servers. Hence, there could 

be a massive consolidation in the communications industry. Organizations 

must build careful, detailed plans for all their communications functions’ 

replacement and convergence. 

• Business Intelligence (BI). BI has the potential to positively impact a 

company’s business performance, dramatically improving its ability to 

accomplish its mission by making smarter decisions at every level of the 

business, says Gartner. BI is particularly strategic due to its relation towards 

business managers and knowledge workers — the main organizational 

thinkers and decision-makers. Providing them with appropriate BI tools will 

only make their jobs so much more effective and easier. 

Strategic technologies affect, run, grow and transform the business initiatives of 

an organization. Companies should look at these 10 opportunities and evaluate 

where these technologies can add value to their business services and solutions, as 

well as develop a process for detecting and evaluating the business value of new 

technologies as they enter the market. 


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REFERENCES 

[1] Sam Lubbe, Documentation Standards for E-commerce Organisations (ISACA, 

INFORMATION SYSTEMS CONTROL JOURNAL, VOLUME 5, USA, 2003). 

[2] Carl Shapiro, Hal Varian, Information Rules: A Strategic Guide to the Networked Economy 

(Harvard Business School Press, Boston, USA, 1999). 

[3] Aseem Prakash, Jeffrey A. Hart, Globalization and Governance (Routledge, London, UK, 

1999). 

[4] Ohmae Kenichi, The invisible continent: four strategic imperatives of the new economy 

(Harper Business, New York, USA, 2000). 

[5] Progress in making e-services accessible to all, National Audit Office UK, 

http://www.nao.gov.uk/pn/02-03/0203428.htm. 

[6] Carl Claunch, Dave Cearley, Top 10 Strategic Technology Areas for 2009 (ITxpo 

Symposium, Orlando, 2008). 

[7] Minimum technical standards for government websites, World Wide Consortium (W3C), 

http://www.w3c.org. 

[8] Ken Stasiak, Web Application Security (ISACA, INFORMATION SYSTEMS CONTROL 

JOURNAL, VOLUME 6, USA, 2002). 


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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 85 

SYSTEME CYBERNETIQUE UTILISE DANS L’ANALYSE 

DU SYSTEME NATIONAL D’EDUCATION 

Mariana MAN 1 , Vergil CIUREA 2 


L’approche systémique des procès de management modèles réalisés en vertu 

de la connaissance approfondie du système étudié permet la consolidation 

des décisions pour obtenir une bonne évolution du système, dans des conditions 

de perturbations. Le modèle représente ainsi un instrument utile dans l’évaluation 

du système étudié. 

Dans l’élaboration des modèles économiques-mathématiques, la théorie 

économique 

a un rôle très important parce qu’elle formule les catégories, les concepts et les lois 

objectives de la réalité économique. Seulement en s‘appuyant sur la théorie 

économique les modèles mathématiques peuvent représenter fidèlement 

les phénomènes économiques. 

On connait les types de modèles suivants : modèles verbaux-descriptifs (utilisés 

dans toutes les disciplines non mathématisées) modèles mathématiques, modèles 

physiques, modèles analogiques (du type des maquettes statiques ou dynamiques), 

modèles graphiques, etc. 

Dans le management scientifique, dans les derniers décennies, les modèles sont 

utilisés dans toute la diversité de types qu’il y a, en s’exposant brièvement ainsi de 

plus en plus la tendance d’utiliser surtout les modèles du type 

mathématique-cybernétique, spécialement a la suite de leur capacité de condenser 

rigoureusement 

l’essentiel, 

ainsi que de leur possibilité d’être résous a l’aide des ordinateurs électroniques. 

L’utilisation des modèles cybernétiques pour l’analyse du Système National 

d’Education nécessite l’élaboration d’une méthodologie complexe qui est fondée 

sur des principes généraux de l’analyse des systèmes cybernétiques-économiques, 

qui peuvent être formulés ainsi : 

• La tendance intégratrice de l’analyse complexe des systèmes, fondée sur 

la synthèse des méthodes du management scientifique, l’analyse et la diagnose 

des systèmes ; 

1 Prof. Univ. dr., l’Université de Petroşani, Roumanie 

2 

Dr. l’Université « Alma Mater », Sibiu, Roumanie 


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86 Mariana Man, Vergil Ciurea 

• L’orientation de l’activité d’analyse vers les problèmes clef / pertinents des 

systèmes ; 

• La nécessite d’une activité permanente d’analyse complexe des systèmes ; 

• L’initiation et la coordination de l’analyse des sous-systèmes à l’intérieur du 

système ; 

• L’application flexible des solutions proposées dans le projet du nouveau 

système ; 

• L’adoption d’une organisation ouverte, participative ; 

• Le sondage et la valorisation des relations interhumaines ; 

• La combinaison des approches formalisées avec l’intuition et l’expérience des 

gouverneurs 

• Le sondage des aspects multidimensionnels des problèmes approchés ; 

• L’analyse et la projection informationnelle-décisionnelle des systèmes dès la 

phase d’investissements doit s’étendre dès celles en fonction aux formes 

spécifiques d’analyse et projection informationnelle – décisionnelle pour les 

systèmes futures. 

De la multitude de modèles cybernétiques on peut utiliser Le modèle hiérarchique 

qui peut être défini par les variables suivantes : 

- Vecteur d’entrée (perturbation) 

ω(t) = (ω 1 (t), …, ω 2 (t) ΩR q (1) 

où : Ω représente l’ensemble des entrées ; 

- Le vecteur de commande 

u(t)=(u 1 (t), ...,u p (t)) UR p (2) 

où : U représente l’ensemble des commandes admissibles ; 

- Le vecteur d’état : 

x(t)=(x 1 (t), ...,x m (t)) XR m (3) 

- où : X représente l’espace des états ; 

- Le vecteur de sortie : 

y(t)=(y 1 (t),y 2 (t),...,y n (t)) YR n (4) 

où : Y représente l’espace des sorties. 

Dans le modèle hiérarchique on introduit l’ensemble des variables de coordination 

S={S 1 ,S 2i , ...,S ri ..., …} (5) 


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Systeme cybernetique utilise dans l’analyse du systeme national d’education 87 

Cette-ci est douée avec la relation d’ordre " > ", pour S 1 > S 2 et on apprécie que 

S 1 coordine a S 2 ayant les propriétés suivantes : la réflexivité: S 1 > S 1 ; l’antisymétrie: 

Si> S2, S 2 > S 1 =>S1>S2; la transitivité: Si> S 2 , S 2 > S 3 =>S 1 > S 3 . 

On introduit aussi l’ensemble des variables d’interaction (couplage). 

V={v 1 v 2 ,...,v i } (6) 

Cette-ci exprime la dépendance entre les sous-systèmes qui se trouvent au même 

niveau hiérarchique. 

Sur les ensembles ainsi définis on introduit les fonctions suivantes: la fonction 

d’entrée : η : ω:T-X Y 

Dans ce modèle, on introduit la fonction de coordination et la fonction 

d’interaction, ainsi, la fonction de coordination peut être décrite dans le schéma 

suivant aux deux niveaux, (fig. no. 1) 

Figure no. 1 Les niveaux de la fonction de coordination 

Il résulte ainsi que f: T-Ω-S S. La fonction d’interaction (couplage) peut être 

introduite en partant de l’exemple des deux sous-systèmes qui se trouvent au même 

niveau hiérarchique. (fig. no. 2) 

Figure no. 2 Systèmes au même niveau hiérarchique 


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La fonction d’interaction (couplage) sera donc g: T – X V. Dans la figure 3 on 

représente les principales connexions dans le modèle hiérarchique : 

Figure no.3 Les principales connexions dans le modèle hiérarchique du système cybernétique 

Pour le Système National d’Education le modèle hiérarchique se présente ainsi : 

a) le vecteur d’entrée 

V i (t)={V 1 (t)...V j (t)... V n (t)} I R + 

V j (t) – le vecteur de l’ensemble d’entrée "j" dans le moment "t" ; 

I – l’ensemble des vecteurs ensembles d’entrée; 

R + - l’ensemble des numéros réels positifs. 

La composition du vecteur d’entrée peut être: 

• Le numéro des chômeurs enregistrés avec le niveau d’éducation "i" (NS i ) ; 

• Le numéro total des chômeurs enregistrés aux agences d’emploi (NS t ); 

• Le numéro des enfants inscrits dans l’enseignement préscolaire, 

indifféremment de l’âge (N cp ) ; 

• La population d’âge officiellement correspondante a l’enseignement 

préscolaire (P p ). 

• La population d’âge "i" comprise dans l’enseignement préscolaire (E i ) ; 

• La limite supérieure de l’âge officielle de scolarisation (n); 


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• La population d’âge "i" (P;) 

• La rate de transition de l’enseignement primaire 'h' a l’enseignement 

secondaire inferieur "h+1" dans l’année scolaire "t"'(RT h,h +1 ); 

• Le numéro des élèves compris dans la première classe de l’enseignement 

secondaire inferieur "h+1" dans l’année scolaire "t+1"(E t+1 h+1,1); 

• Le numéro des élèves qui répètent la première classe de l’enseignement 

secondaire inferieur "h+1" dans l’année scolaire "t+1" (R t+1 h+1,1); 

• Le numéro des élèves compris dans la dernière classe de l’enseignement 

primaire "f' dans l’année scolaire "t" (E t h, f); 

• Le numéro total des élèves compris dans l’enseignement tertiaire dans l’année 

scolaire "t" (E t ); 

• La population du groupe d’âge "a", le groupe officiel d’âge correspondante à 

l’enseignement tertiaire dans l’année scolaire "t" (P t a); 

• Le total de dépenses publiques pour l’éducation dans l’année financière "t" 

(TCP th ) ; 

• Le produit interne brut dans l’année financière "t" pour un certain niveau 

d’éducation (PIB t ); 

• Le total des dépenses privés pour le niveau d’éducation "h" dans l’année 

financière "t" (TCp t h); 

• Le produit interne brut dans l’année financière "t" pour le niveau d’éducation 

"h" (PIB t h); 

• Le niveau d’éducation conformément à la classification ISCED ; 

• etc. 

b) le vecteur de commande (calcul) 

U c (t) = {U 1 (t) ... U j (t) ... U m (t)} U I sm 

U j (t) – le vecteur de commande au moment "t"; 

U – l’ensemble des vecteurs de commande; 

I sm – l’ensemble des indicateurs statistiques – mathématiques. 


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Quelque V j (t) peut avoir la forme : 

• Vi(t) x 100/1000 

Vj(t) 

• Vi(t) 

Vi(t -1) 

• Vi(t) . 100/1000 – 100/1000 

Vi(t -1) 

• Σ Vi(t) 

• Vi (t) – Vj (t) 

• Σ Vi(t) 100/1000 

Vj(t) 

• Etc. 

La composition du vecteur de commande peut être: 

• NSi x 100 

NSt 

• Ncp x 100 

Pp 

n 

• Σ Ei x 100 

i=1 Pi 

• [(E t+1 h+1,1 – R t+1 h+1,1) / E t h, f] x 100 

• (E t / P t a) x 100 

• (TCP th/ PIB t ) x 100 

• (TCp th / PIB th ) x 100 

• Etc. 


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c) Le vecteur de sortie 

E e (t) ={E 1 (t), … E j (t), … E p (t) } )} E R + 

E j (t) – le vecteur des ensembles d’entrée "j" au moment "t" ; 

E – l’ensemble des vecteurs des ensembles d’entrée; 

R – l’ensemble des numéros réels positifs. 

La composition du vecteur de sortie peut être: 

• Le poids des chômeurs enregistrés par niveaux d’éducation ( S i ); 

• La rate brute d’inclusion scolaire des enfants dans l’enseignement préscolaire 

(RB P ); 

• La durée moyenne de fréquence de l’enseignement préscolaire (DMF P ); 

• La rate de transition dans l’enseignement secondaire inferieur (RT t h, h+1 ); 

• La rate brute d’inclusion dans l’enseignement tertiaire (RBC t ); 

• Le pourcentage des dépenses publiques pour éducation dans l’année 

financière "t" au niveau "h" d’éducation (CPIB t h) ; 

• Le pourcentage des dépenses privés pour éducation dans PIB , dans l’année 

financière "t" pour le niveau d’éducation "h" (C p PIB th ); 

• Etc. 

En utilisant le modèle présenté antérieurement on peut analyser les résultats de 

l’éducation et de la formation professionnelle sur le marché de l’emploi, qui 

met en évidence les suivants : 

• Le poids de la population active (15- 64 années) , selon le niveau d’éducation 

Le poids de la population active est resté constant au niveau d’enseignement, en 

accroissant dans le cas de ceux avec un niveau réduit d’éducation. On maintient des 

différences importantes par milieux de résidence. 

Le poids de la population active est resté relativement contant pour tous les niveaux 

d’éducation. La seule exception peut être remarquée dans le cas des personnes qui 

on fini seulement l’enseignement primaire ou ceux sans études. 

On maintient des différences importantes par milieux de résidence. Ainsi, le poids 

des personnes actives qui ont un niveau élevé d’éducation est sensiblement plus 

grand dans le milieu urbain. La situation est inverse dans le cas de la population 

active avec un niveau réduit d’éducation dans le milieu rural en comparaison avec 

le milieu urbaine. 

Le poids de la population active féminine de la groupe d’âge 15 - 64 années este 

plus élevé dans le cas de tous les niveaux d’éducation, a l’exception de celui 

professionnel, dans le cas de ce niveau on enregistre aussi les plus importantes 

différences selon les sexes. 


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• La rate d’occupation de la population âgée de 15 - 64 années, selon les niveaux 

d’éducation. 

La rate d’occupation de la population âgée de 15 - 64 années n’a pas enregistré des 

différences significatives. La plus importante diminution de la rate d’occupation 

continue à se produire dans le cas de la population avec des études primaires ou 

sans études du milieu urbaine. 

Il y a encore des différences significatives selon les milieux de résistance, 

spécialement parce que la zone rurale est caractérisée par une rate plus élevée 

d’occupation par les activités développées dans l’agriculture. 

Analysé en évolution, cet état de fait indique les difficultés de plus en plus grandes 

rencontrées par les personnes qui vivent dans le milieu urbain avec un niveau réduit 

d’éducation pour trouver un emploi. On peut aussi remarquer le fait que la rate 

d’occupation de ceux avec des études de niveau secondaire supérieur (lycée, école 

d’arts et métiers ) a été diminuée aisément par comparaison avec l’année précédent. 

• La rate d’occupation de la population âgée de 15 - 24 années, par niveaux 

d’enseignement. 

La rate d’occupation des jeunes âgées de 15 - 24 années est sensiblement 

inferieure par comparaison avec celle de la population avec l’âge de travail pour 

tous les niveaux d’éducation. 

Les plus basses rates d’occupation continue à être enregistrées dans le cas des 

jeunes avec un niveau bas d’éducation mais aussi ceux avec études de lycée. 

Les jeunes avec études post-lycée avec ceux avec études de niveau primaire ou 

sans études enregistrent la plus importante évolution négative de la rate 

d’occupation. 

L’explication de cet état de fait et la même que celle présentée dans le cas de 

l’indicateur précédent (la rate d’occupation de la population âgée de 15 -64 

années). 

• La rate du chômage aux jeunes âgés de 15 -24 années par niveaux d’éducation. 

La rate du chômage tend à affecter de plus en plus les jeunes âgés de 15-24 années 

avec un niveau réduit d’éducation ( gymnasial, primaire ou sans études). 

La rate du chômage dans le cas des jeunes du milieu urbain est plus élevée par 

comparaison avec le milieu rural. Cette différence a accru aisément. Pourtant, dans 

l’évaluation de cette situation. On doit tenir compte du fait que beaucoup de jeunes 

du milieu rural font partie de la population occupée dans l’agriculture. L’indicateur 

met en évidence l’adaptation encore insuffisante du Système National 

d’Enseignement aux demandes de la place de l’emploi. Aussi, le phénomène du 

chômage aux jeunes reflète les réserves de plusieurs compagnies à employer force 

de travail sans expérience. 


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• La rate d’insertion des étudiants qui ont fini des divers niveaux d’éducation et 

formation professionnelle sur le marché de l’emploi. 

Cet indicateur représente un important étalon de l’efficience externe du système 

d’enseignement et formation et de l’impact des diverses initiatives de reforme. La 

transition des institutions d’enseignement à la vie active et l’intégration dans le 

travail des jeunes représente un problème essentiel, avec un fort impact social et 

économique. Malheureusement, le manque des systèmes de monitoring des 

étudiants qui finissent des différents niveaux d’éducation ou des enquêtes 

spécialisées au niveau national ne permet pas une évaluation de l’efficience externe 

du système national d’enseignement. 

Les rates basses d’insertion des étudiants qui finissent des diverses formes 

d’enseignement et formation professionnelle initiale ont des répercussions 

importantes sur la motivation pour participer a l’enseignement pendant toute la vie 

et, implicitement sur le développement du capital humain. 

L’analyse effectuée met en évidence le fait que la maintenance du système actuel 

d’enseignement de la Roumanie influence négativement la compétitivité et la 

prospérité nationale et peuvent être précisées quatre grands déficiences de celui-ci, 

à savoir : c’est un enseignement inefficient ; ce n’est pas un enseignement 

équitables ; sa qualité est faible. 

Ces déficiences sont complétées par le problème du déclin démographique qui a des 

conséquences négatives sur l’éducation. 

Pour éliminer le plus possible ces déficiences ou diminuer leur effet négatif sont 

recommandées les mesures de restructuration suivantes: une nouvelle organisation 

des cycles d’enseignement , parce que la structure actuelle de l’enseignement a des 

déficiences majeures telles que: déconsidère l’éducation précoce ; fragmente 

l’enseignement obligatoire de 10 années par un examen national inutile, après 8 

années, etc. ; l’éducation précoce doit devenir bien public et on doit lui accorder 

une attention spéciale, ayant en vue le fait que l’Etat a sous-évaluée et marginalisée 

systématiquement la plus importante période de l’éducation, l’éducation précoce, 

celle de la période 0 - 6 / 7 années; il est nécessaire qu’on implémente un 

curriculum flexible et centré sur les compétences nécessaires a se développer 

personnellement et a l’économie de la connaissance, parce que le curriculum actuel 

est vu par tous les facteurs impliqués dans le procès d’enseignement comme étant 

surchargé et avec une relevance basse pour la vie d’adulte et pour le marche du 

travail; on doit accélérer la décentralisation et la remise de l’école dans la 

communauté locale, en tenant compte du fait que le Système d’Enseignement de 

Roumanie continue a être sur-centralisé, les unités d’enseignement n’ayant pas 

aucune compétence dans la construction de leur budget propre et aucune flexibilité 

dans son exécution, bien que l’allocation du budget pour l’enseignement a comme 

base les quotas défalquées de la TVA et est faite totalement non-transparent par le 


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Ministère des Finances; il faut nécessairement qu’il y ait une reforme de politiques 

dans le domaine des ressources humaines, parce que la salarisation des ressources 

humaines est très mauvaise, et le prestige social du cadre didactique a été réduit 

dramatiquement ce qui fait que l’intérêt pour la carrière didactique soit réduit ; la 

stimulation de l’éducation permanente par prendre des mesures concrètes, parce 

que la rate de participation a l’éducation pendant la vie situe la Roumanie dans la 

dernière position de l’Europe, ce qui montre que, en Roumanie, l’enseignement 

permanente est comme inexistante ou c’est l’option d’une minorité consciente de 

l’avantage compétitif qu’une telle éducation te donne ; etc. 

REFERENCES 

[1] I.C. Dima (Coordonnateur), Managementul învăţământului preuniversitar, (Maison Éditrice 

« Arves », Craiova, Roumanie, 2007); 

[2] M. Man, Eficienţa activităţii manageriale în învăţământul preuniversitar, (Maison Éditrice 

« Arves », Craiova, Roumanie, 2008). 


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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 95 

SOME CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT THE IMPACT 

OF THE INTRODUCTION ICT 

IN THE ROMANIAN EDUCATION SYSTEM 

Mariana NICOLAE-BĂLAN 1 , Cornelia SCUTARU-UNGUREANU 2 

Abstract. Approximation, with fast steps, of the Information Society requires adaptation 

to new technologies to all sectors of activity. In this context, education has a particularly 

important role in stimulating the transition towards the Information Society, on the one 

hand, and on the other hand, should consider the orientation of the education system 

towards this. New information and communication technologies change the perspective 

on educational practice. Their implementation is considered one of the most important 

problems in at the beginning of this millennium. The paper presents some elements of 

the actions taken at European and national levels to implement new information 

technologies in the education system. Impact of implementation of specialized programs 

and computer-assisted education necessary to improve education in Romania, 

in the context of integration into European structures, as well as the need to continue 

reform of the education system is also analyzed in this paper. 

Keywords: education, Information Society, e-learning 

1. The general characterizes of the Information Society 

Information Society represents a new phase of human civilization, a new way 

of life quality education involving intensive use of IT in all spheres of human 

existence and activity, with a major economic and social impact. 

The technological progress in recent decades has allowed the emergence 

of new services and multimedia applications. 

Developing of the new means of communication and technology of information 

is an important factor for increased economic competitiveness, opening new 

perspectives for better organization of labor force and creation of new jobs. 

Also, open the new perspectives for the modernization of public services, health 

care, environmental management and the new ways of communication between 

the government and citizens. Also, wide access to education and culture 

of all social classes, regardless of age or geographic location can be achieved with 

new technologies. 

1 PhD, Senior Researcher, Institute for Economic Forecasting, National Institute for Economic 

Research, Romanian Academy, (e-mail: mariana_prognoza@yahoo.com). 

2 PhD, Senior Researcher, Institute for Economic Forecasting, National Institute for Economic 

Research, Romanian Academy, Titular Member AOSR, (cscutaru@yahoo.com). 


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96 Mariana Nicolae-Bălan, Cornelia Scutaru-Ungureanu 

The major changes in recent years (the exponential growth of mobile 

communications and Internet users, the contribution of the sector of Information 

and Communications Technology (ICT) to economic growth and job creation, 

etc.) supports the transition from the industrial era to "knowledge-based 

economy". 

In terms of integrating new technologies, the sociologist Peter Drucker said: 

"People that will result from the permutation of values, beliefs, economic 

and social structures of political systems and concepts, in other words, 

the concepts of the world, will be different by what could anyone imagine today. 

In some areas - and especially in society and its structure - the basic 

transformations have already taken place. The new society is practically 

a certainty, and is also a certainty that its primary resource will be knowledge 

"[“Human resources in the Information Society, www.computerworld.ro] 

Construction of the new model of society raises issues such major socio-political - 

both national and international level- to mitigate the phenomenon of exclusion 

from the benefits of new technologies for some social categories 

and regions/geographical areas and social cohesion, to conservation 

and promotion of specific culture to each nation and local communities, 

to protection of citizen and consumer. 

Information Society is more than progress and applications of information 

technology and communications, this having the dimensions: 

• social, which refers to placing the items of the Information Society 

on health care and social protection, social democracy; 

• educational, which develops competence in design and work 

in a computerized regime, intelligent management of processes (education 

and distance education, virtual libraries, e-Teaching, e-Learning); 

• environmental, with an impact on resource use and environmental 

protection; 

• cultural, with impact on the conservation and development of heritage 

(museums, art galleries on the Internet, digitization of information: books 

digitized, the digitization of the national and international heritage); 

• economic, which on develops new paradigms of the digital economy and 

knowledge-based economy (e-Commerce, e-banking, e-Learning, 

e-Money, e-Trading, business on the Internet, etc.). 

The model of the future society – the Information Society - put before 

of the European Union issues of highest priority and urgency: a new regulatory 

framework, promoting a new culture of entrepreneurship and business, 


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Some Considerations about the Impact of the Introduction ICT 

in the Romanian Education System 97 

achieving leadership in new technologies, educating and training of the citizens, 

implementation of new methods in business. 

In this context, the European Union, through its political and executive bodies has 

acted since 1993 through a series of strategic decisions and programs. 

Applying digital technologies has become a vital factor in growth and insurance 

jobs in the new economy. Although Europe is a technological leader in many 

areas (e.g. mobile communications, digital television), in others - particularly 

in the use of the Internet - is lagging behind compared with the USA and Canada. 

As a result, the eEurope initiative aims to bring Europe in a position to benefit 

fully from the advantages of digital economy, to exploit its full technological 

priorities, and to increase the educational potential and entrepreneurial necessary. 

The Information Society will have a positive impact on the Romanian economy 

by contributing to the increase in productivity, to eliminate the inequalities, 

to decrease the unemployment, to increase the educational quality. 

In Romania, the use of ICT products in recent years has seen a dynamic increase, 

so in 2006, the number of Internet users per 1000 inhabitants was over 300 

and was about 12 percentage points higher in 2005. 

During January-November 2007, all seafarers on the Internet in Romania has 

increased by about two million people from the first eight months, to seven 

million users, respective 31.4% of the total population, estimated at 22.27 million 

inhabitants according to Internet World Stats data. 

The rate of use of the Internet has increased: at the end of November 2007 was 

7.5 percentage points over the interval from January to August. 

After the first part of 2006, Romania was on the last place in the EU, compared 

to the rate of Internet penetration. On the end of November, Romania climbed 

two seats, before Poland, ranked last, with a rate of 29.6% and Bulgaria with 30%, 

and is coming to Malta, where the level is 31.7%. 

2. The Education in the Information Society 

The new information and communication technologies change the perspective 

on educational practice; their implementation is considered one of the most 

important issues at this end of century, built at the rank of national politics. 

Since 1986, at the International Colloquium at Stanford, dedicated to science 

and education issues, distinguish the major responsibilities for education to avoid 

the remaining ago of the developing to highly industrialized. The first suggestion 

advanced as a result of analysis the accumulated experience is that should be 

given absolute priority for all research problems related to introduce the computer 


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in education, emphasis being put on teacher training and recycling. 

In the "Declaration" of the Colloquium at Stanford is shown that the essential 

element between education and new information technologies is that the citizens 

must be trained to live in an Information Society. 

The problems of education are changing profoundly, the alternative 

at the strategies of insufficient and expensive knowledge is finding the ways that 

allow the beginners to use the unlimited access to culture. 

Proximity, with fast steps, by the Information Society requires adaptation to new 

technologies for all sectors of activity. In this context, education has a particularly 

important role in stimulating the transition towards the Information Society, 

on the one hand, and on the other hand, should consider the orientation 

of the education system towards the information society. 

The European Commission has started the pioneering action to use the new 

technologies in education some time ago, and the general objectives of European 

cooperation in this field were reflected in the resolutions of the Council of Europe 

1983 on the introduction the new information technologies in education 

(Decision, 2002, p. 3). Moreover, the recent policies in the European Union have 

emphasized the role of e-Learning in improving the innovation in education 

and training (Anon, 2001). The information technologies and communications 

which mediate learning are components of education and training. Action plans 

eEurope2002 and eEurope2005 adopted by the European Councils of Lisbon 

(2000), Stockholm (2001) and Barcelona (2002), identified e-Learning as a top 

priority. 

The educational system is the main supplier of training. Universities 

and higher education institutions are key actors in the production 

and dissemination of knowledge, in social, pedagogical and technological 

development research, training for tutors and trainers, in continuing professional 

development. They use more and more e-Learning as a source of added value 

for their students (Decision, 2002, p. 4). 

The impact of information technology and communication in society determined 

a normal reaction in the educational systems too, implementing new information 

technologies being considered as one of the most important issues in late 

twentieth century and the beginning of the millennium 3. A confirmation is that, 

in the last decade have been organized at UNESCO a suite of international 

congress on "The computerization of education”. Reference axis has been 

a finding that preparing teachers for an Information Society is a key factor 

of success of the entire process of development of human resources. 

In the paper "Training teachers in the European Union and the EFTA/EEA states” 

presents the structure and content of training courses. One of the most consistent 


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themes is the use of information technologies (IT). States need to review 

the process of training educators and reassessment of priorities in a society whose 

development, especially technology, known strong acceleration. 

It may be said that since the `80 has triggered technological revolution 

in education. Application of computers was born unprecedented hope for 

educational future approach. Technological fever was so high that, from the early 

years of the decade, have been launched government programs in many countries, 

concerned not lagging behind in this field. Gradually, most developed countries 

have introduced computers in schools, starting with the upper levels, then 

successively higher grades primary and secondary. Even in the absence 

of incentives from the government, a willingness to adapt IT to the needs 

of classrooms was so great that many schools have purchased their own initiative 

from IT. In the Netherlands, almost 50% of schools have acquired IT material 

to support banks and the local industry, even before the start of the first 

governmental programs introducing computers in education. It should be noted 

that without prior training of teachers for the operation of new IT 

in the teaching/learning, the progress can not be guaranteed. 

E-learning is thus a type of education which is done via the Internet. Training 

solutions based on Internet provide faster results at lower cost, broader access 

to training and a clear responsibility for all participants in the training. 

In the current dynamic culture, organizations that implement the Web training 

give to the employees the opportunity to exploit their advantage in changing. 

Training via the Internet ensures accountability, accessibility and opportunity. 

It allows people and organizations to keep pace with the global economy which 

now growing speed Internet. 

The electronic systems can improve training methods and traditional training 

materials, such as discussions in the classroom, textbooks, CD-ROMs 

and computer training outside the Internet. 

In 1994, Al Gore defined as the creation of lines of information as a central 

political project of the Clinton administration, which lead to the USA addition 

impulses to existing technological supremacy. A stated goal of USA policy was 

that, since 2010, all citizens age know to use with dexterity the computers, digital 

communications and digital television. 

The new informational technologies have a profound impact on how 

the information is obtained, which communicate on their training. New skills that 

accompany these technologies - technical, intellectual and social - are essential 

for life, work and active participation in a knowledge society. 

The breadth of these skills extends far beyond the "operating a computer” and 

are part of the “new basic skills”, such as languages, entrepreneurial spirit, use of 


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new technologies, and to be acquired through a process of learning throughout 

life. The firm strategies are needed that can provide qualified labor force in this 

field and missing not only on the Romanian market, but also at European level. 

Thus, in 1999, there was a call for 800000 persons qualified in information 

technology sector, is expected to increase to 1700000 persons. Ability to use 

information technologies and communication is essential in many sectors, 

and the priority now is to define them clearly, so that education and training 

systems to integrate them into their programs. 

For improving education in Romania, in the context of Romania integration 

to the European structures, as well as the need to continue reform of the education 

system, the Ministry of Education, Research and Innovation has defined 

the requirements of a program that includes the most important activities 

necessary in the field of education and computerization computer-assisted. 

Thus, pre-university level, the education system computerized - SEI represent 

the materialization of the strategy MER for computerization of education. This is 

under the eEurope Action Plan prepared by the European community and being 

part of the initiative European e-Learning. 

Among the objectives of this program may be listed: 

• equipping all schools in Romania with complete IT solutions 

for the teaching/learning. As a result, secondary and high schools 

are equipped with computerized laboratories where can be teach 

the official program, and installed software allows activities in schools. 

• introduction of technology in education through specific projects intended 

for educational and administrative purposes such as the computerization 

of national examinations (admission in colleges, baccalaureate, etc.). 

Following the implementation of this program, each high school in Romania 

are currently receiving at least one computerized educational platform for use 

in classroom teaching hours of mathematics, biology, physics, chemistry, 

Romanian, history, etc. Educational Platform system consists of a set of 

technology, computers, Internet, electronic multimedia educational content, 

methodology and training of teachers. 

The Program was run over three stages: 

i) phase I (pilot): 2001-2002 included, among others, provision of 

120 computer laboratories, educational Software, projects run by administrative 

support, evaluation of textbooks and electronic auction for the purchase of school 

textbooks in 2002, creating and Internet information management portal; 


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ii) phase II of the SEI Program was conducted in 2003 and included 

installation and configuration of the 1100 computerized platforms, educational 

software, multimedia educational content: 80 lessons, 30000 questions to test 

electronic, training system administrators, improving the over 15000 professor, 

running projects such as administrative support: ADLIC (Admission to high 

schools and vocational schools in 2003 and the movement for the teaching staff); 

iii) phase III of the SEI Program aimed primarily complete computerization 

of high schools: 290 complete computerized platform, including: computers, 

servers, printer, scanner, connection equipment, Oracle AEL licenses, education 

Software, installation and configuration, training teachers, secretaries, system 

administrators. 

Following the implementation of this program, more than 7 million people 

are directly or indirectly involved: students, teachers, instructors, staff 

and parents. 2900000 more than 110000 students and teachers have access 

to the platform AEL e-Learning and teaching materials in electronic format. Also, 

Romanian pre-university education has 4780 computerized laboratories, 52000 

school teachers, 1700 multimedia AEL lessons, dictionaries, encyclopedias. 

But, the most important achievement is the revolution in the mentality 

of the school, in particular, and society in general. The school proved 

responsiveness, willingness to change and adjustment to European standards. 

Assimilation of new educational tools has reached a level of mass - an important 

asset strategies for educational medium and long term. 

For university education, the shift to computer-assisted learning (e-learning) 

allows a collaboration student-computer throughout the time, working directly 

with the teacher being complementary. In this way acquiring the application 

of knowledge is superior. Unfortunately, the information technology has done 

little in this area, e-learning is still based on the test-scale systems, so with a lower 

activation of the student. In the scientific and technical education domain, was 

a step forward in the applications type problems, because the normal programs 

can correct at least the final result of the problems indicated by the student. 

Evaluation using the computer will allow, first, increase the examine productivity 

growth (total examination time / number of students examined) 

and as a consequence and the volume of knowledge submitted. This evaluation 

presents the advantage to examine all the candidates with subjects with similar 

degrees of difficulty, to realize the concomitant and more rigorous assessment, 

with the possibility of repeated and corrections to the closest degree requirement. 

But, at the same time, written examination and using the computer has 

the disadvantage, among others, in the absence of appropriate supervision, to copy 

the results to colleagues. 


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In the case of computerized examinations, adding to the network computers 

to a printer or a record to a file on your computer, ensure the conservation 

and responses, as well as a written exam. 

Therefore, the shift from human examiner at electronic presents both a series 

of advantages, including: 

• increased of the efficiency in the process of evaluation by increasing 

the speed, which allows assessment of a higher volume of material, with greater 

frequency, and a greater number of candidates; 

• the objective, impersonal character; 

• the errors due to fatigue assessment, the examiner stress or emotions 

of it will disappear, leaving only those due to the state of computer; 

• the timidity and the emotiveness of candidates will diminish as a result 

of the relationship with an impersonal; 

• the secrecy of the subjects will be guaranteed, they are chosen 

by the computer even when the examination; 

• will be possible the nationally evaluation, where, according 

to government programs, schools will be linked in a national or even international. 

Also, will be possible, the existence, in parallel with the classic textbook 

of a market for self programs. 

In this way, every educational institution will propose the tests that will allow 

of the candidates to check their own forces and to pursue the adequate studies 

appropriate of the intellectual capacities that they possess. 

The possibility to storage the responses on the disks, allows replacement 

of records with a few boxes. 

Ones of the most important disadvantages are: 

• there are necessary the investments in computing technology to provide 

a suitable base material. The evolution of society will require, however, these 

investments; 

• who through a course based solely on examination on the computer may 

suffer a reduction in the ability of verbal expression, a loss of discussions habits 

of argument and counter argument, and earn a possible degree of dehumanization 

in a society in which the dimensions of communication tend to prevail. 

It is clear that, at least in a first stage, only certain areas will be possible 

or advisable computerized assessments, but the growth opportunities offered 

by science to increase their number. 


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Switching to a new school will not do so without a response from some teachers, 

least willing to accept change, and from some students, virtually as traditional. 

For this reason, transformations must be introduced gradually decrease without 

the need and possibility of correcting errors in the course. 

These changes are strictly necessary and it is better to be conducted at a pace 

acceptable, only one required by a situation of lagging. 

In recent years a role of increasing returns to distance education via the Internet. 

Historically, the distance education means studying by correspondence, 

but the acceptance of current tend to be closer to the methods of transmission 

technology supported by audio, video and (more frequently and more 

opportunities opening) through global computer networks. 

By this method of education ensure learning opportunities for broad categories 

of citizens, without interruption of their training. This is actually the main feature 

and that makes the system to be very viable for higher education cycles, 

for permanent education and vocational training and it potentially puts the most 

requested types of education systems of the future. 

A very good definition, with operational value, is given by Council for Distance 

Education and Training: “The distance education involves the study 

and enrollment in a training institution which provides teaching materials 

prepared in a sequential and logical order for students to study on their own. 

At the end of each stage, the students sent by fax, mail or computer by qualified 

instructors, their work for correction, grading and guidance tutorials on the topic. 

The tasks corrected are return, this exchange providing a student-teacher 

personalized relationship" [The Council for Distance Learning and Training 

(CDLT), www.detc.org/]. 

By reference to traditional education, can emphasize some advantages 

of education at remotely via the Internet - may apply, at least for now, 

at university level education and training after the model of open universities 

and at distance from the technological countries: 

• all the resources which are subject to the course may be available 

ubicuu; 

• the multiple ways to purchase the highest level in all fields of culture; 

• the audience is considerably increased; the distance education may 

include students who can not attend the courses from the traditional system. 

The access to local, regional and national networks link students from different 

social, cultural, economic areas and varied experiences; 

• is facilitated the learning in one's own pace, in a fashion, proceeding 


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or hearing of courses can be made gradually and repeatedly. The computers 

incorporating various software packages extremely flexible, the student having 

a maximum control of information content; 

• the synchronous and asynchronous interaction between teacher 

and students can be complementary; 

• the technologies are interactive, allowing a total feedback in real time 

and formative and summative assessment, quantitative or qualitative in an easy 

way and by the best evaluators. 

Among the difficulties in implementation, which may be considered 

and limits of the new system, include: 

• the high costs for development the system, including expenses 

with technology (hardware and software); 

• transmission of information networking, maintenance, production 

of necessary materials; 

• the difficulty in supporting the implementation of the system, 

a consistent and sustained effort of students, teachers, brokers offering technical 

support and administrative staff; 

• the need for students to have experience in the field of computers. 

Maintaining own computer will probably be one of current responsibilities. 

• the students must be highly motivated to participate. The phenomenon 

of school abandonment is more common in distance learning than in traditional 

frameworks of education, inter-relationships are established relatively impersonal, 

making for easier the option for student. 

However, the experiences so far show that participants at the education through 

new technologies are familiar with the relative fast digital and relatively soon 

enter into the rhythm of natural transmission. 

A type of distance teaching-learning, which gains ground every day, is education 

by Internet which is considered the most promising form of eLearning. 

The support courses are stored on a computer in a specific form and a typical 

Internet browser, or in some rare cases, a special program, allow students 

to access information in their own pace of assimilation. The learning materials are 

presented in a form of multimedia, a structural model in which access 

to information is achieved through multiple links from one page. 

The evolution towards the Information Society has resulted in profound changes 

in the services provided by libraries, with appropriate changes to this 

development: changing the way to perceive the importance and role 


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of information, increasing the quantity of information available and diversification 

of their presentation formats, development of information sector in the modern 

economies, technology impact on all sectors of activity. 

This evolution has implications both on libraries and their staff, which should be 

ready to meet new challenges and to manage changes, consequently, 

on the information society. The information in electronic form is raised each 

individual, both in the workplace, in society and home. Libraries, structures infodocumentary 

with tradition, lies, in turn, on the trajectory of this information, 

having the potential to acquire, manage and disseminate in order to provide 

products and services tailored to the needs of the modern user. 

In Romania, the transition to the Information Society is a priority objective 

of government or sectoral policies. 

And the level of education and learning, in order to connect to contemporary 

requirements, governmental programs for the following period, in synchrony with 

global trends, must lie on an important place achieving of the “educational 

society”, which effectively capitalize human resources through lifelong learning, 

increased the role of the expertise in decision making, access generalized to any 

form of knowledge, extending the media, increased individual learning 

and personal emancipation. Strategy in Romanian higher education during 2002- 

2010, the Ministry of Education, Research and Innovation stated that "improving 

the teaching process can not be conceived without its computerization in a large 

extent, without switching to an education related to resources that is available”. 

In the context of rapid innovation in information technologies and their 

penetration in the workplace, communication, public services, in family, in leisure 

time, at the university level is considered that "the university is required to use 

these technologies, to participate to their innovation, to incorporate these 

technologies in training students to benefit as soon as the advantages offered by 

these technologies and to protect against unwanted consequences of their use, 

ignoring the challenges of information and communication technologies would 

amount to exclusion from the educational elite “. 

In this context, the Romanian universities, have become, over time, large systems, 

equipped with advanced and integrated into the global flow, can and should play 

an important role to satisfy the information needs of their users and for their 

initiating into the modern process by information, in which the use of information 

and communication technologies play a crucial role. 


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REFERENCES 

[1] Anon, A., Report on the European eLearning Summit 2001, (IBM International Education 

Centre, 10-11 May, 2001); 

[2] Clarke, A., Costello, M., Wright, T., The Role and Tasks of Tutors in Open Learning Systems, 

(Cambridge Publishing, 1985); 

[3] Cucoş, C. (coord.), Învăţământul deschis la distanţă, (Editura Universităţii „Alexandru Ioan 

Cuza”, Iaşi, România, 2004); 

[4] Farrell, G.M. The Development of Virtual Education: A Global Perspective, 

(The Commonwealth of Learning. http://www.col.org/virtualed/index.htm); 

[5] Hart, B., Going the Distance: Designing and Delivering Distance Education (Courseware, 

http://www.cs.odu.edu/~tele/iri/publications/paper6_98.html, 1998); 

[6] Maly, K. & alţii, Use of Web Technology for Interactive Remote Instruction, (online, 1998); 

[7] Neacşu, I., Metode şi tehnici de învăţare eficientă, (Ed. Militară Bucuresti, 1990); 

[8] Drucker, P., Resursele umane în contextul Societăţii Informaţionale, 

(www.computerworld.ro, 2005); 

[9] Sloman, M., The e-Learning revolution, (Wimbledon: CIPD, 2001); 

[10] Commission of the European Communities, (2002), Decision of the European Parliament 

and of the Council adopting a multi-annual program (2004-2006) for the effective integration of 

Information an Communication Technologies (ICT) in education and training systems in Europe 

(eLearning Program), Brussels; 

[11] Distance Education Training Council (DETC). Report http://www.detc.org/. 


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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 107 

EDUCATION – 

ESSENTIAL ELEMENT IN HUMANITY DEVELOPMENT 

Liliana Denisa MARICESCU 1 , Dumitru GOLDBACH 2 

Abstract: An instrument more energetic than the technical norms 

is represented by the interdictions and limitations establishing when 

an activity, a product or a procedure presents the risk of causing a prejudice to the 

environment. If the probability of the risk achieving is too high, the interdiction of using 

the product or the procedure may be applied. 

One of the modern techniques used currently in order to prevent or limit 

the harms caused to the environment is given by the obligation of getting 

a special authorization to develop some certain activities or to use 

the products and services with ecological risk. This way, the public authorities as the 

representative in charge with the environment protection general interest, check the 

previous fulfilment of certain placement conditions, establish a series of technicalecological 

parameters of working, set up a control on the activity and the respecting of 

the norms that refer to the environment protection. From historical point of view, with 

regard to the European continent, the principle of previous authorization finds the origin 

in a Napoleon’s decree from 1810, which aimed to protect the immediate neighbouring of 

an establishment. Later, the administrative authorization system of economic and social 

activities with negative impact on the environment quality expanded gradually, becoming 

general after 1970. 

Keywords: education, ecological education, globalization, environment quality 


Education is a particular type of human action, an intervention or a directing, 

a fundamental category of pedagogy. 

Education differs from a historical period to another function on the material 

and spiritual conditions of the society. Education is a social phenomenon, humanspecific, 

that occurs at the same time with the society occurrence, out of a certain 

necessity specific to the latest – that of the man evolvement as a human being, 

workforce and social being. At the same time with the historical epoch succession 

1 Ph.D. candidate, Junior Researcher, Project Management – structural funds applicance, 

Management, Faculty of Economical Sciences, Field of Specialization - Management, Valahia 

University from Targoviste, Romania 

2 Ph.D. candidate, Junior Researcher, Management, Faculty of Economical Sciences, Field of 

Specialization-Management, Valahia University from Targoviste, Romania 


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108 Liliana Denisa Maricescu, Dumitru Goldbach 

the ideal, mechanisms, contents, and finalities of education have changed, evolved 

and perfected. Education is thus submitted to the historical changes, it appeared 

along with the primitive commune society. 

Platon defined education as being „the art of developing the good skills 

or of developing the native abilities for virtue of those who owe them”. Aristotle, 

in his work entitled „Politics”, considered that „education has to be an object 

of public surveillance, and not of the particular one”. 

Education is a term comprising teaching and learning some specific abilities, 

or, something less tangible, but more profound: the knowledge, thinking and 

wisdom distribution. Education has a fundamental purpose, that of transmitting 

the culture from a generation to another. 

The word education is of Latin origin, it derives from the noun „educatio”, 

which means growing, feeding, cultivation. 

Education is a culture of character, a habit against the nature, but it is also 

the only one thing that destroys people. It is an art which makes the awareness 

migrate to the subconscious, it is a fact provided by school, by the virtue each 

of us has. 

Johann Amos Comenius, in his work “Didactica magna” considered that at birth, 

the nature endeavour the little baby only with “the science, morality and religion 

seeds”, they become a good of every person only through education. It results that 

in his conception, education is an activity that stimulates these “seeds” 

and, implicitly, an activity of administrating the humanizing process, man “cannot 

become man if not educated”. 

When he enterprises a deed, the man first sees it with his mind eyes, judges 

the results, tries to understand not only if it is of any uses but also if it causes 

any harm to anybody and then, he starts doing it. This means that man is a being 

endowed with judgment, a being who appreciates the quality of words and facts 

according to reason and consciousness. 

The social life development and the human experience enrichment, complicate the 

process of transmitting the accumulated experience, the educational process. 

The adult generations transmit to the younger ones not only the work experience, 

but also the language and the behavioural rules. This intentional process of 

melding the young generations is exactly what we understand by the education in 

the primitive commune. 

2. Ecological Education 

Ecological Education (environment protection) is an essential component 

of the educational strategy of each civilized people, it is an essential component 

of the effort made in different countries in order to impose a higher efficacy 

to the education and in order to transform it into a national education factor. 


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Education – essential element in humanity development 109 

The actual period crossed by humankind is one of adjustments to the forever 

changing conditions of the social, political and economical life. 

Within this context, Romania is at a turning point, that of becoming member of 

North Atlantic organization and of European Union. These desires involve great 

efforts with regard to the harmonizing its inner mechanisms with those of these 

organizations, but also the active participation at the international division of work 

under the circumstances of globalization tends of the economy. 

The efforts done at macro level have undoubtedly correspondence in efforts done 

at microeconomical level, respectively the efforts of bigger or smaller enterprises 

to conform to the concurential economy requirements. No enterprises would 

succeed in coping with the laws of the free movement without a clear managerial 

politics, without strategies established on the basis of some clear analysis of the 

external economical environment, but also of the inner organizational one. 

On analyzing the possibility of building a sustainable global economy from 

environmental point of view, we notice both obstacles and trumps. One of these 

trumps is the fact that we already know how does such an economy have to look 

like. We know how to build an economic system able to meet our needs, without 

destroying the future of the next generations. The some global trends, which 

are already heading to the right direction, are the foundation we can build such 

an economy on. 

In a sustainable economy, the mortality and natality rates are in equilibrium, 

the soil erosion does not exceed the natural rate of the new soil forming, 

the deforestation does not exceed the planting of new trees, the fish capture does 

not exceed their regeneration capacity, and the water pumping does not exceed the 

annual rate of filling the watery basins. The number of plants and animals that are 

extincted is not superior to the evolution speed of the new species. 

These were the objectives admitted for the proposed theme 10 years ago, 

by the participants at the “Earth Summit” in Rio de Janeiro. 

Putting into practice of these objectives in the last decade was, however, 

completely insufficient. Ten years later the image is totally different. More and 

more people feel unsecure, threatened by forced beyond their power, excluded 

from the prosperity the globalization is assumed to bring along, alienated from 

their politicians and political process. 

The task the leaders of the world had to cope with at Johannesburg was 

the understanding of the way used in reaching the millennium development 

targets: 

• poverty eradication; 

• standards of living improvement based on the sustainable development 

models of consume and production; 

• make sure that the globalization benefits will be known by everybody 


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In order to reach these three objectives, EU fought for quantifiable targets, 

with monitoring programs and mechanisms, in plan implementation. 

On globalization, the summit at Johannesburg agreed on concrete actions 

in intensifying the role of sustainable development products commerce, for 

example, by encouraging the green organic products commerce from the 

developing countries and, by meeting the international action for the common 

responsibility. 

Beyond the arrangements reflected in the official documents of the summit, 

Johannesburg got to increase the awareness and to summon up a great number 

of participants, including the ONG, authorities, businessmen, consumers and local 

administrations. The development of a strategy to support the achievement 

of the proposed objectives is being tried. 

The strategic management, in different authors’ opinions, is generally considered 

“an assembly of decisions and actions leading to the development of a strategy 

that supports the enterprise objective achievement”. 

Strategic management represents the way in which the strategies (those dealing 

with this aspect) determine objectives and make strategically decisions. The 

strategy is the way used to reach objectives. Strategy is not a certain plan. Strategy 

is a plan concerning all sides of an enterprise. “A strategy is dynamic: it covers all 

major aspects of an enterprise; a strategy is integrated ....” (Jauch Lawrence R and 

Glueck William F ,1988). 

“The process of simulated examining of present and future environment, 

of forming the organization’s objectives and of adopting implementation 

and controlling decisions focused on these objectives in the present and future 

environment” (Higgins, 1983). 

“The science and art to mobilize, combine and engage resources with the view to 

increase efficiency and reduce uncertainty” (Koening Gerard, 1991). 

Delimiting and redefining the limits between the public and private interest, 

as well as the politics efficiency on the environment protection will depend at a 

great extend on the way an equilibrium between the two fundamental categories 

of interests will be achieved. The ownership right and its attributes, along with 

the corresponding duties, must be clearly defined, so that the owners to keep 

on playing their traditional role, knowing that their patrimony is protected on long 

term. In this direction, a clear and previous allowance could avert the eventual 

abuses and manipulations done behind and on behalf of the ecologic public 

interest. 

Interdictions and limitations are present as reglementation techniques 

of the environment protection and in international and communitarian law. 


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Education – essential element in humanity development 111 

3. The impact of environment quality on the population health 

The environment where the humans live is first defined by the quality of water, 

air, soil, dwellings, food ingested, as well as the quality of the environment where 

they develop activities. The population health is in a tight connection with these 

factors, is influenced or determined immediately or later by them. 

In being taken ill prevention determined by the population explosion to some 

atmospheric pollutants, of a great importance is the prophylaxis. In this regard, 

it is taken into the view the maintenance of the toxic substances concentration 

below the level of maximum admitted concentration (MAC) from standards. 

The Agency for Environment Protection Dambovita, through the Monitoring, 

Synthesis and Coordination Bureau achieves the environment quality monitoring 

in order to maintain the atmospheric concentrations in accordance with the norms 

in force. 

The action of the environmental factors upon human health is very diverse. 

When the intensity of pollution is higher, its action on the organisms is 

immediate. Yet, most frequently, the action of the environmental factors is of low 

intensity, determining a chronically action, in a long time, the quantification of the 

effect being hard to achieve. The atmosphere polluting produces diseases of 

respiratory, digestive, osteo-muscle, nervous and olfactive systems. 

Conclusions 

The modifying effects the man exercises on environment, have been more obvious 

as intensity and widely spread lately, because of the industry development. This is 

the main polluting source of the environment through the increase of 

technological process, which generates large quantities of impurities which are 

released into the air, water or are deposited on soil. 

Air polluting is a serious issue, with implications and effects on short, medium 

and long term. The air, as an environmental factor is submitted to an intense local 

polluting, especially in the urban area, because of the industrial production 

increase, of the traffic intensification and of the waste material burning. The 

effects of the air polluting can be direct, affecting the inhabitants health, and 

indirect, on fauna, vegetation and building materials. 

The objectives and measures with the view to the improvement 

of the environmental air quality, in accordance with the quality standards, look 

for reducing the impact of the traffic upon the air quality in town, for decreasing 

the emissions coming from the individual heating systems, for assuring the control 

of emissions at the industrial sources and installing depolluting equipments 

at all sources with major impact. 


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REFERENCES 

[1] Brislin, R.W. (1993). Understanding culture's influence on behavior. Fort Worth, TX: 

Harcourt Brace. 

[2] Bennett, J.M., Cultural marginality: Identitty issues in intercultural training. In M.R. Paige 

(Ed.), Education for the intercultural experience. (Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press,1993). 

[3] Bondrea Aurelian (1993), “Culture Sociology”, (E.) Fundaţiei România de Mâine, 

Bucureşti. 

[4] Savu Dana – Victoria “General Sociology”, (Ed.) Academy of Economics 

Studies,Bucharesti (1997). 

[5] Paige, R.M. (Ed.)., Education for the intercultural experience. (Yarmouth, Maine: 

Intercultural Press, 1993). 

[6] Wild J., Wild K., International Business: The Challenge of Globalization. (Bucharest, 

Pearson, 2008) 

[7] www.apmdb.ro 

[8] www.mmediu.ro 

[9] http://cgi.stanford.edu/~group-ccr/mt/mt-tb.cgi/997 


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National Scientific Session of the Academy of Romanin Scientists 

ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 113 

POWER LINE COMMUNICATION (PLC) OVERVIEW 

Alexandru-Ionut CHIUŢA 1 , Cristina STANCU 2 

Abstract Power line Communications (PLC) – communications over the electricity 

distribution grid – has become an interesting topic in recent years. Although this 

technology has been in use for special applications for several decades, such as street 

lighting, the communication is made exclusively in the narrowband range and 

transmission rates are low. 

In several European countries there exists an intensive interest to introduce Power Line 

Communication (PLC) network into operation for different purposes. These purposes 

represent different levels of traffic within the PLC network from a very weak level, when 

using the PLC network for some operational tasks of power distribution network up to 

very intensive traffic when using the PLC network for public access to Internet. 

Keywords: PLC, modulation 


One of the most important features of present data communication 

is its orientation on broadband services.At this time, the fast Internet access seems 

to be the most popular service but also other services, such as VoIP, Conferencing 

or Teleworking ,are gradually expanding. To provide this services it can be 

chosen from several solutions,such as using the existing telephone lines through 

digital subscriber lines (xDSL) or cable distributions via cable modems (CATV), 

installing new optic fibres (PON), using wireless technologies (WLL, WLAN) 

or utilizing electrical power lines (PDSL, PLC). 

The electrical power distribution grid offers a big potential for fast and reliable 

communication services. PLC technology is far behind recent leading access 

methods (fiber optics, CATV,WLAN) regarding transmission rates, services and 

deployments, but has a critical advantage: power lines can be found in essentially 

all buildings and residences, which cannot be said about other access methods. 

In order to implement a PLC solution we must understand the critical properties 

of powerline channels,which are mainly influenced by cable losses and a high 

degree of branching.Also we must take into consideration the fact that the existing 

power lines have not been designed for transmitting signals with a high frequency 

component. 

1 Title: Prof., PhD ,Eng., Senior Researcher ,Faculty of Power Engineering, Politechnic University, 

Bucharest, Romania, Developing creativity Center AOSR.(chiuta@gmail.com) 

2 Student, Faculty of Power Engineering, Polytechnic University, Bucharest, Romania, 

(cristina.stancu86@gmail.com). 


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114 Alexandru-Ionuţ Chiuţă, Cristina Stancu 

2. PLC Technology 

PLC is a technology that facilitates the broadband data transfer over the existing 

power line infrastructure (medium and low voltage) in order to provide services 

like: Internet acces, VoIP and teleworking. 

This technology consists in superimposing a high frequency signal (from 1.6MHz 

to 30 MHz) over the normal low voltage signal with a standardized frequency of 

50-60Hz. See Figure 1 – The PLC signal. 

Fig.1 The PLC signal 

For the PLC System Architecture see Figure 2 [2]. 

Fig.2 PLC System Architecture 

In Europe the mains network is typically divided into three sections with different 

voltage levels: The high voltage (Transmission Voltage), medium voltage 

(Primary Distribution Voltage) and the low voltage (Secondary Distribution 

Voltage) section. From a communication point of view not all parts of the mains 

distribution network are of equal interest. Especially the low voltage distribution 


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Power Line Communication (PLC) Overview 115 

grid is of great interest as the “last-mile” to the customer. The low voltage 

“local loop access network” between the substation and the customer premises 

are often operated in a star shaped structure. 

The substation supplies the bus bar; the PLC-signal will also be applied to the bus 

bar. The physical connection from the substation to the backbone network 

can be realized by conventional communication links as fibre optics, radio relay 

links or broadband cables. Numerous - typically between three and ten - cables 

branch off the bus bar, which lead to the customer premises. Every cable supplies 

between tens and hundreds of households. Generally, these cables are laid into 

earth, only in some rural areas overhead lines can be found. The access networks 

ends at the house connection boxes turning into the in-house network. [1] 

Data receivers can be located in any of the buildings. Such a scenario exhibits 

a strong level of branching (that means a great number of reflections), 

hence strong cross-coupling effects between wires in a cable and also 

a nonstationary topology caused by plugging different household appliances into 

the network. These are the reasons of many problems that the PLC channel suffers 

from. 

The most important ones are: 

• Frequency-varying and time-varying attenuation of the medium. 

• Dependence of the PLC model on locations, network topologies and terminated 

loads. 

• High interference due to noisy loads. 

• High, non-white background noise. 

• Various forms of impulse noise. 

• Issues of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) that limit the available 

transmitted powers. 


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3. General Aspects of signal propagation 

3.1 Low pass Characteristic caused by cable losses 

Cables of the mains network are usually laid into earth; they are built for energy 

transfer with little losses, but are not optimal for data transfer. 

Multiple measurements showed that these cables have a strong low pass 

characteristic depending on the type of cable, the length of the cable and the 

frequencies of the signal [2]. 

The low pass characteristic is caused by dielectric losses in the insulation 

of the cable. This also explains why overhead lines do not show this low pass 

characteristic. In-house cables show few low pass characteristic, caused by short 

distances. 

The low pass characteristic of access networks limits the maximum distance 

to be overcome by PLC and on the other hand, it limits the maximum usable 

frequency. For better result we have to split up the available frequency range, 

in lower frequencies (below 10 MHz),which are used for access network, and 

higher frequencies between 10 MHz and 30 MHz, which are used for in-house 

networks. 

Also, it must be taken into consideration that for long distances in access networks 

PLC often only is possible with a reduced data rate or sometimes is not possible at 

all. The attenuation effects functionality of PLC-systems as, because of EMCcompatibility, 

transmitter power cannot be increased infinitely. If attenuation 

exceeds a certain value, the signal cannot be received at all. 

3.2. Signal propagation over the power line 

The low voltage “local loop access network” between the substation 

and the customer premises are often operated in a star shaped structure. 

From a communication point of view they have a similar structure as mobile radio 

networks consisting of cells and base stations. 

The” local loop access network” does not consist of point-to-point connections 

between substations and customer premises but represents a line bus with 

the distributor cables and the house service cables. A typical access network link 

between a substation and a customer (See Figure 3) consists of the distributor 

cable or a series connection of distributor cables with the characteristic impedance 

Z Li 

and the branching house connection cables with the characteristic impedance 

Z L, H 

. 


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The house service cable ends at a house connection box. The in-house cabling 

follows, which is modeled by termination impedance Z H 

(f). Each of the transitions 

at the connections between cables along the propagation path represents changes 

of impedance and causes reflections. 

Due to branches and reflection points the signal not only propagates on the direct 

connection between transmitter and receiver, but also additional propagation paths 

have to be considered. Those usually have longer ways and cause time delayed 

echoes. The result is multi-path signal propagation with frequency selective 

fading. In some extreme cases a set of frequencies may be wiped out completely. 

Another result of multi-path signal propagation is an extension of the impulse 

response of the channel considerably influencing the functionality of PLCsystems 

with high data rates, as generally the duration of the impulse response 

of the channel is greater than the duration of the transmitted symbol. 

Fig.3 Signal propagation over the power line “loop”[2] 


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4. Modulation techniques for the PLC system 

4.1 The spread spectrum technique 

The basic idea of spread spectrum (SS) systems is the use of the code sequence 

that spreads narrowband signals over wider bandwidths [3]. This approach 

is suitable for the PLC environment because: it decreases narrowband 

interferences and selective attenuations. 

If we want to use these features, we need a large bandwidth expansion that may 

severely limit the maximum data rate. 

The use of the spread spectrum modulation technique leads to a multiple access 

technique [4] called the code-division multiple access (CDMA) that allows 

several users, possibly with different rate demands, to access the PLC channel 

simultaneously. 

There are basically three methods how the variable-rate CDMA can be 

implemented: 

1. Multimodulation, where different users use different modulation schemes; 

2. Multicode, where the so-called virtual users are defined. These virtual users are 

transmitting at the same rate and are detected by different receivers. Each physical 

user can have assigned one or more virtual users according to its transmission 

rate; 

3. Variable spreading means that high-rate users transmit shorter modulated 

signals with a reduced spreading length. 

With the CDMA, an available bandwidth is open for each participant, 

so the access need not be coordinated. 

On the other hand, if more participants become active, then higher mutual 

disturbances will arise. Therefore, a trade-off between the quality of service 

and the number of active customers is essential. 

4.2 Multi-carrier modulation 

The orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) transmission scheme 

is suitable for frequency-selective channels because of its ability to cope with 

this feature by dividing the available bandwidth into N equally spaced 

narrowband subchannels [4 ]. A data stream is distributed to subcarriers 


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(each subcarrier is centered in one subchannel) and transmitted in parallel. 

To obtain a high spectral efficiency, the frequency responses of subcarriers 

are overlapping and orthogonal, hence the name OFDM. 

Due to a subchannels’ narrowband property, the attenuation and group delay 

are constant within each channel. 

A substantial advantage of the OFDM is its adaptability, since it is possible 

to choose the optimum modulation scheme individually for each subchannel. 

It is also possible to fade out the signal on some frequencies because of very bad 

conditions for transmission or regulatory restrictions [1]. 

5. Advantages, Disadvantages & possible uses of PLC technology 

Advantages 

• Can be implemented in remote rural areas and residential homes 

• PLC has a fast data transmission rate 

• The PLC Network is flexible 

• Uses existing power line home wiring 

• Easy to install 

• PLC offers a peer to peer deployment using a single Modem-Master 

• Implementing a PLC Project ,the companies expand their business 

portfolio 

• Multiple services can be provided using a single system 

Disadvantages 

• Can have transmission blocks and interference 

• The power line is designed exclusively for power distribution 

• “Hostile” network environment - Power lines are often called hostile 

environments for networks because of the flux and change that can occur 


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such as power surges, lightning, and brown outs. A power surge usually 

slows data transmission, and a brown out will affect the network devices 

much like it affects other electrical appliances in your home. Lightning is 

viewed as noise by the system. Further, you risk permanent damage to 

your PC, printer, and other appliances connected to the power line network 

from lightning and power surges, since several power line networking 

technologies do not permit you to plug into a surge protector or power 

strip first. 

• Tied to outlets 

• No standard established 

5.3 Possible uses of PLC technology 

• Resource Sharing 

Home networking allows all users in the household to access the Internet 

and applications at the same time. In addition, files (not just data, but also 

audio and video depending on the speed of the network) can be swapped, 

and peripherals such as printers and scanners can be shared. There is no 

longer the need to have more than one Internet access point, printer, 

scanner, or in many cases, software packages. 

• Communications 

Home networking allows easier and more efficient communication 

between users within the household and better communication 

management with outside communications. Phone, fax, and e-mail 

messages can be routed intelligently. Access to the Internet can be attained 

at multiple places in the home with the use of terminals and Webpads. 

• Home Controls 

Home networking can allow controls within the house, such as 

temperature and lighting, to be managed though the network and even 

remotely through the Internet. The network can also be used for home 

security monitoring with network cameras. 

• Home Scheduling 

A home network would allow families to keep one master schedule that 

could be updated from different access points within the house and 

remotely through the Internet. 


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• Entertainment/Information 

Home networks enable a plethora of options for sharing entertainment and 

information in the home. Networked multi-user games can be played as 

well as PC-hosted television games. Digital video networking will allow 

households to route video from DBS and DVDs to different set-top boxes, 

PCs, and other visual display devices in the home. Streaming media such 

as Internet radio can be sent to home stereos as well as PCs. 

6. Conclusions 

This paper analyses the basic features an overview of the real transmission 

environment of outdoor power distribution lines and presents possibilities for 

modelling of information signal transmission in this environment by means of the 

PLC technology. 

Abbreviations 

CATV Cable Television 

CDMA Code Division Multiple Access 

xDSL x Digital Subscriber Line 

MCM Multi Carrier Modulation 

OFDM Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing 

PLC Power Line Communication 

HF High Frequency 


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REFERENCES 

[1] IST Integrated Project No 507667 Opera, D4: “Theoretical postulation of PLC channel 

model“ (http://www.ist-opera.org/drupal2/files/OP2_WP1_D4_v4.1.pdf); 

[2] G. Chouinard, Power-line Communications (PLC) or Broadband-over-Power-line (BPL) (2) 

(2004); 

[3] M.Gotz, M.Rapp, Characteristics and Their Effect on Communication System Design, 

IEEE Communications Magazine, April 2004, pp; 

[4] R. Roka, S. Dlhan, Modelling Of Transmission Channels Over The Low–Voltage Power 

Distribution Network, (Journal of Electrical Engineering, VOL. 56, NO. 9-10), 2005, 19; 

[5] Power line Communications Networking Comparison Tutorial 

http://plugtek.com/networking-comparison-tutorial.shtml; 

[6] Power line communication http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_line_communication. 


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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 123 

USING TELEDETECTION IN AGRICULTURE – METHOD 

OF OPTIMIZATION FOR TECHNOLOGIES IN 

AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL 

EXPLOITATIONS FOR CURRENT PROPERTY CONDITIONS 

Ioan MUNTEANU 1 , Gabriel M. LEŢ 2 , Roxana VINTILĂ 3 

Abstract. România are 238.391 Km2 şi o populaţie de 22,8 mil. locuitori, din care 45% 

în mediul rural. Agricultura deţine 14,8 mil. hectare (62% din suprafaţa ţării). Numărul 

de proprietari este de circa 5,5 mil. (multiplicat de peste 2000 ori faţă de pre `89). Ne 

vom referi doar la aerofotointerpretarea activităţilor din peisajul agricol pe cele două 

grupuri: cele de nivelment al reliefului (agrar, horticol, agrosilvic) de planimetrie 

relativ-constante; precum şi a elementelor variabile (structura şi textura solului, condiţii 

de umiditate) ş.a. Monitorizarea şi cuantificarea se pot structura pe trei niveluri 

agroecosistemice (cereale pe ton gri, cu habitus lăptos şi granulaţie fină; plante 

prăşitoare, cu aspect aranjat ordonat şi granulaţie groasă; terenuri recent recoltate unde 

textura este fină, ton luminos – deschis). CCE (Bruxelless, 05.07.2007) propune 

„Regulamentul privind acţiunile din perioada 2008-2013 prin intermediul aplicaţiilor de 

teledetecţie instituite în cadrul politicii agricole comune”, inclusiv în România. 

Keywords: ADAM, VALERI, APIA-CCE payments, agricole-ecosystems monitoring, teledetection 


Teledetection represent the process of long distance remote signal capture, emitted 

or remitted by object or processes and their analysis for obtaining information’s 

about object and their respective processes. 

As an EU member state – Romania has 238.391 km 2 and an estimated population 

of 22,8 millions inhabitants, from which 45% in rural areas. Agriculture held’s 

14,8 thousand hectares (62% from the country’s surface). After the historical 

moment of 1989, the country switches to a market economy by radically changing 

the status of propriety. The number of landowners is about 5.500.000 

(multiplied by 2000 times compare to preview period). Dominant are 

the agricultural exploitation, mixed horticultural, in vast majority practicing agrotechnologies 

of subsistence. 

1 Univ. Prof. PhD., Eng., Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole si Medicina Veterinara Bucureşti, 

– full member of the ASAS (carstea_asas@yahoo.com) 

2 PhD. Eng., Staţiunea de Cercetare-Dezvoltare Agricola Brăila 

- Full Member of Academy of Romanian Scientists, Constanţa branch (let.gabriel@gmail.com) 

3 Phd. Eng., Institutul Naţional de Cercetare-Dezvoltare pentru Pedologie, Agrochimie şi Protecţia 

Mediului, Bucureşti – INCPA (office@icpa.ro) 


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124 Ioan Munteanu, Gabriel M. Leţ, Roxana Vintilă 

Between applications of teledetection we will refer in this paper only 

at aero-photo-interpretation activities from the agricultural area on 

2 special groups of elements: those of level relief (agricultural, horticultural, 

and silviculture) and relatively constant landscaping; as also variable elements 

(soil structure and texture, humidity conditions) a.o. Monitoring 

and quantification can be structured on three asro-eco-systemic levels 

(grey tone grains, with fine granulation and milky habitus; weeder plants, 

with thick granulation and ordered aspect; recently harvested terrains 

with fine texture, bright - light tone). The most recent regulations 

of the EU Commission (Bruxelles, 05.07.2007) proposes "Regulation regarding 

actions in between 2008-2013 using télédétection applications 

used in convergence with common agricultural politics", including Romania. 

In our legislation, adapted by CCE aquis, we have the MAPDR order No. 152 

from 26.02.2004 regarding Establishing the reference terms for the organization 

and functioning of the integrated system for administration and control. 

2. Background and approach 

The first applicative research from Romania (1974-1981), based on using 

satellites images and the first batch scanning data from technological satellites - 

LANDSAT type, had the following objectives: the way of land utilization, 

cultures indexing; crops prognosis and supervising the processes of soil resources 

degradation (erosion, salinity, flooding, desertification) a.o. The two big 

geo-morphological entities studied were from Romanian Plain, 

Brăila and Oltenia Plain (I. Munteanu, Maria Munteanu, C. Grigoras). 

Based on this operative data there were analyzed the causes for the apparition 

of an excess of humidity, for the validation of the general drainage 

of the studied area (N. Florea, 1982-1984). The satellite images were used 

in numerical (magnetic band strip) as well as photo visualized 

(black-white and color composite) on the 4,5,7, channels. 

Field information’s were the thematic charts (pedological, hidrogeological, 

vegetative, a.o.); aerial photos on panchromatic and infrared films 

(black-white and colored), culture plans and others. 

In the period 1976-1982 SCCASS Brăila solicited collaborations over the 

vegetative states of crops and over the hidro-ameliorative parameters for each soil 

type (Ghe. Marin and I. Vişinescu) and on field over the N-E Brăila Plain 

(G.M.Leţ, 1978-1980). 

Working procedures were used in convergence with the batch scanning 

data format: multispectral bands of 0.5-0.6 p, 0.6-0.7 p, 0.7-0.8 p, 0.8-0.11 p, 

respectively channels 4,5,6,7, of the stationary satellites. 


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Using teledetection in agriculture – method of optimization for technologies 

in agricultural and horticultural exploitations for current property conditions 125 

The stages of the working method, with numerical data, on magnetic strip, were: 

- Computer display of echi-densito-metrical charts (1:24000 scale) 

on 40 grey levels from channel 6; 

- Training sample selection and their statistical conditioning on groups 

of phenomena; 

- Automated classification of data from the studied zone and selected 

classes display as alphanumerical maps; 

The initial working methods were: optico-visual analysis of the satellite data, 

based on photo-interpretation criteria: tone (color intensity), image structure 

and texture. There was a Romanian priority of N. Oprescu from the constructions 

institute of Bucharest. 

Resulting from the inter and multi disciplinary (from the countries: 

France, Argentina, Mexico, Estonia, Belgium) and Romania through collectives 

whom worked based on a unitary thematic, in the two biggest experiments: 

ADAM and VALERI. 

- ADAM Experiment (http://kalideos.cnes.fr): 

The ADAM project was aiming at the development and evaluation of methods 

capable of exploiting high revisit frequency and high spatial satellite observations. 

The intensive experimental campaign conducted in 2000-2001 over wheat crops 

yielded a unique data base where frequent satellite observations at high spatial 

resolution in the solar and microwave domains were made concurrently to ground 

characterization of the soil and the canopy and their functioning. This includes 

39 SPOT images, 15 Radar (ERS and Radarsat) images, soil permanent 

characterization, frequent canopy leaf area index, biomass, soil water and nitrogen 

contents, as measured over 42 sampling units. This intensive campaign 

was followed in 2002 and 2003 by lighter campaigns where a reduced number 

of ESUs were sampled, and a reduced number of SPOT scenes acquired. 

- VALERI experiment (http://147.100.66.194/valeri): 

Validation is mandatory to quantify the reliability of satellite biophysical products 

that are now routinely generated by a range of sensors. The VALERI project 

is dedicated to the validation of the products derived from medium resolution 

satellite sensors (www. avignon.inra.fr/valeri/). It describes the sites used, 

and the methodology developed to get the high spatial resolution map 

of the biophysical variables considered, i.e. LAI, fAPAR and JCover that can 

be estimated from ground level gap fraction measurements. 

Sites were selected to represent, with the other validation projects, 

the large variation of biomes and conditions observed over the Earth's surface. 


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Each site is about 3x3 km 2 in size and should be flat and relatively homogeneous 

at the medium resolution scale. It is mainly based on concurrent use 

of local ground measurements and a high spatial resolution satellite image, 

generally SPOT-HRV. Local ground measurements should be representative 

of an elementary sampling unit (ESU) that has approximately the same size 

as a SPOT-HRV multispectral pixel. The ground measurements mainly consist 

of gap fraction measurements achieved with LAI-2000 measurements 

or hemispherical photographs. The ESUs are selected over the whole 3x3 km2 site 

in order to sample the vegetation types observed and to allow the derivation 

of variograms. A transfer function is subsequently established over the ESUs 

to relate the ground measurements of the biophysical variables with those 

of the high spatial resolution satellite image. Finally, co-kriging is applied 

to generate the high spatial resolution map of the biophysical variables over the 

3x3 km2 area. 

Most recent research in our country was made by collectives from: INCPA 

Bucharest and INCCPT Fundulea (Roxana Vintila, I.Munteanu 200-2003). 

Teledetection based control Addendum for Romania at the Technical Common 

Specifications (CTS) for teledetection based control (CWRS) for appliance, 

in 2008, of the Surface Paying Scheme (SAPS), as well as of direct national 

complementary payments (CNDP), and for under-privileged areas payments 

(LFA) are only two of the practical applications which are presently run by CTS 

norm no. 8451/2007 of EU. For each parcel enrolled for assistance in SAPS, 

the following main verifications are made: 

- the reported surface by the agricultural society; 

- declared surface and type of culture based on the requests of regulations 

from payment groups description; 

- the eligibility of the agricultural parcel at 2008 level as it was defined. 

All selected samples are verified if the Good Agricultural and Environmental 

Conditions (GAEC) are respected. All flagrant infringements, possible to appear 

from other parcels of the control sample, are to be reported based on CTS. 

3. Results and discussion 

First results drive to actions and organizationally measures essential for the Study 

of design-development of complex land works in territorial improvements 

(irrigation-drainage-draining triad), as follows: 

1. Soil indexing and terrain quality monitoring (excess of humidity, salting, 

aeolian deflation); 

2. Quality control of the agro-technical and mechanical works (ploughing 

horizon) for agricultural crops and the topography of meadow and wine yards; 


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3. Classification and charting the agricultural landscape (first perimeter was tested 

at Movila Miresii and Şuţeşti Brăila); also the natural eco-systems components 

(Crasnicol-Dunavăţ-Rezelu) from the Danube Delta. 

4. The regioning of the entire perimeter of the Romanian Plain (from the South- 

East to the South-West of the country), regarding the danger estimation 

of the humidity excess, for design works of drainage-draining (fig. 1 and table 1) 

by I.Munteanu and colab. 1983. 

Fig. 1. Map of humidity excess from Romanian Plain and the Danube plain 

in spring 1981 

Table 1. Humidity excess from Romanian Plain in April-May 1981 (thousand ha) 

(based on LANDSAT-3 recordings) 

IRIGATED NON-IRIGATED 

WITH 

TOTAL 

NO. GEOGRAPHICAL UNIT 

EXCESS 

WITH 

TOTAL 

EXCESS TOTAL WITH 

EXCESS 

ha ha % ha ha % ha ha % 

1. Ialomiţa-Siret 1055 166 16 321 80 25 734 86 12 

2. Dâmboviţa-Ialomiţa 872 159 18 280 67 24 592 92 16 

3. O1t-Dâmboviţa 1422 139 10 297 30 10 1125 109 10 

4. Jiu-Olt 415 59 14 75 19 25 340 40 12 

5. Vest-Jiu 459 103 23 222 73 32 237 30 13 

TOTAL 4223 625 15 1195 269 22 3028 357 12 

Terrain using, indexing and surveillance of agricultural cultures; crops prognosis, 

were a second major objective which determined the adoption of teledetection 


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techniques as a rapid precise indexing method for the way of agricultural terrains 

usage on different types of cultures as well as the identification of the stage 

of execution of manual and mechanical current works. The studies done 

in the Brăila Plain (I. Munteanu, C. Răuţă 1988) had shown that the evaluations 

of red reflection (0.7-0.8 μ) and close infrared (0.8-1.1 μ) registered by satellites 

(see table 2) allow a satisfactory separation of the majority components from 

the researched agricultural landscape. Thus, lake water and swamps, 

which strongly absorb infrared radiation, appear with the lowest values 

(4.8 and 16.2), compared with the soya and sugar beet crops it presents 

high reflectance’s in red as well as in infrared: 

Table 2. Spectral band and reflectance 

0,5 - 0,6 μ 0,6 - 0,7 μ 0,7 - 0,8 μ 0,8 - 1,1 μ 

Lake water 27,6 26.4 24,4 4,8 

Swamp 25,1 24,2 39,1 16,2 

Corn 24,4 21,8 53,9 27,6 

Sugar beet 26,1 22,9 69.6 35,6 

Soya 26,0 22,0 79,0 44,0 

Lucerne 24,0 23,0 56,0 27,0 

Land 25,0 29,0 41,0 20,0 

These pioneering researches had certified the precision valences of teledetection 

procedures from satellites followed by classification and automated mapping 

(of types of computers existent et that times) in the present example 

of Brăila county a sector of 40km 2 was monitored from which resulted that 

the precision of identifying cultures varied between 90-95% for corn 

and between 50-90% for soya cultures. 

Conclusions 

Conclusion (1). 

Using the first satellite recordings proved (lasting for 3 decades) an efficient 

procedure, capable of global repetitive monitoring/surveillance over large areas. 

This precision was compatible with that of the aerial photo assuring a satisfying 

reliability of the information’s obtained by this means. 


The national application of teledetection control “Addendum-2008, Romania”, 

through which there had been controlled over 90.000 farms agricultural, 

horticultural and mixed, which summed 485.000 parcels from 15 geographical 

areas. Those totaled a perimeter of 19.440km2. There had been used 

the digital land type with a plane face of 25-30m and of 5m altitude precision. 

Thus, there had been justified the APIA county structures payments, 


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with Romanian budgeted founds (CNDP) and of EU, through the scheme 

of unique payments per surface (SAPS). 


For 2008, around 84% farmers from Brăila County were programmed 

at the Agricultural Payments and Interventions Agency (APIA). 

In Brăila agriculture, this majority is of 12893 farmers for a total surface 

of 47.353,44 ha agricultural lands. 

REFERENCES 

[1] A. Canarache, A Soil-Management-Yield system: Case Study in Fundulea – Ileana area. 

(Romanian Soil Science Journal, XXXVI (1), p. 20-32, 2002) 

[2] Baret F., Vintila Roxana, C. Lazar si colab. The ADAM experiment: a data base to 

investigate high temporal revist frecquency at hight spaţial resolution for the monitoring of land 

surfaces. (INRA-CSE Asignon, France, 2003) 

[3] Bialousz S., Girard M.C. Wapolczynniki odbicia spektralnego gleb w pasmach pracy 

satelity LANDSAT (Fotointerpr. w geografii T. III(13), Katowice-Polska, 1978) 

[4] F. Baret, R. Vintila, C. Lazar, N. Rochdi, L. Prévôt, J.C. Favard, H. de FJoissezon, C. 

Lauvernet, E. Petcu, G. Petcu, P. Voicu, J. P. Denux, V. Poenaru, C Simota, O. Marloie, F. Cabot, 

P. Henry The ADAM experiment: a data base to investigate high temporal revisit frequency at 

high spatial resolution for the monitoring of land surfaces (2003) 

[5] Frederic Baret, Marie Weiss, Denis Allard, Sebastien Garrigue, Marc Leroy, Herve 

Jeanjean, R.Fernandes, R.Myneni, J.Privette, J.Morisette, Herve Bahbot, Roland Bosseno, Gerard 

Dedieu, Carlos Di Bella, Benoit Duchemin, Marisa Espana, Valery Gond, Xing Fa Gu, Dominique 

Guyon, Camille Lelong, Philippe Maisongrande, Eric Mougin, Tiit Nilson, Frank Veroustraete, 

Roxana Vintila VALERI: a network of sites and a methodology for the validation of medium 

spatial resolution satellite products (2003) 

[6] Let G., Un deceniu de la primele aplicaţii in agricultura judeţului Brăila folosind 

teledetectia prin sateliţi. (Buletin informativ, AOS-R filiala Brăila, p. 3-4, 1986) 

[7] Marin Gh., Cercetări privind evoluţia regimului apelor freatice si solurilor in cursul 

exploatării amenajărilor de irigaţii din sistemul Terasa Brailei-nord (Cazasu). (Teză de doctorat, 

IANB, Bucureşti, 1981) 

[8] Munteanu I., Munteanu Maria, Grigoras C., Marin Ghe. Utilizarea inregistrarilor de pe 

sateliti pentru inventarierea excesului de umiditate din Campia Romana si Lunca Dunarii – 


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Lucrarile Conferintei Nationale pentru Stinta Solului “geneza, clasificarea si cartografia solurilor” 

(Braila 30-07, 02-09 1982 Societatea Nationala Romana pentru Stiinta Solului nr.210/1983) 

[9] Munteanu I., Răuţă C. Teledetectia in agricultura, present si perspective (Revista Stiinţă şi 

Tehnică, nr.12, 1988) 

[10] Ordinul MADR nr. 15/56/2008 pentru adoptarea măsurilor privind bunele condiţii agricole 

şi de mediu în România 

[11] Ordinul MADR nr. 246/2008 privind stabilirea modului de implementare, a condiţiilor 

specifice şi a criteriilor de eligibilitate, pentru aplicarea schemelor de plăţi directe şi plăţi naţionale 

directe complementare, în sectorul vegetal, pentru acordarea sprijinului aferent măsurilor de 

agromediu şi zone defavorizate 

[12] Ordinul MADR nr.91/2008 privind modalitatea de acordare a plăţilor tranzitorii pentru 

tomate destinate procesării şi aprobarea prim-procesatorilor 

[13] Ordinul MADR nr. 139/2008 privind modificarea anexei la Ordinul ministrului agriculturii 

şi dezvoltării rurale nr. 64/B/2008 privind aprobarea formularului de cerere de plată pentru 

schemele de sprijin pe suprafaţă pentru anul 2008 

[14] Ordinul MADR nr. 64/B/2008 privind aprobarea formularului de cerere de plată pentru 

schemele de sprijin pe suprafaţă pentru anul 2008 

[15] Ordinul MADR nr. 909/2007 pentru modificarea Ordinului MADR 549/2007 privind 

stabilirea modului de implementare, a condiţiilor specifice şi a criteriilor de eligibilitate, pentru 

aplicarea schemei de plăţi directe pe suprafaţă pentru culturi energetice 

[16] Ordinul MADR nr. 549/2007 privind stabilirea modului de implementare, a condiţiilor 

specifice şi a criteriilor de eligibilitate, pentru aplicarea schemei de plăţi directe pe suprafaţă 

pentru culturi energetice 

[17] Ordinul MADR nr. 355/2007 privind criteriile de încadrare, delimitarea şi lista unităţilor 

administrativ-teritoriale din zona montană defavorizată din România 


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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 131 

SOCIAL AND ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS OF MICRO AND 

NANOTECHNOLOGIES 

Zorica BACINSCHI 1 , Dorin LEŢ 2 , Andreea STANCU 3 , BOGDAN MOISĂ 4 

Abstract. This paper approaches technologies which gain more and more interest 

in the latest period, because they contribute to the accomplishment of some very important 

3rd millennium issues: soil pollution, water and air pollution, natural resources depletion, 

demographic growth, global worming. The technical posibilities and devices of micro, 

nano, pico and even femto type open up new and revolutionary perspectives in science 

and applications. Research and development of nanotechnologies implies controlled 

manipulation of nanostructures and their integration in materials, systems 

and architectures. Nanotechnologies have many applications in all fields of engineering 

and will contribute with certitude at the amplification of the social effects of other 

technologies. 

Keywords: nanotechnologies, microtechnologies, ethical implications, legal issues, social 

implications 


Long time ago novelists considered the amazing possibilities of living beings 

much bigger or much smaller than us. Back in 50’s, the physicist Richard 

Feynman foresees the fabrication of machines much smaller than their makers. 

The human’s length scale, at slightly more than 10 0 m, remarkably fits right 

in the middle of the smallest subatomic particle, which is approximately 10 -26 m, 

and the extent of the observable universe, which is of the order of 10 26 m. 

The next Industrial Revolution is already here. Fourth generation nanotechnology 

(molecular manufacturing) will radically transform the world, and the people, 

of the 21st century. Whether that transformation will be peaceful and beneficial 

or horrendously destructive is unknown. 

1 Title: Prof., PhD, Eng., affiliation: Materials Engineering Faculty, “Valahia” University of 

Târgovişte, Romania, (bacinschizorica@yahoo.com) 

2 Title: PhD (ABD), Eng., Junior Researcher, affiliation: Multidisciplinary S&T Research Institute, 

“Valahia” University of Târgovişte, Romania, (ldorin@icstm.ro) 

3 Title: PhD (ABD), Eng., affiliation: Materials engineering PhD; Sectorial Operational Programme 

- Development of Human Resources, “Valahia” University of Târgovişte, Romania, 

(andreea.stancu@icstm.ro) 

4 Title: PhD (ABD), Eng., affiliation: Materials engineering PhD; Sectorial Operational Programme 

- Development of Human Resources, “Valahia” University of Târgovişte, Romania, 

(alexandru.moisa@otelinox.ro) 


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132 Zorica Bacinschi, Dorin Leţ, Andreea Stancu, Bogdan Moisă 

Even if nanotechnology carries great promise, unwise or malicious use could 

seriously threaten the survival of the human race. 

Healthy public and private policy can be built only upon a solid foundation 

of knowledge and tested ideas. Humanity needs better methods to exchange 

knowledge and to subject new ideas to effective intellectual scrutiny. 

Nanotechnology will allow control of the structure of matter within the broad 

limits set by physical laws. Other limits will be necessary to prevent abuses 

by individuals, groups and nations bent upon undesirable ends. 

Global competitive forces and continuing progress in molecular sciences will lead 

ultimately to the realization of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology must 

be developed openly to serve the general welfare and the continued realization 

of the human potential. 

2. General Considerations 

Micro systems technologies, MST and especially microelectromechanical 

systems, MEMS, refer to devices that have characteristic length of less than 

1mm but more than 1 μm, that combine electrical and mechanical components 

and that are fabricated using integrated circuit batch-processing technologies. 

This multidisciplinary field has witnessed explosive growth during the last decade 

and the technology is progressing at a rate that far exceeds that of our 

understanding of the physics involved. Electrostatic, magnetic, electromagnetic, 

pneumatic and thermal actuators, motors, valves, gears, cantilevers, diaphragms, 

and tweezers of less than 100 μm size have been fabricated. 

These have been used as sensors for pressure, temperature, mass flow, velocity, 

sound and chemical composition, as actuators for linear and angular motions, and 

as simple components for complex systems such as robots, lab-on-a-chip, micro 

heat engines and micro heat pumps. 

Nanotechnology is “a branch of engineering that deals with the design 

and manufacture of extremely small electronic circuits and mechanical devices built 

at the molecular level of matter.” The term has evolved over the years 

via terminology drift to mean "anything smaller than microtechnology". 

By taking advantage of quantum-level properties, it allows unprecedented control 

of the material world, at the nanoscale, providing the means by which systems 

and materials can be built with exacting specifications and characteristics. 

Many materials, once they are individually reduced below 100 nanometers, 

tend to display unique characteristics based on quantum mechanical forces 

that are exhibited at that level. Due to these effects, materials may become extra 

conducting, be capable to transfer heat better, or have tailored mechanical 

properties. 


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Social and ethical implications of micro and nanotechnologies 133 

Fig. 1. MST applications market integration in the last 5 years 

Fig. 2. Applications evolutionary scale for nanosystems 


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3. Technical Considerations 

The following devices and capabilities appear to be both physically possible 

and practically realizable: 

• Programmable positioning of reactive molecules with ~0.1 nm precision 

• Mechanosynthesis at >10 6 operations/device • second 

• Mechanosynthetic assembly of 1 kg objects in 10 15 W/m 3 

• Macroscopic components with tensile strengths >5×10 10 Pa 

• Production systems that can double capital stocks in


Fig. 3. Scientific domains convergence 

Potential benefits Potential threats 

Manufacturing 

Precision Manufacturing 

Material Reuse 

Miniaturization 

Medicine 

Pharmaceutical Creation 

Disease Treatment 

Nanomachine-assisted Surgery 

Environment 

Toxin Cleanup 

Recycling 

Resource Consumption Reduction 

4. Ethical, legal and Social Aspects - ELSA 

Weapons 

Miniature Weapons and Explosives 

Disassemblers for Military Use 

Rampant Nanomachines 

The Gray Goo Scenario 

Self Replicating Nanomachines 

Surveillance 

Monitoring 

Tracking 

Considering the potential threats inherent in nanotechnology, we must seriously 

examine its potential consequences. Granted, nanotechnology may never become 

as powerful and prolific as envisioned by its evangelists, but as with any potential, 

near-horizon technology, we should go through the exercise of formulating 

solutions to potential ethical issues before the technology is irreversibly adopted 

by society. The ethics of developing nanotechnology must be examined 


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and policies to be created to aid in its development so as to eliminate or at least 

minimize its damaging effects on society. 

Professional Issues 

• Currently, nanotechnology research is primarily funded by PNCDI 

and the FP7 so the research agenda is primarily controlled 

by the government 

• Since nanotechnology is being developed in many different fields, 

how can everyone’s principles be synchronized 

Ethical Issues 

• Nanotechnology will give us more “god-like” powers 

• It has the potential to eliminate other ethical issues (e.g., assembling beef 

instead of slaughtering cows, constructing cells rather than getting them 

from reproduction, etc.) 

• May lead to undetectable surveillance; Right to privacy could 

be jeopardized 

• Do we have a duty to help and provide for others with this technology 

Legal/Policy Issues 

• Since nanotechnology concerns many different fields, who should create 

and enforce policies regarding its R&D 

• What international laws should be made regarding the safe development 

of nanotechnology And who can enforce them 

Along with the development of Nanotechnology comes the necessity to develop 

reasonable guidelines, procedures, and laws in order to protect humanity from 

misuse of the technologies. 

A critical point will be reached, where technology will be able to enable complex 

molecular machines. Molecular assemblers and disassemblers could be developed 

from this technology, which would have great potential for both good and bad. 

The two greatest threats from development of nanotechnology are catastrophic 

accidents and misuse. 

Nanotechnology research should be allowed to continue but with 

a non-government advisory council to monitor the research and help formulate 

ethical guidelines and policies. Generally, nanomachines should NOT be designed 

to be general purpose, self replicating, or to be able to use an abundant natural 

compound as fuel. Furthermore, complex nanomachines should be tagged with 

a radioactive isotope so as to allow them to be tracked in case they are lost. 


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It would be difficult to deny the potential benefits of nanotechnology and stop 

development of research related to it since it has already begun to penetrate many 

different fields of research. However, nanotechnology can be developed using 

guidelines to insure that the technology does not become too potentially harmful. 

As with any new technology, it is impossible to stop every well funded 

organization who may seek to develop the technology for harmful purposes. 

However, if the researchers in this field put together an ethical set of guidelines 

(e.g. Molecular Nanotechnology Guidelines) and follow them, then we should 

be able to develop nanotechnology safely while still reaping its promised benefits. 

In not too many decades humanity should have a manufacturing technology able 

to: Build products with almost every atom in the right place; 

Do so inexpensively; Make most arrangements of atoms consistent with physical 

law. Often called nanotechnology, molecular nanotechnology or molecular 

manufacturing, it will let us make most products lighter, stronger, smarter, 

cheaper, cleaner and more precise. 

5. Applications 


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Specific Design Guidelines 

1. Any self-replicating device which has sufficient onboard information 

to describe its own manufacture should encrypt it such that any replication error 

will randomize its blueprint. 

2. Encrypted MNT device instruction sets should be utilized to discourage 

irresponsible proliferation and piracy. 

3. Mutation (autonomous and otherwise) outside of sealed laboratory 

conditions should be discouraged. 

4. Replication systems should generate audit trails. 

5. MNT device designs should incorporate provisions for built-in safety 

mechanisms, such as: A) absolute dependence on a single artificial fuel source 

or artificial "vitamins" that don't exist in any natural environment; B) making 

devices that are dependent on broadcast transmissions for replication or in some 

cases operation; C) routing control signal paths throughout a device, 

so that subassemblies do not function independently; D) programming termination 

dates into devices, and E) other innovations in laboratory or device safety 

technology developed specifically to address the potential dangers of MNT. 

Development Principles 

1. Artificial replicators must not be capable of replication in a natural, 

uncontrolled environment. 

2. Evolution within the context of a self-replicating manufacturing system 

is discouraged. 

3. Any replicated information should be error free. 

4. MNT device designs should specifically limit proliferation and provide 

traceability of any replicating systems. 

5. Developers should attempt to consider systematically the environmental 

consequences of the technology, and to limit these consequences to intended 

effects. This requires significant research on environmental models, 

risk management, as well as the theory, mechanisms, and experimental designs 

for built-in safeguard systems. 

6. Industry self-regulation should be designed in whenever possible. 

Economic incentives could be provided through discounts on insurance policies 

for MNT development organizations that certify Guidelines compliance. 

Willingness to provide self-regulation should be one condition for access 

to advanced forms of the technology. 

7. Distribution of molecular manufacturing development capability should 

be restricted, whenever possible, to responsible actors that have agreed to use 

the Guidelines. No such restriction need apply to end products of the development 

process that satisfy the Guidelines. 


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Conclusions 

Conclusion (1) 

Nanotechnology's highest and best use should be to create a world of abundance 

where no one is lacking for their basic needs. Those needs include adequate food, 

safe water, a clean environment, better housing, medical care, education, public 

safety, fair labor, unrestricted travel, artistic expression and freedom from fear 

and oppression. 

High priority must be given to the efficient and economical global distribution 

of the products and services created by nanotechnology. 


Military research and applications of nanotechnology must be limited to defense 

and security systems, and not for political purposes or aggression. 

Scientists developing and experimenting with nanotechnology must have a solid 

grounding in ecology and public safety, or have someone on their team who does. 

All published research and discussion of nanotechnology should be accurate 

as possible, adhere to the scientific method, and give due credit to sources. 

Business models in the field should incorporate long-term, sustainable practices, 

such as the efficient use of resources, recycling of toxic materials, adequate 

compensation for workers and other fair labor practices. 


Industry leaders should be collaborative and self-regulating, but also support 

public education in the sciences and reasonable legislation to deal with legal and 

social issues associated with nanotechnology. 


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REFERENCES 

[1] “Nanotech is Novel; the Ethical Issues Are Not” by Chris MacDonald (www.thescientist.com) 

[2] “Mind the gap: science and ethics in nanotechnology” by Mnyusiwalla, Singer & Daar 

(www.utoronto.ca) 

[3] “The Ethics of Nanotechnology” by Andrew Chen (www.actionbioscience.org) 

[4] “Nanotechnology: Ethics, Environment and Health” by Dr. Ron Epstein 

(http://online.sfsu.edu) 

[5] “Ethical Administration of Nanotechnology” by Chris Phoenix (http://nanotech-now.com) 

[6] “Societal Implications of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology” National Science Foundation 

(http://itri.loyola.edu) 

[7] “The Ethics of Nanotechnology” (http://nanotech-now.com) 

[8] “Strategia de cercetare-dezvoltare in domeniile materiale noi, micro si nanotehnologii, in 

perspectiva integrarii in spatiul de cercetare european” 

[9] Thompson, S. E.; Parthasarathy, S. 2006. Moore's law: The Future of Si microelectronics. 

Materials Today 9:20-25 

[10] Sergey Edward Lyshevski, cartea „Nano- and microelectromechanical systems”; editura 

CRC Press; 2001 

[11] Nadim Maluf, Kirt Williams, cartea „An Introduction to Microelectromechanical Systems 

Engineering”; Editura Artech House; 2004 

[12] William N. Sharpe, Jr., „Handbook of Experimental Solid Mechanics”, Springer 

Science+Business Media, LLC, 2008 

[13] Salvatore Baglio, Salvatore Castorina, Nicolò Savalli, „Scaling Issues and Design of 

MEMS”, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2007 


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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 141 

ASPECTS OF FLAME RETARDANTS AND 

THEIR ROLE IN SOCIETY 

Elena Janina VILCEA 1 , Rodica Mariana ION 2 

Abstracts. Flame retardants are extremely important in a lot of industrial 

application, and their use has expanded greatly. Among the most widespread are 

brominated flame retardants, low cost due and extremely effective at what they do. 

Reactive flame retardants - are usually introduced during the polymerization stage 

and copolymerized, together with other monomers, for example the main reactive 

retardants for polyesters are brominated retardants which are said to be 70% more 

efficient than chlorinated retardants. Flame retardants additive can be inorganic 

(hydrated alumina, antimony trioxide, magnesium hydroxide, phosphorus), 

halogenated compounds (chlorinated compounds and brominated compounds). 

This paper aims to make a review of the properties listed flame retardants, of their 

usefulness in society and the law governing their use. 

Keywords: flame retardants, classification of flame retardants, brominated retardants, 

properties of flame retardants. 


Flame Retardants are extremely important in protecting people and property 

from fire. Flame retardants are additives that can be added to or applied 

as a treatment to organic materials such as plastics, textiles and timber. 

Flame retardants additives work by breaking one of the links that produce 

and support combustion: heat, fuel and air. They may quench a flame 

by depriving it of oxygen or may absorb heat and produce water, so reducing 

the temperature. Experience has shown that fire itself is not the real hazard: 

far more dangerous to people are the toxic by-products generated during 

combustion, and dense smoke that prevents people from escaping in time. 

The control of these is becoming the decisive factor in assessing flame 

retardant additives. Correct selection and utilization of the type of flame 

retardant dependent on a number of criteria. The process is very complex and 

regards suitability, performance, health and safety, end of life and of course 

cost issues require consideration. The flame retardant must be compatible with 

1 Asist., Eng., Faculty of Engineering and Management of Technological Systems, Politehnica 

University of Bucharest, PhD., Faculty of Materials Engineering, Mechatronics and Robotics, 

Valahia University, Targoviste, România, elenaj.vilcea@yahoo.com 

2 Prof., Ph.D., M.Sc, Faculty of Materials Engineering, Mechatronics and Robotics, Valahia 

University, Targoviste, România, rodica_ion2000@yahoo.co.uk 


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142 Elena-Janina Vîlcea, Rodica-Mariana Ion 

the material it is to protect compromising the desired mechanical properties of 

the material. 

It is also important that the flame retardant resin be stable throughout 

fabrication and processing and indeed at end of life recycling. Health and 

safety concerns include industrial safety, handling, consumer safety and 

environmental impact. Finally and usually most importantly the flame 

retardant material chosen should be cost effective. 

2. Classification and properties of flame retardants 

There are more than 175 different types of flame retardants. Two basic types 

of flame retardant chemicals used, together with some representative examples 

are listed below: 

A) REACTIVE FLAME RETARDANTS - imparts excellent flame retardancy to 

resins even when added in a small amount and can be prevented from bleeding 

out; and a flame-retardant processed resin obtained with the flame retardant. 

The reactive flame retardant is, for example, an organophosphorus cyclic 

compound which is represented by the following general formula (1) and has at 

least one unsaturated group at ends of R1 to R4. The flame-retardant processed 

resin is obtained by solidifying a resin composition containing this 

organophosphorus cyclic compound and then reacting the compound by heating or 

irradiation with a radiation. 

(1) 

These are mainly relevant to thermosetting resins, such as unsaturated 

polyesters and epoxies. For polyesters, the main reactive retardants are 

HET acid (based on chlorine) or dibromoneopentyl glycol (DBNPG). 

Brominated flame retardants are said to be 70% more efficient than HET acid 

(which has also become expensive). With epoxies, the best system (on present 

evidence) appears to be reactive phosphorus organic compounds, which are 

toxicologically harmless in fire and are chemically linked to the resin matrix, 

so that mechanical and chemical properties are not affected. 


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Aspects of flame retardants and their role in society 143 

B) ADDITIVE FLAME RETARDANTS - are more frequently used and are 

very numerous, depending on the precise conditions in which the additive is 

expected to operate (and also the desired cost level). Types of additive flame 

retardants are presented below: 

a) INORGANICS 

1) Aluminium trihydrate - hydrated alumina Al(OH) 3 - is the most widely used 

flame retardant additive in volume terms, representing 43% of all flame retardant 

chemicals in volume (but only about 29% in value). As well as flame retarding 

and smoke suppressing, it is an economical filler/extender. In a fire, it undergoes 

an endothermic dehydration with a two-fold action, simultaneously absorbing 

the heat energy needed to sustain combustion and releasing water 

vapour, which dilutes the combustion gases and toxic fumes. It is used mainly 

in unsaturated polyesters in the building/construction industry, and in cable 

sheathing compounds. Use is limited by a maximum processing temperature of 

about 200°C, and the high loading needed to achieve good flame retardant 

performance can be detrimental to mechanical and electrical properties. 

2) Aluminium trihydroxide - this chemical begins to decompose at temperatures 

above 180°C, with an endothermic reaction that absorbs 1-2 kJ/g of energy. 

This has the effect of decreasing the rate of heat release from a burning polymer 

filled with aluminium trihydroxide, also decreasing the time to ignition and 

surface spread of flame. 

3) Antimony trioxide - this material has a synergistic effect with most 

halogenated, flame retardants. It is also used in plasticized PVC because of its 

synergy with chlorine. Antimony oxide should not be used if translucency is 

required. In some cases ferric oxide is used in its place, for similar physical 

properties but improved electrical properties. It has been shown by extensive 

research to be non-carcinogenic. 

4) Magnesium hydroxide - it is temperature stable to 332°C, allowing processing 

with a wide variety of thermoplastics and use where aluminium trihydrate 

is not sufficiently stable. It is used particularly in cable sheathing, polypropylene 

and polyamides. 

5) Phosphorous compounds - influence chemical reactions taking place on the 

surface and so the degradation pathway of the material. Upon heating they 

decompose to phosphoric acid which when condensed causes the material to char. 

Some phosphorous flame retardants can also act in the gas phase as radical traps 

but it is less common. 


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b) HALOGENATED COMPOUNDS - act chemically in the gas phase during 

combustion. The halogen component (typically bromine or chlorine) trap 

the high energy H. and OH. radicals produced on heating of the material. 

The performance of such halogenated flame retardants, particularly brominated 

compounds is dependent upon the chemical composition of material. 

1) Chlorinated compounds such as chlorinated paraffins 

2) Brominated Flame Retardants contain more than 75 different chemicals 

and that flame retardants can be divided into three distinct classes: 

1.1) Aromatics, including tetrabromobisphenol-A, (TBBA), polybrominated 

diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) 

1.2) Aliphatics, which tend to have limited use 

1.3) Cycloaliphatics, such as hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) 

The major types used in the Flame Retardant industries are: 

• Poly Brominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) – They are synthesised via the 

catalytic bromination of diphenyl ether; Most widely known are the commercially 

marketed members of the PBDE family, penta-BDE and octa-BDE and deca-BDE; 

They exist in a mixture of isomers with their names being derived from the 

dominant isomer or the average bromine content. Penta-BDE is usually provided 

as a mixture of 24-38% tetra-brominated diphenyl ether and 50-60% pentabrominated 

diphenyl ether. It is used mainly in polyurethane foams such as in 

furniture and car interiors. 

• Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) - is produced by the bromination 

of cyclododecane in a batch process; it is used in polystyrene and the textile 

industry. Applications include upholstered furniture, automobile interiors, and 

insulation blocks in building, textile coatings and electrical and electronic 

equipment. 

• Tetrabromobisphenol-A (TBBA) - grades available for use with most resins 

except polyamides, PVC, rigid and flexible PU foams; can be used as an additive 

or reactive flame retardant i.e. chemically bound to polymer structure during 

processing. It is most often used in its reactive form in epoxy resins, unsaturated 

polyesters and polycarbonates in electronic and electrical applications. In plastics 

such as ABS, TBBA tends to be additive with loadings of up to 16% 15, which 

results in a higher potential for losses to the environment 

• Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) – used with applications predominantly 

in textiles and fabrics. Research was carried out into the toxicity of PBBs 

and it was found that they have properties and toxicological effects similar 

to that of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). (PCBs are recognised as one of the 

12 most toxic groups of chemicals worldwide). 

• Polybrominated diphenyl oxide (PBDO) compounds: Suitable for most plastics, 

except PS foam. 

• Dibromoneopentyl glycol (DBNPG): Reactive flame retardant containing 60% 

aliphatic bromine. Thermosetting polyester resins can be formulated with this 

over a wide range of compositions to provide a broader selection of resin 


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properties than are available with anhydride flame retardants. Resins formulated 

with types of DBNPG have high chemical and flame resistance, minimal thermal 

discolouration and excellent light stability. It can also be used with polyurethane 

rigid foams. 

• Dibromostyrene and derivatives: includes graft copolymers with polypropylene; 

recommended with ABS and styrenes, most engineering thermoplastics, 

unsaturated polyester resins and polyurethane foams; not recommended for PVC, 

PS foam and rigid PU foam. 

• Hexabromocyclododecane: high impact polystyrene and polyolefins, PS foam. 

• Pentabromobenzyl acrylate (developed for engineering thermoplastics and now 

in full production by Dead Sea Bromine Group): can be polymerized 

or copolymerized in the extruder, giving UL 94 V-0 ratings without loss of 

physical or mechanical properties in host resins such as nylon 6 and 66, 

PBT and polycarbonate. 

• Tetrabromobisphenol A: grades available for use with most resins, except 

polyamides, PVC, rigid and flexible PU foams. 

• Tetrabromophthallic anhydride and derivatives: used mainly with thermosetting 

resins and PUs; also PVC and thermoplastic elastomers. 

• Tribromoneopentyl alcohol (TBNPA): is reactive flame retardant containing 

more than 70% aliphatic bromine. It is exceptionally stable and is particularly 

suitable where thermal, hydrolytic and light stability are required. It is highly 

soluble 

in polyether polyols, making it particularly suitable for use in polyurethane 

polymers. 

• Tribromophenol and derivatives: used with ABS and styrenes, polycarbonate, 

polyamide, PS and PU foams and thermosetting resins; not suitable with 

polyolefins and PVC. 

• Intumescent flame retardants: producing a thick insulating layer with good 

resistance to erosion by fire and hot gases. Some low-toxicity alternatives 

to antimony trioxide in halogenated polymer systems work synergistically to form 

a char in conjunction with halogenated polymers. During combustion the vapour 

phase changes the flame chemistry to inhibit fire growth by removing free radicals 

which support combustion. Additional effects in the condensed phase produce 

carbonaceous char is formed which further retards flame propagation and reduces 

the amount of smoke and carbon monoxide during combustion. Grades are 

thermally stable up. to 200°C (392°F), suitable for brominated polyesters, PVC 

and halogenated polyethylene, or thermally stable in all polymer systems. 

• Zinc borate: In ultrafine grades with surface areas from 10 to 15 m2/g and 

thermally stable up to 290°C (554°F), functions mainly in the condensed phase, 

promoting the formation of a char, which can be enhanced by the finer particle 

size. Grades are also suitable for use in translucent halogenated polyester resin 

systems, to improve fire performance while retaining clarity, and/or with a 

refractive index of 1.59 (similar to that of glass and many polyester resins). 


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c) ORGANIC PHOSPHOROUS COMPOUNDS 

• Phosphate esters such as triphenyl phosphate, others combined with halogen 

compounds. 

d) NITROGEN BASED COMPOUNDS 

• Melamines: 

i) Pure melamine - 2,4,6-triamino-1,3,5 triazine 

ii) Melamine derivatives such as: 

- Melamine borate (MB) - melapur® MB 

- Melamine phosphate (MP) - Melapur® MP 

- melamine polyphosphate(MpolyP)- melapur® 200 

- melamine cyanurate (MC) (eg: Melapur ® MC XL, MC 50, MC 25, MC 15) 


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iii) Melamine homologues (melam, melem, melon) have higher thermal 

stability compared to pure melamine and melamine cyanurate; Melam, melem and 

melon are believed to act in general in the same way as melamine only at higher 

temperature. 

Type of melamine homologues The formula Appearance 

Melam - (1,3,5- triazine-2,4,6- 

triamine-n - (4,6-diamino-1,3,5- 

triazine-2-yl) 

fine, light white-grey 

powder thermal 

decomposition at 400ºC 

Melem (-2,5,8-triamino 1,3,4,6,7,9,9b 

- Heptaazaphenalene) [1502-47-2] 

fine, light yellow powder 

thermal decomposition at 

500ºC 

Melon (poly [8-amino- 

1,3,4,6,7,9,9b- Heptaazaphenalene- 

2,5-diyl)imino] 

fine, yellow powder. 

Melting Point and thermal 

decomposition above 500ºC 


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Another classification of flame retardants are presented also in table below: 

3. Legislation 

Legislation will always play the most important role in influencing industry 

activities. In Europe, the legislation goes back to the 1990 EC Directive 

90/128/EEC - a positive list of authorized monomers. The Commission 

is now publishing its first list of additives that will require testing for migration 

in food-contact applications in a Directive due to be ratified during 1999. 

Dr Luigi Rossi of the EC said that the listed additives would need to be tested 

to show that the plastic compounds in which they are used comply 

with EC legislation for materials in contact with food. The process of listing 

restricted additives will thereafter be continued by means of amendments 

to the Directive 90/128/EEC. 


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Summary of relevant environmental legislation is presented in the below table: 

Type Regulation Notes 

Food 

contact 

Flame 

retardants 

EC Directive 

90/128/EEC 

EC Directive 

International 

Programme of 

Chemical Safety 

(IPCS) 

environmental 

health criteria 

German Chemicals 

Banning (Dioxin) 

Ordinance 

Positive list of authorized monomers. The 

Commission is now publishing its first list of 

additives which will require testing for migration in 

food-contact applications in a Directive 

Proposed Directive on polybrominated 

diphenylethers has not progressed 

Recommends safety levels and handling/disposal for 

special brominated FRs 

Revised 1994 to include brominated and chlorinated 

dioxins/furans: limits up to 10ppb to July 1999 and 

1ppb afterwards on certain tetra and penta BDDs and 

BFDs and up to 60ppb to July 1999 and 5ppb after on 

total levels of specified hexa, penta and tetra BDDs 

and BDFs. 

Type Regulation Notes 

Cadmiumbased 

pigments 

Solvents/ 

volatile 

organic 

compounds 

Waste and 

recycling 

Directive 

(91/338/EEC) 

European Union 

VOC Solvent 

Emissions 

Directive 

Directive on 

Packaging and 

Packaging Waste 

(94/62/EC) 

End of Life 

Vehicles (ELV) 

Directive EC 

31/7/96 

Waste Electrical 

and Electronic 

Equipment 

(WEEE) Directive 

Harmonizes regulations on use of cadmium-based 

pigments, limiting use. Cadmium-based pigments 

may not be used in plastics materials where there are 

other satisfactory substitutes. 

Seeks to reduce VOC emissions from solvent using 

installations by 657% by 2007, based on 1990 levels. 

By 2001, to recycle at least 15% of each material in 

the packaging waste stream and 24-45% of the 

totality of packaging materials; 50-65% of packaging 

waste must be recovered. 

Restriction of use of heavy metals in car components; 

Recycling of end-life vehicles to 80% by 2006 and 

85% by 2015; Entitles consumers to free take-back of 

end-of-life vehicles by 2006 

Aims to control the use of certain materials and 

encourage re-use and recycling of all electrical and 

electronic components. 


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The ideal flame retardant does not yet exist. Neither BFRs nor their halogen-free 

alternatives satisfy all the demand of the ideal flame retardant. 

Technical and cost barriers are likely to slow industry progression in the short 

term. However, as the performance and applicability of alternative flame retardant 

improve, availability and cost issues will be less of a hindrance. 

The available toxicological databases are inadequate to truly understand the risk 

of many of these chemicals. 

REFERENCES 

[1] Environmental Aspects of Flame Retardants in Textiles - Report for Austrian Standards 

Institute Consumer Council, April 1999 

[2] http://www.specialchem4polymers.com 

[3] http://www.ciba.com 

[4] http://www.acsh.org 

[5] http://www.specialchem.com 

[6] Ian Molyneaux, Sina Ebnesajjad, “Environmental Aspects of PTFE Based Laminates in 

Relation to halogen - free” 

[7] Dr. Deborah Rice, John James, “Brominated Flame Retardants”, Third annual report to the 

Maine Legislature, January 2007 

[8] Rachel Cahill, “Green chemistry and the producer: flame retardants”, MRes Project, 2004 


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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 151 

SUPPORT MATERIALS IN ARCHAEOMETALLURGY. 

COIN ANALYSIS 

Irina DUMITRIU 1 , Rodica Mariana ION 2 , 

Radu Claudiu FIERASCU 3 , Marian NEATA 4 

Abstract. Archaeometallurgy is the study of metalworking structures, tools, 

waste products and finished metal artefacts, from the Bronze Age to the recent past. 

It can be used to identify and interpret metal working structures in the field and, during 

the post-excavation phases of a project, metal working waste products, such as slags, 

crucibles and moulds. In this paper, we have analyzed several Romanian coins from early 

XX century. Our study demonstrates that EDXRF (energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence) 

can be used effectively for the nondestructive numismatic analysis; optical microscopy 

was used, being able to observe the presence of corrosion products such as cuprite 

and chloro-argyrite, and the effect of the degradation phenomena on the coin surface. 

The method can easily be used to analyze coins, indifferently their age, their composition 

and their state. 

Keywords: archaeometallurgy, EDXRF, coin artefacts 


A new scientific field, which combines the technologies of many disciplines, has 

progressively grown in importance: Archaeometry. The analysis of elemental 

composition of ancient coins has generated a lot of interest in recent years as it 

can provide valuable information on different aspects of life, politics, society, 

religion, art, culture, economy and metallurgy of minting time [1-3]. 

The development of non-destructive physical methods of analysis has opened new 

windows for the study of archaeological objects. The data obtained by the 

application of these methods can help the archaeologists to answer specific 

questions concerning dating, technology, provenance and authenticity of the 

objects that the traditional methods cannot solve. X-ray fluorescence is probably 

one of the earliest and most widely used methods for elemental analysis of ancient 

coins [1,2]. This is related with the characteristics of the method like 

1 Scientifical Researcher III, PhD student, ICECHIM Bucharest / Valahia University, FIMMR 

Faculty, Romania (dumitriu.irina@yahoo.com) 

2 Prof., PhD, Scientifical Researcher I, Valahia University, FIMMR Faculty / ICECHIM Bucharest, 

Romania (rodica_ion2000@yahoo.co.uk). 

3 Scientifical Researcher, PhD student, ICECHIM Bucharest / Valahia University, FIMMR Faculty, 

Romania (radu_claudiu_fierascu@yahoo.com). 

4 Scientifical researcher, PhD student, University of Bucharest, Chemistry Faculty, PROTMED 

Department, Romania, (neatamarian@yahoo.com). 


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152 Irina Dumitriu, Rodica Mariana Ion, Radu Claudiu Fierascu, Marian Neata 

non-destructive nature, the possibility to analyze a great number of elements in a 

wide concentration range, fast analysis, good analytical parameters, etc. However, 

one must bear in mind that during totally nondestructive measurements of ancient 

metals (without any preparation of the sample) the accuracy of the results can be 

influenced by a number of factors like the existence of corrosion products, surface 

enrichment or depletion of some elements, etc. [1–3]. 

In this paper, several Romanian coins from XIX th -early XX th century are analysed, 

by means of the combined use of optical stereo microscopy, and energy dispersive 

X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) technique. This latter analytical technique has been 

used to determine the micro-chemical nature and structure of the corrosion 

for identifying the degradation mechanisms and for tailoring conservation 

procedures [4-7]. 

2. Experimental 

2.1. Samples 

All the coins were collected from various personal collections, including 

the authors’ ones. From all the coins, for discussion were chosen nine, spread over 

76 years, all Romanian coins (Figure 1). Their characteristics are presented in 

Table 1. 

a b c 

d e f 

g h i 

Fig. 1. The coins analyzed in the study. (a – coin #1, b – coin #2, c – coin #3, d – coin #4, e – coin 

#5, f – coin #6, g – coin #7, h – coin #8, i – coin #9) 


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Support materials in archaeometallurgy. Coin analysis 153 

Coin 

number 

Table 1) Characteristics of the analysed coins 

Weight 

(g) 

Diameter 

(mm) 

1 9.2612 30 

2 9.4345 30 

Front 

inscription 

10 bani 

1867 

Romania 

– 500 lei – 

Royal 

effigy 

5 6.0202 26 20 lei 

6 7.0072 25 

12 6.3554 25 

13 6.3132 25 

15 4.6419 25 

29 3.2695 21 

30 2.3695 18 

Good for 

2 lei 

Good for 

2 lei 

Good for 

2 lei 

5 bani 

1867 

Good for 

1 leu 


1913 5 

bani 

Back 

inscription 

Romania – 

Royal 

effigy 

Michael I 

king of 

Romanians 

Michael I 

portrait 

Romanian 

Kingdom 

1943 


1924 

Royal 

effigy 

1932 

unreadable 

unreadable 

Romania – 

Royal 

effigy 


1925 

Carol I 

rege al 

romaniei 

Colour 

Dark 

brown 

yellow 

Dark 

silvery 

Reddish 

Silvery 

Silvery 

Black 

Probably 

brown 

argintiu 

Observation 

- 

Green and 

reddish 

stains, 

probable 

year - 1940 

- 

Green 

stains 

Green 

stains– 

probable 

year-1920 

Black 

stains– 

probable 

yaer - 1920 

Stained, 

deformed 

Fully 

stained 

Pata pe 

aprox 50% 

din fata 


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2.2. Apparatus 

XRF is a relatively new technique, used in many fields of work: 

forensic investigation, environmental protection, the control of the contaminated 

soils and liquids, and many others. This is happening for several reasons. 

In contrast with other analytical techniques, XRF benefits from simple, essentially 

hazard-free, sample preparation. It is non-destructive, very rapid 

and is inexpensive in terms of cost per analysis. Appropriate sensitivity 

(lower limits of detection, LLD), analysis accuracy and reproducibility are critical 

when considering an analytical technique. In addition, a system should be robust, 

offer straightforward calibration and be easy to use. 

The method allows the determination of the elements ‘heavier’ then 

Na (Z = 11) to U (Z = 92). It is a fast, non-destructive method, based 

on the excitation of each element by an X-ray beam, followed by an emission 

of a specific X radiation (an X radiation with a specific wavelength). In the case 

of a typical XRF system, the photons emitted by the X-ray source are absorbed 

in the first 10–100 μm of the object surface, depending on the density 

of the material and on the X-ray beam energy. 

By XRF it can be determined the elements in a concentration range from 

100 mg/kg to 100%. 

The apparatus used is a PW4025 – MiniPal – Panalytical type EDXRF 

Spectrometer (Figure 2). 

Fig. 2. PW4025 EDXRF spectrometer. 

The XRF determinations have been carried out in Helium atmosphere, 

for a period of 300 seconds, without any filter, at 30 kV and automatic current 

intensity, by the use of a 3.6 μm Mylar tissue. The concentrations were calculated 

automatic by the spectrometer’s software. 


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Due to the semiquantitative characteristic of the method used, it must 

be remembered that the results will be affected by the patina layer. However, 

the major constituents will clearly gave the composition of the coin, while 

the minor and trace elements are important in order to draw conclusions regarding 

the corrosion phenomenon that appears on the coins, correlated with 

the environment the coins were kept. 

The surface morphology characterisation of coins has been carried out using 

an optical stereomicroscope Carl Zeiss Jena. 

3. Results and discussions 

In Table 2 are presented the results obtained for the coins analyzed, showing only 

major constituents. 

Table 2) Major constituents of the analyzed coins (EDXRF results) 

Coin Cu (%) Sn (%) Zn (%) Ni (%) Pb (%) Ag (%) 

1 88.4 5.3 - - - - 

2 74.4 - 24.3 - - - 

3 - - 85.1 - - - 

4 74.9 - - 9.54 - - 

5 66.6 - - 11.2 - - 

6 69.3 - - 16.6 - - 

7 79.1 7.5 - - - - 

8 58.8 - - 4.48 - - 

9 5.64 14.2 - - 6.11 58.5 

From the EDXRF results the coins can be divided in five categories, according 

to their alloy composition: copper/tin alloys, copper/zinc alloys, zinc coins, 

copper/nickel alloys and silver-based alloys. The minor and trace elements 

discovered (Na, Al, Si, Cl, sometimes Fe) have two explanations: some of them 

are native in the ores, others are due to the corrosion products appeared 

on the surface of the coins (Cl, S) [8, 9]. 


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In figure 3 are presented some representative surface characteristic obtained 

by optical stereomicroscopy for the five groups of coins. 

a 

b 

c 

d 

e 

Fig. 3. Surface characteristics of the analysed coins obtained by stereomicroscopy. a) Cu/Sn alloys 

– coin #7, b) Cu/Zn alloys – coin #2, c) Zn coins – coin #3, d) Cu/Ni alloys – coin #4, e) Ag – 

based alloy – coin #9; 


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From the surface characteristics, we can observe the presence of what we suppose 

to be copper corrosion products such as cuprite and chloro-argyrite (supposition 

based on the chlorine detection by a semi-quantitative XRF analysis, performed 

on the coins) and the effect of the degradation phenomena on the coin surface. 

One can also observe the metal core. 

The cuprite layer is considered to be acting as an electrolytical membrane 

allowing the transport of anions such as Cl - and O 2- , inward and outward. 

The accumulation of chloride ions can be interpreted as an autocatalytic reaction 

that facilitates the oxidation of copper resulting also in an accumulation 

of chloride ions and in the formation of cuprite and cuprous chlorides [10]. 

The Ag-Cu contact induces the less noble metal to become anodic in a couple 

strongly conductive to corrosion, and a preferential dissolution of copper occurs 

in the less noble anodic areas. 

These factors can induce the selective corrosion phenomena of copper by chlorine 

due to the cyclic reaction that is commonly defined as bronze disease. 

Chlorine also corrodes silver during the archaeological burial in the soil [11]. 

The presence of the copper islands in the silver alloys is a common feature 

of the silver-copper alloys, due to the low solubility of silver in copper 

and vice versa at room temperature [12]. 

The solubility of copper in silver is about 8-10% at 780º C (eutectic temperature) 

and practically nil at room temperature. During the solidification 

in the Cu-Ag system, each component separates into a nearly pure state 

and has respective supersaturated solid solution. Therefore, dispersed copper 

islands are formed in the silver matrix whose size is influenced by cooling 

parameters. 

The precise identification of the corrosion products is to be made based 

on our previous experience [13] and will be the subject of another study. 

Conclusions 

The combined EDXRF-optical microscopy investigation was carried out on 

Romanian coins. Silver, copper, zinc and tin are found to be the main constituents 

of the coins and their elemental compositions have been determined. The presence 

of minor/trace elements like Pb, Co, Cl and S has also been determined. Our study 

clearly demonstrates that EDXRF can be used effectively for the analysis of 

ancient numismatics nondestructively. We established experimentally the use of 

EDXRF for the analysis of the coins. 

The use of EDXRF for the study of coin artefacts looks promising, and our group 

hopes to establish a proper procedure for the analysis, restoration 

and conservation of the metal artefacts in generally and of the coin artefacts, 

especially. 


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REFERENCES 

[1] F. He, P.J. Van Espen, Anal. Chem. 63 2237, (1991); 

[2] A.C. Mandal, S. Santra, D. Mitra, M. Sarkar, D. Bhattacharya, S. Bose Majumder, Ind. J. 

History Sci. 38 (4) 351(2003). 

[3] A.C. Mandal, S. Santra, D. Mitra, M. Sarkar, D. Bhattacharya, Curr. Sci. 85 134(2003). 

[4] J. Condamin and M. Picon, Methods of Chemical and Metallurgical Investigation of 

Ancient Coinage, E.T. Hall & D.M. Metcalf (eds.), London, 1972, 49-66; 

[5] F. Schweizer, Analysis of ancient coins using a point source linear X-ray spectrometer: a 

critical review, in Methods of Chemical and Metallurgical Investigation of Ancient Coinage, E.T. 

Hall & D.M. Metcalf (eds.), Royal Numismatics Society, London, 1972, 153. 

[6] M. Cowell, Royal Numismatics Society Special Publication, 30 (1998) 448. 

[7] G.E. Gigante, S. Ridolfi, P. Ricciardi and M. Colapietro, Cultural Heritage Conservation 

and Environmental Impact Assessment by Non-destructive Testing and Micro-analysis, A.A. 

Balkema Publishers, London, 2005, 1-11. 

[8] R.-M. Ion, D. Boros, M.-L. Ion, I. Dumitriu, R.C. Fierascu, C.Radovici, C. Bercu, Proc. of 

6 th Int. Simp. Mechatronics and mechanical engineering, microtechnologies and new materials, 

Targoviste, 21-25 (2008); 

[9] R.M. Ion, I. Dumitriu, D. Boros, D. Isac, M.L. Ion, R.C. Fierascu and A. Catangiu, 

Metalurgia International, 13(8) 43 (2008). 

[10] Robbiola, J.M. Blengino and C. Fiaud, Corros. Sci., 40 2083 (1998). 

[11] D.A. Scott, Metallography and microstructure of ancient and historic metals, The Getty 

Conservation Institute, Los Angeles, 1991, 37. 

[12] A. Addicks, Silver in industry, Reinhold, New York, 1940, 405. 

[13] – R.-C. Fierascu, I. Dumitriu, M.-L. Ion, A. Catangiu and R.–M. Ion -European Journal of 

Science and Theology, March 2009, Vol.5, No.1, 17-28; 


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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 159 

COMMUNICATION ETHICS. 

THE SACRALITY OF COMMUNICATION 

Marian PUIESCU 1 , Ştefan FLOREA 2 

Abstract. The article represents a religious approach of the development of 

communication phenomenon, in a century and a millennium when “communicating” is a 

profound relational and social necessity. Communication is a natural human act, 

onthologically necessaryand practically fundamental, which represents not just the 

reaction to the immediate necessity, but, especially, an own manner to impart something 

of its onthology. The novelty of the ethic perspective of the Church takes about the holistic 

integration of communication, as a sacred act in the process of going deeply into social 

communion an cohesion, but also talks about going deeply into some ethic principles and 

about creating an integrative vision on the communication act as a relational, 

social and sacred act. 

Keywords: Ethic, Sacrality, Communication, Communion 


Called to reveal “the signs of God’s words” [1], the Church considers communication 

as very important, the main sign of our life, which is the most important 

gift we received from God, that is why she: “sees in man, in every man, the living 

image of God himself, image that finds and is called to search for a more 

profound understanding in Christ, the perfect image of God, God’s man 

discoverer for humans and of man for himself” [2]. 

In the third millennium society we can see the special raising of communication, 

this way of human connection that shows the man as a rational human being. 

The Church confesses that the man has been created by God after His image, for 

an endless resemblance with Him, and the rational ability to communicate is a part 

of what we call to be ”God’s image”. 

Firtstly, we must say that act of communication is a profoundly religious one, 

the Son of God Incarnated is also called Logos, reason, but the term also means 

communication and relational imparting. [3] 

The Church itself is also corpus, where communication is fundamental. In other 

words between communication an communion is a strong and inseparable 

connection. 

All Church’life is the communication of the Trinity in the Holy Spirit, as the Holy 

Spirit is imparting the plenitude of the divine life pf Father and Son. God himself 

1 Conf., PhD, Faculty of Theology, University of Valahia-Târgovişte, Romania 

2 Asist., PhD, Faculty of Theology, University of Valahia-Târgovişte, Romania 


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160 Marian Puiescu, Ştefan Florea 

acts, in the history of redemption, as a communicating reality, as a communion of 

Persons (The Holy Trinity), where communication is of perfect value. 

The man, being mad after God’s image-the Trinity is the profound need for 

communication, giving love and sacrifice.[4] That is why, communicating is also 

a human and divine act. The whole biblical universe is sacrifice, love and 

communicating. Everybody communicates and is communicated, consuming our 

self in the sacrifice of interpersonal imparting. Communication is a natural human 

act, that represents not just the reaction to the necessity of the immediate, but 

more that this a personal way of imparting something from the own ontology. 

When it communicates, the human being is imparting someing from its being, it 

lets out of the depths of the soul, a kind of the personal special energy, but 

sensible, than wears a personal sign. The relationship with the neighbor becomes a 

real “Jacob’s ladder”, if we don’t see ourselves competing with our neighbor for 

noting, but we stay close to each other, united if we become aware of the fact that 

we are a part of the same mystical body of Jesus Christ. [5] 

2. The sacred shape of communication 

For the human being, communicating is as natural as eating, drinking, or resting, 

because the act of communicating is a feature of created beings, of course, as the 

person participates more and more in the relational act, communication becomes 

more profound, offering, in fact, a way of getting to knowledge, understanding 

and love. 

The Church is a community based on communication that leads to communion, is 

a communicating event. Jesus Christ himself, the Incarnated Son of God “for us 

and our redemption”, is called by Saint John, the apostle, as “Logos” that is 

”reason”, ‘word” (cf. John 1,1-14). 

Jesus Christ is considered to be “the perfect communicator” [6] who “through 

incarnation. He became one with those who should have received his message, 

expressed by words and by whole life total communication is giving the whole of 

yourself, under the impulse of love; but, Jesus communication is for real spirit and 

life”. [7] 

From his perspective, the Christian theology considers communication 

a sacred act, an act that puts together the human being with this neighbour, with 

the world and with God. Communication is also a way of expressing the human 

creativity of expressing the ability to show ”God’s image” in man. Every man 

communicates in a personal manner, because the act of communication is full of 

personal energies, full of that special, ontological and human sign. 

Communication must be an act of projecting man’s dignity and not an humiliating 

act, because man’s dignity is a part of the divine image. [8] 

In the beginning of a new century and millennium we can notice the fact that the 

act of communication has got new forms and because of the human creativity, 


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Communication ethics. The sacrality of communication 161 

because of the technology, communication because a special mark of our time. 

The world where we live received a specific identity because of communication, 

because of the development of this act and of means of it. 

Communication develops the relationship between people, that is why, 

communication has to serve the communion, the profound study of the common 

values of our world. 

This is what makes communication a means of imparting the treasure of wisdom, 

personal variety and knowledge of humanity. It was said, not just by chance, that 

“the first areopag of our time is the communication world, able to unite the world, 

making it a global village as they use to say. [9] 

The relation between communication and communion comes out better from the 

etymology of word “communication” which means “becoming participant”, 

“imparting”, “that is transmitting a content which unites”. [10] 

Communication is exteriorizing through words something of the human being, an 

act that has a strong effect on our society and, this reality is based on words not 

only the ontological perspective but also from the relational one. [11] 

Communicating means offering something of the human person, means giving a 

special part of what a man is. 

This is all about those special created energies of a person, energy full of specific 

identity and guided by the creational difference of the personal alterity. 

Communication by specific means can be effective for education and cultural 

enrichment, for commercial activity and political involvement, but also for 

dialogue and intercultural understanding. [12] 

3. The world – tops of communication 

We must specify the fact that the world itself is space, support and means of 

communication of man with his neighbor and with God. In all His creation God 

addresses to man, the world was made in order to wait for man’s arrival, that is 

why man was created at the end, after everything was ready to support his 

existence. Through this world, God talks about Himself, through His works man 

is endowed with the ability to read, to see and to understand His message. 

The world is rational, “suggestive reason”, that is why the rational man can 

understand this rational world, a world that we must see as a certain language, the 

means by which man can understand the message that God sends to him, the 

world getting meaning just as a mystery, as an instrument. “God gave to peoplethe 

possibility to think and speak because He – though about their reasons and He 

gave them to them, creating first a plastic covering for their level. In this 

everything finds its meaning”. [13] 

The world is, in this sense, a special language, by which God can be understood, it 

is the divine messenger who must be apprehended by humanity. Talking about 

world’s rationality we must specify that when we say rationality we understand 


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“the clear manner in which a person communicates to another person, for the 

accomplishment and the development of a communion between them.” [14] 

Because God is Trinity of Persons, is Love, is the space where dialogue takes 

place, the world, He is the space of love. The divine love created the world out of 

nothing and the same love shines in it and speaks to the man. Being god’s gift to 

us, love shows itself to the world, it is a love word addressed by God to us and the 

climax of this love message is represented by Christ. 

World’s aim, as God’s dialogue with us, is to get an answer. 

Thus, the world is also our means to communicate with God and nature mediates 

the answer we address to Him. God communicates with us by world’s rational 

structure, and we, the readers, understand His message “working, as much as 

possible, in the material creation through which God communicates Himself.” 

[15] 

God’s gift, His word to us, the world is transformed by man and becomes a 

sacrifice for gratitude to God, like an Eucharist. Through this we participate, in a 

certain way in the continuous process of world creation. [16] 

Through the Holy Spirit, man can practice his role of creator by activating those 

“alternative virtualities multiple and passive”.[17] Man’s role is also to nderstand 

nature’s reason (logoi), as means of practicing his free will. By what the man 

creates, as created and creative being, the world is offered to God and becomes 

the substance of sacrifice. 

Man receives the gift (the world) of God, acts on the world, impregnates it with 

his power, makes it human, keeps the love it has from God and offers this love to 

God, a love impregnated with humanity. But, also by the Holy Spirit, the world is 

the space of inter-human dialogue. Because in this world, man does good or arms 

his neighbor, here he can grow or fall spiritually or moral. 

At the same time, nature is a gift for all the people, not for one or some, and in 

order to accomplish his mission in this world man must act together with his 

neighbors, and not by himself. Then, God offers us his gifts as a tie of 

interpersonal love, as means of achieving human unity, He communicates with us 

through this world. The world offered to God must be given to Him by the human 

community by its right management and by creation within it. But, what matters, 

is that our gift to Him is well received if it better expresses us the more our world 

is humanized, but this depends on the direct relation with the level of spirituality 

of each man and on the profundity of human communion. 

Communication, like other human actions and activities, must be guided by some 

rules that ensures its fidelity to truth, correctness, sincerity, social utility etc., in 

other words it is guided by a specific ethics. The Church developed and went 

deeply into the principles formulated by the society, giving them a religious 

perspective. 


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But, what can the Church and religion bring new here The novelty of the ethic 

perspective of the Church talks, on one hand, about the holistic integration of 

communication and as a sacred act, in the process of going deeply into social 

cohesion and communion and, on the other hand, specifying and developing some 

ethic principles and creating an integrating vision of the communication act, as a 

social, relational and sacral act. 

We can ask the question: what the human and divine space of communication 

needs as origin and finality, of ethic regulation Firstly we must mention that man 

is a created being ”good and beautiful” and with the aim of becoming perfect, but, 

in the course of history happened the sin accident, with its entire dark universe 

which defalcated the human existential itinerary towards many sense holocaust 

and labirinthical deviations from the beautiful and right way of perfection. 

Thus, the sin sign and of the existential deviation from reality, it can also be 

discovered in the act of communication. And instead of becoming always a means 

of inter-personal communication it van also become a means of spreading not 

good, beautiful and desirable things, but also of what is bad, dark and repulsive. 

As from the man’s heart come out good and bad things, the act of communication 

can also transmit moral values, or can communicate manifestations, acts or bad 

thoughts. To protect the human being from this negative informational attack, to 

save the beauty of the divine image in man, the good and the beauty, that exists 

and must be manifested, in every man, the Church proposes an ethic vision on 

communication. 

The same thing is taken into account by the human society, the state, aiming, at 

least, at the existence of a space in wich at least, minimally, we can have a 

socially right and effective communication. 

4. The Ethics of communication 

The human communication must submit to an ethical system that ensures the 

correctness of communication and its fidelity to its own aim, that is the full 

manifestation of humanity, respecting its own values. 

Communication is a sacred and an ethic act. Because man must communicate 

values, that is what enriched and enriches him and is useful to the progress of our 

society and to the common good, that is ”the ensemble of social life conditions 

that allow groups and individuals reach perfection in a plenary and easier way”. 

[18] 

Human communication must serve justice, liberty and truth, contributing to the 

promotion of man’s dignity and to his personal building up so that this sacred act 

also becomes a witness of the spiritual, cultural and social grounds of humanity. 

Communication supporting man’s good, is an important help that man has 

nowadays, only if it is based on truth, built on justice, fed and animated by love 

and put to practice under the auspices of liberty. [19] 


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That is way supporting the communication ethics, the Church does nothing but 

protect the dignity of the human being, in an epoch in which globalization can be 

advantage, for man’s good, it is used properly. 

We need morality in the communication act in order not to alter the human being, 

his exteriorization and in order not to create false virtual and paralel worlds, that 

can offer to man a new and treacherous slavery. 

Solidarity, co-operation, peace, harmony, virtual respect and love are 

the main values of communication, from ecclesiastic vision, that must be 

promoted, sustained and developed, so that communication could really be a 

binder of humanity and could help the spiritual, cultural and social progress. The 

danger of communication, far this times man, is that of submitting this field to the 

consumption era rules, to materialism, to libertinage, to aggressivness and to 

violence, making of this space blessed by God a topos of darkness, of evil and of 

disunion. Communication is a key element of the world of our time can contribute 

to the good of our society, bringing relief, offering trust and truth. 

The common good of our society can be promoted by a strict communication 

must firstly consider the fidelity towards truth, he must be aware of the fact that 

he is transmitting correctly what he has to transmit, without distorting, 

transforming, reducing or extending the information, so that it doesn’t correspond 

to the transmitter intervention. Taking care of man’s dignity, the communicator 

must pay attention that what he transmits is not immoral, aggressive or to wound 

the human rights, in other words communication must heave public and private 

utility. This doesn’t mean that the private interest is over the public one in the 

informing act, but we must take into account, in every circumstance, the dignity of 

the human being. 

Communication must have as main aim inter-human relation, the cultural 

edification, man’s own perfection and social effectiveness, so that the mistaken 

use of communication places it in the immortality area. 

The act of communication as a fundamental human act but, also, as means of 

divine expression is sacred act, this results from the unaffectedness of the 

phenomenon and from its aim, that is why is an impiety to use this mans, 

rationally and spiritually, in unjust and not proper to human vocation purposes. 

Ethic rules are went to save the sacrality of communication, to protect the dignity 

of this human and divine act and, in the end to save the dignity of man as a being 

created after God’s image. Communication ethics aim to protect God’s creation 

from falsity, lie, misrepresentation, or from any deficiency which can alter its 

value. In this way, persons have a huge responsibility, but media is, also, much 

more responsible because it can have a good or a bad influence upon an 

impressive number of people. That is why, the act of communication implies a 

great responsibility being a real Jacob leader or a way to humiliate the human. 


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The Church proposes, in the communication ethics field, the evangelistic ethics, 

the Christian morals, that has no other purpose than man’s perfection, his 

salvation, so the Christian ethics of communication is nothing but a practice use of 

the evangelic spirit, of the Christian doctrine. 

Christianism, as a religion based on Word, has a great respect for any word we 

transmit to the others, outside of us, qualifies, one way or another, that human 

personality. 

The ethic of communication is an ethic of connection, an ethic of the word, an 

instrument of saving a minimum of social and communitary functionality. There 

is no communion without communication, and there is no society without 

communion, and as man is a political being [20], communion being, 

communication fundamentally qualifies him, contributing to his placement related 

to God, the Creator. [21] 

Conclusions 

The informational society, to develop itself in an useful way to man 

and society, has to respect a certain ethic code, which can quarantee 

a minimum of effectiveness and morality. Communication is for Christianism a 

sacred act, both thanks to the fact that God is Trinity of Person and 

communication is the base and the promoter of communion and because the man 

created after God’s image, has received communion and communication from the 

very act of creation, as a natural gift. 

Man is a social being (zoon politikon), of communion and of interval, mediator 

between material and spiritual, that is why communicating is for him a natural act, 

and the salvation or the damnation of man’s human dignity stands on 

communication’s fidelity to the truth. In all the universe, communication ins 

fundamental, we could say that is in creation’s nature to communicate that is why, 

both by creation, and by purpose, communication is a sacred act. 

Man’s redemption or perfection is also based on the quality of the communication 

act and here we can see the great importance of this natural, created act. 

Society proposes a certain ethics, in order to protect the dignity of the human 

being and the quality of the communication act and the Church is promoting 

some specific ethic principles which representa doctrinary exteriorization or a 

practice way of action for the evangelic principles. 

The novelty of Church’s vision on communication points to the fact that sees it as 

a real means of perfection, or redemption that man has and as a sacred act which 

deserves all our care and attention and implies not just an immediate 

responsibility, but especially an eshatologic one. 


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REFERENCES 

[1] N. Mihăiţă, Christian Mision (Asa, Bucharest, 2001), p.36. 

[2] ***, Social Doctrine of the Church, Compedium, (EARCB, Bucharest, 2006), Vol.II, p.70 

[3] O. Clement, Bartolomeu I, Truth and liberty (Deisis, Sibiu, 1997), p.61 

[4] V. Lossky, Mystical Theology of the Oriental Church (Anastasia, Bucharest, 1933), p. 144. 

[5] Th. Baconski, Jacob and the Angel (Humanitas, Bucharest, 1997). 

[6] C. Chinez, The Sacramentality of Social Communication (Presa Bună, Iaşi, 2008), p.15. 

[7] Pontifical Concile for Social Communication, Communio et Pprogression (AAS, Vatican, 

1971), p.1. 

[8] Irinee of Lyon, Against of the Heresies (Cerf, Paris, 1985), col.382-383. 

[9] John Paul II, Fast Development, (Presa Bună, Iaşi, 2005), p.4. 

[10] D. Iannota, The Communication trough Symbol and Image (Effata, Cantalupa, Torino, 

2004), p.15. 

[11] F. Cereti, The Communication in Dialogue and Electronic Culture (Elledici, Torino, 2000), 

p.27. 

[12] Pontifical Concile for Social Communication,The Etichs into Internet (AAS, Vatican, 

2002), p.2. 

[13] M. Bielavski, Father Dumitru Stăniloae. A Philocalic Vision about World (Deisis, Sibiu, 

1999), p.285. 

[14] Ibidem, p.351. 

[15] J. Zizioulas, The Eucharistical Vision of the World and Contemporany Human Being, Rev. 

Contacts, 57, 83 (1967). 

[16] D. Stăniloae, Orthodox Dogmatic Theology (EIBMBOR, Bucharest, 1997), Vol.II, p.359. 

[17] J. Breck, Sacred Gift of the Life (Patmos, Cluj-Napoca, 2001), p.12. 

[18] ***, The Vatican II Concile (EARCB, Bucharest, 1999), p.26. 

[19] ***, The Enciclics (EARCB, Bucharest, 2008), p.167. 

[20] J. Breck, op.cit., p.269. 

[21] Ch. Yannaras, The Liberty of the Ethics (Anastasia, Bucharest, 2002), p.12. 


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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 167 

SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE 

AND EDUCATION EPISTEMOLOGY 

Ciulei TOMIŢĂ 1 

Abstract. Epistemology is the philosophy branch which studies knowledge origin, 

sources and validity. This tries to answer to questions as which is true and how could we 

know Because the Epistemology study deals with aspects as knowledge foundation and 

the characteristic of various methods to learn the certain truth, 

this is placed, near Metaphysics, in the centre of the education process [1]. 

Keywords: education, epistemology, the pragmatic theory, the coherence theory, epistemic 

reflection. 


Along human history it was clearly discovered that there were false accepted 

beliefs, once, as being true. How could anyone say that some beliefs are true, 

while others are false What criteria could we use Could we ever be certain that 

the truth was discovered Most people agree that tradition, instinct and powerful 

feelings are inadequate as tests of truth. 

The universal agreement is, likewise, doubtful (…). The philosophers mainly built 

upon three tests of truth: the correspondence theory, the coherence theory, the 

pragmatic theory. 

The correspondence theory is a test which uses the agreement with the fact 

as a standard in judgement. According to this theory, the truth is in concordance 

with the objective reality. 

For example, the clause there is a lion in the classroom can be verified through an 

empirical investigation. If the judgement corresponds with the facts, it is true; if 

not, it is false. The critics of the correspondence theory dealt with tree main 

objections. First, they asked: how could we compare ideas with reality, as we only 

know our own experiences and we cannot get out of our experiences in order to 

compare ideas with reality in its “pure” state and, in the second place, they 

observed that the correspondence theory seemed, likewise, to make the general 

supposition that the sensorial data are clear and exact. And, in the third place, the 

critics showed that the theory is inadequate because we had ideas that did not have 

a concrete existence, which we could make comparisons to, beyond human 

thoughts. 

1 PhD, Faculty of Juridical, Social and Political Studies, Valahia University of Târgoviște, 



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168 Tomiţă Ciulei 

Many ethics, logics and mathematics cogitations belong to this category. 

The coherence theory places trust in the consistence or the harmony 

of all judgements. According to this test a judgement is true if it is consistent with 

other judgements which had been previously accepted as true. 

The proponents of the coherence theory show, for example, that an assertion is 

often judged as being true or false on the grounds that this is or not in harmony 

with what they had already decided as being true [2]. The critics of the coherence 

approach observed that the false thinking systems could have an internal 

consistence as large as the true systems. 

They pretended, thus, that the theory failed because it did not make the difference 

between the consequent truth and the consequent error. 

The pragmatic theory shows that there is nothing as the static and the absolute 

truth. The pragmatists reject the correspondence theory because of their belief that 

humans know only their own experience. 

Moreover, they ignore the coherence theory, because it is formal and rationalist, 

in a world in which we could not know anything about substances, essences or 

ultimate reality. For the pragmatist thinkers the test of truth lies in its utility, its 

applicability or its satisfactory consequences [3]. 

The traditionalists observed a series of dangers in this test of truth, this pointing to 

relativism, meaning it could be a truth for all different epistemic subjects. 

Likewise, critics asserted that what can be used, in the limiting area of human 

experience, can be delusive compared to what we see as external reality, 

embedded in the sole essence of the universe. 

2. Knowledge theory and education theory 

This recourse in epistemology is necessary for the knowledge theory, 

as in Metaphysics, and is the basis of human activity and thinking. The education 

systems deal with knowledge and therefore epistemology is a primary determinant 

of educational opinions and practices. 

Epistemology has a direct influence on education in many ways. For example, the 

presumptions on the importance of different sources of knowledge will certainly 

reflect in curricular accents. 

An education system which is based on naturalist premises and which considers 

science as a primordial source of knowledge will have, undoubtedly, a curriculum 

and curricular materials which substantially differ, in certain aspects, from those 

of a religious school which sustains that revelation is the source of true 

knowledge. 


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Scientific knowledge and education epistemology 169 

Epistemological presumptions regarding knowledge communication from a 

person or a thing to another person will influence, likewise, the teaching 

methodology and the teacher’s function in the educational context. 

As a result, the teachers should understand epistemological presumptions before 

their affective actions. 

On the other hand, our problem is that we could not make assumptions 

about reality before having a theory about attaining the truth. Moreover, a theory 

about truth cannot evolve without having first a concept of reality. The circular 

nature of the reality-truth dilemma is not, certainly, among the easiest aspects 

of philosophical thinking, but because of its existence, we are obliged to be aware 

of it. 

The conclusion of metaphysics-epistemology dilemma is that all humans live on 

their belief in some fundamental convictions that they have chosen. Different 

individuals make different choices of belief in metaphysics-epistemology 

continuity and, thus, have different philosophical positions [4]. 

Epistemology or knowledge theory is that segment of philosophical research 

which is looking for identifying the reason and the nature of truth and knowledge 

and it is maybe the most important part of philosophy, for educators [5]. 

While the metaphysics question is what is it and the axiological one is what is 

good, the epistemological question is how could we know [6] This is a criterion 

request, a claim of proves, a request in explaining the criterion that justifies the 

assertion or the demand that you know. 

Thereby, the epistemological question researches not only what we know 

(the product), but also how we get to know it (the process). But all those questions 

are still preceded, by a logical question, could we know The answers to that 

question gave us three categories of attitudes used in the identification of 

epistemological positions, and configured the epistemology history from Locke 

and Hume to Imm. Kant. 

For the first situation, the answer is Yes, we may even know and, moreover, we are 

certain of this thing. This is the answer of the dogmatism, an epistemological 

position which claims that in order to know, we should first have certain 

knowledge that meet two criteria: they are certain, not questionable, and must not 

be deducted from other previous knowledge [7]. 

The second answer to this question is given by scepticism, an answer that denies 

the possibility of having any knowledge, any kind of knowledge. Finally, the third 

answer is Yes, we may know, but we may never have that certain of knowledge 

that the dogmatic pretends and says it is possible [8]. 


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This is an epistemological (fallible) point of view which denies the validity of 

certain and unreckoning premises before another knowledge which we can assert 

it exists. When we declare that the possession of some certain knowledge is, 

unlikely, if not impossible, but still, at the same time, we sustain having certain 

basis knowledge, we could say that the adherents of this point of view have 

knowledge they cannot be absolutely certain of. 

The contemporary philosophy, instead, admits almost completely [9], that we may 

know our reality. But how The idealist discovers many ways of knowledge, 

but the best and the surest, he thinks, is to put the basis on that part of human 

nature which accords with divine nature: the mind. 

For an idealist, as knowledge is ideas and ideas are products of the mind, hence, 

knowledge is a product of the mind, a product which comes from the mental 

processes of intuition and rationalizing (thinking). Thereby, as intuition or 

thinking may generate knowledge, the idealist is an epistemological dogmatic. 

His traces may be hidden in time, hard to trace, almost invisible, but he knows 

they exist somewhere and is certain he will recognize them when he discovers 

them. 

As a conclusion, epistemology is a task of philosophy which implies identification 

and examination of knowledge and truth criteria, which 

are sufficient for precisely guaranteeing this we know and this is the truth [10]. 

What you have when you say you know, when you have earned the right to say 

that, how you have got to attain what you know are key-questions in epistemology 

and education. 

3. Education epistemology 

Regarding education epistemology, we should mention that: pedagogy as a system 

of education sciences has a rich suite of epistemological premises. There are two 

currently relevant premises: 

- epistemic reflection (the critical self consciousness of the pedagogic 

knowledge process, this being a compulsory instrument of searching 

the pedagogical truth); 

- integrative vision (agreeing with the cognitive pedagogic process, 

with the new elements of knowledge and human practice or, else, valorising 

the results of contemporary sciences in the pedagogical knowledge system). 

These two premises, not the only ones, assert that education may also be 

explained on the grounds of other sciences, regarding the epistemic capacity 

of pedagogy, so that almost all pedagogical concepts meet their changes. 

Otherwise, no science is always the same. 


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We are amazed by the manner in which they look for the concepts changing afore 

some problems raised by the pedagogy evolution itself, as a process of asking and 

answering the questions from which the knowledge as a set of clauses in 

education result. 

These clauses compose selectively the pedagogical scientific theory, which is a 

global or detailed representation of the educational facts according to some 

developing epistemological methods. 

The history of any science regards the development of its cognitive structures. 

The limited space of this material does not allow us to refer widely 

to the epistemological characteristic of the education knowledge process. 

It is obvious that pedagogy knows an insertion in the theoretic configuration 

of an era, in certain thinking models. 

The characteristics of this epistemology would justify the assigning of a distinct 

area in the Romanian pedagogy research, regarding the educative scientific facts’ 

production, their classification, their explaining, their reformulating and realising 

some adequate experiments and measurements to the education manifestations. 

In order to understand the process of educational actions’ productions we can not 

refer to a single pedagogical dimension, the pedagogical research methodology, 

even than this is a varied methodology, sensible to novelty, bringing a coefficient 

of malleability and a moderate analytical rigour. 

This dimension must be correlated with other dimensions of the educational 

theory, amongst we can place epistemology. 

This relation between epistemology and methodology was not, explicitly, in the 

education researchers’ attention. The examination of some pedagogical trends by 

researchers, in chronological order, ordinarily – neotomism and personalism, 

existentialism and pragmatism – does not refer, even briefly, 

to different epistemological trends as logical empirics, scientific rationalism, 

genetic epistemology, phenomenology, critical rationalism, operationalism etc. 

How can we characterize the current evolution of pedagogy 

We are in a transition moment which generates conceptual difficulties, by various 

reinterpretations and by proliferation of terminological researches etc. 

There is not a rule of epistemic behaviour, the validity and the objectivity of 

educational actions’ research. This behaviour regards: 

a. the epistemic point of view of the researcher; 

b. the social interests which pedagogical research represent; 

c. the concordance of the point of view resulted from the pedagogical research 

process with the political directions of the society that we build. 


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According to one or the other condition, in the process of education research there 

are some negative aspects regarding misinterpreting the objectivity of pedagogical 

information to the subjectivity of those who research a problem of educational 

practice. 

The potential judgements on some facts or sequences of objective reality, some 

explanations that humans give to those, a beginning of clarifying the observed or 

experimented facts are confirmations to an epistemic attitude (correct or false) of 

the researcher in pedagogy. 

We may ask ourselves if it is not necessary to distinguish between the positive 

subjectivity in the process of pedagogical research (according to a social interest 

or to a correct stated purpose) and the negative subjectivity (the preconceived 

interest or purpose they follow in their research). 

We consider that in order to be scientific, the researcher’s attitude is characterized 

by his sincere striving to realize a profound pedagogical knowledge, using 

methods and techniques adequate to epistemic models and correct methodological 

standards; through them the researcher in pedagogy expresses his active position 

as a subject of knowledge. From this point of view, two other conditions (we add 

them to the previous ones) are definitive to a scientific pedagogical attitude: 

a. the researcher is not driven by extra-scientific intentions (his personal interest, 

animosity and prejudices toward some people and scientific pedagogical results); 

b. the researcher should admit that the truth about the educational information 

is a synthesis and a hypothesis of restoring the cognitive results about education 

with the meaning that the explanations for educational facts are not definitive; 

they are, always, limited, partial, relative. In conclusion, according to A. Schaff 

words, we appreciate that the progress in knowledge and its evolution 

are not possible unless they develop every time, concrete forms of the subjective 

element [11]. 

Conclusions 

In the history of pedagogy evolution we distinguish the empirical state, 

of education factual chronic, of presenting ideas and directions of research 

regarding educational actions, and the need to analysing the pedagogical concepts 

and theories, and the methods of scientific knowledge in education seems slight 

or absent. Or, the process of education knowledge as a human activity type cannot 

make an appeal to the general epistemology data. 

Pedagogic scientific knowledge is a process of disclosing the origin and the 

cognitive evolution of education, having as a result getting some knowledge 

expressed by pedagogic language. 


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On their turn, these become objects of knowledge [12]: 

What should we follow in the process of education knowledge 

a. to reproduce education in its manifestations more adequately; 

b. to explain and understand education as a human specific action; 

c. to anticipate the development of this action in time, and project it in the 

future. 

These purposes have implications for the teaching process of education 

knowledge, including the elaboration of pedagogical instruction programs of some 

human collectivities. 

Changing the meaning of education philosophy, seen as a idealistic pedagogic 

orientation, with the meaning of philosophic pedagogy considered as “full of 

quotes – beautiful literary sentences, but taken from the concrete reality of 

instructive-educative phenomenon, to be researched with scientific methods” or 

with an education philosophy in the quality of conception for humans and of 

methodological “basis” of pedagogical investigation which expresses a lack of 

cognitive maturity of pedagogy as a variant of science philosophy. 

Or, the way in which pedagogy advances is given by its epistemology, 

whose object is the process of knowledge associated with the critical study of 

education research results (scientific pedagogical facts, concepts, notions, laws, 

theories, judgements and pedagogical arguments, scientific knowledge methods). 

This association of pedagogy epistemology with analytic philosophy of education 

is a characteristic of the education domain sciences as an open dynamic system 

of knowledge, made of a global conception on education, pedagogical scientific 

language, investigation methods and techniques of educational facts, models 

of educational practice, testing criteria and thinking operations regarding stored 

pedagogical information, etc. in conclusion, “such a study is not separated from 

the tight link of education with cultural values and experience built-up 

by our society” [13]. 

This assignation is useful, in order not to resume pedagogical epistemology 

to methodology of education research or other dimensions of it, as, for example, 

the axiological dimension of education sciences. For all those hypostases, 

education and instruction are concepts in which a synthesis of knowledge 

regarding humans is produced. 

The theory of education is such a concept, resulted from a reciprocal correction 

of education science history with education science philosophy. For this reason, 

the education philosophy term is used improperly. We see that in some pedagogy 


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papers which speak about an education philosophy concerning the ideal 

and purpose of education. 

“We deal with an ill formulated and treated problem, through a language and 

artificial abuse, without the technical apparatus of philosophy which is categorical 

opposed to forced introduction of a science in a prefabricated philosophical 

background” [14]. 

In order to understand, in this context, the process of the education content, 

we should explain a casual event. Otherwise, it means to deduce a statement 

and which describes it from universal laws and certain singular statements about 

initial conditions (Randbedingungen) [15]. 

We casualy explained, for example, tearing of a thread, and we said that the thread 

had a tearing force of 1 kilo and it hung up 2 kilos. This explanation contains 

more components: first „every time a thread is stressed with a burden above its 

resistance of tearing, it will break” – a statement that has the character of a nature 

law; second, singular statements (there are two in this example) describe a 

particular case: “for this thread, the resistance of tearing is 1 kilo” and the “hung 

up of this thread was 2 kilos” [16] 

There are two different ways which supply together a complete casual 

explanation: 

1. universal statements, hypotheses, laws of nature and 

2. singular statements which describe a particular case, which they call 

“initial conditions”. 

From the universal statements in connection with initial conditions we can deduce 

the singular statement: “this thread will tear”. We call this statement a specific 

or singular prediction [17]. 

The initial conditions describe what we usually call, 

the cause (the fact that the cause of the tearing of a thread with a resistance 

of 1 kilo, was the hung up of a burden of 2 kilos), and the prediction, is what we 

call the effect [18]. 

The causality principle is the assertion that any event can be casually explained, 

deductively predicted. As we understand the word maybe, this assertion is either 

a tautology (an analytical statement) or an assertion about reality (a synthetic 

statement). 

If maybe indicates a logical possibility, the assertion is tautological, because we 

can find universal statements and initial conditions for any prediction, from which 

this can be derived. (If these universal statements were tested 

and substantiated in other situations it is, of course, another problem.) 


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If maybe means that world is governed by strict laws, that this is built as if every 

event is a particular case of universal law, then the statement is synthetic, 

but beyond falsification. 

As a result, we may formulate a simple methodological rule, which is mostly 

analogue to the causality principle (this can be considered as its metaphysic 

correlation), “the rule is not to cease looking for laws, of a unitary theoretical 

system and not to abandon trying to explain from a casual point of view any event 

which we can describe” [19]. 

This rule should lead the teacher in everything he does. 

REFERENCES 

[1] In order to understand the knowledge process you should also see T. Ciulei, De Sensu. 

Încercare istorico-metodologică asupra empirismului în efortul gnoseologic (De Sensu. A 

historical-methodological essay on empirics in gnoseological effort), (Lumen, Iaşi, 2006) pp. 11- 

19. 

[2] Ibidem, pp. 333-352. 


[4] G.R.Knight, Issues and alternatives in educational philosophy (Oxford University Press, 

1989) p. 22. 

[5] Ibidem, p. 24. 

[6] T.Ciulei, op. cit., pp. 11-12. 



[9] The exceptions come from the existentialist philosophy, and especially from K. Jaspers and 

S. Kierkegaard. See also G.F.Kneller, Existentialism and Education, (John Wiley and Sons Inc., 

New York, 1964) pp. 58-66. 

[10] C.J.Brauner, and H.W.Bums, Problems in Education and Philosophy, (Prentice-Hali, 

Fondations of Education Series, 1962) pp. 11-15. 

[11] G.F.Kneller, op. cit., p. 66. 

[12] M.Calin, Consideraţii privind epistemologia educaţiei (Considerations regarding education 

epistemology), in Revista de Pedagogie (Pedagogy Magazine), nr.3/1987. 

[13] Ibidem. 



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[15] K.R.Popper, Logica stiinţei (The science logic), (Scientific and Encyclopaedic Publishing 

House, Bucharest, 1981) pp. 97-99. 

[16] A clearer analysis of this example, where we can distinguish two laws and two initial 

conditions, is: „For any thread with a structure data S (determined by the material, thickness, etc.) 

there is a burden w or the thread will tear every time it will be stressed by a bigger burden than W” 

and „For any thread the structure S1, the burden w1 is 1 kg”. These are the two general laws. The 

two initial conditions are: „This is a thread with the structure S”, and „the burden which will be 

hung up is 2 kg”. See, K.R.Popper, op. cit, pp. 100-101. 

[17] The term „prediction” (Prognose), as it is used here, gather statements about the past 

(„retro-utterances”) and even the „given” statements, which we want to explain („explicanda”). 

See, K.R.Popper, The Poverty of Historicism (London, 1945) p. 133. 

[18] T.Ciulei, op. cit., pp. 333-345. 

[19] K.R. Popper, Logica stiintei (The science logic), ed. cit., p. 104. 


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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 177 

THE COMPETENCES OF THE NATIONAL BANK 

OF ROMANIA REGARDING THE AUTHORIZATION 

OF CREDIT INSTITUTIONS 

Rada POSTOLACHE 1 

Abstract. Within the banking field there is the principle of unique authorization, that is 

of a juridical act issued by a competent authority of a state – in Romania, the National 

Bank – with the observance of the access conditions provided by the law and regarding 

the procedure as well as the ground and form conditions. The authorization issued by the 

Central Bank of a state provides the quality of credit institution and allows the 

performing of all the activities which characterize the latter. Any authorized credit 

institution belonging to one of the European Union’s member states may perform its 

banking activity on the territory of whichever member state, in a direct way or through 

branch banks. This represents a mutual acknowledgement, enforced by the principle 

which requires that the credit institution in question should be supervised by the 

competent authority from its state of origin, given the fact that there is no possibility to 

absolutely harmonize the various practices and banking laws applied by the EU’s 

member states. In the present work, there shall be analyzed the mechanism through which 

the National Bank of Romania authorizes credit institutions - physical persons, against 

the backround of the Unique European Banking Market. 

Keywords: unique authorization, mutual acknowledgement, access conditions to the banking 

activity, banking evidence 


Dans la présente recherche, nous nous somme proposé l’approche d’un sujet très 

actuel, d’intérêt public, mais insuffisamment approfondi dans la littérature 

juridique de spécialité – l’autorisation des institutions de crédit. Nous avons 

orienté notre étude vers les aspects juridiques de fond de cette thématique, 

notamment: 

a. les caractéristiques fondamentales du domaine, apparemment contradictoires 

– liberté et contrôle; le contrôle – déterminé par l’intérêt publique, prend la 

forme de l’observation et de la surveillance du domaine par l’unique autorité 

compétente dans le domaine – la Banque Nationale de la Roumanie; 

b. les principes selon lesquels on autorise des institutions de crédit, dans 

le contexte du Marché Bancaire Unique Européen, principes utilisés aussi 

dans le droit interne; 

1 Lecturer PhD, Faculty of Juridical, Social and Political Sciences, Valahia University of 

Târgovişte, Romania (radapostolache@yahoo.com). 


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178 Rada Postolache 

c. l’autorisation des institutions de crédit, conformément au système juridique 

roumain – avec l’observation des conditions de fond et de forme de celle-ci, 

correspondant a chaque étape - la constitution et le fonctionnement, 

inclusivement la publicité de l’acte d’autorisation. 

Nous avons analysé finalement le régime juridique spécial de l’autorisation des 

institutions de crédit par la Banque Centrale de l’État, essentiellement distinct du 

régime commun, applicable aux sociétés commerciales, selon la Loi no. 31/1990; 

il s’agit d’un régime engendré également, par la libre circulation des personnes 

et par l’intérêt public, le domaine bancaire se situant a la confluences 

des domaines d’intérêt majeur. 

Tous ces aspects sont présentés ci-dessous et structurés en deux parties: liberté 

et contrôle dans le domaine bancaire; l’autorisation des institutions de crédit. 

Faute des approches doctrinaires, nous avons fondé nos observations sur 

l’interprétation des réglementations juridiques dans le domaine. 

2. Liberté et contrôle dans le domaine bancaire 

2. 1. La liberté d’entreprendre dans le domaine bancaire 

Le domaine bancaire est soumis à l’Ordonnance d’urgence du Gouvernement no. 

99/2006 relative aux institutions de crédit et a l’adéquation du capital social [1], 

et à la loi no. 312/2004 concernant le statut de la Banque Nationale de la 

Roumanie[2]. 

La Banque centrale de l’état et les institutions de crédit représentent les éléments 

composants des domaines complètement différents – public et privé. 

Après l’année 1990, à force des bases juridiques crées, les institutions de crédit, 

de simples exécutants jusqu'à ce moment-la, sont devenues de véritables 

opérateurs sur le marché financier bancaire, avec capacité juridique complète, 

réalisant, prioritairement, des opérations destinées à attirer des dépôts du public, 

à accorder des crédits au compte propre et aussi à gérer les instruments de 

payement, qui représentent d’ailleurs leur raison d’être (opérations essentielles). 

La Banque Nationale de la Roumanie (B.N.R.) a regagné son statut de banque 

centrale de l’état, largement autonome, légiférée, ayant pour objectif fondamental 

d’assurer et de préserver la constance des prix [3]; BNR surveille le 

fonctionnement prudent du système bancaire, sans dénaturer le jeu de la 

concurrence et le principe fondamental du droit privé – la liberté de volonté des 

parties concernant la responsabilité des engagements juridiques assumés. 

Liberté et contrôle, notions apparemment contradictoires, coexistent et 

caractérisent, dans la même mesure, le domaine bancaire, pour des raisons qui 

visent l’intérêt public. 


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The competences of the National Bank of Romania regarding 

the authorization of credit institutions 179 

Les opérations et les contrats bancaires doivent satisfaire l’exigence de la liberté 

d’entreprendre, de la célérité et de la sûreté, exigence caractérisée, 

essentiellement, par: 

- la dérégulation de l’activité, définie comme une élimination des contraintes 

imposées aux institutions de crédit dans le secteur commercial, la régulation des 

pratiques bancaires se produisant sur l’effet de la concurrence; 

- la multiplication, la diversification et la publication des services offerts par les 

institutions de crédit; 

- l’informatisation de la technique bancaire, qui a rendu les services bancaires 

plus divers, leur déroulement plus rapide et a déterminé aussi l’efficacité de leur 

acceptation, la promptitude des échanges et la vitesse de la communication 

d’informations, et aussi la mondialisation des échanges économiques. Tôt, en 

Roumanie, la banque sans guichet et la banque au domicile, seront une forme 

suprême de l’évolution de technique bancaire et de la modernisation du système 

bancaire national; 

- l’internationalisation des échanges bancaires; la liberté des institutions de 

crédit et des prestations de services représente un principe fondamental décidé par 

le Traité de Rome. Conformément aux réglementations bancaires actuelles, les 

banques roumaines ont la possibilité de se fixer et de réaliser des activités 

n’importe où, dans l’espace communautaire [4]. 

2.2. Le contrôle dans le domaine bancaire 

Le monde bancaire se situe à la confluence des domaines économiquement et 

socialement vibrants. La santé du système bancaire conditionne la vitalité même 

de l’économie. Puisqu’elles travaillent avec l’argent des clients, les banques sont 

obligées de protéger les intérêts financiers de ceux-ci. 

La surveillance des institutions de crédit est étroitement liée à la gestion du risque 

du système bancaire, et assez largement réglementée dans l’Ordonnance 

d’urgence du Gouvernement no. 99/2006 et dans la Loi no. 312/2004 relative au 

statut de la Banque Nationale de la Roumanie (Chapitre V, articles 25-26). La 

sphère du contrôle englobe toutes les composantes du système bancaire – les 

banques, les coopératives de crédit, les banques d’économies pour le domaine 

locatif, les banques de crédit hypothécaire, les entités émettrices de monnaie 

électronique. C’est la Banque Nationale de la Roumanie qui doit prévenir et 

contrecarrer les risques, actions qui visent la constitution, le fonctionnement, les 

modifications, dans la situation des banques, tout aussi comme la cessation de 

celles-ci. 

L’essentiel des rapports entre la Banque Centrale et les institutions de crédit est 

défini dans l’énoncé normatif suivant: „La Banque Nationale de la Roumanie 


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représente l’autorité compétente au sujet de la réglementation, l’autorisation et la 

surveillance prudentielle des institutions de crédit” (article 4 O.U. no. 99/2006). 

Ici, „la régie” ne peut avoir la signification de la subordination ou du système 

pyramidal des banques, qui restent indépendantes. 

3. L’autorisation des institutions de crédit 

3.1. Les principes de l’autorisation 

Conformément au droit communautaire [5], l’autorisation d’une institution de 

crédit a pour fondement : 

- le principe de la non discrimination, selon lequel les banques des états membres 

(y compris leurs démembrements), quelle que soit la constitution de la 

participation à leur capital social, ont des conditions équivalentes d’accès et 

d’exercice de la qualité d’institution de crédit, elles ne bénéficient pas d’un 

traitement moins favorable que celui applicable aux banques autochtones et à 

leurs démembrements; elles peuvent choisir leur siège n’importe où dans l’espace 

communautaire; 

- le principe de l’autorisation unique, dans l’état membre où se trouve son siège 

statuaire, une sorte de „passeport” attribué aux institutions de crédit, valable dans 

l’espace communautaire grâce à la reconnaissance mutuelle des institutions de 

crédit ainsi crées; l’institution de crédit qui a été autorisée dans un état membre 

UE, pourra réaliser son activité bancaire sur le territoire de tout autre état membre, 

le fait qu’elle a la possibilité de créer des succursales ou des agences dans le cadre 

de celles-ci est peu significatif. 

L’autorisation unique représente, conformément à la loi, l’acte administratif qui 

émane de l’autorité compétente de l’état d’origine (chez nous, la Banque 

Nationale de la Roumanie), tout en respectant la procédure, les conditions de fond 

et de forme prévues par la loi (conditions d’accès), elle confère également la 

qualité d’institution de crédit et permet l’exercice des activités spécifiées; 

- le principe de la surveillance de l’institution de crédit par l’autorité compétente 

dans l’état d’origine ou le principe home country control, qui permet le contrôle 

des institutions par les états sur le territoire desquels elles ont leur siège social, 

puisqu’il n’existe pas la possibilité d’harmoniser parfaitement les diverses 

pratiques et législations bancaires des pays membres UE. 

La liberté de fixation n’ importe où dans l’espace communautaire ne peut dépasser 

le droit de l’autorité dans le domaine, de surveiller [6] les institutions de crédit, et 

détermine par conséquent la nécessité d’une attention consolidée, qui suppose 

inclusivement l’harmonisation et l’implémentation des normes relatives à la 

consolidation des comptes; 


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- e principe de la coopération entre les organismes de surveillance et de 

réglementation des états membres, très lié au principe de la surveillance de 

l’institution de crédit par l’autorité compétente dans l’état d’origine, qui déplace le 

centre des préoccupations du pays hôtesse dans le pays d’origine, pour les 

activités de toute banque dans l’espace communautaire. 

Les principes précisés ci-dessus n’ont pas une signification absolue, il existe 

certaines restrictions attachées à l’ordre public et à la sécurité publique, leur 

détermination étant laissée dans la compétence des états membres. Les autorités 

des états membres ont la possibilité de conserver certaines mesures d’intérêt 

général au sujet des succursales, celle-ci étant d’ailleurs la solution relevée dans 

l’O.U. no. 99/2006. 

Toutes ces règles se retrouvent aussi dans notre système de droit, fondement 

juridique essentiel des compétences de la Banque Centrale. 

3.2. L’autorisation des institutions de crédit personnes juridiques roumaines 

La libre circulation des personnes n’a pas la signification d’une entrée 

discrétionnaire et sans coûts sur le marché bancaire, et cela pour des raisons qui 

tiennent du client de la banque et aussi de l’intérêt général. Conformément à 

l’article 32 O.U. no. 99/2006, „Les institutions de crédit, personnes juridiques 

roumaines, peuvent se constituer et fonctionner ayant comme élément principal 

l’autorisation émise par la Banque Nationale de la Roumanie”. La Banque 

Nationale de la Roumanie réglemente, autorise et surveille prudemment les 

institutions de crédit (article 4 O.U. no. 99/2006). 

Il faut souligner que la Banque Nationale de la Roumanie a une compétence de 

réglementation exclusive – elle établit par des réglementations [7] et notifie à la 

Commission Européenne, les conditions dans lesquelles elle peut octroyer une 

autorisation et la documentation attachée à la demande d’autorisation, tout en 

respectant les conditions minimales prévues dans l’O.U. no. 99/2006 [article 10 

alinéa (2)]. 

Entités soumises à l’autorisation/notification. La loi opère avec trois catégories 

d’entités: institutions de crédit roumaines; institutions de crédit des états membres 

UE ; institutions de crédit des états étrangers. Ce sont les banques et/ou leurs 

démembrements qui sont soumis à l’autorisation ou à la notification, selon le cas, 

de la Banque Nationale de la Roumanie: 

a. les banques roumaines, y compris les succursales [8] de celles-ci de 

Roumanie. Dans l’espace communautaire, les banques roumaines peuvent 

opérer directement ou par des succursales, devant accomplir les exigences 

établies par la législation de l’état membre, destinées à protéger l’intérêt 

général. L’ouverture de celles-ci doit uniquement être notifiée à B.N.R. Les 


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banques roumaines peuvent ouvrir des succursales dans les pays étrangers, 

avec la condition d’avoir l’approbation préalable de B.N.R., conformément 

à la demande documentée selon la loi spéciale (article 81); 

b. les succursales des banques des états membres. L’ouverture de celles-ci doit 

seulement être notifiée à B.N.R., les banques des états membres peuvent 

également opérer en Roumanie par des représentations, dont l’ouverture doit 

être notifiée à B.N.R.; elles ont une activité limitée à des actes de recherches 

du marché, de représentation et de publicité, et n’ont la capacité d’effectuer 

aucune des activités soumises aux dispositions de l’O.U. no. 99/2006; 

c. les succursales des banques étrangères. Leur ouverture doit être autorisée 

par B.N.R.; les banques étrangères peuvent opérer en Roumanie par des 

représentations, dont la compétence est limitée aux actes et opérations cidessus 

mentionnées. 

L’autorisation concerne aussi des situations spéciales: la fusion, la division ou la 

transformation d’une entité dans une institution de crédit. 

L’autorisation de constitution de la banque. À la procédure de droit commun, 

instituée par la Loi no. 31/1990 au sujet des sociétés commerciales [9], l’on ajoute 

la condition de l’autorisation par la Banque Nationale de la Roumanie, dans les 

conditions de la loi spéciale. L’autorisation se réalise en deux étapes successives, 

respectivement: l’approbation de la constitution de la banque antan que société 

par actions et l’autorisation du fonctionnement de la banque ainsi constituée. 

Il faut que l’autorisation de constitution soit obtenue avant la réalisation des 

formalités prévues par la Loi no. 31/1990 pour la constitution proprement dite de 

la banque. 

Celle-ci propose le contrôle de la documentation concernant les éléments 

constitutifs de l’entité soumise à l’autorisation: le patrimoine, les organes de 

direction, l’objet d’activité. Dans la loi spéciale, celles-ci sont réglementées antan 

que „conditions minimales d’autorisation” (articles 10-17) visant: 

a. les fonds propres ou le niveau minimal du capital social initial; 

b. la qualification et l’expérience professionnelle des personnes auxquelles 

on remet des responsabilités d’administration et/ou de direction de 

l’institution de crédit, en qualité d’administrateurs, directeurs, membres du 

conseil de surveillance ou du directorat; 

c. la viabilité de la banque, appréciée conformément au plan d’activité à une 

étude de faisabilité (le type d’opérations prévues à être déployées [10], 

clientèle, le segment de marché, la nature des ressources financières 

utilisées, l’organisation, l’estimation du bilan, des résultats financiers etc.); 


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d. les actionnaires qui posséderont des participations qualifiées; B.N.R. 

vérifie si la distribution du capital entre ceux-ci assure le développement et 

la stabilité de l’institution de crédit; 

e. le siège de l’institution de crédit. 

La Banque Nationale de la Roumanie a l’autorité de demander n’importe quelle 

autre information ou documentation supplémentaire, si celles présentées sont 

incomplètes ou insuffisantes pour l’évaluation de l’accomplissement des 

conditions prévues afin d’accorder l’autorisation. 

L’internationalisation et la certitude des services bancaires imposent la 

consultation, par B.N.R., des autorités compétentes d’un état membre, et aussi de 

la Commission Nationale des Valeurs Mobilières ou de la Commission de 

Surveillance des Assurances afin d’établir des rapport fermes [11] entre 

l’institution de crédit soumise à l’autorisation et autres personnes physiques ou 

juridiques – conformément aux participations ou au pouvoir de contrôle sur celleci. 

C’est la Banque Centrale qui décide au sujet de la demande d’autorisation dans 

l’intervalle de 4 mois dès sa réception, au sens qu’elle approuve la constitution de 

l’institution de crédit ou bien en rejette la demande et communique au sollicitant, 

par écrit, sa décision. 

L’autorisation a la validité de la permission accordée aux fondateurs de procéder à 

la constitution proprement dite de la banque, antan que société commerciale par 

actions, dans les conditions de la Loi no. 31/1990. 

L’autorisation de fonctionnement de la banque. Selon le droit interne, l’institution 

de crédit est obligée de solliciter l’autorisation de fonctionnement avant de 

commencer son activité, la compétence exclusive d’octroi appartenant à B.N.R. 

L’autorisation doit être sollicitée dans un intervalle de 2 mois dès la date quand on 

a communiqué l’approbation de constitution, période dans laquelle le sollicitant 

fera également la constitution proprement dite de la banque. On attachera à la 

demande d’autorisation de fonctionnement les documents qui attestent la 

constitution légale de la banque. 

S’il apparaît des modifications du projet initial, la Banque Nationale de la 

Roumanie doit faire une nouvelle évaluation, dont la conclusion peut 

inclusivement révoquer la décision d’autoriser la constitution de la banque, dans 

l’hypothèse où ces modifications s’opposent aux normes d’autorisation. 

B.N.R. peut interdire, restreindre ou conditionner certaines activités ou même 

subordonner l’octroi de l’autorisation à la réalisation des engagements assumés 

par la banque sollicitante. L’approbation n’est pas nécessaire pour les activités 

connexes (liées aux activités principales). 


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L’autorisation de fonctionnement a comme effet le droit de l’institution de crédit 

de pratiquer les activités pour lesquelles elle a été autorisée, même si celle-ci a 

acquit personnalité juridique au moment de son immatriculation dans le registre 

du commerce. 

La rejette de la demande d’autorisation. La demande d’autorisation peut être 

rejetée uniquement en raison des situations expressément réglementées (art. 38): 

a. la documentation présentée est incomplète ou n’est pas dressée 

conformément aux dispositions légales en vigueur; 

b. l’institution de crédit ne dispose pas de fonds propres séparés ou le capital 

initial se situe sous le niveau minimal fixé par la Banque Nationale de la 

Roumanie; 

c. la forme juridique est autre que celle prévue pour la catégorie de 

l’institution de crédit que l’on vise constituer; 

d. l’évaluation du plan d’activité présenté révèle l’incapacité de l’institution 

de crédit d’assurer la réalisation des objectifs assumés dans les conditions 

de l’observation des exigences précisées dans la présente ordonnance 

d’urgence et dans les réglementations applicables; 

e. la qualité des personnes qui assurent l’administration et/ou la direction de 

l’institution de crédit ne satisfait pas les prétentions de la Banque 

Nationale de la Roumanie; la réputation ou l’expérience professionnelle de 

celles-ci n’est pas adéquate à la nature, au volume ou à la complexité de 

l’activité de l’institution de crédit ou bien elles ne répondent pas à 

l’obligation d’assurer un management prudent et solide; 

f. la qualité des actionnaires/membres de l’institution de crédit ou la 

distribution du capital entre ceux-ci ne répond pas aux exigences prévues 

dans l’Ordonnance d’urgence no. 99/2006 et dans les réglementations 

émises conformément à celle-ci; 

g. les rapports fermes entre l’institution de crédit et autres personnes 

physiques ou juridiques ou les dispositions légales, les mesures 

administratives dans la juridiction d’un état tiers qui gouverne une ou 

plusieurs personnes physiques ou juridiques avec lequel l’institution de 

crédit a des relations constantes ou des difficultés dans l’application des 

dispositions et des mesures mentionnées sont de nature à empêcher 

l’exercice efficace de la surveillance prudentielle; 

h. avant avoir gagné l’approbation de constitution, les fondateurs ont fait des 

communications publiques au sujet du fonctionnement de l’institution de 

crédit; 

i. on ne respecte pas autres conditions prévues par la loi ou par les 

réglementations émises pour l’application de celle-ci. 


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En ce qui concerne les nécessites économiques du marché, celle-ci ne peuvent être 

jamais un critère d’évaluation [article 38 alinéa (2)]. 

Le retrait de l’autorisation. L’autorisation octroyée est valable pour une période 

indéterminée et ne peut être transférée à une autre entité. La Banque Nationale de 

la Roumanie a la capacité de retirer [12] l’autorisation à une banque roumaine ou 

à une succursale de Roumanie, à une institution de crédit ayant le siège à 

l’étranger, dans les situations suivantes (article 39): 

a. les actionnaires ou les membres de l’institution de crédit renoncent à 

l’autorisation, décidant la dissolution et l’annulation de l’institution de 

crédit, action possible uniquement si la banque n’est pas dans une des 

situations qui permettent le déclenchement de la faillite. 

On impose aussi la condition de l’existence du plan qui éteint l’actif et 

annule le passif; 

b. antan que sanction, conformément à l’article 229, alinéa (1) lettre e); 

c. pour les raisons suivantes: 

- l’institution de crédit n’a pas commencé l’activité pour laquelle elle a 

été autorisée dans l’intervalle d’une année dès l’octroi de l’autorisation 

ou a cessé son activité depuis plus de 6 mois; 

- on a fourni des informations fausses ou on a utilisé n’importe quel autre 

moyen illégal afin d’obtenir l’autorisation; 

- l’institution de crédit ne rempli plus les conditions conformément 

auxquelles on a octroyé l’autorisation; 

- l’institution de crédit ne possède plus de fonds propres suffisants ou il 

y a des éléments qui déterminent la conclusion que dans une brève 

période celle-ci ne pourra plus respecter ses obligations envers les 

déposants ou autres créditeurs, et surtout, elle est incapable de garantir 

la sûreté des fonds/instruments financiers qui lui ont été confiés. 

La décision de retrait sera argumentée et communiquée à la banque, à la filiale ou 

succursale, selon le cas, par écrit, et on fera connaître au public par publication 

dans le Moniteur Officiel de la Roumanie IVe Partie et aussi dans deux 

publications de circulation nationale. Elle produit des effets dès le moment de la 

publication ou ultérieurement, selon la spécification de la décision. À partir de 

cette date, on défend à la banque de s’engager dans n’importe quelle opération 

financière, et elle ne pourra réaliser d’autres activités que celles qui concernent la 

liquidation. La liquidation de la banque commence à ce moment-la. 

La procédure d’autorisation est la même pour les institutions de crédit étrangères 

comme pour les institutions émettrices de monnaie électronique, entités 

spécialisées. 


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La cessation de droit de l’autorisation. L’autorisation d’une institution de crédit 

cesse de droit sa validité dans les situations décrites ci-dessous: 

a. par la fusion ou la division de l’institution de crédit qui en détermine 

l’annulation; 

b. par la transformation de l’institution de crédit dans un autre type 

d’institution de crédit; 

c. comme suite a une décision de déclenchement de la procédure de faillite 

de l’institution de crédit. 

L’évidence et la publicité des institutions de crédit. Les instituions de crédit qui 

fonctionnent en Roumanie dans les conditions de l’O.U. no. 99/2006 sont mises en 

évidence par la Banque Nationale de la Roumanie dans le registre des institutions 

de crédit (le registre bancaire), accessible aux personne intéressées, réglementé 

par le Règlement de la Banque Nationale de la Roumanie no. 1/2007 relatif aux 

institutions de crédit [13], inspiré par le droit bancaire européen. Il s’agit en effet 

d’une exigence ajoutée à celle de droit commun, réglementée par la Loi no. 

26/2000 au sujet du registre du commerce, qui prévoit l’enregistrement général 

des commerçants dans le registre des commerçants personnes juridiques. 

Inclusivement les succursales ouvertes en Roumanie par les institutions de crédit 

des états membres ou des états tiers sont soumises à l’enregistrement. 

La nécessité du système spécial d’évidence et de publicité des institutions de 

crédit est fondée sur l’activité d’intérêt public, réalisée par ces dernières – le 

commerce avec la monnaie. Par conséquent, il s’impose une évidence des 

commerçants – institutions de crédit, qui soit publique, particulière et organisée 

différemment par rapport au système général d’évidence des commerçants [14]. 

„L’évidence particulière dont il est question, renvoie essentiellement au fait, qu’il 

existe la possibilité de l’institution de crédit d’exercer actuellement et 

effectivement sa capacité spéciale d’usage” [15]. L’enregistrement dans le 

Registre bancaire vise exclusivement la publicité, puisque, à partir de ce momentla, 

les informations mentionnées dans le registre deviennent opposables par 

rapport aux tiers. 

Outre l’enregistrement des institutions de crédit dans le Registre bancaire, B.N.R. 

a aussi l’obligation de notifier à la Commission Européenne: 

- toute autorisation octroyée, excepté celles octroyées aux institutions émettrices 

de monnaie électronique, afin que le nom de l’institution de crédit soit précisé 

dans la liste des institutions de crédit réalisée et actualisée par la Commission 

Européenne, qui est publiée dans le Journal Officiel de l’Union Européenne (36); 


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- les mesures préventives destinées à protéger les intérêts des déposants, des 

investisseurs et de toutes les autres personnes bénéficiaires des services fournis 

par l’institution de crédit d’un autre état membre, qui a une succursale ou fournit 

des services directement en Roumanie et qui ne respecte pas les dispositions 

légales adoptées en Roumanie, et dont la compétence appartient à la Banque 

Nationale de la Roumanie [article 63 alinéa (1)]. 

Conclusions 

Dans le domaine bancaire communautaire opère le principe de l’autorisation 

unique – l’acte juridique qui émane de l’autorité compétente de l’état d’origine – 

chez nous, la Banque Nationale de la Roumanie - et qui remplit les conditions 

d’accès prévues par la loi – procédure, conditions de fond et de forme. 

L’institution de crédit autorisée dans un état de l’Union Européenne pourra 

réaliser son activité bancaire sur le territoire de n’importe quel autre état membre, 

directement ou par l’intermède des succursales. Il s’agit d’une reconnaissance 

mutuelle, complétée par le principe de la surveillance de l’institution de crédit par 

l’autorité compétente de l’état d’origine, puisqu’il n’existe pas la possibilité de 

concilier parfaitement les diverses pratiques et législations bancaires des pays 

membres de l’Union Européenne. „La transmission” d’une institution de crédit des 

états membres de l’Union Européenne rend possible la conservation de celle-ci 

dans la sphère de surveillance de la banque centrale de l’état d’origine (1). 

La constitution et le fonctionnement d’une institution de crédit, personne 

juridique roumaine, sont strictement conditionnés de leur autorisation par la 

Banque Centrale de la Roumanie, dont le régime juridique est réglementé, 

unitairement, par l’Ordonnance d’urgence du Gouvernement no.99/2006, dans 

l’esprit des Directives du domaine. L’autorisation a un régime juridique spécial, 

en raison de son mécanisme complexe, parfois à la limite de la pathologie. 

L’autorisation vise le parcours entier d’une institution de crédit – constitution, 

fonctionnement, y compris les modifications dans sa situation. B.N.R. contrôle 

toute entité personne juridique roumaine et toute entité bancaire des états tiers ou 

membres qui n’a pas „un passeport européen” (2). 

La liberté d’entreprendre ne peut transgresser des domaines fondamentaux pour 

l’intérêt public. L’internationalisation du système bancaire rend claire la nécessite 

de consolider le contrôle prudentiel afin d’éviter les crises internationales et le 

combat contre le lavage des capitaux. Ainsi, les Banques Centrales auront 

certainement le même rôle important – réglementation, autorisation et surveillance 

prudentielle pour un système bancaire équilibré, solide (3). 

Dans l’espace bancaire communautaire, les banques centrales agiront d’une 

maniere concertee, sous la forme des notifications [article 69 alinea (3)], des 

consultations (article 37), de l’information [ex. Article 60 alinea (3), article 63, 


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65, 194], de la surveillance consolidee (article 176) ou de la cooperation avec 

d’autres autorites competentes (article 184 et les suivants) (4). 

REFERENCES 

[1] M. Of., Iere Partie, no. 1027 du 27 décembre 2006, dénommée, de suite, O.U. no. 99/2006. 

[2] M. Of., Iere Partie, no. 582 du 30 juin 2004. 

[3] Pour des approfondissements, R. Postolache, Droit bancaire (Maison d’Edition Le livre 

universitaire, Bucarest, 2006), pp. 28-29. 

[4] St. Piedelièvre, Droit bancaire (PUF, Paris, 2003), pp. 17-18. 

[5] La Directive 2006/48/CE du Parlement Européen et du Conseil relative a l’accès a l’activité 

et a la réalisation de l’activité par les institutions de crédit et la Directive 2006/49/CE du Parlement 

Européen et du Conseil relative a l’adéquation du capital des firmes d’investissements et des 

institutions de crédit, le Journal Officiel de l’Union Européenne no. L. 177 du 30 juin 2006. 

[6] L’application du principe home country control. 

[7] Le Règlement de la Banque Nationale de la Roumanie no. 11/2007 concernant 

l’autorisation des institutions de crédit, personnes juridiques roumaines, et des succursales des 

institutions de crédit des états tiers, situées en Roumanie, M. Of., Iere Partie, no. 837 du 6 

décembre 2007. 

[8] La succursale – „toute unité opérationnelle dépendante juridiquement d’une institution de 

crédit ou d’une institution financière, qui en effectue directement toutes ou quelques-unes des 

activités” (article 7, point 31 O.U. no. 99/2006). 

[9] Republiée, M. Of., Iere Partie, no. 1066 du 17 novembre 2004. 

[10] Dans la limite des prevoyences des articles 18-21 O.U. no. 99/2006. 

[11] Dans l’acception de l’article 7 point 15) O.U. no. 99/2006. 

[12] Pour des approfondissements, L. Bercea, La constitution des societes bancaires, RDC, 12, 

122-123 (2001). 

[13] M. Of., Iere Partie, no. 119 du 16 février 2007. 

[14] L. Bercea, œuvre citée, pp. 148-155. 



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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 189 

THE NORMATIVE LANGUAGE 

MIHAI GRIGORE 1 

Abstract. The present study aims to carry out a theoretical-practical approach of the 

legal language used for the complex process of proposing, elaborating and drafting 

normative acts, by the persons who take part to the legislative process and by 

the specialists within the central and local public administration who are involved as well 

in this essential activity. 

Keywords: legal language, the language of law, legal terminology, jurilinguistics, legislative 

technique. 

Language represents an entity which uses the complex system of the speech, 

inside of which has established its own code and system. To a certain extent, 

each language resorts to the complexity which characterizes organizational 

systems – phonology, morphology, syntax, stylistics – creating thus 

a terminological network of meanings, after it has parted form the lexical 

resources of common language with the view to express notions 

and conceptualize systems typical to the specialized field [1]. A language such 

as the legal one uses all the formal systems of the speech, but also 

a terminological network comprising specific notions. 

When it comes to law rules and their implementation, in the broad meaning 

of the word, a key part is undoubtedly played by the legal language. 

Legal language (that is the terminology and phraseology of the normative act) 

is based on the legal technique [2]. 

Professor Jean-Louis Bergel has tried to find out whether there is a specific 

language of law, in other words a specific way of expressing the legal thought 

and reality, which is set apart from the common language and only borrows the 

latter’s exterior elements. The answer is yes, so we can consequently speak about 

the existence of a legal terminology, legal vocabulary and other instruments 

which enable the expression and communication of law rules [3]. 

Terminology means all the terms specific to a science, art, discipline [4]. 

In the field of Law, legal concepts can be accurately expressed only by means 

of adequate terms. This is how legal terminology and legal semantics emerge [5]. 

The interdisciplinary approach of the legal language has led to the appearance 

of two new research fields - legal linguistics and legal semiotics. From a linguistic 

point of view, the field of legal semiotics deals with the description of the legal 

1 Lecturer, PhD, Faculty of Legal, Social and Political Sciences, VALAHIA University, 

Targoviste, Romania (mgrigore73@yahoo.com). 


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190 Mihai Grigore 

discourse and text, using both grammar books and specialized dictionaries 

as reference elements. Within Romanian bibliography [6], the first semiotic model 

to be applied to the legal discourse can be found in a study focused on the typical 

Law argumentation. Strictly speaking, legal linguistics presupposes examining 

the two essential components of the language of Law - the legal vocabulary 

and discourse – the field of legal linguistics being established in accordance 

to the general linguistics and the science of Law. 

The discipline called Legal Linguistics or Jurilinguistics [7] was elaborated 

by Gérard Cornu, Jean-Claude Gémar and Louis Jolicoeur in France, having 

as object of study the legal language under its two defining aspects: 

legal terminology and legal discourse. The field of Legal Linguistics has began 

to be introduced in Romania through studies and researches with interdisciplinary 

character which examine the way in which Law uses language and its resources 

in order to build a specialized language such as the legal one. 

Within the Romanian bibliography, the notion of legal linguistics is attested 

by a study dedicated to jurists and carried out by Barbu Berceanu. According 

to the author, the object of this discipline is represented by “the linguistic activity 

in the field of Law, focusing on the words with legal signification, specific 

to the legal existence”; legal linguistics has nothing to do with the “impact of Law 

in the field of linguistics, since Law provides a legal value to words irrespective 

of the field where they are applied”. Thus, the activity of legal linguistics includes 

the study of legal terminology – “both the terminology used by the public and the 

restrictive one, used by specialists and Law practitioners […], with the view 

of choosing the most economic and suitable terms (in terms of semantic category 

and inflectional possibilities) and the most scientific definition”. Legal linguistics 

has also the task of elaborating legal dictionaries [8]. 

François Térré, a professor who studied the auxiliary sciences of Law, 

has also mentioned legal linguistics, legal semiology and legal semantics [9]. 

He has emphasized that the development of legal linguistics is naturally connected 

to the analysis of semantics – a part of linguistics which deals with the vocabulary 

and the meaning of words. At the same time, semantics represents a historic study 

of the words meaning, with all the variations produced in time. In the field 

of Law, the preoccupation for semantics is optional [10] . 

Ferdinand de Saussure, the founder of semiology, considered that semiology 

is a part of social psychology, “a science which studies the life of signs within 

the social life”. Saussure defined the sign by means of only two entities: 

the signifier and the signified [11]. 

Given the obvious role played by the sign within legal life, the appearance 

of legal semiology has been a natural event. The major difficulty encountered 

by this field of knowledge consists in the fact that, in order to match its objectives 


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The normative language 191 

and be functional, the notion of “sign” must be clearly defined, while in the field 

of legal doctrine there are unfortunately some hesitations about that [12]. 

It is commonly agreed that semiology and semiotics must not be confounded, 

as a result of two major differences: on the one hand, even if semiotics represents 

the sign par excellence, it encompasses all the evocated signs, and not only 

the language, while on the other hand, even if semiotics regards the language, 

it presents it in its relations with logics. At a first analysis, general semiotics can 

be considered the study of all the relations mentioned above, the comparative 

study of logics and language and therefore the comparative study of scientific 

language. From this perspective, legal semiotics consists in the study 

of the relations between Law, Logics and Language [13]. 

Legal vocabulary represents the basic language stock of a language which is used 

within the legal field. Legal vocabulary is made up of three main components: 

1. (literal) legal terms 2. words from common language and 3. words from other 

scientific disciplines [14]. 

Legal vocabulary frequently uses a part of the word stock typical to common 

language. Volens nolens, jurists currently resort more often to words coming from 

other science fields, especially if they are connected to legal regulations. 

Thus, jurists have to learn the meaning of words and expressions such as 

“integrated circuits”, “social security”, “master degree”, “management” a.s.o. 

The main features of legal terminology and its dynamics are: 

- the appearance of new terms (usually borrowed or word-to-word 

translated – calques) which represent legal institutions recently introduced in the 

Romanian Law: Ombudsman (Avocatul poporului), NGO Non-Governmental 

Organization (ONG Organizaţie non-guvernamentală) emergency ordinance 

(ordonaţă de urgenţă), organized crime (crimă organizată), stand by contract 

(contract stand by), leasing contract (contract de leasing), malpraxis insurance 

(asigurare de malpraxis); 

- the introduction in the Romanian law of terms or expressions mentioned 

by dictionaries before 1990 and regarding exclusively the foreign legislation: 

know-how contract (contract de know-how), immovability (imovabilitate), a.s.o.; 

- the expansion of the meaning which some legal terms within specialized 

dictionaries have (for instance, the term piracy – initially restricted to the air 

and sea piracy - has now a broader applicability, including also the field 

of informatics and audio-visual); 

- the restriction of the meaning – it can be noticed at the Latin expression 

restitutio in integrum (which currently signifies almost only the restitution of 

the possessions confiscated during the communist regime to their real 

possessors); 


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- the reintroduction in use of some terms or expressions belonging to 

“bourgeois Law” [15]: concession; [public] domain; Court of Appeal a.s.o.; 

- the disappearance from use of some terms/expressions belonging to 

socialist Law: socialist cooperatives; socialist nationalization; socialist state 

organisation. 

Technical language – popular language. In the process of drawing up acts, 

the lawmaker is confronted with a double contradictory condition: on the one 

hand, he has the duty to make sure that legal concepts are accurately 

communicated and adapted to the social environment, resorting thus to a popular 

language, that is to a language that everyone can understand, while on the other 

hand he has to be precise and rigorous, so that any citizen can understand exactly 

the provisions of law, resorting thus to a technical language [16]. 

Given the dialectic connection between the dynamics of social life and 

the legislation’s need for improvement which takes into account all social 

transformations, the evolution of legal language is a complex process, 

not deprived of contradictions. 

Two of these contradictions have a particular importance from a practical point 

of view, both for the jurists and linguists: (1) precision versus flexibility 

in expressing legal norms and (2) technical (specialized) precision versus 

accessibility of legal norms. 

(1) In order to be clearly understood, since it has a less obvious influence upon the 

legal language, the first contradiction must be analyzed in connection 

to an essential law principle – creating a balance between the stability and 

mobility of legal regulations [17]. 

Consequently, the legislative technique takes into account both linguistic methods 

for insuring a precise clear speech, and the manners aimed to maintain 

the “flexibility” of law. 

The contradiction between the requirements of stability and mobility when 

it comes to expressing law norms determines, on a linguistic scale, 

the coexistence between some elements which reflect a conservative behaviour 

(archaisms, obsolete formulae and syntactic patterns) and other elements which 

are dynamic and updated (terminological innovations, changes of meaning, 

creation of new complex syntactic units, reorganization of lexical-semantic fields 

and so on). 

(2) The second contradiction (technical precision versus accessibility) – 

which has brought about the question “Whom are laws written for” – is due to 

the heterogeneous nature of readers (specialists within the filed and non 

specialists). 


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As for the Romanian Law, the lawmaker’s preoccupation for a simple 

and accessible speech has a long tradition, being attested – implicitly or explicitly 

– by the first law provisions. 

The attempt to find an answer to the question “Whom are laws written for”, 

has generated arguments both in favour of considering the legal language 

a professional specialized one, and in favour of coming up with a language which 

can be easily understood by law subjects when it comes to reading legal acts. 

The first category of arguments recommends the use of specialized terminology 

capable to satisfy the need of precision, cohesion and stability which are typical 

to any specialized language and opposed to the common one. 

On the other hand, the second category of arguments based on the Roman Law 

principle “Nemo censetur ignorare legem” considers that lawfulness can be 

maintained only if the legal language which regulates it is accessible to everyone. 

Thus, the language of law and its codes must be easily understood by citizens. 

And thus, the lawmaker must resort to common language. 

Bentham required that law used only “terms which are familiar to people”. 

Furthermore, while elaborating his explicative works which finally culminated 

with the French Civil Code, in 1804, Cambacérès was clearly asserting: 

“The lawmaker works for the people; above all, he must communicate with the 

people: his mission is accomplished after he has been understood” [18]. 

Yet, it must not be ignored the fact that, in common language, the meaning 

of words may change and that many words have more meanings at the same time. 

Other times, words of common language have a confusing obscure meaning. 

When such words are used in order to express legal concepts, without resorting 

to methods which assign only one meaning (always the same) to each one 

of them, the effect is that of uncertainty and confusion, whereas in principle 

the formula which characterizes the legal concept must be fix, clear and precise. 

The last result can be obtained only if law is expressed in a technical language. 

This type of language encompasses a limited number of words specific to law, 

such as: mortgage, fidejussion, usufruct and so on. But apart from the words 

above, the technical language of law is also based on the common one. 

The lawmaker can even loan new terms to common language, which become 

technical through a process of simplifying and fixing their meaning [19]. 

Contemporary jurists (just like those from the antique Rome) have proved that 

normative acts must be based on the common lexical stock, but in an improved 

variant of the latter, so that the scientific meaning of words can be reached. 

Ihering, a reputed German jurist of the late 19 th century, considered that 

“the lawmaker has to think like a philosopher and talk like a peasant”. 

It can be thus stated that jurists strongly uphold the dictum which Romans applied 

empirically – any science means a well done language. 


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In fact, just like any other science, Law is characterized by a specific language but 

without having at the same time the technical character of exact sciences. 

Social science in continuous transformation, just like the social evolution that 

it embodies, Law always needs new terms which it finds in the common language. 

The will for innovation without considerable logical grounds cannot abolish what 

tradition proved to be a benefit gained forever. 

Practical science at the same time, Law is applied every single day, a fact which 

would not be possible without a terminology that everyone understands. 

The legal vocabulary has to meet particular requirements concerning the quality 

of the legal norm and its communication. The quality of the legal norm - which is 

a behavioral one, whose observance is insured by state restrictions – 

is accomplished if the legal norm evinces certain essential features, such 

as cohesion, organization, precision and clarity. For this reason, any legal norm 

must be expressed using clear precise words, with a well determined meaning. 

If a legal norm were expressed using ambiguous words, incompletely defined 

or unclear, then it would become uncertain; the lawmaker who elaborated 

it cannot guarantee that the addressees will understand the same thing; 

furthermore, those who apply the legal norm in question will be tempted to 

provide particular meanings to it, setting it thus apart from the lawmaker’s will, 

albeit imperfect. In other words, when a legal norm is drafted, the legal 

vocabulary must to be used in such a way that facts which are to be established 

from a legal point of view are firstly translated in a legal language, in order 

to look for the applicable legal solution afterwards, and not the other way round 

[20]. 

Consequently, the legal language must be clear and precise, but at the same time 

flexible, given the fact that Law, which is in a ceaseless transformation, often 

needs new terms for keeping up with the strong dynamics of day to day life. 

This is why the lawmaker must always look for clear non ambiguous terms, with 

a well defined content, whereas if terms have several meanings which may lead 

to various interpretations, the lawmaker himself can start to elaborate some 

accurate definitions. 

Actually, the possibility for the lawmaker to start drawing up definitions has been 

anticipated ever since the Roman period. Thus, in its 50 th book, the Roman 

Digeste includes a special chapter which renders the most important legal 

definitions (De verborum significatione) [21]. 

Precise and clear, legal terms must have a limited meaning, but without avoiding 

nuances. Creation of life, the legal language must take into account the evolution 

of social reality and the dynamics of terminological reality. Of course, 

it is obvious that certain notions such as solidarity, responsibility, condition, term 


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must have a certain legal precision and a well defined applicability field - 

the legal one. 

In order to find the best legal linguistic formula, Fr. Gény suggests taking into 

account three elements: (1) the selected word must have an intermediary function, 

being a communication instrument; (2) the legal language must meet the purposes 

of law, in order to overcome the obscurity of common language and (3) the extent 

to which legal language is used (the use) and sometimes its etymology. 

At the same time, the legal language must evince a minimal literary beauty, 

without falling into scholasticism, whereas the phrase structure must be logically 

coordinated so as to remove any possibility of interpretation based on sophisms. 

The importance of legal vocabulary is equally major when it comes to the issue 

of communicating a legal norm. The latter represents a requirement generated 

by the key role of the norm itself, that is to be known, observed and applied. On 

the other hand, the communication in question is imposed by the principle nemo 

censetur ignorare legem, according to which no one can defend himself 

by claiming that he does not know the law. 

In conclusion of the present analysis on the legal language specialization, 

we consider that, given the fact that the process of the legal language 

understanding by non specialists is quite complex and controversial, 

the most realistic and adequate perspective would be: “the language of legislative 

acts cannot be identical either with the common one, in front of which becomes 

more abstract, or with the language within legal literature which, from theoretical 

reasons, is highly specialized.” [22]. 

REFERENCES 

[1] Anon, A., Report on the European eLearning Summit 2001, (IBM International Education 

Centre, 10-11 May, 2001); 

[2] G. Rondeau, Introduction à la terminologie (Gaëtan Morin, Québec, 1983) p. 25. 

[3] F. Gény, Science et technique en droit privé positif (Recueil Sireý, Paris, 1921) Tome III, 

p. 449. 

[4] J.- L. Bergel, Théorie générale du droit (Dalloz, Paris, 2003) 4-ème édition, p. 222. 

[5] F. Marcu, Marele dicţionar de neologisme, („Saeculum” Publ. House, Bucharest, 2006) 

VIII edition 

[6] As a result of legal terminology and semantics, a word used in connection to the legal field 

has always a specific signification. As a rule, words used within legal terminology are taken form 

the common vocabulary, but they are provided with a certain legal signification which sets them 


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apart from the common meaning, converting them in independent elements of the legal 

terminology. The birth of legal terminology is therefore the result of a process which involves 

modifying the common meaning of words by means of a semantic legal re-conversion 

(J.-L. Bergel, quoted works, p. 223). 

[7] Gh. Mihai, Elemente constructive de argumentare juridică (Academiei Publ. House, 

Bucharest, 1982). For that purpose, see A. Stoichiţoiu-Ichim, Semiotica discursului juridic, 

(Universităţii Publ. House, Bucharest, 2001). 

[8] The term jurilinguistics (fr., jurilinguistique) was created after the model offered by terms 

such as: ethnolinguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics [G. Cornu, Linguistique juridique 

(Montchrestien, Paris, 2005) 3-ème édition, p.13]. 

[9] B. Berceanu, Dreptul şi limba. Ştiinţa dreptului şi lingvistica. Succinte consideraţii 

teoretice şi aplicative, in „Legal Studies and Researches”, no. 3, pp. 247–266 (1981). 

[10] F. Térré, Introduction générale au droit (Dalloz, Paris, 2003) 6-ème édition, pp. 367-368. 


[12] F. de Saussure, Cours de linguistique générale (Bibliothèque Scientific Payot, Paris, 1995) 

p. 52. 

[13] F. Térré, quoted works, p. 368. 

[14] G. Kalinowski, Introduction à la logique juridique. Eléments de sémiotique juridique, 

logique des normes et logique juridique (R. Pichon et R. Durand-Auzias, Paris, 1965) p. 35. 

[15] J.-L. Bergel, quoted works, p. 224. 

[16] This was the name used by the communist regime before the 90s. 

[17] M. Eliescu, Spre un nou Cod Civil. Câteva probleme de tehnică legislativă, 

in „Legal Studies and Researches”, no.4, p.611 (1968). 

[18] I. Ceterchi (coord.), Legislaţia şi perfecţionarea relaţiilor sociale (Academiei Publ. House, 

Bucharest, 1976) p. 23. 

[19] Apud Mihail Eliescu, quoted works, p. 612. 


[21] J.-L. Bergel, quoted works, p. 225 

[22] D. Daube, Roman law: Linguistic, Social, and Philosophical Aspects (Edinburgh, 1969) 

p. 135. 

[23] C. Reteşan, Unele aspecte ale limbajului actelor legislative, in: I. Ceterchi (coord.), 

quoted works, p. 235. 


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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 197 

SPECIFIC FORMS OF CONSENT 

IN THE FIELD OF LIBERALITIES 

Ilioara GENOIU 1 , OLIVIAN MASTACAN 2 

Abstract. By lege lata, the consent represents one of the validity conditions which each 

and every juridical act must meet. Yet, when it comes to the field of liberalities, the 

consent evinces a series of specific features. While on the one hand the dolus (fraudulent 

and deceiving intent) – which is one of the vices of consent – basically takes the form 

of misleading behaviour or suggestion, on the other hand, when it comes to the will, only 

the testator’s consent must abide by the specific validity requirements provided by law. 

Thus, the present work aims to carry out a brief analysis of the validity conditions 

applying to the consent, and also to point out the specific forms taken by the latter, 

by lege lata, in terms of liberalities. 

Keywords: consent; vices of consent; dolus; misleading behavior; suggestion. 

1. A general presentation of consent 

1.1. The definition of consent 

The consent represents a ground condition of the juridical act, general and 

essential at the same time, which consists in expressing the decision to conclude 

the act in question[1]. Specialized juridical literature has assigned the following 

two meanings to the term “consent”: a) unilateral manifestation of will, that is 

the will expressed by one of the parties involved in the bilateral or multilateral 

juridical act, or by the author of the unilateral act; b) will agreement between 

the parties, in the case of bilateral or multilateral juridical acts. 

1.2. Validity conditions applying to consent 

In order to be valid, the consent must totally meet the following conditions[2]: a) 

it must be given by a person with adequate reasoning faculties; b) it must be 

expressed with the intention to produce legal effects; c) it must be stated;d) it must 

not be altered by any vice of consent. 

1.2.1. The consent must be given by a person with adequate reasoning 

faculties 

The relative presumption concerning the existence of mental judgment, which is 

fully necessary for concluding juridical acts, applies only for persons with full 

1 

Lecturer, PhD, Faculty of Legal, Social and Political Sciences, VALAHIA University, 

Targoviste, Romania (ilioaragenoiu20@yahoo.fr). 

2 Lecturer, PhD, Faculty of Legal, Social and Political Sciences, VALAHIA University, 

Targoviste, Romania (ghili_m@yahoo.com). 


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198 Ilioara Genoiu, Oliviu Mastacan 

power of exercise. On the contrary, persons under the age of 14 and those under 

judicial interdiction are considered not to have adequate reasoning faculties. 

And on the other hand, the under age persons between 14 and 18 are considered to 

have a judgement in course of formation, so that they can conclude civil juridical 

acts either personally or with the approval of legal tutors and/or the tutorial 

authority[3]. 

Besides the legal incapacities mentioned above, there also natural ones applying 

in situations which involve individuals with full power of exercise who are 

temporarily deprived of their reasoning faculties as a result of being in a state of 

drunkenness, hypnosis, somnambulism, rage, a.s.o. 

1.2.2. The consent must be expressed with the intention to produce legal 

effects 

The consent is valid only if made in a state of juridical commitment, that is with 

the intention to produce juridical effects and, more precisely, to create, modify or 

rescind a civil juridical relation. 

On the contrary, no consent will be considered to have been validly expressed if: 

a) it was given as a joke (jocandi causa); 

b) the expression of one’s will was made out of friendship, courtesy or pure 

complacency; 

c) the consent was given with a mental reserve (reservatio mentalis) known by the 

person who benefits from it; 

d) the addressee of the will statement knows that the latter was not made with the 

purpose to establish a juridical commitment; 

e) the person who gave the consent conditioned it to his pure will (“I take upon 

myself the commitment only if I please”); 

f) the manifestation of will is extremely vague. 

1.2.3. The consent must be stated 

The legal subjects’ inner will has juridical value only if is externalized, that is 

externally manifested, in one of the following ways: words, acts or gestures. 

The parties are free to choose how to manifest their will, since the principle which 

applies to the externalization of consent is that of mutual agreement. Specialized 

literature and jurisprudence have acknowledged that the manifestation of one’s 

will in order to conclude juridical acts may be not only express, but also tacit. 

Even if in principle silence is not synonymous to a consent, it nonetheless 

acquires this value (qui tacit consentire videtur) in the following circumstances: 

a) when the law clearly provides for this possibility; 

b) when the parties, through their express will, assign this value to silence; 

c) when, according to tradition, silence means acceptance. 


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Specific forms of consent in the field of liberalities 199 

1.2.4. The consent must not be altered by any vice of consent 

The consent may be consciously affected in terms of its intellectual contents 

through error and dolus, or in terms of its free character through violence and 

lesion. We shall now carry out a brief analysis regarding the vices of consent. 

A) Error 

The error represents a vice of consent consisting in the false representation of 

reality in the mind of the person who concludes the juridical act. Specialized 

literature provides for two criteria of classifying the error: 

a) considering the nature of the reality erroneously presented, there may be made 

a distinction between by fact error – the false representation of a state or actual 

situation at the conclusion of a juridical act – and by law error – the false 

representation of the existence or the text of a juridical norm. 

b) considering the consequences it brings about, the error may take the following 

forms: error-obstacle, error-vice and harmless error. 

- the error-obstacle, also called destructive error of will, consists in the false 

representation in respect to the nature of the juridical act or the identity taken by 

the object of the juridical act in question. The error-obstacle triggers the sanction 

of absolute nullity of the juridical act, given the fact that there is no juridical will 

in the process[4]. 

- the error-vice, which is less serious than the error-obstacle, involves 

the substantial features of the object within the juridical act, but also the identity 

or the essential attributes of the person who gives the consent. The error-vice 

comprises only one element - a psychological one - and the cause quite hard to 

prove which is the false representation of reality. 

In order to speak about this type of error, the following conditions must be met: 

- the element involved by the error and which led to the conclusion of the act must 

be a determinant one, that is if the true reality would have been known in the first 

place, the juridical act would have never been concluded; 

- in the case of bilateral acts by onerous title, it is necessary for the other party to 

have known that the element involved by the error is the determinant reason for 

the conclusion of the juridical act. 

The sanction applied for the error-vice is the relative nullity of the juridical act. 

- the harmless error occurs in non essential circumstances and does not influence 

the validity of the juridical act concluded. For instance, the area of the rented flat 

is narrower, a case which requires a smaller price for the rent and not the nullity of 

the juridical act. 


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B) Dolus (deceptive fraudulent intent) 

Dolus signifies misleading someone, by resorting to illegal means, in order to 

convince him to conclude a juridical act which otherwise would have not 

concluded. 

Dolus comprises two elements, a subjective and an objective one, a fact which 

makes it easier to prove. The subjective (intentional) element which characterizes 

dolus consists in the intention to mislead someone so as to determine that person 

to conclude a juridical act. On the other hand, the objective (material) element 

consists precisely in resorting to deceiving means, typical to illegal acts, so as to 

mislead someone. 

In order to be considered a vice of consent, the dolus must meet the following 

conditions: a) it must be determinant for the conclusion of the juridical act, that is 

to involve essential and decisive elements in regard to the contracting party whose 

consent was vitiated; b) it must be generated by the other contracting party. 

As a rule, in the case of bilateral and multilateral acts, the dolus must come from 

the other contracting party. The dolus may affect the consent even in the case of 

unilateral acts, taking the form of misleading behavior or suggestion. 

The vitiation of consent by dolus triggers the sanction of relative nullity of 

the juridical act concluded. 

C) Violence 

Violence represents a vice of consent which means threatening someone so as to 

frighten and determine him to conclude a juridical act which otherwise would 

have not concluded. 

Just like dolus, violence is made up of two elements: 

- the objective element which consists in making threats against somebody’s 

person (life or physical safety), patrimony (the existence and integrity of assets), 

or moral system (honor, honesty or feelings). 

- the subjective element which consists in inducing a fear in order to determine 

the victim of the violence to conclude a civil juridical act which otherwise would 

have not been concluded. 

In order to be considered a vice of consent, violence must meet two conditions 

altogether: a) it must be illegitimate, unjust; b) it must be determinant for 

the conclusion of the juridical act. 

As a rule, the vitiation of consent by violence triggers the relative nullity of 

the juridical act. 


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D) Lesion 

Lesion represents a vice of consent which involves the material loss suffered by 

one of the parties of a juridical act, as a result of the obvious disproportion in 

terms of value between the parties’ counter performance. 

Lesion comprises only one element, that is the obvious disproportion in terms of 

value between the parties’ counter performance. 

In order to speak about lesion, the following conditions must be met: 

a) the lesion must be a direct consequence of the conclusion of the juridical act; 

b) the lesion must exist in relation to the conclusion of the juridical act; 

c) the disproportion in terms of value between counter performances must be 

evident. 

Lesion can be invoked only by the under age persons with restricted power of 

exercise, that is by the persons between 14 and 18. At the same time, the acts 

which risk to be annulled because of the lesion must meet the following 

conditions altogether: 

a) be administrative acts; 

b) be concluded by an under age person with restricted power of exercise, alone, 

without the approval of the legal tutor; 

c) be harmful for the under age person; 

d) be by onerous title. 

The vitiation of consent by lesion triggers a double sanction: the act is rescinded 

on legal demand and one of the counter performances is diminished or increased, 

as the case may be. 

2. Specific forms of consent in the field of the donation contract 

The consent given by the parties of the donation contract must abide by the 

requirements of the Common. But contrary to the Common Law, the parties’ 

consent in the field of the donation contract must be expressed, as an exception 

from the principle of mutual agreement, in a solemn form, that is by means of an 

authentic act. Yet, solemnity does not also characterize the manual gift which, 

albeit a liberality and variety of donation, is a real act. Even if legal requirements 

imposed by the Common Law provide that no consent must be vitiated, in 

the field of liberalities this happens mostly by dolus. Less frequent is the consent 

vitiated by error or violence. The error as vice of consent may regard the donator’s 

identity, the donated good or the cause of the donation[5]. 

In the field of liberalities at large, dolus takes the form of misleading behavior and 

suggestion. It is hard to make a clear distinction between the two forms, given 

the fact that they have points in common, in terms of the activities resorted to and 

the purpose looked for. 


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The misleading behavior occurs when the donee resorts to deceiving procedures 

and fraudulent brutal direct means in order to gain the donator’s confidence, 

deceive his good faith and determine him to dispose on his behalf. The illegal 

means and procedures which characterize misleading behavior are of a wide 

variety. Let us remind a few: the sequestration of the donator, the taping of his 

phone calls, the intimidation of his relatives and friends by means of offences, 

abuse of influence or power, groundless promises etc. against them. 

Suggestion consists in resorting to indirect means with a hidden, elaborated and 

deceiving character (e.g.: tricks, false assertions about the donator’s relatives 

and friends, speculations upon the donator’s views or feelings etc.), in order to 

induce to the donator the idea of instituting a liberality which otherwise he would 

not have instituted out of his own initiative. 

Specialized literature[6], that we agree with, considers that dolus as misleading 

behavior does not occur if the person who generated it is deprived of judgment. 

Thus, as a result of their incompatibility, the absence of judgment and misleading 

behavior cannot appear together. 

It is considered deprived of judgment that person who is unable to realize the 

consequences of his deeds. On the contrary, misleading behavior can be caused 

only by the person who consciously resorts to fraudulent means in order to 

determine the donator to make a donation on his behalf. Therefore, 

the incompatibility between the two is completely evident. 

The vitiation of the donator’s consent triggers the relative nullity of the donation 

contract. In order for this to happen, the fraudulent means and procedures resorted 

to must have been undoubtedly determined the donator to make a donation. 

Consequently, the liberality must be annulled only if it is proved that dolus 

generated the donator’s will to donate. The gravity of the dolus can be assessed 

only by the court. 

Contrary to the Common Law, dolus attracts the rescission of the donation 

contract even if it comes form another person than the beneficiary of the liberality 

inter vivos. 

3. Specific forms taken by the consent in the field of the will[7] 

Given the fact that the will is a juridical unilateral act, only the testator’s consent 

must observe the requirements of the Common Law. In principle, when in comes 

to the field of the will, the testator’s consent may be vitiated by error, dolus or 

violence. Lesion cannot be encountered as vice of consent in the field of the will, 

even if the testator is an under age person of 16 years old, since violence applies 

only for bilateral juridical acts, commutative and by onerous title. 

Although in theory they are perfectly plausible in respect to wills, error and 

violence are less frequently encountered in practice. 


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The error can trigger the vitiation of the consent and the rescission of the will in 

the following circumstances: 

- it affects the legatee’s identity or essential attributes (e.g.: the testator thought 

that the legatee was his child outside the marriage); 

- it affects the fundamental ground of the will (e.g.: the testator din not know he 

had blood relations; if he had known, he would have not instituted other legatees). 

Even if from a contractual point of view the second condition presented above 

does not trigger the nullity of the contract, in the case of the will, which is an 

unilateral juridical act, such ground triggers its nullity[8]. 

In theory, the will can be rescinded as a result of the testator’s consent being 

vitiated by physical or moral violence. But in practice, this hypothesis is not 

possible, given the fact that the testator, whose consent was vitiated by violence, 

has the possibility to revoke his will subsequently. 

The most frequent vice of consent in respect to wills is dolus which may take the 

form of misleading behavior or suggestion[9]. The vitiation of the testator’s 

consent occurs when the legatee (or third party) resorts to deceiving ways in order 

to gain the testator’s confidence and determine him to make a will which he 

would have not done out of his own initiative[10]. 

As briefly pointed before, misleading behavior occurs when someone makes use 

of deceiving procedures and fraudulent brutal direct means (such as the 

sequestration of the disposing party, the taping of his phone calls, the intimidation 

of his relatives and friends etc.) in order to gain the testator’s confidence, deceive 

his good faith and determine him to make a will his behalf. On the other hand, 

suggestion consists in resorting to indirect means with a hidden, elaborated and 

deceiving character (e.g.: tricks, false assertions about the legitimate heirs, 

speculations upon the testator’s views or feelings etc.) in order to induce to the 

testator the idea to institute a liberality which otherwise he would not have 

instituted. 

Misleading behavior and suggestion trigger the rescission of the will only if they 

altered the testator’s consent, that is if without their presence in the first place the 

testator would have never instituted a liberality. Thus, misleading behavior and 

suggestion taken separately do not constitute a ground for rescinding the will[11]. 

The simulated affection towards the testator and the interested performance of 

certain services or cures on his behalf do not trigger the nullity of the will[12], 

if they did not determine the testator to institute a liberality. At the same time, 

deceiving actions must not be confounded with true and natural compassion or 

support showed by people, which are by no means the result of the fraudulent 

misleading behavior or suggestion. 

In conclusion, in order to speak about dolus in respect to wills, the following 

conditions must be met altogether[13]: 

a) the use of fraudulent deceiving actions; 


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b) the intention to mislead the testator in bad faith; 

c) fraudulent actions resulting in altering the testator’s will, that is determining 

him to make a disposal which he would have not done out of his own initiative. 

Given the fact that will is an unilateral act, the condition for the dolus to come 

from the other party must not be met here, since dolus may come from any other 

person[14]. 

The Notary Public’s assessment, included in the authentic will and mentioning 

that the testator’s consent was not vitiated on drafting his last will act, represents a 

proof until the contrary evidence, given the fact that it may be questioned with 

any kind of evidence[15]. 

When it comes to wills with complex contents which comprise several 

independent juridical acts, the consent may be only partially vitiated, so that some 

testamentary clauses may be annulled as a result of the vitiation while others rest 

perfectly valid. But if instead of vitiated the consent is absent, then the will 

becomes completely null, as it is completely unconceivable for the testator’s 

judgment to exist in respect to certain testamentary clauses and lack in respect to 

others. Therefore, when it comes to wills with complex contents, the court has a 

difficult task, that is to establish not only the existence of the vice of consent, 

but also its influence upon the entire last will act. 

If the testator’s consent was vitiated, there will be applied the sanction of relative 

nullity. The prescription term (of 3 years) required for the rescission of the will as 

a result of the testator’s consent being vitiated, starts from the opening of the 

inheritance. 

Conclusions 

In respect to all juridical acts, comprising liberalities which can be inter vivos or 

mortis causa, the consent represents a general and essential validity condition, 

alongside with capacity, object and cause. According to the Common Law, 

the consent is valid only if it comes from a person with adequate reasoning 

faculties, is expressed with the intention to produce juridical effects, is clearly 

stated and is not altered by any vice of consent. Similarly, in the field of 

liberalities, the disposing person’s will must abide by the requirements mentioned 

above. 

When it comes to the will, contrary to the Common Law, only the testator’s 

consent must observe the above conditions altogether, as a result of the unilateral 

character evinced by the last will act. 

The donator and testator’s will is most frequently vitiated by dolus which takes 

the form of misleading behavior and suggestion that are quite difficult to set apart, 

given the fact that they have common points in terms of the actions resorted 

to and the purpose looked for. 


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Last, in the field of liberalities, dolus may also come from another person than 

the beneficiary, contrary to the Common Law which provides that deceiving 

fraudulent actions must come from the guilty contracting party. This derogation is 

justified by the free character of the donation contract and will. 

REFERENCES 

[1] See for example: Gh. Beleiu, Drept civil român. Introducere în dreptul civil. Subiectele 

dreptului civil, (Universul Juridic Publ. House, Bucharest, 2001), VII edition revised and amended 

by: Marian Nicolae and Petrică Truşcă, p. 146; P. Truşcă, Drept civil. Introducere în dreptul civil. 

Persoana fizică. Persoana juridică, (Universul Juridic Publ. House, Bucharest, 2005), III edition 

revised and amended, p. 124; A. Cojocaru, Drept civil. Partea generală, (Lumina Lex Publ. 

House, Bucharest, 2000), p. 187; G. Boroi, Drept civil. Partea generală. Persoanele, (Hamangiu 

Publ. House, Bucharest, 2008), III edition revised and amended, p. 210. 

[2] Specialized literature upholds this view almost unanimously. See for example: T. Pop, 

Drept civil român. Teoria generală, (Lumina Lex Publ. House, Bucharest, 1993), pp. 133-134; I. 

Dogaru, Elementele dreptului civil, Introducere în dreptul civil. Subiectele dreptului civil, (Şansa 

Publ. House, Bucharest, 1993), vol. I, pp. 154-155; Şt. Răuschi, Drept civil. Partea generală. 

Persoana fizică. Persoana juridică, (Publ. House of the Foundation „Chemarea” Iaşi, 1993), p. 86 

and the followings; E. Poenaru, Drept civil. Teoria generală. Persoanele, (Dacia Europa Nova 

Publ. House, Lugoj, 2001), pp. 109-110; D. Lupulescu, Drept civil. Introducere în dreptul civil, 

(Lumina Lex Publ. House, Bucharest, 1998), pp. 103-104. There are also authors who consider 

that the observance of only three conditions insures the validity of the consent. For that purpose, 

see M. Mureşan, Drept civil. Partea generală, (Cordial-Lex Publ. House, Cluj-Napoca, 1996), pp. 

127-128, who considers that only the last three conditions mentioned must be totally met for 

insuring the validity of the consent. At the opposite side, there are also authors who add one more 

condition to those four already mentioned, according to which the consent must be serious and 

precise. For that purpose, see A. Ionaşcu, Tratat de drept civil. Partea generală, (Academiei Publ. 

House, Bucharest, 1967), p. 264. As to us, we agree with the view most upheld. 

[3] In respect to the capacity of concluding juridical acts, see I. Genoiu, Raportul juridic, (C.H. 

Beck Publ. House, Bucharest, 2007), pp. 88-96. 

[4] See: Tr. Ionaşcu, Tratat de drept civil, (1967), I volume, p. 202; I. Rucăreanu, Viciile de 

consimţământ, în Tratat de drept civil. Teoria generală, (Academiei Publ. House, Bucharest, 

1967), vol. I, p. 283; A. Cojocaru, quoted works, p. 195; Gh. Beleiu, quoted works, p. 150, G. 


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Boroi, quoted works, p. 216. There has also been stated the opinion according to which the 

sanction applicable for the vitiation by error-obstacle is the relative nullity. For that purpose, see 

D. Cozma, Teoria generală a actului juridic civil, (Ştiinţifică Publ. House, Bucharest, 1969), p. 

156. 

[5] See: C. Hamangiu, I. Rosetti-Bălănescu, Al. Băicoianu, Tratat de drept civil român, (All 

Publ. House, Bucharest, 1998), III volume, p. 436; C. Murzea, E. Poenaru, Donaţia şi testamentul. 

De la doctrină la jurisprudenţă, (Hamangiu Publ. House, Bucharest, 2007), p. 28. 

[6] See Gh. Beleiu, quoted works, p. 153; Tribunal of Hunedoara County, Decision No. 

98/1982 in R.M.L. No. 2/1983, p. 63. 

[7] For the specificity of dolus in the field of the will, see I. Genoiu, Drept succesoral, (C.H. 

Beck Publ. House, Bucharest, 2008), pp. 108-109. 

[8] See I. Adam, A. Rusu, Drept civil. Succesiuni, (All Beck Publ. House, Bucharest, 2003), p. 

163. 

[9] M. Eliescu, Moştenirea şi devoluţiunea ei în dreptul R.S.R., (Academiei R.S.R. Publ. 

House, Bucharest, 1966), p. 178. 

[10] See: M. Eliescu, quoted works, pp. 178-179; St. Cărpenaru, Dreptul de moştenire, in Fr. 

Deak, St. Cărpenaru, Drept civil. Contracte speciale. Dreptul de autor. Dreptul de moştenire, 

(Bucharest University, 1983), p. 430; D. Chirică, Drept civil. Succesiuni, (Lumina Lex Publ. 

House, Bucharest, 1996), pp. 76-78; Fr. Deak, Tratat de drept succesoral, (Universul Juridic Publ. 

House, Bucharest, 2002), II Edition, updated and completed, p. 171. 

[11] Supreme Court of Justice (S.C.J.), Civil Department, Decision No. 1160/1992, regarding 

Law Issues within the decisions taken by the S.C.J. between1990-1992, p. 145. 

[12] S.C.J., Civil Department, Decision No. 2447/1991, in Law No. 7/1992, pp. 78-79. 

[13] See: Fr. Deak, quoted works, p. 171; I. Adam, A. Rusu, quoted works, p. 165. 

[14] This exception from the Common Law is consecrated by the legal doctrine and 

jurisprudence also in regard to the field of the donation contract which is a bilateral juridical act. 

Actually, this exception is justified by the free character of the act in question and not by its 

unilateral or bilateral structure. See M. Eliescu, quoted works, p. 179. 

[15] C.A.B. (Court of Arbitration Bucharest), Civil Department, Decision No. 532/1994, in 

Decisions Register 1993-1998, p. 84. 


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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 207 

THE COST OF IMPLEMENTING THE LOGISTIC STUDY 

INTO THE COMPANY 

Vergil CIUREA 1 , George BAICOIANU 2 

Abstract. The use of the method of comparisons in time and space has led to 

the conclusion that the problematic of the material and human efforts made by 

the implementation of logistics in the company must be based upon a logistic project 

drawn up for the entire company, a project mobilising a numerous personnel for a long 

period and which demands the intervention of the logistic operators and managers of 

logistics, whose activity is also necessary after implementing this project in the company. 


The use of the method of analysis and synthesis corroborated with the method 

of comparison in time and space highlights that the accomplishment of a logistic 

project and its implementation into the company, including the establishment 

of costs it creates, needs a multitude of activities which may be structured thusly: 

. ACTIVITIES AIMING THE ACCOMPLISHMENT OF AN IMMEDIATE 

PROFITABILITY 

Such activities are based upon three principles, such as: consideration 

of globalising the operations as work technique, meaning the determination 

of the priority of the processes in relation to their component operations; 

intensification of the concerns of coordinating the information with 

the technological operations; synchronising the immediate individual 

objectives with the finality of the logistic project. See Fig. 1. 

Priority of the 

processes 

Problems 

Coordonarea pe 

bază de 

informaţii 

de producţie şi 

tehnologice 

Solutions 

Fig. 1. 

Synchronising the individual objectives with the logistic finality 

1 PhD. „Alma Mater” University of Sibiu, Romania 

2 Graduand „Valahia” University of Targoviste, Romania 


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The cost of implementing the logistic study into the company 208 

a) Priority of the process in relation to the component operations 

The study of any operation must take into account its site – first of all – within 

the process it is part of and therefore within the flow where it belongs to. 

For accomplishing an efficient logistic change, it is recommended to use some 

questionnaires, the filling of which shall offer answers to the following questions: 

Do you always provide the coherence of the operational with the strategic 

Do you thoroughly know the representation of the flows Have you repositioned 

the functions Have you performed the necessary upstream and downstream 

standardisations Are you prudent enough in framing the informational system 

of the company Have you communicated the data you have for drawing up 

the logistic project 

The answers to such a questionnaire allow the separate analysis of each operation, 

as well as the analysis of the way of their being within the flow they form. 

b) Coordinating the information with the technological operation 

One of the major causes for the occurrence of the primary disfunctionality - which 

shall be improved and even eliminated by the logistic project - consists in 

the disaccord between information and technological operation, meaning not 

harmonising the information with the technological operation which these refer to. 

The factors acting over the logistic flow are multiple, and the downstream 

activities are tributary to the coherence established between the information 

available at a given moment and the effective accomplishment the flow renders. 

c) Synchronising the individual objectives with the logistic finalities 

The objectives that have an individual feature within the company are not always 

adapted to the specific of the logistic activity. They often ignore the impact they 

have onto the client's or company’s interest. Another failure occurs when there 

happens a change in the composition of a full order formed by standardised 

products, a fact raising special problems for the product programming service. 

The resolution of such disfunctionalities supposes the establishment of real 

objectives, as well as the intensification of the capacity of communication 

between the compartments belonging to various functions of the company. 

ACTIVITIES WHICH CONSIDER LOGISTICS AS A MEANS OF 

INTRODUCING THE PROGRESS INTO THE COMPANY 

The thorough analysis of a logistic system needs its structured representation, 

which allows the anticipation of the logistic system reaction to the changes it will 

undergo. Any structured representation supposes the covering of three stages, 

such as: 1 st Stage has as aim the retention of the logistic variables of the system, 

the selection of which, as well as observance possibility and measure, lead to 

the optimum representation of the logistic system; 2 nd Stage consists in creating 


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209 Vergil Ciurea, George Baicoianu 

some patterns of costs attached to each physical variable retained in the previous 

stage; 3 rd Stage allows the predetermination of the influence of various 

parameters over the system’s behaviour and, therefore, the pattern it represents. 

a) Choosing the logistic variables 

In order to choose the logistic variables, it is necessary to know the elements 

of the logistic system. Let us take into account the example of a central warehouse 

of finished products charged with supplying the regional warehouses. It is tried to 

change its configuration. The objective aimed is therefore to decrease of operating 

costs of the central warehouse. In order to attain this objective, two elements shall 

be studied – which become logistic variables – such as: flows that shall determine 

the necessary human and material means of manutention at the entrance as well as 

at the exit; size of stocks that determine the necessary storage volumes and 

surfaces. Each of these two elements must be quantified into representative units 

of the real activity. 

b) Patterns of costs 

The patterns of costs consist in representing the cost variables of the logistic 

operations, by starting from the logistic elements retained as logistic variables. 

The transportation costs occurred by supply, indicated in lei/t, can be 

theoretically represented by the straight line equation: 

C t =a + bx (1) 

In fact, the transportation cost is actually represented by a family of equations, 

each one of them referring to a certain transported quantity. 

Total distribution costs. The total cost of the warehouses within a 

distribution system is set according to the formula: 

C anual = a + bQ (2) 

where: 

Q represents the annual tonnage distributed by the warehouse. 

The same result is obtained by using a linear regression performed over the 

assembly of the warehouses, by taking into account two coordinates, such as: the 

quantity sold annually by the warehouse; the operating cost (Fig. 2). 


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Cost 

Warehouse 1 

∗ 

∗ 

∗ 

∗ 

∗ 

∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 

∗ ∗ ∗ 

∗ 

∗ 

Warehouse 3 

C annually = a+bQ 

Warehouse 2 

Legend 

a — fixed costs 

b — variable cost / ton 

q = 0 

Costs per entire country 

Quantity 

Fig. 2 The coordinates of the total distribution costs. 

The representation in figure no. 2 highlights a class of homogenous warehouses, 

the global costs of which are approximated by a straight-line and two “abnormal” 

warehouses. Additionally, it may be observed the simple study of the “cost per 

ton" is insufficient for grasping the particularities of these warehouses. Therefore, 

the accomplishment of such patterns of costs becomes an additional means of 

study and analysis, by highlighting the class of homogenous warehouses and by 

discovering the abnormal points which a veridical explanation must be found for. 

The monthly cost occurred by the operation of a warehouse may be calculated 

with the formula: 

C monthly =A + B· Q 

where: (3) 

Q represents the tonnage monthly transiting the warehouse. 

The determination of this linear pattern supposes the evaluation of two parts: 

a fixed part (for a given activity level) and a variable part (determined by 

the managing tasks, administrative management tasks, surfaces, expenses 

occurred by the structure and system of information). 

c) Influence of representative parameters 

The logistic study is influenced by the representative parameters: frequency 

of deliveries and price of the products. The two parameters are represented by 

the Histograms of orders, accomplished by volumes or weight. They influence 

the decision of direct delivery from the factory or through warehouses. 


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211 Vergil Ciurea, George Baicoianu 

The orders to be directly delivered (they have sufficient tonnages or volumes) 

represent an important part of the total tonnages or volumes, but occupy a 

relatively small ponderosity in the total order. Warehouses are therefore 

necessary, the number of which must be set and the position of which must be 

stipulated. 

. ACTIVITIES OCCURRED BY THE ELABORATION OF THE 

LOGISTIC PROJECTS 

Any logistic operator must respond to two interlocutors: to a client in the logistic 

chain, whom he/she cannot respond to unless they have a certain degree of 

autonomy and only within the logistic regulations and procedures established and 

within the capacities they have; to a certain hierarchic position that must rethink 

its role for keeping the autonomies and for focusing the actions over determining 

the capacities, formation, control, management, by exceptions and periodical 

recurrences of the major, strategic options. Such an evolution is attained only by 

the logistic demarche, which fundamentally changes the connections between 

various agents, the ratios with the hierarchical echelons and modalities of 

exchanging information. 

Any logistic project comprises four phases, such as: a phase for evaluating the 

performance level aimed for; a phase for evaluating the current performance 

level; a phase for defining the various scenarios of evolution; a phase for 

planning in time the chosen scenario. See Fig 3. 

1 st Phase 2 nd Phase 

Logistic performance 

Logistic performance 

Target 

Pf 

Performance level 

aimed 

Pa 

Current performance 

level 

a. 


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3 rd Phase 

4 th Phase 

Costs 

1 

Pa 

Choosing the 

evolution scenario 

2 

3 

Pf 

Logistic 

performance 

Pa 

Pf 

Planning stages 

in time and 

separating them 

Level of the structure 

T 1 T 2 T 3 

Time 

b. 

Fig. 3. The phases of the logistic project (a, b) 

The logistic projects understood as an assembly of logistic demarches 

have an impact over the structure as well as over the company's culture. The 

structural changes have led to modifying the contents of some positions in the 

company and to creating new rules in the dialogue and exchanges with the logistic 

suppliers and providers. The thorough cultural changes of structures are those 

performed on time. They keep the role as engine of logistics and encumber the 

occurrence of some restrictions at a given time, in the way of applying certain 

competitive logistics in practice. 

REFERENCES 

[1] Dima I.C., Sistemul logisticii firmei (Tehnica Publishing House, Bucharest, Romania, 1997). 

[2] Auzony, X. Le management du service comercial. (Éditions D’organisation, Paris, France, 1996) 

[3] Avril, P. Le pilotage de l’incertain dans la distribution. (Ed. D’organisation, Paris, France 

1995). 


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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 213 

SYSTEMATIC APPROACH OF COMPANY’S LOGISTICS 

Dragos PANAGOREŢ 1 , Andreea COJOACA 2 

Abstract. By using the theory of systems applied to the logistics activity, it is possible 

to treat it as a system along with its components and relations created between them. 

Thusly, logistics is defined as being that company’s/institution’s/organisation’s function 

of making available a product/service/work to the client/beneficiary/purchaser when 

and where it is needed and of the best price, so that the manufacturer/provider/supplier 

obtains a profit, and the consumer is satisfied. 

1. INTRODUCTION 

By using the quantitative and qualitative analysis, as well as the comparative 

theory, it may be noted suppliers have ultimately changed the distribution, 

even imposing special rules, being triggered by the change in the clients’ 

structure. 

The structure of the scientific demarche is: 

STUDY OF THE PHYSICAL DISTRIBUTION LOGISTICS 

a) Full recomposition of the physical distribution structures 

From a logistical point of view, the physical distribution structures are subject 

to three types of changes, such as: geographical redistribution of its physical 

entities; expansion of the physical entities; specialisation of the physical 

entities. 

A stronger integration of the distribution infrastructure into the production 

operations leads to positive results. For their most important clients, suppliers 

can therefore suggest the implementation of an advanced storage for 

responding thusly to the fragmentation of the supply batches. 

These storages replace the supplier’s warehouse of finished products and that 

of client’s components. The storage shall have a dual role and namely: 

adjustment role between the supplier’s production and client’s consumption 

and repartition role between the client’s various consumption points. 

For these reasons, the techniques of shared logistics are used, appealing to 

logistic operators outside the company, suggesting the specialisation of the 

units of logistic operations as a solution for treating various distribution 

operations with maximum efficiency, according to the nature of the product, 

1 Graduand “Valahia” University of Targovişte 

2 Graduand “Valahia” University of Targovişte 


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214 Dragos Panagoret, Andreea Cojoaca 

its life and type of operations to be accomplished. 

b) A more severe management of logistic costs 

Distributors’ concern of controlling their logistic costs or clients’ desire of 

better knowing the composition of a franco price trigger the supplying 

companies to accordingly organise their record. The improvement of the 

distribution logistics implies a more gradated knowledge of the structure of 

costs. 

The interest for each product line is thusly attained, even separately for each 

product of imputing it the related logistic costs. The resources and means are 

often common, although their use differs according to each product. 

The calculation of the “Direct product profit” of agencies in the great 

distribution and of the suppliers is significant for attempting to find different 

solutions from one product to another. 

An advantage is thusly created, consisting in: obtaining more important orders; 

increasing the market segment occupied; assigning a larger space in 

storehouses; arguments for stronger negotiations etc. 

The structure and evolution of a distributor’s tasks are factors determining 

a thorough study of the logistic costs elements (See Fig. 1.). Three more 

important cost items are basically discovered and namely: general expenses 

5%; logistic expenses 20%; expenses with purchased materials 75%. 

For this, the calculation of the indicator is necessary: Direct product cost 

(DPC) and Direct product profit (DPP). The evaluation of the logistic cost 

to be imputed to a product needs two types of initial databases: the database of 

the product (weight, size, packaging type, features of the selling unit etc.); 

database of the distribution (the range of operations, the cost of operations 

etc.) (See Fig. 2). 

Structure 

of costs 

General expenses 5% (size) 3 

Logistic expenses 

Expenses with 

purchased materials 

20% 

75% 

Possibilities of discount 

(size) 1 

Cost elements with great possibilities of shortterm 

discount 

(size) 2 

Cost elements the discount of which has 

already been broadly reviewed 

Fig. 1. Correlation structure of costs – Possibilities of discount 


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Systematic approach of company’s logistics 215 

The model represents a formalisation of all logistic stages the product passes 

through and is completed by calculating the following DPC indicators – 

the assembly of logistic costs likely to be affected to a certain segment in 

the logistic chain, generally the distributor of a product or commercial 

references; DPP – gross contribution of DPC to the result of a distribution 

entity, for a product or commercial reference. 

Database of the product 

Database of the 

distribution 

Flow assumptions 

Model 

DPC/DPP Calculation 

Fig. 2. The calculation DPC/DPP 

Depending on the volume of demand and DPP obtained, the commercialised 

products are classified into four categories: by taking into account the great 

volume represented by appeal products, the company accepts to bear the 

logistic costs proportionally risen by the gross margin obtained; at each sold 

unit, the ideal product generates an important direct large profit; the product 

contributing to logistic costs sufficiently low for generating an interesting 

direct profit, but in lower volumes; the product with problems is in too low 

volumes and implies very high logistic costs (See Fig. 3). 

Strong demand 

Low DPP 

(high logistic 

costs) 

Appeal product 

Contributing 

product 

Ideal 

product 

Products 

with 

problems 

High DPP 

(low logistic costs) 

Weak demand 

Fig. 3. Classification of products by Demand/DPP criterion 


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STUDY OF THE PRODUCTION LOGISTICS 

a) Using the method of “Just-in-Time” (Juste-à-Temps) 

Used for the first time in Japan, the organisation Juste-à-Temps (JAT) aims 

to satisfy the needs of various participants intervening in the process of making 

a product available exactly at a time when this is requested. 

The supply, production or delivery are driven only when de demand for that 

respective product is signalled. 

Obtaining some positive results as consequence of applying the “JAT” method 

as well as maintaining them in time must be based on a series of actions 

referring to: maintenance; change of series; location of workshops; conception 

of the product; quality of the product; relations between the participants 

to the production-delivery process. 

The “JAT” method determines the participation of logistics with full rights 

to organising the production, which generates certain problems to the flow 

of materials, components and products, as well as to managing the 

technological operations. 

b) Synchronising the production flows 

Synchronisation implies the attempt of a better coordination of production 

operations in time, with the aim of reducing the response intervals 

of the production and minimising the stocks materialised into the semi-finished 

products, that are in standby or in course of being manufactured. 

An efficient synchronisation of the flows is obtained by a previous 

simplification of the flows intra and between workshops and by the good 

connection of the flows in between them. The simplification actions lead to 

rethinking the hyper-specialisation of the workshops. For minimising people’s 

movement, cars are not placed in-line anymore, but in “U”. All other flows 

related to the flows of components and products are affected, especially those 

concerning machines. Their replacement (using a new machine, management, 

disposal of the old machinery) generates a flow the administration of which is 

indispensable to the coordinating assembly. The SMED (Single Minute 

Exchange of Dye) method allows a complex approach of this issue. 

On the one hand, the connection of the flows implies an interrelation stronger 

than that introduced by methods of managing the traditional production, and on 

the other hand, the reduction of the risk related to the complexity of the flows. 

The perfect connection demands the application of a perfectly tuned system 

of information transmission. It is good to use the Kanban system, which 

controls the start of manufacture, by means of the labels transmitted from one 

downstream workshop to an upstream one. When starting to manufacture in 

the various workshops of the factory, respectively at the supplier, the ideal 

synchronisation demands to be proceeded so that the components of the 


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product are available at the desired moment. 

c) Rethinking the stocks 

Rethinking the stocks implies the existence of some key points of the stocks 

and namely: Their right identification; the attempt of eliminating the stocks 

before using them; when a stock is justified, this must be maintained; the 

justification of the existence of stocks right before using them. 

The formation of stocks shall be done after setting certain warning indicators, 

regarding the supply activity, by previously covering a process in three 

successive stages: 

Stage I – when it is found out there is an area affected by risk or real 

incertitude. The “absurd” stock is eliminated, meaning the one which does not 

cover any risk anymore. This is the case of stocks (called hardly saleable 

stocks) of products or components which do not have any operational or 

commercial life anymore and survive by generating insurance costs, used 

surface and management, without any possible income, just as the material 

stocks formed without any commercial advantage and which can be given up 

when the supplier may consent to deliveries in smaller and more frequent 

quantities. 

Stage II – consists in the activity of reducing the risks and uncertainties, 

where each detected area is the object of a precise study for determining the 

risk occurring in such an area; 

Stage III – of evaluating the stock level as the cheapest alternative for a 

situation where other solutions are more expensive at the time of the analysis, 

the formation and accomplishment of stocks shall only be done after covering 

the stages previously stipulated, and the compliance of the contents of key 

points leads to an efficient management of the stock. 


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STUDY OF THE PURCHASE AND SUPPLY LOGISTICS 

a) The supplier’s logistic audit 

The evaluation of a supplier’s capacity of dominating its logistics is the more 

important as the clients’ requests in this domain are restrictive and precise. 

Evaluating the product 

price 

Evaluating a supplier’s 

product 

Evaluating the product 

quality 

Evaluating performances 

of the product 

Fig. 4. Logistics – the criterion of evaluating a supplier 

The selection of such a supplier goes through the homologation process. When 

the evaluation of the supplier’s quality becomes a logistic dimension, 

this is transformed into a factor for choosing the supplier. It indeed allows 

the identification of the risk related to the supplier’s logistics. A product 

cannot be obtained anymore only according to the quality and price 

evaluations. 

A supplier’s logistic evaluation is based on the existence of a questionnaire, 

containing questions referring to identifying the supplier, the evaluation 

of supplier’s supply logistics, evaluation of the supplier’s production logistics, 

evaluation of the warehouse of finished products – packages – shipment 

and evaluation of the supplier’s distribution logistics (fig. 4.). 

b) Localising suppliers and transportations for the purchase 

The use at a large scale of the franco purchases has limited the logistics 

in the domain of purchase for supplies. However, there are two phenomena 

triggering the analyses related to localising suppliers and transportations 

indicated by purchases: researching the synergy between the physical 

distribution and supply, appealing more and more to the logistic 

operators’ service, which offers the possibility of rethinking the supply 

circuits (fig. 5.). 


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Warehouse 

Supermarket 1 

Supermarket 3 

Supermarket 2 

Factory 

Fig. 5. The connection transportation of purchases – transportation of delivery 

c) Reviewing prices 

The study of the synergy between the supply and distribution reclaims 

quantified sizes of prices for being able to allow the choice from several 

possible variants. 

These reviews have highlighted in multiple cases that the industrial supplier 

gained a substantial part of its margins from the transportation operations for 

sale. Opposite to this tendency, clients require information about two prices: 

a franco price and a price when exiting the factory. 

The comparison of the two prices demands the buyer to have available 

elements about the transportation of the products, by knowing the exit price. 

d) Conditioning and packaging 

The ways of handling a supplier’s deliveries are multiple, depending on 

clients’ location. The more or less good accomplishment of initial conditioning 

and packaging acts directly over the internal management costs of the client 

company. 

Or, suppliers do not always pay that much attention to the conditioning 

and packaging issues, from the point of view of their operational use. 

Conditioning is the responsibility reserved to marketing. Packaging is best led 

by production people whom see in it an easy source for reducing prices of 

recurrence demanded of them for not affecting what seems to be as essential. 

The upstream specification of packaging and over-packaging, as much as 

possible, shall avoid the managements, stock ruptures and further 

reconditioning, all of which generate “added costs”. 


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REFERENCES 

[1] Dima I.C. Logistica firmei, (Didactic and Pedagogic R.A. Publishing House, Bucharest, 

Romania, 1996.); 

[2] Paulden, S Ameliorer les delais de livraison (Éditions D’organisation, Paris, France, 

1995); 

[3] Lacrampe, S. La logistique commerciale (Éditions D’organisation, Paris, France, 

1990) ; 

[4] Dima I.C. Management logistic (Didactic & Pedagogic R.A. Publishing House, 

Bucharest, Romania, 1996). 


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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 221 

SOCIAL ENTERPRISE 

Gabriel CROITORU 1 , Vasile CUMPĂNAŞU 2 , Daniel MIHAI 3 

Abstract. This article considers the methodological challenge of quantifying the social 

value generated through social enterprise activity. It argues that in the context 

of increasing enthusiasm for social enterprise as a mechanism for delivering social 

services and for tackling social exclusion, it is increasingly necessary to be able to value 

social impacts. Further it will be necessary to be able to assess the potential creation 

of social value from different investments in social enterprise. Specifically, this article 

considers methodology of social return on investment (SROI). SROI has become 

increasingly promoted in both policy and practice in the United States and 

the United Kingdom. This article considers the development of this methodology and 

draws on lessons from international development to highlight the limitations of the 

current use of SROI. 

Keywords: Social Change, Social Entrepreneurship, Social Innovation, Social Finance 

The importance to the European economy and society of co-operatives, mutual 

societies, associations, foundations and social enterprises (which together are 

sometimes referred to as the Social Economy) is now receiving greater 

recognition at Member State and European levels. Not only are they significant 

economic actors, they also play a key role in involving their members and 

European citizens more fully in Society. 

Social Economy enterprises are helping to meet the demands of a changing 

Europe. They are important sources of entrepreneurship and jobs in areas where 

traditional "investor driven" enterprise structures may not always be viable. 

Social enterprises are social mission driven organizations which trade in goods or 

services for a social purpose. Their aim to accomplish targets that are social and 

environmental as well as financial is often referred to as having a triple bottom 

line. Social enterprises are profit-making businesses set up to tackle a social or 

environmental need. 

Many commercial businesses would consider themselves to have social 

objectives, but social enterprises are distinctive because their social or 

environmental purpose is central to what they do. Rather than maximising 

1 university reader PhD. of Valahia University of Targoviste, Faculty of Economical Sciences, 

Targoviste, Romania, croitoru_gabriel2005@yahoo.com 

2 university drd. of Valahia University of Targoviste, Faculty of Economical Sciences, Targoviste, 

Romania, cumpanasu_cezar@yahoo.com 

3 university drd. of Valahia University of Targoviste, Faculty of Economical Sciences, Targoviste, 

Romania, dannillmihai@yahoo.com 


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Social Enterprise 222 

shareholder value, their main aim is to generate profit to further their social and 

environmental goals. 

Therefore some commentators describe them as 'not-for-profit' as their profits are 

not (at least primarily) distributed to financial investors. Others dislike the term as 

it suggests they have an unbusiness like attitude. 

An ingenious solution to this quandary is to call them for 'more-than-profit'. 

It could be that the profit (or surplus) from the business is used to support social 

aims (whether or not related to the activity of the business, as in a charity shop), 

or that the business itself accomplishes the social aim through its operation, for 

instance by employing disadvantaged people (social firms) or lending to 

businesses that have difficulty in securing investment from mainstream lenders. 

Social enterprises are generally held to comprise the more businesslike end of the 

spectrum of organisations that make up the third sector or social economy. 

A commonly-cited rule of thumb is that their income is derived from the business 

trading rather than from subsidy or donations. 

The term 'social traders' can be used to describe the people who establish and 

manage social enterprise organisations. 

A social enterprise is a business with primarily social objectives whose surpluses 

are principally reinvested for that purpose in the business or in the community, 

rather than being driven by the need to maximise profit for shareholders and 

owners. 

Within this definition, social enterprises can take on a variety of legal forms, 

including: 

- unincorporated associations 

- trusts 

- limited companies 

- some industrial and provident societies such as community benefit societies. 

Social enterprises also need to consider whether or not to set themselves up as a 

charity, which has a number of benefits, including significant tax reliefs, but 

comes with increased regulation and less flexibility. 

Social enterprise is a different way of doing business. A social enterprise is a 

business that trades for a social purpose. The social aims of the business are of 

equal importance to its commercial activities, and this combination is often 

referred to as the ‘double bottom line’. 


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Like any business, a social enterprise focuses on generating an income through 

the sale of goods and services to a market but the added value of a social 

enterprise comes from the way in which it uses its profits to maximise social, 

community or environmental benefits. 

Both social enterprise and business planning come with their own sets of jargon 

and terminology. Wherever practical, we have attempted to explain the meaning 

of any jargon that you should expect to encounter. We have also included details 

of some websites containing ‘jargon-busting’ information within the Resources 

section. The social enterprise sector is both vibrant and developing. 

The Future of Social Enterprise considers the confluence of forces that is shaping 

the field of social enterprise, changing the way that funders, practitioners, 

scholars, and organizations measure performance. 

We trace a growing pool of potential funding sources to solve social problems, 

much of it stemming from an intergenerational transfer of wealth and new wealth 

from financial and high-tech entrepreneurs. We examine how these organizations 

can best access the untapped resources by demonstrating mission performance and 

then propose three potential scenarios for how this sector might evolve: 

Consolidation: In this scenario, funding will keep growing in a gradual, linear 

fashion and organizations will compete for resources by demonstrating 

performance. The sector will consolidate, with some efficient organizations 

gaining scale, some merging and then growing, and some failing to achieve either 

scale or efficiency and eventually shutting down. 

Entrepreneurial: In a more optimistic future, existing and new enterprises will 

apply strategies to achieve and demonstrate performance, improving efficiency 

and effectiveness and attracting new funding sources. 

More organizations will enter a reformed, competitive field of social change with 

new entrepreneurial models, established traditional organizations, and innovative 

funding strategies fueling widespread success. 

Expressive: Rather than focusing exclusively on performance, funders and 

organizations may view their investment as an expressive civic activity. As much 

value is placed on participating in a cause as on employing concrete measures of 

impact or efficiency. In this scenario, funding will flow as social entrepreneurs 

experiment with new models based on a range of individual priorities and 

relationships. 

As the traditional nonprofit sector broadens to include a range of social enterprise 

models, the social sector faces three major transformations: 


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Changes in the flow of funds, due to commercial activity by socially minded 

organizations as well as growing philanthropic sources, especially the vast sums 

of anticipated intergenerational wealth transfer and new wealth from financial and 

high-tech entrepreneurs 

A shift in the role of government, both in terms of responsibility and 

distribution of resources, as traditional models of grant funding give way to 

market competition in which nonprofit and for-profit entities compete for 

government contracts and consumer subsidies 

A transformation of ideas on how to allocate resources and what results to 

expect as philanthropy is increasingly viewed as a social “investment,” especially 

as more potential funders with entrepreneurial backgrounds enter the 

philanthropic market. 

In the face of these challenges, the functional questions for nonprofit leaders and 

social entrepreneurs are how to acquire resources, how to build successful 

organizations, and how to achieve impact – and for those actors and 

intermediaries who support the sector with funding and expertise, how to advance 

all three goals. In response to these questions, the social enterprise literature is 

awash with claims of groundbreaking innovation, from venture philanthropy to 

corporate social responsibility, which offer the equivalent of philanthropic “silver 

bullets.” 

Data trends, however, suggest a somewhat different story, one of steady but not 

remarkable growth influenced by major demographic and political changes, and 

accompanied by a wealth of new models whose potential has not yet been fully 

explored. 

In fact, many innovative approaches and models that have emerged over the last 

10 years remain in their infancy and await a “quantum” push to exhibit 

widespread benefit. 

Given the apparent challenges and opportunities in designing, funding, staffing, 

and measuring social change organizations, what does the future hold for this 

sector Among a broad range of possibilities, several distinct scenarios may 

emerge from the current transition occurring within social enterprise. The degree 

to which social enterprise organizations can achieve, measure, and communicate 

performance is located on the vertical axis, while the amount of funding they can 

attract is located on the horizontal axis. 

The Small Business Service (SBS) and Business Link should be able to assist any 

enterprise that requires access to market-oriented business knowledge and skills in 

areas such as marketing, use of ICT and financial management, regardless of how 

any surplus that is generated is to be distributed. Moreover, to be competitive, 


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socially owned businesses should have an opportunity to access to high quality 

advice and assistance similar to privately owned enterprises. 

Even ‘not-for-profit’ organisations have support needs in terms of business skills 

and advice (such as competencies in financial reporting and control) that Business 

Link may, in principle, be in a position to address. 

However, it can be argued that typical small business support needs have 

distinctive characteristics in social enterprises that require specialised assistance. 

One example is in marketing, where the image of social enterprises among 

mainstream customers presents a particular challenge. Another is with respect to 

human resource management, where the extent to which social enterprises rely on 

unpaid, volunteer staff can lead to tensions between volunteers and professional 

managers. 

A further example is where management decisions may be directly accountable to 

those subject to them (i.e. employees), which means that appropriate support 

provision must include advisers with knowledge and experience relevant to 

participatory management styles. 

Even finance issues have additional dimensions in the case of social enterprises, 

for example the skills associated with completing funding bids. 

Conclusions 

Significant changes are occurring in the field of social enterprise, including major 

developments in the flow of funding, growing but often untapped philanthropic 

resources, and a shift in the role of government, as well as new social investment 

models and impact measurement tools. All of these phenomena are occurring 

against a larger backdrop of demographic and market change as boundaries blur 

among the traditional nonprofit, for-profit, and public-sector silos. Currently, the 

sector remains on the brink of several possible futures, including consolidation, 

entrepreneurial growth, and expressive experimentation. 

The scenario that unfolds over the next 20 years will depend largely on the ability 

of social enterprise leaders to make a leap forward in thought and action to 

capitalize on the abundant potential for social change. 


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REFERENCES 

[1] Amin A, Cameron A and Hudson R, Welfare as work (The Potential of the UK Social 

Economy’, Environment and Planning, Volume 31, pp 2033- 2051, 1999). 

[2] Birkhoelzer K., Local Regeneration and Social Capital, (The Third System as Innovative 

Force’, Paper presented to the 4th European Network Conference in Edinburgh, Scotland, 

September 7 th -9 th , 2000). 

[3] DTI, The Small Business Service: a Public Consultation (Department of Trade and 

Industry, URN 99/815, 1999). 

[4] Joseph Rowntree Foundation, Support for the development of community-based credit 

unions’ (Social Policy Research Findings, No.38, June, 1993). 

[5] OECD, Social Enterprises, (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 

1999). 

[6] Small Business Service, Small Business Service and Social Enterprise, (Pages from the SBS 

Website – www.businessadviceonline.com, 2001). 


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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 227 

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION PERFECTING – 

HARMONIZING FACTOR WITHIN GLOBALIZATION 

Ionuţ BARBU 1 , Cosmin Mihai BUCUR 2 

Abstract: The economic globalization represents the free movement of the capital along with 

the increasing domination of the global financial markets and of multinational corporations 

upon the national economies. The globalization process determines an increasing mobility 

of the human capital, thus occurring an overlapping of different cultures within a certain 

space. The intercultural communication represents the relationships established between 

persons or groups belonging to different cultures. Each of us, either managers or employs has 

to know how to get along with persons coming from different cultures, how to deal with the 

problems resulting from this differentiation and, to know how to survive within a culture 

which is not identical to his own. In these situations, the manager’s role is very important and 

especially determinant for the good management of the crises situations. 

Keywords: intercultural communication, organization, culture, globalization 


Globalization increases the integration and interdependence of international, national 

and local business and stakeholder communities across economic, political 

and cultural spheres. 

In today’s knowledge based economy, an increasing number of companies are much 

more aware of the importance of investing in human capital and its strategic role 

in companies’ growth in the global economy. Employees are no longer regarded 

as unavoidable expenses but assets that can be leveraged to enhance 

the organization’s capabilities and create competitive advantages in the marketplace. 

In particular, investing in the communication skills of organizational staff at different 

levels can improve the organization’s overall efficiency, lower the operation costs 

1 Ph.D. candidate, Sectorial Orperational Programe – Human Resources Development, Management, 

Faculty of Economical Sciences, Field of Specialization-Management, Valahia University from 

Targoviste, Romania 

2 Ph.D. candidate, Sectorial Orperational Programe – Human Resources Development, Management, 

Faculty of Economical Sciences, Field of Specialization-Management, Valahia University from 

Targoviste, Romania 


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228 Ionuţ Barbu, Cosmin-Mihai Bucur 

and more importantly, generate more business potential as well as more profits for 

the respective organization. 

Senior management of multinational companies always needs to monitor 

performance of different units across the globe. In markets which grow rapidly, 

demand for educated staff is very high and company might not be able to hire 

technical people who also possess excellent language or communication skills. 

Cultural differences between different regions also make it difficult for managers 

located at headquarter to get accurate information about the domestic business 

environments from some local managers. 

Likewise, local managers have hard time reporting to headquarter the nuances of 

domestic situations. If local managers can develop better communication skills and 

overcome language and cultural barriers, management at headquarter will be able to 

understand the ever changing situations in local markets more precisely and rapidly. 

As a result, they can make better judgement, capture more business opportunities 

around the globe and therefore gain more profit for the company. It also saves 

management’s time on communicating with their team members and the costs 

involved. 

2. Communication and globalization within society 

The new global economy of the twenty-first century has transformed 

the economic, social, educational and political landscape in a profound and indelible 

manner. It is composed of a trilogy of interactive forces that include globalization, 

trade liberalization and the information technology and communications revolution. 

Globalization has melted national borders, free trade has enhanced economic 

integration and the information and communications revolution has made geography 

and time irrelevant. 

The role and functions of entrepreneurship in the new global economy have taken on 

added significance and face compounded challenges. We live in a challenging 

environment of rapidly changing economic events, where the private sector has 

become the most important engine of economic growth and the public sector has 

shrunk in importance and influence. 

Entrepreneurs are defining the new rules of engagement on the economic landscape 

as they come to grips with contemporary challenges and new opportunities. In this 

new environment, entrepreneurs need to articulate a pragmatic vision, exercise 

effective leadership and develop a competent business strategy. 


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Intercultural communication perfecting – Harmonizing factor within globalization 229 

They should create the synergies that will allow them to integrate the interactive 

ingredients of the new economy in order to enhance their competitive advantage. 

Their business strategy should embrace flexibility, a quick response time and a 

proactive approach to economic opportunities. 

Today’s organizations and companies are dealing more and more in a global scenario. 

People are no longer constrained by borders or distance and as a result, globalization 

has meant a fundamental change in who, where and why people do business. The 

people that do these organizations tick are increasingly based in remote locations in 

foreign countries or drawn from a rich mix of cultural backgrounds. 

The need for effective and clear intercultural communication is becoming vital in 

assuring success in the today’s globalized workplace. 

There is a question that raises: what is intercultural communication It has many 

definitions but fundamentally it looks at how people, from different cultural/natural 

backgrounds, endeavour to communicate or work together. 

Intercultural communication in its most basic form refers to an academic field 

of study and research. It seeks to understand how people from different countries 

and cultures behave, communicate and perceive the world around them. 

The findings of such academic research are then applied to 'real life' situations such 

as how to create cultural synergy between people from different cultures within an 

organization. 

There are many researchers, who naturally all have different definitions 

of 'intercultural communication'. For example Karlfried Knapp defines "'Intercultural 

communication, as being “the interpersonal interaction between members of different 

groups, which differ from each other in respect of the knowledge shared by their 

members and in respect of their linguistic forms of symbolic behaviour" [12]. 

There are also many definitions developed by other researchers, such as Edward T. 

Hall, Geert Hofstede, Harry C. Triandis, Fons Trompenaars, Clifford Geertz 

and Shalom Schwartz. 

Another definition of intercultural communication is provided by O. Kovbasyuk (2) 

who affirms that “In its most general sense, international communication occurs when 

a member of one culture produces a message for consumption by a member 

of another culture. 

More precisely, international communication is communication between people 

whose cultural perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough 

to alter the communication event”. In spite of the fact that this phenomenon is being 


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researched by scholars from the whole world for many years, it still remains timely 

and causes controversies and discussions. 

The theories developed by the researchers have been applied to many fields such as 

business, management, marketing, advertising and website design. An organization 

becomes more and more international, many companies need to know how well 

to develop their structure, to manage their staff and communicate with customers. 

Intercultural communication gives them an insight into the areas they need to address 

or understand. Intercultural communication theories are now also used within 

the education, health care and other public services due to growing multicultural 

populations. 

Every organization has its own unique culture even though they may not have 

consciously tried to create it. Rather it will have been probably created 

unconsciously, based on the values of the top management or the founders or core 

people who build and/or direct that organization. 

Over time individuals (particularly the organization’s leaders) attempt to change the 

culture of their organizations to fit their own preferences or changing marketplace 

conditions. 

This culture then influences the decision-making processes, it affects styles 

of management and what everyone determines as success. When an organization 

is created it becomes its own world and its culture becomes the foundation on which 

the organization will exist in the world. 

People's actions in organizations are not always 'their own' but are largely influenced 

by the socialization processes of the specific culture to which they belong. 

Interpreting and understanding organizational culture is an important activity for 

managers and consultants, because it affects the strategic development, productivity 

and learning at all levels. Cultural assumptions can both enable 

and constrain what organizations are able to do. The job of the consultant 

is to provide a method and a structure for organization so that the organization 

to be able to surface the most relevant cultural assumptions. 

A key role for culture is to differentiate the organization from others and provide 

sense of identity for its members. Cultures do not have to be logical or consistent; 

in fact, they seldom are and can appear quite chaotic to the outsider. It can also have 

subgroups with different cultures and with varying agendas. A strong culture is one 

that is internally consistent, widely shared and makes it clear what it expects and how 

it wishes people to behave. 


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There are some intercultural communication principles that guide the process 

of exchanging meaningful and unambiguous information across cultural boundaries, 

in a way that preserves mutual respect and minimizes antagonism. For these 

purposes, culture is a shared system of symbols, beliefs, attitudes, values, 

expectations, and norms of behaviour. It refers to coherent groups of people whether 

resident wholly or partly within state territories, or existing without residence 

in any particular territory. 

Two factors have raised the importance of this topic: 

- improvements in communication and transportation technology have made 

it possible for previously stable cultures to meet in unstructured situations, 

e.g. the internet opens lines of communication without mediation, while budget 

airlines transplant ordinary citizens into unfamiliar milieux. Experience proves that 

merely crossing cultural boundaries can be considered threatening, while positive 

attempts to interact may provoke defensive responses. Misunderstanding may be 

compounded by either an exaggerated sensitivity to possible slights, 

or an exaggerated and over-protective fear of giving offence; 

- some groups believe that the phenomenon of globalization has reduced cultural 

diversity and so reduced the opportunity for misunderstandings, but characterizing 

people as a homogeneous market is simplistic. One product or brand only appeals 

to the material aspirations of one self-selecting group of buyers, and its sales 

performance will not affect the vast multiplicity of factors that may separate 

the cultures. 

Today's manager increasingly has to work in international and cross cultural 

environments. Within the context of the globalized organization, intercultural 

communication looks at how people communicate (verbally and non-verbally), 

manage, work together, approach deadlines, negotiate, meet, greet, build relations etc. 

Working in the globalized world economy is proving to have a positive effect 

on individuals and companies. As people are forced to think outside the box, they 

develop greater interpersonal skills, flex their creative muscle and learn new ways 

of doing things. 

Communication is the basic concept in explaining globalization. Globalization can be 

observed as the worldwide expansion of a functionally differentiated society through 

international communication. 

In this society, since the 17 th century, intercultural communication has assumed the 

form of a modernist ethnocentrism based on values such as knowledge, pluralism and 

individualism. 


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During the 20 th century, historical changes created the necessity for new forms of 

intercultural communication. 

In the last decade of that century, a trans-cultural form of communication based on 

dialog was proposed as a basis for the cross-cultural adaptation, a creation of 

multicultural identities and a construction of a hybrid multicultural society. 

However, this trans-cultural form creates paradoxes and difficulties in intercultural 

communication, mixing the preservation of cultural difference with the search for 

synthesis. Consequently, a new form of intercultural dialogue, dealing with 

incommensurable differences and managing conflicts is needed to create coordination 

among different cultural perspectives. 

Intercultural communication between peoples is an integral attribute of the human 

society development. Not a single country, even the one considered most powerful 

in political and economical aspect, can meet cultural and aesthetic requests and needs 

of the humankind without applying to the world cultural heritage, spiritual heritage 

of other countries and peoples. 

The modern world is developing towards globalization. In this regard, the issue about 

the role and place of international communication become an integral part of life both 

for the humankind in general, as well as for the individual. 

Societies and implicitly organizations have no choice of either to participate in the 

process of globalization or not, but the character of their participation is shaped by 

specific social, cultural, economic and political conditions. 

This complex multi-level process of mediation between the global and local issues, 

being an inherent character of communication, promises to change not only the 

context, but also the nature of intercultural communication. Thus, the question about 

the place of intercultural communication is ambiguous. 

Managers working in multinational companies carry out their organizational goals 

through multicultural teams. Performance of multicultural teams can be examined 

from an intercultural communication perspective. Executives, managers, management 

consultants, and educators interested in improving multicultural team performance 

need to know about intercultural competence and how it affects team performance. 

This article provides a working definition of high-performance multicultural teams 

and outlines the challenges multicultural teams face. It also aims to highlight 

the characteristics of high-performance multicultural teams, the common challenges 

of multicultural teams and the sources of these challenges. 

Organizational approaches to international organizations have evolved from 

multinationalism to globalization, being necessary a more sophisticated and well- 


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trained management to cope with the complexities of the organization’s involvement 

in multiple foreign markets. Managers from various cultures/ countries must be 

successfully melded together at each corporate location, including the corporate 

headquarters, to maximize overall benefits to the corporate network. 

The need to develop the multicultural multinational organizations to compete in the 

global marketplace effectively is the logical next step in the evolution of the global 

organization. 

As global competition intensifies, it is becoming necessary for organizations 

to establish strong intercultural relationships with a culturally diverse set of 

employees, interorganizational partners as well as customers. In order to manage 

these relationships effectively, organizations need a means to understand and improve 

global intercultural communications. 

The complexity of intercultural communications requires management to understand 

the nature of domains of global relationships and the level of complexity when 

attempting to communicate with multiple partners having unique national and 

organizational cultures. 

In addition to the normal pressures of man-management, managers are now required 

to deal with challenges, friction and misunderstandings emanating from cross cultural 

differences. Effective management in the modern environment necessitates cross 

cultural competency in order to get the best out of a multicultural team. 

Intercultural communication is of importance to international organization as it 

examines how people from different cultures, beliefs and religions come together 

to work and communicate with each other. 

Demands for intercultural communication skills are increasing as more and more 

organizations go global or international. They realize that there are barriers 

and limitations when entering a foreign territory. Without the help of intercultural 

communication they can unknowingly cause confusion and misunderstandings. 

For these intercultural businesses to breach the cultural barriers encountered when 

stepping into foreign grounds it is vital for them to fully understand the cultural 

differences that exist so as to prevent damaging business relations due to intercultural 

communication gaps. 


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Conclusions 

Working in the globalized world economy is proving to have positive effects on 

individuals and organizations. The need for intercultural communication skill 

is obvious – everybody is working in an interconnected global economy and it is 

important to build good relationships with people from other cultures. This leads to 

better business and connections. 

The goal of business managers is to maximize the potential revenue of the business 

and minimize its costs. The pursuit of a multicultural workforce should not be viewed 

as anything other than good business. It is a good business because 

it provides the organization with a valuable internal resource that can be leveraged 

to a competitive advantage. Effectively managing disputes minimizes costs. 

These techniques may level the playing field through fairness and accommodation of 

differing communication needs, thereby enriching the corporate lives of those 

affected. 

The structural transformation of the new global economy has not been confined 

to economic parameters. It is equally pervasive in the way people live, learn, work, 

invest, provide the health care, and exercise the democratic responsibilities, influence 

the formulation of public policy and communicate with each other. The rapidity 

of change and the magnitude of structural transformation are hallmarks of this 

economic structural transformation – a pace of change that is unprecedented 

in the history of mankind (Gera and Mang, 1998). The information and 

communication technology of the 21th century has made possible the contraction 

of time and space. 

Cross cultural communication is about dealing with people from other cultures 

in a way that minimises misunderstandings and maximises your potential to create 

strong cross cultural relationships. 

We live in an increasingly complex world. One element of this complexity 

is the mixing of different cultures, languages and faiths. Within the business world 

intercultural communication is vital for success. 


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REFERENCES 

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[2] Barna, L.M., Stumbling blocks in intercultural communication. In L. A. Samovar & R. E. Porter 

(Eds.), Intercultural communication: A reader (Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1991); 

[3] Bennett, J.M., Cultural marginality: Identity issues in intercultural training. In M.R. Paige (Ed.), 

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[4] Bochner, S., Cultures in contact: Studies in cross-cultural interaction. (New York: Pergamon 

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[5] Brislin, R.W., Cross-cultural encounter: Face to face interaction. (New York: Pergamon Press 

1987); 

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[7] Chen, G-M., & Starosta, W.J. (1998). Foundations of intercultural communication. Boston, 

MA: Allyn & Bacon; 

[8] Condon, J. & Yousef, F., An introduction to intercultural communication. (New York: 

Macmillan,1985); 

[9] Gudykunst, W.B., & Kim, Y.Y., Communicating with strangers: An approach to intercultural 

communication (4th ed.). (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2003); 

[10] Hanvey, R., Cross-cultural awareness: An attainable global perspective. (New York: Global 

Perspectives in Education, 1975); 

[11] Kim, Y.Y., Communication and cross-cultural adaptation: An integrative theory. (Clevedon, 

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[12] Knapp K., Enninger W., Analyzing Intercultural Communication. (N.Y., Mouton de Gruyter, 

1987); 

[13] Kohls, L.R., & Knight, J.M., Developing intercultural awareness. (Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural 

Press, 1994); 

[14] Kovasyuk O., Communicating across cultures. A textbook. ( KSAEL, Khabarovsk, 2002); 


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[15] Lustig, M., & Koester, J., Intercultural competence: Interpersonal communication across 

cultures. (New York, NY: Harper Collins, 1993); 

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[17] Paige, R.M. (Ed.)., Education for the intercultural experience. (Yarmouth, Maine: Intercultural 

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[19] Stier J, “Going international – Becoming Intercultural”. Pedagogic Communication (1)( 

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[21] http://cgi.stanford.edu/~group-ccr/mt/mt-tb.cgi/997; 

[22] http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/95016309/abstractCRETRY=1&SRETRY=0. 


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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 237 

THE ROLE OF UNIVERSITIES IN INTEGRATING 

THE CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY CONCEPT 

Gabriela-Elena MIHĂILĂ (PĂUNESCU) 1 , 

Gilda NICULESCU 2 , Corina-Mihaela POPESCU 3 

Abstract. The corporate social responsibility is, in our vision, a requirement of strategic 

planning, in order to achieve the economic and social progress, an initiative on 

sustainable development. This progress cannot be conceived outside the educational 

progress that aims to form professionals able to have a pro-active approach to these 

fields of activity. Since the CSR practice in Romania is seen at European level as been 

mainly used for commercial reasons that for ethical ones, the approach of CSR as 

strategic planning tool is an essential challenge at national level .In order to achieve this 

objective, we consider that an adequate organizational framework needs to be created in 

order to achieve the national strategic objectives by involving organisations from 

economic, educational and social environment on a voluntary basis and ensuring the 

transparency and credibility of pro-active organisations in view of obtaining a welldeserved 

competitive advantage. The role of the universities could be that of a catalyst of 

the integration of CSR in what is concerning building skills and competences to support 

the theoretical knowledge. 

Key words: CSR, strategic planning, sustainable development, social development. 


The interdependence between university and socio-economic environment 

is unanimously recognized and accepted. The efficiency of the economic activity 

is definitely influenced by the education that determines qualification, 

professional and cultural training of the workforce. 

The national economic environment is labelled by the reduced correlation 

of the „offer” and educational products with the requirements of the labour 

market. The disparity between these two sectors has a direct effect upon 

the development of the human resources in view of an optimum integration 

on the labour market and as a consequence, upon the growth and economic 

development. 

1 PhD studies within Sectoral Operational Program Human Resources Development financed from 

the ESF, Doctoral School, VALAHIA University Targoviste, Romania, 

paunescugabriela@yahoo.com. 

2 PhD studies, Doctoral School, VALAHIA University Targoviste, Romania, gildanic@yahoo.com 

3 PhD studies, Doctoral School, VALAHIA University Targoviste, Romania, 

corina_x75@yahoo.com 


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238 Gabriela-Elena Mihăilă (Păunescu), Gilda Niculescu, Corina-Mihaela Popescu 

The European Union considers that CSR is a viable way to achieve the objective 

set up at the European Council in Lisbon, from 2000, that of „to become the most 

competitive and dynamic economic system in the world, able to sustain economic 

development” [1]. 

The European Union also sustains the modernization of the educational systems 

in all Member States in order to grant the assimilation of the required 

competences for running businesses in a innovation driven society 

and the availability to provide training methods [2]. 

Thus, at European level there is a sustained concern to find the most appropriate 

framework to define CSR and to set up indicators by which CSR 

can be transparently assessed. 

This concern that takes place at European level is going to materialize 

by the publication of the ISO 26000 standard regarding the corporate social 

responsibility. The main goal of this standard is to foster assuming social 

and environmental responsibilities on the basis of common concepts, definitions 

and assessment methods. The ISO 26000 standard is developed in close 

cooperation with governmental organizations, employer’s associations and trade 

unions, associations of consumers and non-governmental associations from 

all over the world [3]. 

The United Nations, European Union and Organization for Cooperation 

and Economic Development are three of the most important institutions involved 

in the preparation of a definitive framework for CSR. 

Through the Innovation and Competitiveness Programme, the European Union 

invites the European enterprises to present in their reports the modalities in which 

they contribute to the achievement of the Lisbon’s objectives. 

At national level, according to the site ResponsabilitateSociala.ro, periodically 

updated with profiles of responsible companies, study cases, articles 

of professionals and news there are registered in the category of responsible 

companies a number of 46 companies, out of which 39 are active in education. 

This site contains information regarding CSR programs realised by 

the companies that are activating in Romania, their strategies used and the 

achieved results. 

The CSR programs are meant to promote a cause, to do marketing related 

to a cause, social marketing, to do charity, community volunteering, to promote 

social responsible business practices. 


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The role of universities in integrating the corporate social responsibility concept 239 

Out of the 117 displayed study cases, 35 are on education, 21 in environment 

protection, 42 on social, 7 on culture and 5 on human right protection. From their 

analysis it can be noticed the tendency of using this concept for commercial 

reasons, this being also the main accuse at European level to the slow start of CSR 

in Romania [4]. 

It is worth mentioning that, in our opinion, the social responsibility it is not just 

a simple tactic for image building, a publicity offer or a charity act but 

an essential feature for the development of human resources, of the institutions 

that will lead to a long term success for those organizations that are directly linked 

to the economical and social performances of their communities. 

From the displayed study cases we have noticed the project CSR – „From theory 

to practice”. This program has started in 2004 and is taking place every year 

during March – May. This is a contest that aims to familiarize graduating students 

with the requirements of the business environment. Within the contest, 

on the basis of the themes proposed by the companies involved in the program, 

the students have to prepare economic projects. In order to realize these projects, 

they need to interact with representatives of real companies. 

The project „From theory to practice” has won during the Award Festival 

Bucharest Business Week 2007m the „Prize for the best social responsibility 

program” at the Education category. The program has been recognized as being 

the most important social program from Brasov area that is supporting the young 

people. 

The company Integrator Soft has been awarded to the Gala of Business 

Excellence 2008, organized by the Brasov Chamber of Commerce and Industry 

for the creative way of applying the social responsibility concept. The winners 

of the Gala have received their prizes in money, offered by Integrator Soft. 

They have had, also the opportunity to set up meetings with the representatives 

of the participant companies. In the same time, they have received diplomas 

and recommendation letter from the organizers, that added value to their expertise 

[5]. 

This proves the fact that collaboration between companies and universities can 

have profitable and visible effects on short term for graduates and on long term 

for the economic and social environment. 

Analysing the above-mentioned website, we have noticed that the promotion 

of CSR at national level is focused mainly on exchanging experiences 

and creation of good practices guidelines. We consider that this practice 

is welcomed. 


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We do sustain the necessity of implementing of a coherent planning process, 

at national level, based on viable objectives in order to solve the acute problems 

for universities, businesses and society and also to create an adequate 

organizational framework. 

We will approach below CSR as a strategic planning tool, the proposal 

of an organizational framework to foster planning, CSR as a management model 

and proposals for promoting the transparency and credibility. 

2. CSR – planning tool for the long term development 

The integration of CSR at national level as tool for long term development having 

direct results in education, represents in our view, an important factor of social 

development and support of the scientific and economic progress. 

Thus, we sustain the necessity of realising partnerships among companies – 

universities – non-governmental organisations on a voluntary basis. Using this 

cooperation, it should be prepared a long term strategy for the training 

of specialists able to: 

• Pro-active approach economic, social and environmental development; 

• Know the needs but also the local, national, European and world 

development trends; 

• Efficiently cooperate within interdisciplinary teams; 

• Access European funds to support these actions using the minimum 

of resources from the companies and obtaining maximum of benefits 

for it and at local and national level. 

We consider competences as being products of the universities and companies. 

Also consider that real progress, the business community, universities, 

governments and civil society should work together through new partnerships, 

dynamic. 

Extent that they will be able to create a framework to analyze organizational 

stakeholders to meet their needs on a strategic development 

and to convince stakeholders of the benefits of their involvement could lead to 

the chance of success of this approach. 


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3. CSR – the framework 

In order to set up CSR as a planning tool to sustain the long term economic 

and social development, we consider essential the creation of an appropriate 

organizational framework for: 

• A coherent strategic plan for achieving specified objective; 

• A transparent and credible promotion of the actions, meant to ensure a long 

term competitive advantage to the organisations that will involve themselves 

to achieve the CSR’ objectives; 

• Providing the possibility to measure the organisations behaviour; 

• Monitoring, assessment and control of the achievement of the objectives; 

• Refining the strategic objectives on the basis of the evolutions of the society 

or external factors. 

In this regard, we propose to set up a CSR National Alliance (CSRNA) to activate 

in education and training, of a network type and that will have a multi-actors 

approach that will engage itself to achieve strategic objectives and unify social 

responsible organisations on voluntary basis. The creation of such a network, 

inspired after a European model [6], could join companies, social partners, 

education environment and representatives of interested ministries and gave them 

the opportunity to initiate projects at national level, to meet both the national but 

also the European priorities. 

In our opinion, CSRNA could be established using the model 

of the European Alliance for CSR, alliance that was launched in March 2006 

by the European Commission. 

In order to realize the strategic planning, in our view, it would be necessary 

to set up a Managing Board of CSRNA, composed of representatives 

of the organisations that joined this association, representatives of ministries 

responsible to identify the main problems, directions and fields of actions. 

The involvement of regional development councils and advisory structures 

on the problems of education and training in such a structure would be in our 

opinion, an necessary approach. 

Analysing the relevant setting up legislation of the ministries related to economy 

and education, we have concluded that their involvement in the strategic planning 

of CSR could provide coherence and substance to the planning process. 


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These institutions are: 

• Ministry of Labour, Family and Equal Opportunities (MMFES) and 

respectively the Directorate for Corporate Social Responsibility (DRSC) 

within the ministry, that identify and elaborate CSR policies; 

• Ministry of Education, Research and Innovation (MECI) and respectively, 

the National Agency for Qualification in Higher Education and Partnership 

with Social and Economic Environment (ACPART). 

To support our statement, we mention that MMFES fosters the active partnership 

among the public sector, civil society’ organisations, companies, customers 

and suppliers, employees and their representatives, international organisations, 

local and national authorities. In this regard, the ministry is editing newsletters, 

organizing workshops, exhibits and other similar actions within the country 

and abroad. The dissemination and workshop organization expenditure 

can be funded from the budgetary allocations approved by the ministry [7]. 

ACPART, the other institution has the role of implementing the development 

policies and strategies of the Ministry of Education and Research. Its mission 

is to promote the openness policy of higher education institutions towards 

the socio-economic environment by initiating cooperation actions among higher 

education institutions, businesses and other institutions to develop specific 

partnerships, research of the labour force market, and development 

of the entrepreneurship universities in Romania and know-how transfer [8]. 

In order to achieve its mission, ACPART cooperates with the Ministry of Labour, 

Family and Equal Opportunities, with national entities having responsibilities 

in what is concerning quality insurance in higher education and with other social 

partners. 

4. Setting up the Actions Groups of CSRNA 

In order to solve the identified problems, the exchange of experience, 

good practices manuals we propose to set up Action Groups using the European 

model of the CSR offices. The action should have the role of transforming 

an abstract strategy in measurable objectives. 

The founding of these Action Groups could be realized at the initiative of one 

or more companies by generating projects to meet the identified problems, 

having a specific action area and well-defined goal, objectives and deadline. 

These projects could be financed from European funds, on a competitive base. 

The project co-ordinators could publicly debate the key objectives and expected 

results in order to implement the project together with their partners within 

the group (companies, universities, public authorities, social partners). 


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The main feature of these action groups should be: facilitation of solving 

the identified problems and exchange of experience, preparing good practices 

manuals for the cooperation among business, academic and social partners 

in order to enhance the efficiency of the efforts of all actors involved in a certain 

CSR theme. 

5. CSR- management model 

In order to approach CSR as a planning tool of the long term development 

for obtaining the socio-economic progress, CSRNA should define certain 

elements specific to the strategic management. 

This could be: 

• Definition of the vision; 

• Definition of the mission and the conditional components for achieving the 

vision; 

• Adopting the fundamental values that will include the ethical coordinates 

that will be applied for different action lines when implementing the 

strategy; 

• Definition of the strategic objectives and formulating policies required to be 

applied to achieve the objectives; 

• Setting up the performance key indicators that will ensure progress control 

for the achievement of the strategic objectives; 

• Implementation of the strategy (action plans, programs, deadlines, allocation 

of resources, preparation of reporting and monitoring procedures); 

• Monitoring, assessment and control in order to ensure the achievement of 

the strategic objectives, to refine it on the basis of the evolutions of the 

society or external factors. 

Registering to CSRNA, by joining on a voluntary basis could mean 

the recognition as a socially responsible organisation. The recognition degree 

could be induced on the basis of the involvement and results obtained. Promotion 

of the results should be granted at a higher central level after an external audit 

mission to certify the results. 

In this regard, we will detail the elements that we consider to be essential in order 

to ensure transparency and credibility. 


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6. Modalities of assuring the transparency and credibility in CSRNA 

It is worth mentioning the following important elements as part of the alliance: 

coherence in organizing, transparency and credibility. Transparency is a 

condition of an efficient communication, both at the Central Directorate and 

working groups level and within the organizations involved in the economical and 

social level. 

Credibility needs an agreement between the assumed objectives, achieved 

activities and results obtained. Practically, an agreement between the declarations 

and actions of the involved partners, is necessary. 

In order to promote a policy of transparency and credibility in the CSRNA 

activity, we propose: 

• to define an ethic code to settle: the principles guiding the partnership 

in its actions, the rights and obligations of the involved institutions, 

the rights and obligations of the CSR actions beneficiars, to publish and 

promote the ethic code among employees, partners, communities; 

• to elaborate periodical social reports to show transparently the strategic 

objectives aimed, achieved progress, difficulties encountered, solutions 

forecasted. The social reports are a proof of transparency and meet the 

public needs to know what are the actions taken; 

• to audit the achieved activities; 

• to publish the evaluating reports, to specify the CSR principles, to 

specify the public that elaborated the reports; 

• to evaluate the economic and social impact of the achieved actions; 

• to publish the results of the achieved programmes. 

Assuring the recognition as a socialy-responsable organization might have 

the following benefic effects upon the involved ones[10]. 

For economic entities: 

• qualitative improvement of the labour force with effects upon 

the investments in employees training, in their becoming familiar to the 

environment, in increasing the efficiency thanks to an accordingly - trained 

labour force; 

• a favourable image creating, image which could contribute to increasing 

the economical entity profit both by influencing its customers and by 

fidelizing the valuable employees, by increasing the appurtenance decree to 

their organization; 

• creating a healthy social environment where the business occur. 


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For universities 

• increasing the educational services qualities which can induce to society more 

trust in education and professional training and, in those universities that get 

involved, especially. 

• fidelizing the valuable employees, by increasing their appurtenance decree 

to the organization; 

• it can make it possible the institutional appreciation by achieving some 

superior quality indicators. 

For the social environment 

By the active implication in the generation of change process the social environment 

could contribute to: the social cohesion growing, the struggling against of exclusion, 

unemployment, demographic difficulties and development 

Taking into account that an efficient communication with the end the sensitivity 

of civil society as regards the organizations that are involved in CSR followed by 

a communication of civil society feed-back to organizations, could have 

spectacular effects in the constructive engagement of these. 

For that the benefit effects predicted can be achieved, it is considered 

to be necessary that the public opinion to be correct informed and sensibilized by 

these organizations that make an effort concerning this subject. 

Sensibilization of public opinion found to be with a low level in this country, 

could be a on the point of starting. It is measure that the Romanian rely 

on the responsible companies could determine their grade development of social 

implication and responsibility. 

The local community should have to be awareness that can use CSR like 

an instrument to involve the companies actively local to the community life. 

We could take as the Kingdom of Great Britain’s example where, one in five 

consumers boycott the products of a company that cannot be associated with 

a good cause. 

The economic entities should have to be awareness the holding some good 

relationships with these communities as part of which develop their activity can 

help to counteract some unforeseen matters, the conflicts and hostilities 

avoidance, the making a better environment for their own employers, 

the conscription and keeping their employees and no last instance at the 

strengthening some business relationships with people and companies from 

respective zone. 

For that the corporative social responsibility to have success should have 

to be involves also the employees of the CSRNA component organizations. 


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By the implication to employers it is understood: information, consulting, 

the employers participation from the university environment – like main 

knowledge suppliers, the ones from the economic environment – 

like beneficiaries, users and trainers of competences for graduates but like active 

supporters of social responsibilities. The implication into the social actions about 

the competences and abilities training can offer the emotional satisfaction and can 

rise the respect themselves of employers, because this is a question that 

themselves effects or interest directly the employers or the ones closed to them. 

7. The position of universities in their integration in CSR 

The position which could assume the universities themselves should be that 

to contribute to ensure the considering and transparency of social responsibility 

draft. The European Union invites both the universities and the European 

enterprises at the objectives carrying out. The Lisbon Collaboration between the 

university environment and the economic one could ensure the complementarily 

and efforts efficiency. 

The position of universities in the CSR integration, in this situation, could be such 

as: 

• Participant in the identification the main issues and directions, action areas 

for the promoting to concept of social responsibility; 

• Active participant to form specialists able to proactively tackle the CSR 

fields: economic, social, environment protection as part of workshops; 

• Information and sensibilization the public opinion concerning 

the importance of social implication of organizations; 

• Information and sensibilization the public opinion concerning the essential 

participation of this in the growing of social implication scale 

and responsabilization of organizations. 

Conclusions 

By the Commission Programme for innovation and competitiveness (CIP), 

EU invites the European enterprises to perform in their reports the modes 

in which contribute to carrying out objectives from Lisbon. Invariably, EU 

supports the important participation of universities for reaching the Lisbon 

objectives 

and usage potential of these for the economic growth generation and social 

cohesion. 

The universities can open, by promoting of social responsibilities, under above 

circumstances, the reconciliation pathway between the organizational social 

development, the continuous improving of competitiveness level 

and the community development. 


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Making the organizational structure called by us CSRNA, could be, 

in our opinion, to contribute to the economic and social progress achievement 

and the support of sustainable development due to the following aspects. 

• It contributes to encourage of active partnership between public sector, 

civil society organizations, companies, customers and suppliers, 

their employees by benefits which could obtain the involved partners; 

• It offers measure possibility of enterprises behaviour, cost, ensures 

the comparability and independence; 

• It offers possibility of coherent development and long – term of economic 

and social environment; 

• It comes to meet the European tendencies in the CSR field; 

• It comes to meet the development of a professional background that 

to include the specific qualifications to the CSR field; 

• It comes to meet the Eurostat efforts to make indexes for the performances 

measurement in the field. 

Creating this structure, relied on the voluntary participation, could be to stimulate 

the organizations due to visibility of efforts settled down and the universities 

could be more motivated to assume its parts of catalyst, motor of process activity 

of change which we are convinced that they themselves can assume. 


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REFERENCES 

[1] http://www.euractiv.com/en/innovation/growth-jobs-relaunch-lisbon-strategy/article- 

131891 

[2] European Parliament Resolution of 13 March 2007 on corporate social responsibility 

enterprises: a new partnership (2006/2133 (INI)43) 

[3] http://www.iso.org/iso/ 

[4] http://www.responsabilitatesociala.ro/csr-in-romania.html 

[5] http://www.responsabilitatesociala.ro/companii/integrator-soft.html 

[6] http://www.acpr.ro/nou/index.php/View-document-details/17-Alianta-Europeana-pentru- 

CSR-Corporate-Social-Responsibility-Responsabilitatea-Sociala-a-Corpora.html 

[7] HG nr.381/2007 (4), privind organizarea şi funcţioarea Ministerului Muncii, Familiei şi 

Egalităţii de Şanse, publicat în MOF nr. 287- 02/05/2007 

[8] HG nr. 1357/2005 (3), privind înfiinţarea, organizarea şi funcţionarea Agenţiei Naţionale 

pentru Calificările din Învăţământul Superior şi Parteneriat cu Mediul Economic şi Social- 

ACPART 

[9] http://www.euractiv.ro/uniunea-europeana/articles|displayArticle/articleID_11632/Comisia- 

Europeana-vrea-sa-faca-din-Europa-un-pol-de-excelenta-in-CSR.html 

[10] Luminiţa, OPREA, Responsabilitate Socială Corporatistă (Tritonic, Bucureşti, România, 

2005), pp. 56-57. 


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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 249 

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION OVER THE RECRUITMENT 

AND SELECTION PROCESSES OF HUMAN RESOURCES 

Nicoleta Valentina MĂRĂCINARU (FLOREA) 1 

Abstract. Due to developments in technology, demographic changes and globalization, 

the world of work is changing. In conditions in which competition is increasingly fierce, 

on a labour market in continuous development, human resources must adapt quickly 

to a world into globalization process to face any challenges. Thus, by adopting modern 

techniques, through internet access, labour becomes every day more and more 

demanding in terms of employee-employer relationship. Impact of globalization and ITC 

on the process of recruitment and selection are the consequence of achieving the 

flexibility and capability of reaction of employees. Thus, the labour market is using new 

methods of recruitment and selection to increase efficiency and improve working 

conditions, reducing stress, time and costs of recruitment and selection and widening the 

geographical area of recruitment and selection. 

Key words: Recruitment, selection, globalization, communication, technology 


Globalization is a phenomenon of the modern era.[20] Mutations in human 

resource management are the response to the external environmental changes 

of the organization. 

In the context of globalization, human resources management becomes the main 

tools and means by which the organizations can ensure competitive advantage 

and strategic decisions of the managers must reflect a commitment 

to the people.[19] Today recruitment and selection processes are highly 

influenced by complex phenomenon such as migration of labour from Eastern 

Europe, the European internal market, competition and short development, 

developments in technology, demographic changes, globalization, the impact 

of ITC on HR employment, emergence of new professions, global division 

of labour and the appearance of multinational companies. 

2. Education and culture influence over the recruitment and selection 

processes 

When a company wants to extend its activities in another country should consider 

the criteria on which selection is made, otherwise will have difficulties during 

personnel recruitment and selection. A study realized at the 18 western 

companies, that operate in Russia, showed that personality and experience are 

1 Ec. PhD. tr. , University Valahia of Targoviste, Romania, floreanicol@yahoo.com 


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250 Nicoleta Valentian Mărăcinaru(Florea) 

the main criteria for selection. Therefore criteria such as certificates and diplomas 

mattered less in comparison with honesty, ambition, team spirit, availability 

and ability to learn. 

In the international context, multinational companies establish the "equivalent 

criteria" of recruitment and selection due to differences between the educational 

and cultural specificity of each country. 

For example, in Germania, average age of graduation superior economic studies 

is 25-26 years, compared with Japan and Romania, where graduates available 

in the labour market are from 22 years. In Spain the managers of the host country 

are graduated in law or economics, in Germany are graduated of technical higher 

education or PhD in engineering, and in the UK the studies are irrelevant because 

they are not giving importance in obtaining certificates and diplomas. 

In Europe, the studies regarding the practices of recruitment and selection 

of human resources by multinational companies have highlighted a number 

of differences. Companies from France, Britain and Italy one of the most 

important criteria for selection is language skills. In Germany are preferred 

the candidates with a solid training in the technical field. In Spain are preferred 

the young people and it’s avoided hiring of candidates graduated of an elitist 

school and nationality of candidates is a very important criteria. 

In the Netherlands, Germany and France graduating of an elitist schools 

is considered as an employment atuu. If an American company will open 

a subsidiary in these countries will meet strong resistance from the employees 

of its subsidiary, because U.S. consider relevant only the experience. 

Misunderstanding of differences between educational systems in various countries 

may create obstacles in the recruitment and selection of employees, using the 

equivalence. 

3. The appearance of multinational companies, 

strategic alliances and experience of these last decades, confirms that the greatest 

benefits were obtained by those enterprises which have managed to integrate 

the latest achievements in science and technology in their own organizations 

and promoted at the same time high standards for training personnel.[14] 

Today multinational corporations are a massive presence in the global economy, 

they internationalized services and production. Global corporations are positive 

forces for development and economic prosperity. [7] Multinational companies 

have brought policies on human resources and also new methods of recruitment 

and selection. In the multinational companies, recruitment and selection acquire 

a strategic character, because the promotion strategy and the values of mother 

company in the host country is provided by managers and employees 

of subsidiaries . 


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Impact of globalization over the recruitment and selection processes of human resources 251 

That’s why international organizations may adopt one of the following 

orientations: 

Ethnocentric orientation -the management of subsidiaries is provided 

by managers expatriates, forced the mother organization. They want full control 

over subsidiaries and ensure that the mother company's strategy is properly 

implemented at its subsidiaries. [11] Failure in the recruitment and selection 

process of expatriates employees is one of the issues that accompany these 

processes, the main reason being that organizations that adopt this approach does 

not require additional criteria for recruiting and selecting the employees who will 

work in the subsidiaries . The most frequently causes of failure are: reduced 

adaptability to new cultural context , family problems, responsibilities too large, 

the inability to communicate with employees. In such circumstances, 

"failure is perceived as a premature return of expatriate staff from the host country 

in the mother country».[11] Poor results are due to inadaptation of this staff 

on specific culture of the host country. The costs of errors in the selection process 

are direct (rewards, training costs) and indirect (lack of productivity, low market 

share, failure in the relationship with local authorities). 

Polycentric orientation -subsidiary managers and employees are recruited 

and selected from the host country. 

The main advantages that this approach entails: 

-are eliminated cultural and linguistic barriers; 

- are eliminated the problems related by family mobility of employees; 

- are eliminated the costs allocated for cultural training of staff; 

-motivation is less costly. 

As disadvantages: 

-inter-conflicts between the staff in branches and the mother-company; 

-divergences of strategic guidance which must be adopted at local level. 

Geocentric orientation - in the opinion of specialists in human resources this 

orientation represents the best way to hold key posts in a multinational 

organization, not taking into account the nationality of personnel. [5] 

Advantages: 

-recruitment can choose the employees between mother-company and the 

employees existing at the branches; 

-employees with development potential can always move from one branch to 

another within the company; 

-the staff has a high degree of mobility and adaptability to various conditions, 

gaining a greater experience . 

Regiocentric orientation – involves the transfer employees of a multinational 

organization to certain geographical regions. The main disadvantage of this 

approach is the limited career prospects for employees of subsidiaries, which can 

access quite difficult at the head region. In essence it should be noted that 


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recruitment and selection of human resources in the multicultural context is one of 

the most important challenges faced by multinational companies, factors with 

great impact on this activity being cultural particularities of the labour market of 

the host country and availability of human resources. 

4. Competition 

- multinational companies may face in the labour market with a very intense 

competition. For example, Japanese companies pay a lot to attract those 

candidates (male) who are graduates of Tokyo University, recruiting them since 

the faculty. For multinational companies is a competitive advantage employment 

in banking field of female as managers, because they are considered very good 

financial advisors. In China the main method of recruitment is the personal 

relationships and in the U.S. the main criteria for selection is according to job 

requirements. In conclusion, we can mention the fact that multinational 

organizations should understand the cultural specification of each country, 

because those are influencing the efficiency and effectiveness of recruitment and 

selection. [11] 

5. The strategic role of human resources department by aligning the 

processes of recruitment and selection to the vision and goals of the 

organization 

- in small and medium enterprises there is not a department of human resources to 

develop processes for recruitment and selection and manager is directly involved 

in selecting employees through an intuitive management; in large and 

multinational firms recruitment process requires large expenses and long time in 

choosing suitable candidates. 

The Department has strategic role in the organization: 

-forecast staffing needs; 

-human-resource planning by analyzing the objectives the organization [3]; 

-planning purposes; 

-methods used in determining the necessary human resources; 

-estimating human resource requirements based on labour productivity; 

-post-analysis and of the tasks for job descriptions; 

-specifications drafting of personnel (through the behaviours, knowledge and 

skills needed in employment candidates job); 

- recruitment content of personnel; 

-using marketing methods to attract an adequate number of properly potential 

employees for the job; 

-using internal and external sources to cover the requirements vacancies; 

-using different methods and techniques for recruiting; 


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-using new recruiting techniques to attract a large number of candidates (e.g. 

on-line recruitment, international recruitment); 

-using new methods and techniques of selection (the Internet); 

-achieving interviews with a specialized team consisting of economists, 

sociologists and psychologists (without discriminating) to understand better the 

behaviour and thinking of each candidate; 

The recruitment and selection should be made public and be conducted by an 

experienced team involving the head of Human Resources Department, head of 

the post directly concerned, people specializing in selection and at least a 

sociologist and a psychologist to evaluate psychologically the candidates. 

The role of the team involved in the processes of recruitment and selection 

consists of: 

-objectivity in choosing a candidate for employment; 

-using techniques of non-discrimination during selection; 

-using marketing methods into recruitment process to find more candidates; 

-content of the recruitment announce must fulfil the following criteria: 

description of organization, job duties and a more clear description 

of the "ideal" person for the job without discrimination, procedure 

for submission of application, the deadline and information about the website 

of the organization. 

6. Legislative changes 

- candidates should not be discriminated in recruitment and selection processes, so 

that the legislation comes to support the candidates by laws, that require 

organizations to make no discrimination, by the National Council against 

Discrimination, by ONGs activity and by the courts, abolishing the company or 

impose fines. 

7. Economic and social changes 

- different factors led to new trends, from full-time employment to atypical work 

conditions, for example, work from home, part-time contracts, along with 

outsourcing services and contracting with external collaborators. The function 

of human resources as the financial and accounting have not escaped 

of the phenomenon of outsourcing. it may go even further, to organizations that 

do not have a department of human resources.[18] Outsourcing of recruitment 

and selection processes may be one of the services chosen by the company 

to focus on activities that knows better to make. This is supported by well-known 

authors in the field of management, such as Tom Peters which urge companies 

to focus on what they know to do better. But an organization must give a special 

attention to the recruitment and selection processes, even if they are outsourced, 


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to be sure that human resources needs of the organization is satisfied with a more 

efficient manner as possible. [9] 

8. Market, technology and organisational dynamics 

influence significantly the management of human resources. Today the European 

internal market is becoming stronger by removing many barriers between 

countries. Also, if we take into consideration: increased traffic of goods, 

communications, media, cultural and consumer policy, free choice of employment 

and residence stability, it can say that we are witness to the essential events, 

that will give to significant mutations. This go to standardization, and favours 

the growth of the market dynamics. Changes regarding markets and personal 

achievement, lead inevitably to a new qualitative and quantitative application 

personnel and to increased demands on staff development. 

E-recruitment-Now recruitment is on-line and the access of candidates 

in the selection process can be done from different geographic areas, based 

on competence and knowledge in the field. 76% of top 500 European companies 

have a space for recruiting corporate web site, according to a study published 

in Recruitsoft. Only 47% of them have a special section for young graduates.[21] 

Changes in technology have given rise to a new concept that human resource 

management must face: the organization that learns. Continuous changing 

in technology and knowledge have led to a modificated approach of human 

resources. Many managers and experts have found that learning organization 

is more able to survive and progress into insecure conditions of the present. 

In the future, one of the major conditions of the organization in will be the 

recognition of the role of human resources. A increasingly number of specialists 

and experts recognize that, the success of a company is established by a series 

of "skills". Gaining competitive advantage on account of human resources should 

be a goal of all modern companies. Unfortunately, their role is not recognized 

in all organizations. A set of rules should be respected in order to obtain 

competitive advantage on account of employees: 

- resources must be valuable, people are a source of competitive advantages when 

they engage efficiently and effectively in achieving the company objectives; 

- human resources must be rare - their knowledge, skills and abilities are not equal 

to those employees of other competitors; 

- resources must be organized because good results can be achieved when talent 

is combined and developed in the workplace. 

Maybe the most important thing is the need to develop capabilities and a flexible 

workforce able to face the XXI century, the globalization, the new technologies, 

the changes, the development of human resources and the cost which always 

changes . 


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Video CV is a new form of selection of candidates. Video CV is a revolutionary 

instrument, designed to support the application of computer users with their 

professional profile to appropriate jobs and to create a net advantage from 

classical methods. Video CV it’s an easily mean for candidates to seek direct 

ways of communication with employers. 

This new technology allows the specialists to provide through video resume, 

to registered users, to talk about them, about their professional training, in a more 

eloquent, more efficient, more direct and more personal way. 

Neural networks- behave as models of computation, flexible, able to analyze 

and to capture the complexity of quantitative or qualitative data structures. Neural 

networks model is a promising direction in increasing the validity 

of psychological selection. One of the advantages of this model is the efficiency 

compared to conventional methods and the disadvantage is it an area 

insufficiently depth of the theoretical and difficult to approach to less familiar 

with these types of calculation. [13] 

Computer testing – is a psychological aided testing and is one of the most used 

applications of computers in psychology of recruitment. These laborious 

procedures for analysis and interpretation have aroused the interest 

of psychologists for this technological application. 

Since the beginning of using computers in work psychology have been a number 

of obvious advantages that this technology brings: maximum objectivity, 

maximum standardization; training optimization; automatic recording of results; 

reducing stress examination; saving resources (time, paper); technological 

flexibility. 

Testing on the internet is a computerized testing form that take place on-line and 

the control of the examination is transferred to the program. Forms through 

which the Internet can intermediate collection of relevant information 

for selection are: interviews, letters of reference, a typical exercise center 

for evaluation. personality tests and performance tests. [1] The Internet offers 

great opportunities in psychological evaluation, but raise a number of issues such 

as: impact of technology, safety tests, the effects of environmental, cultural 

or ethical aspects, authentification subjects, control of conditions test, control 

of practice and equality of access. 

New methods for recruiting and selection: speed-dating (brief meeting between 

the candidate and those responsible for human resources for a brief discussion, 

no affinity), city game (games to crack the enigma-targeted candidates), 

online games (for army, police force or secret services), Video CV, internet 

testing, neural networks, campus managers(young employees sent to university 

in order to attract new candidates), business-game (game tests that put candidates 

in certain business situations), creative contests (contests launched 

by organisations under shortage of staff), cooptation (young employees become 


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"parents" of students from last year), discovery day (organization presents various 

jobs for future candidates in faculties or head office), job hunt (festive meeting, 

held in the morning by presenting a series of games that bring in valuable skills 

of candidates), traineeship (organization offers to young people training and 

seminars to highlight and improve their skills), and package (organization offers 

packages to young graduating employees which consist of phones, laptops and 

motivating salaries).[17] 

Conclusions 

The main consequence, with impact on human resources management, is that 

more and more employees requires jobs or tasks increasingly more varied and 

interesting. Because of this, human resources management must have a policy 

of personal value-oriented, and this policy must begin with a rigorous selection. 

In the same time, there must be the assurance that all human resource 

management activities are conducted in compliance with the legal requirements 

and evaluation activities which are depending on their contribution to achieve 

organisational objectives. As the company must be flexible, to adapt the work, 

to anticipate developments in the market economic system, so the human resource 

management must be flexible, too. Human resources management requires 

development and evaluation in at least five areas[10]: 

- humanization job; 

- performance-related rewards; 

- flexible work programs; 

- plans for flexible rewards; 

- career planning. 

Several contemporary trends put its imprint on the context of human resources: 

globalization, the modern trend of organization to obtain competitive advantages 

through people; the impact of information; identifying the importance of change 

management; affirming the role of human resources in intellectual capital 

development; influence of reengineering and total quality management on human 

resource management; impact of cost pressures on human resources policy; 

employees with investment power and autonomy to act in the interests 

of the company; access to knowledge. 

Proposals 

Growth of international interdependences and globalization of markets has led 

the last two decades to an internationalization of business organizations. 

As a result of this globalization, the organization has to face a number of issues 

such as: integrating organizational commitments from abroad, the organization's 

management, control over foreign subsidiaries and international tax policy. 

Internationalisation does not only mean expanding the activities of national 


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management abroad, it means an increase in complexity and modernization 

of human resource management. They are motivated by the multitude 

of functions and activities which have become international, tasks generated 

by heterogeneous economies of the countries, increasing risks due to personal 

and financial causes. Human Resources Management must solve a series 

of operational problems that reduce recruitment costs and increase the quality 

of selection and hiring competent candidates, preparation, direction, adaptation 

and integration of new employee in the organization and re-employment abroad. 

To gain competitive advantage, the organization needs to choose "the right man 

at the right place and the right time"[10],processes based on candidates 

competencies, by a team well trained, specialized in the field, objectively 

and without prejudice and it’s must using the latest techniques in the processes 

of recruitment and selection. 

Besides traditional methods of recruitment and selection organization and must 

use the latest methods to attract a sufficient number of candidates, to retain 

the performance ones, such as: 

speed-dating, city game, online games, Video CV, internet testing, neural 

networks, campus managers, business-game, creative contests, cooptation, 

discovery day , job hunt, traineeship , and package.[17] 

Acknowledgement 

Uniunea Europeană, Ministerul Muncii, Familiei şi Protectiei Sociale 

AMPOSDRU, Fondul Social European POS DRU 2007-2013, Instrumente 

Structurale 2007 – 2013, Ministerul Educaţiei, Cercetării şi Inovării OIPOSDRU, 

Scoala Doctorală, Universitatea Valahia Targoviste. 

Abbreviations HR - human resources. 


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REFERENCES 

[1] Bartram D., Internet recruitment and Selection: Kising frogs to find Princes, International 

Journal of Selection and Assesment, 8(4), 2000; 

[2] Chaşovschi Carmen, Albu Otilia , Changes envisaged in the work of human resource 

management in the next period, Facultatea de Ştiinţe Economice şi Administraţie Publică; 

[3] Cole G.A., Personnel Management, Editura CODECS, Bucuresti, 2000; 

[4] Comanescu Mihaela, European Management, Editura Economica, Bucuresti, 1999 ; 

[5] Dowling P. Schuller R., Welch D.E., International dimensions of human resource 

management. Second Edition, Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, California, 1993; 

[6] Farmer Richard, Advances in International Comparative Management,Vol.I, Editura Jal, 

Press Greenwich Connectitut, London, 1984; 

[7] Gilpin Robert, The world economy in the XXI century, The challenge of global capitalism, 

Editura Polirom, 2004; 

[8] Joffre P, Comprendre la modialisation de l’entreprise, Economica, Paris, 1994; 

[9] Malcolm Martin si Jackson Tricia, Personnel Practice, Editura CODECS, Bucuresti, 2008; 

[10] Manolescu Aurel , Human Resources Management, Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 2001; 

[11] Marinas Cristian, Compared Human Resources Management, teza de doctorat, ASE, 

Bucuresti, 2006 ; 

[12] Pell Arthur R., Human Resources Management, Editura Curtea Veche, Bucuresti, 2008; 

[13] Popa Marian, Introduction to work psychology, Editura Polirom, Iasi, 2008 ; 

[14] Pricop Mihai, Tantau Adrian, Globalization and the organisational strategy, Agentia 

Eficient, Bucuresti, 2001; 

[15] Toffler Alvin, Power in motion, Editura Antet, Bucuresti, 1995; 

[16] Sherman Arthur, Bohlander George, Snell Scott, Managing Human Resources, South - 

Western College Publishing, International Thomson Publishing, 1998; 

[17] New techniques of recruitment for organizations, www.metiers.be; 

[18] Finances, accounting and human resources: new territories for outsearching, 

externalisationrh.blogspot.com; 

[19] Influences of globalization on human resource management, stiri.rol.ro 

[20] Contemporary Globalisation, www.uvvg.ro; 

[21] E-recruitment, www.journaldunet.com. 


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ISSN 2067 - 2160 Spring – 2009 259 

INTERACTIV ROLE OF INFORMATION 

Gabriel I. NĂSTASE 1 , Dragoş Ionuţ NĂSTASE 2 

Abstract. In nature, between the biotic and abiotic there are certain types of interactions 

that generates one of their strange behavior. The study of these interactions requires an 

interdisciplinary approach. 

Keywords: Information, interaction, biotic and abiotic systems 

The existence of interactions between the biotic (living systems) and abiotic 

(non-viable systems), components of the environment, means at one time 

occurrence of a certain kind of relationship between these concerns at the 

interface of disciplines like biology, physics, ecology, hydraulic, cybernetics, 

biotechnology, thermodynamics, etc. 

Issues such systems is required for interactions in the environment and to find 

the answer in the energy and the information systems. This behavior can be 

defined in terms of simple or complex phenomena that these systems they 

generate. 

Here and the difficulty of explaining, to find the calculation of mathematical 

relationships or identifying them. 

In other words, to deepen knowledge on the behavior of energy in support 

of information systems biotic and abiotic, assumes the role of information 

in understanding the interactions that occur between these systems and 

the environment. 

Meanwhile, a hydrothermaldynamics want to explain the definition of order 

in these systems, the specific phenomena of the two sciences, and other 

sciences studying systems with many components (subsystems). 

The most studied examples of order or disorder in the sequence in order are: 

the structures of the thermal conductive fluid or not, the electroconductive 

fluid at high temperatures, instability thermalelastic, crystal growth, lasers, 

chemical reactions, deformation of thin plates, aerospace engineering, 

1 Associate Professor „Dimitrie Cantemir” Christian University Faculty of Finance, Banking and 

Accountancy, corresponding member of Academy of Romanian Scientists 

2 Engineer Romanian Authority for Nuclear Activities -Institute for Nuclear Research – Pitesti 


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260 Gabriel I. Năstase, Dragoş Ionuţ Năstase 

computers, formation recognition by machine, safe systems of unreliable 

elements. 

In classical thermodynamics, in the case of static equilibrium or irreversible 

processes, the link between different levels of micro and macro states system 

and replace the order with the mess being made by entropy. In all other 

sciences, entropy is taken place, ultimately the information. 

Addressing this issue without claiming to exhaust (but, only to launch several 

new hypotheses to explain in terms of hydrothermaldynamics of relationships 

between environmental factors), I tried to set new coordinates in the field of 

interface between hydrodynamics , thermodynamics and information theory in 

the living (biotic) and non-viable (abiotic). 

Phenomena generated by the interaction of environmental factors have a large 

area of coverage. Thus, living matter (the biotic) implies a certain structure 

that carries the attributes of life and that Romanian scientist Eugen Macovski 

has called a bio structure. 

Dead material (abiotic systems) "born" in nature (rocks, natural crystals, etc..), 

Sometimes the creation of exclusive rights (alloys, synthetic crystals, 

polymers, machinery, plant, computers etc..) Shows another feature of its 

structure. Between the biotic and abiotic relationships are interdependent 

extremely varied and complicated. 

Each structure of biotic systems, belongs to a certain level of complexity 

which is a certain amount of information and organized it into programs 

capable of becoming involved in the structure, an appropriate amount of 

energy and specific. 

This shows that solving problems of ecological and environmental protection 

requires the participation of scientists and specialists from the various 

branches of human concerns: biology, agricultural sciences, pedology and 

practically the whole range of technical sciences. Interdisciplinary nature of 

the concerns in solving these problems is more than obvious. 

Information theory has not elucidated, so far, the complete mathematical 

mechanism of generation of information but was able to explain the different 

ways rigorous application of the results obtained only in telecommunications. 


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Interactive role of Information 261 

Extending the theory of information was more technical, especially in 

cybernetics, electronics and informatics. 

In the interaction of components of ecosystems, a role play information and 

energy. In biotic systems, bioinformatics is essential, she participated in 

the structuring process, that of becoming, and the communication between 

these systems. 

General issues of information we govern, the existing material and spiritual, 

can be investigated both through mathematical disciplines, as well as in the 

other disciplines (psychology, ecology, economics, etc.). 

The paper addresses an issue of the interdisciplinary theoretical foundation 

which we have brought new contribution, in this work. 

Applicative aspects presented in the paper, is partly the result of our concerns, 

and may be an argument in explaining theories addressed. 

Assumptions and defining essential content of the paper 

Currently, global environmental problems and environmental protection have 

become priority concerns for all makers of nations and international 

organizations specialized, since you can not conceive the development of 

demographic evolution of mankind outside the influence of environment. 

Demographic explosion, triggered in the mid 20th century, should not be 

understood as being uniformly distributed over the entire surface of the Earth. 

It is especially the least developed countries and those in developing countries 

at the time, concentrated especially in continents like Asia and Africa. Most of 

these countries benefited from greater accessibility to medicamentaţie and 

antidăunători (at that time appeared and powerful class of antibiotics 

penicillin). 

Substantial support in this direction they have given and international 

organizations, achieving the eradication of diseases. This increase in population 

must be less on account of raising living standards and more on improving 

nutrition. Population growth has occurred later, as industrial development, 

the results of "green revolution", the application of specific technologyintensive 

farming, chemical fertilizers, irrigation, genetic revolution that has 

been created, mainly hybrids of corn. 


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Explanation of this recession should be sought in the events that have place 

since 1989. In this context, it referred to stem conflicts in areas with high 

density of population (between India and Pakistan, the Gulf war)etc., the 

disintegration of the Soviet empire (which induced a reduction of the 

population in Eastern countries) and the occurrence of droughts and 

devastating floods in various parts of the globe. A particular attention should 

be paid to the state in which the terrestrial globe today in relation to the 

situation at mid-century, just as a result of socio-economic development. 

During 1960-2009 it was found that a growing world population of 2,3 times 

corresponded to an increase of 6 times the gross domestic product, 5 times the 

use of fossil fuels, 3 times the consumption of timber. 

Meanwhile, in food production has increased almost 3 times the consumption 

of cereals and the release of all fish. 

At the same time raised above, agricultural production per capita increased 

from 1.25 times and was an arable land decreased by nearly 2-fold, compared 

with the existing situation in the mid 20th century. these increases have 

exceeded the limits but suportasbilitate environment. Chemical fertilizers 

whose use has grown continuously, which is increasingly challenged by 

biologists, have soils that have an increased limit of saturation, which can not 

get something extra, and oceanic fishing exceeded pace already natural 

regeneration of fish stocks [8]. 

As a result, they can highlight the following aspects: 

• alarming increase in the consumption of fossil fuels as a result of intense 

combustion, led to the release into the atmosphere huge amounts of carbon 

dioxide. This has led, among others, along with other pollutants, the 

occurrence of the greenhouse effect and the expansion of desert areas; 

• diminishing green areas as a result of deforestation made irrational, has, 

inter alia, a reduction in the concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere, and 

a decreased ability of regeneration. All these actions because of deforestation, 

led to land degradation (eg in the agricultural sector were removed from 

the circuit important areas of topsoil) and amplification of torrential leaks; 

• overexploitation of natural resources and environmental pollution have led in 

time to emaciation flora and fauna and biological diversity of Earth, with the 

track in time nebănuite yet; 


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• use of water resources, especially fresh water, in economic activities 

(especially industrial) led to emaciation reserves planet. If you will not find 

solutions to reduce water consumption for economic, mankind is likely to 

remain without water consumption required to feed both people and animals 

and to increase the cultivation of plants and vegetables. 

Humanity now faces a crisis economic and general relationships between 

environmental and economic development of this end of the millennium. 

In these crises are mainly generated by the following factors: 

• dominance relations conflict, a competition between "strong and weak" 

within and between human societies for access to resources and basic needs; 

• reducing the values to some components expressing increasing quantity and 

greatness; 

• Information processing, knowledge and progress technical objects of 

property or means of domination and the exercise of power; 

• limiting participation in discussion of strategies and action plans and 

influence of [9]. 

It is citizens in public life in terms of property and riches they have therefore 

necessary that strategies and action plans for sustainable development in 

the economy, to become operational. 

Application should have different able to ensure a stable balance [10] 

mechanisms, instruments and eco technology between the components that 

define the concept of sustainable development (economic development, 

technological development, environmental protection and social protection). 

Need to address interdisciplinary 

Of those listed above, it follows three major objectives that should be fulfilled 

to optimize human activity and to save the entire system of biotic extinction: 

a. untainted preservation of the environment and the prohibition of polluting 

activities in order to avoid environmental degradation; 

b. a substantial reduction of consumption by burning fossil fuels, enhancing 

control over exploitation of timber resources, to enable the regeneration ability 

in time and not to go to soil degradation (eg, through uncontrolled 

deforestation); 

c. reductions of water for other needs than those necessary physiological 

creatures. Water and light are essential elements of life and should be 


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considered first, biological sources. Danger that should be avoided before they 

no longer have what we eat, to dispense drinking water, which would 

inevitably lead to the extinction of life. 

Solving the problems of interdisciplinary specialists assume from their 

communication skills and knowledge in the area to enable them to identify the 

most effective solutions. 

This includes training in time. Unfortunately, educational establishments, even 

those that form the ecological, have a capacity of training quasi unilateral. 

As in any field but especially in the ecology and environmental analysis are to 

the finest detail, and operations summary, with the conclusion, materialized in 

various forms: from the definitions indicators base of different phenomena. 

Thus, eco sphere (from the Greek oikos - house, root word ecology), is defined 

as all [5], and the live-non live interaction at the planetary, or whole 

ecosystems ecosystem is a unit resulting from interactions between biotic 

community and habitat (biotope) them on a well defined spatial unit. 

Biotope should be understood as a limited area (forest, river, steppe, lake, sea), 

i.e. all ecological factors constituting the external (physical factors, chemical, 

geological and climatic) in which different species of live plants, animals and 

micro-forming biocenose. 

Biocenose, in turn, means all living organisms (biotic systems), characterized 

by a specific composition (biodiversity) due to the existence of interdependent 

phenomena (of which the nutrition is essential), but also brought together by 

mutual attraction exerted by factors abiotic (physical environment) biotope 

characteristics respectively. 

Whole living organisms which constitute biocenose consists essentially 

of:autotrophe creatures (plant capable of photosynthesis and chimiosyntesis), 

which convert inorganic matter into organic matter to the world live prepare 

and feed themselves; creatures heterotrophe, organizations which manufactures 

single-and food, whereas a ready prepared take (consume creatures 

autotrophe). 

They are all macro-consumers (consisting of ierbivore animals, carnivore and 

omnivore animals, including man) and micro-consumers (saprophytic 

organisms that decompose dead organic matter, retaining their part - that 

recompose - and return the rest as mineral products, to prepare a new course 

for creatures autotrophe). 

Building functional ecosystems with the two essential components - the 

synthesis of organic matter (represented by all organisms autotrofe, producing 


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organic matter of life and potential energy) and the analysis and utilization of 

organic matter (consisting of all heterotrophes, this component using potential 

energy and mineral matter returned items that have entered into the 

composition of living matter) - ensure restoration of mineral fund living 

environments. 

Ecology is the biological discipline which has as its field of study the 

interaction between living organisms (in the range of creatures at 

superindividual, group) and their living environment. In other words, ecology 

provides both an integrated picture of all forms of existence of matter and its 

interactions with the environment. 

In ecology, shows that the main phenomena of interdependence in the 

biocenoses are feeding. All living organisms (biotic systems) living on the 

others, while consumer and food, in a sequence in which food travels from the 

primary trophic (plants) and consumers to peak on a pyramid (Pyramid 

eltoniene): the producers (plants), primary consumers (ierbivore, insects), 

tertiary consumers (carnivores, birds) to a lower peak and consumers (animals 

that feed on carnivores, hawks, eagles, parasites), are in a relatively small 

number of copies. It can thus deduce that the life cycles of biocenose no 

concept of waste. Waste individuals from a trophic level (including death, are 

subject to biological degradation micro-consumers), individuals become food 

for other trophic levels. Thus, at the climax (relative stability) of an ecological 

factors constituent "cooperate" in harmony, making a perfectly synergistic. 

Ecosystems can therefore be considered as systems of reference synergistic, 

science has self- organization or self-structuring systems, regardless of their 

nature (physical, chemical, biological, social), based on working together, 

cooperation organic components or subsystems constituents [4]. Formation 

synergistic that science, by the german physicist Hermann Haken in the early 

70s, leaving, in fact, the research of Ilya Prigogine, which show that life is not 

outside the natural order, but appears as an expression of processes the self 

generated just because of this [3], [7]. 

Information on environmental movement 

What characterized the biotic systems essentially in relation to other 

components of ecosystems is cyclical movement, continuing the species 

individuals (birth, growth, maturity period, death), but their mobility and in 

space during life, depending on the characteristics of these species. Even 

plants present forms of fluid motion in the space outside the ground, which can 

be regarded simply as a medium in which they are fixed. Movement biotic 

systems takes place in the fluid (water, air) in which they live and through 

which "communicate" in different ways with other biotic and detect sources of 


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food, water, etc. peril. In other words, biotic systems are endowed with 

specific capabilities of information and communication you use continuously 

throughout the period of life [1]. 

Three main types of information characterizing the biotic (living matter) in 

individuals of species [6]: 

a. genetic information, hereditary, is the huge amount of information that is 

included in all skills that are transmitted from generation to generation 

individual species. Following this information, the seed "know" how and under 

what circumstances, germ and develop, the female "knows" how to care and 

chickens, animals "know" and how to seek food, water sources, to protect from 

hazards etc.. b. energy information, energy processes associated with biotic 

system, open system, made a continuous exchange of energy with the 

environment in which he lives, from the processing power, mainly from food 

and environmental disposal of residual energy. This complex processes occur 

endo and exo energy, such as entropy, the thermal component of their plays a 

crucial role. Thus it follows as a consequence of the interaction energypermanent 

information [2]. 

c. Information related communication with the environment and other systems 

of biotic ecosystem, a process taking place, also on a continuous basis 

throughout the life of the biotic systems. In every moment of life, the sense 

organs and the extra-sensory own bio-field in interaction with environmental 

energy fields, biotic system to inform and take in their own needs and limits 

the possibilities with which nature endowed the measures to ensure their 

existence (for purchasing food to avoid factors that may endanger the life, 

reproduction, etc.). Such information is received as a force specific impulse, 

which is likely to stimulate a response from the receiver. Developments within 

the meaning of the work, the concept of extension is bio-field biotic systems to 

more general notion of field. It can be represented as a liability, such as 

synergistic, cooperative, emissions extra-sensory functions may cover, in 

whole or in part, emitting electromagnetic nature or gravity and which 

contributes, along with the other senses to adapt to environmental conservation 

and default species. 


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Defining the essential content of the paper Synthesized of the above, it can be 

seen that: 

a. The premises is the ambient fluid through which the heat exchange 

processes result in energy (food-residues) of biotic systems. 

b. The study of the biotic interactions between them and their life can be: 

• supraindividual level (population, biocenose, biosphere) in the overall 

behavior of the biotic systems, in relation to the environment in which they 

live; 

at the individual species, as bio-field relationship between them, respectively, 

between energy and environmental fields. 

c. By their capacities bio-detection (essential attribute of living matter), the 

biotic receives through the sense organs (the interface) or by the extra-sensory 

information on the nature referred to in § 1.3 / c, through which (biological 

limits duration of life of individuals species) take appropriate measures to 

survive. 

d. Information is propagated between the point of emission (environmental or 

biotic systems) and receiver (the biotic) fluid spaces in environmental (air, 

water), but also by physical fields. 

Regardless of how propagation (convection or undulatory) or its nature, study 

the role of interactive information fluents between environmental and biotic 

systems, requires a synthetic theoretical approach. This study is dedicated to 

the next chapter (the second), from the theoretical movement of fluids and rest, 

as 

the average carrier information is then presented in sequence, elements 

of similarity and analogy with the propagation of information, regardless 

the nature (physical, chemical, electromagnetic them under different forms of 

manifestation: electricity, light, radio etc..) and the summary results. 

Consecutive this chapter we address the appropriate methods of calculation 

and we substantiate a number of theoretical developments. Theoretical aspects 

of the issues addressed leading to the conclusion that both biotic systems and 

structures of the components of the abiotic environment can be attributed 

qualities are characterized by an apparent dualism-energy information. Thus, 

we found that these systems can be called generic energy-informational 

systems, and phenomena generated by these systems can be called 

information-energy phenomena. 


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REFERENCES 

[1] Botnariuc, N., The evolution of biological systems supra-individuals, Bucharest University 

Publishing House, 1999, p. 91-97. 

[2] Constantinescu, P., Synergy, Genesis and information systems, Technical Publishing 

House, Bucharest, 1990 

[3] Georgescu, A., Synergistic, a new synthesis of science, Technical Publishing House, 

Bucharest, 1987. 

[4] Haken, H., Synergetics, Editure Sprinager Verlag, Berlin, New York, Tokyo, 1978. 

[5] Măruţă, A., Chiriac, V., Current Problems of water in agriculture and food, Editura Ceres, 

1981. 

[6] Măruţă, A., Bio-geo-physical Publishing Company "Romanian Athenaeum, Ecological 

University, Bucharest, 1995. 

[7] Nastase, I., G., The role of interactive information Rapanui Publishing House, Bucharest, 

2002, p. 7-9. 

[8] Purice, I. Synergistic, a meta-science, No Power magazine. 2, 1987. 

[9] Vadineanu, A., I. Sustainable Development Theory and Practice, Bucharest University 

Publishing House, 1998. 

[10] Vadineanu, A., Black C., Lisievici, P., Sustainable Development II - Mechanisms and 

instruments, Bucharest University Publishing House, 1999. 


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Authors’ Index Volume 2 

Page 

BACINSCHI Zorica 131 

BADEA Leonardo 49 

BĂICOIANU George 207 

BARBU Ionuţ 227 

BUCUR Cosmin Mihai 227 

CHIUŢĂ Alexandru-Ionut 113 

CIUREA Vergil 85, 207 

COJOACĂ Andreea 213 

CROITORU Gabriel 221 

CUMPĂNAŞU Vasile 221 

DIMA Ioan Constantin 49 

DRĂGHICI Marius Augustin 13 

DUMITRAŞ Vasile 73 

DUMITRIU Irina 151 

DUMITRU Cristea 23 

FIERASCU Radu Claudiu 151 

FLOREA Ştefan 159 

GENOIU Ilioara 197 

GOLDBACH Dumitru 107 

GOLU Mihai 7 

GRIGORE Mihai 189 

ION Rodica Mariana 141, 151 

IONESCU Claudia 73 

LEŢ Dorin 131 

LEŢ Gabriel M. 119 

MAN Mariana 85 

MĂRĂCINARU (FLOREA)Nicoleta Valentina 249 


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MARICESCU Liliana Denisa 107 

MĂSTĂCAN Olivian 197 

MIHAI Daniel 221 

MIHĂILĂ (PĂUNESCU)Gabriela-Elena 237 

MOISĂ Bogdan 131 

MUNTEANU Ioan 123 

NĂSTASE Dragoş Ionuţ 259 

NĂSTASE Gabriel I. 259 

NEATA Marian 151 

NICOLAE-BĂLAN Mariana 95 

NICULESCU Gilda 237 

PANAGOREŢ Dragoş 213 

POPA Virgil 61 

POPESCU Corina-Mihaela 237 

POSTOLACHE Rada 177 

PUIESCU Marian 159 

SCUTARU-UNGUREANU Cornelia 95 

ŞERBAN Claudiu 35 

ŞERBAN Henrieta Anişoara 35 

STANCU Andreea 131 

STANCU Cristina 113 

TOMIŢĂ Ciulei 167 

VASILESCU Oana 13 

VÎLCEA Elena Janina 141 

VINTILĂ Roxana 123 


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