Vol. XXI - University of the Cumberlands
Vol. XXI - University of the Cumberlands
Vol. XXI - University of the Cumberlands
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The Upsilonian<br />
Upsilon-Upsilon Chapter<br />
Phi Alpha Theta<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> History and Political Science<br />
<strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Cumberlands</strong><br />
Williamsburg, Kentucky<br />
<strong>Vol</strong>. <strong>XXI</strong> Summer 2010
The front cover contains a picture <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Bennett<br />
Building, home <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Upsilon-Upsilon Chapter<br />
<strong>of</strong> Phi Alpha Theta and <strong>the</strong> History and Political<br />
Science Department <strong>of</strong> <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Cumberlands</strong>. Built in 1906 as part <strong>of</strong> Highland<br />
College, <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Cumberlands</strong> assumed<br />
ownership in 1907. The building underwent<br />
extensive renovation in 1986-1987.
Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Upsilon-Upsilon Chapter<br />
<strong>of</strong> Phi Alpha Theta<br />
THE UPSILONIAN<br />
Student Editor<br />
Mat<strong>the</strong>w Bro<strong>the</strong>rton<br />
Board <strong>of</strong> Advisors<br />
M.C. Smith, Ph.D., Chairman <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Board <strong>of</strong> Advisors and<br />
Associate Pr<strong>of</strong>essor <strong>of</strong> History<br />
Oline Carmical, Ph.D., Pr<strong>of</strong>essor <strong>of</strong> History<br />
Kyla Fitz-Gerald, student member <strong>of</strong> Upsilon-Upsilon<br />
Christina Gillis, student member <strong>of</strong> Upsilon-Upsilon<br />
Bruce Hicks, Ph.D., Associate Pr<strong>of</strong>essor <strong>of</strong> Political Science<br />
Christopher Leskiw, Ph.D, Associate Pr<strong>of</strong>essor <strong>of</strong> Political Science<br />
Al Pilant, Ph.D., Pr<strong>of</strong>essor <strong>of</strong> History
COPYRIGHT © 2010 by <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Cumberlands</strong><br />
Department <strong>of</strong> History and Political Science<br />
All Rights Reserved<br />
Printed in <strong>the</strong> United States <strong>of</strong> America<br />
ii
Table <strong>of</strong> Contents<br />
iv<br />
v<br />
v<br />
vi<br />
Comments from <strong>the</strong> Student Editor... Mat<strong>the</strong>w C. Bro<strong>the</strong>rton<br />
Comments from <strong>the</strong> President.......................... Taylor Bowman<br />
Comments from <strong>the</strong> Advisor..................................Eric L. Wake<br />
The Authors<br />
Articles<br />
1 “Let Not My Sex Be an Objection:” Olympe De Gouges and<br />
<strong>the</strong> French Revolution....................................... Kiersten Friend<br />
11 Angel <strong>of</strong> Assassination: Charlotte Corday and <strong>the</strong> Death <strong>of</strong><br />
Jean-Paul Marat................................................ Taylor Bowman<br />
22 Reflections <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Revolution: A Study <strong>of</strong> Paintings by<br />
Jacques-Louis David .........................................Megan Hensley<br />
iii
Greetings and Salutations:<br />
Comments From The Editor<br />
Virginia Woolf once wrote that “Nothing has really happened until it has been<br />
recorded.” Indeed, it is those few that dedicate <strong>the</strong>ir lives to recording <strong>the</strong> events <strong>of</strong><br />
history that allow us to grasp and understand what has come before. It is because <strong>of</strong><br />
those historians <strong>of</strong> old that we can attempt to avoid <strong>the</strong> mistakes <strong>of</strong> our forefa<strong>the</strong>rs, but<br />
also to learn from <strong>the</strong>m.<br />
The pursuit <strong>of</strong> history and <strong>the</strong> secrets that it holds is one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> hardest goals to<br />
achieve, and as such special thanks and congratulations are due for those who have,<br />
those who are, and those that will try to master this discipline and unlock <strong>the</strong> secrets<br />
that history still holds.<br />
Most special congratulations go to Kiersten Friend, Megan Hensley, and Taylor<br />
Bowman. They are part <strong>of</strong> a new generation <strong>of</strong> historians that will go forth and<br />
continue in <strong>the</strong> best traditions <strong>of</strong> those guardians <strong>of</strong> history. We also thank those<br />
who submitted papers that were not included in this journal. It is my hope that you<br />
continue your pursuit <strong>of</strong> history in <strong>the</strong> future.<br />
Thanks also go out to <strong>the</strong> faculty <strong>of</strong> <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Cumberlands</strong>’ Department <strong>of</strong><br />
History and Political Science. Thank you for your time and effort put into reading and<br />
editing <strong>the</strong>se research papers for <strong>the</strong>ir inclusion in The Upsilonian. Special thanks go<br />
to Dr. Eric Wake, chair <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Department and advisor for our Phi Alpha Theta chapter<br />
for his hard work and time working with <strong>the</strong> students and <strong>the</strong>ir papers. Finally, our<br />
sincerest thanks go to Mrs. Fay Partin, secretary <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> History Department. Without<br />
her hard work, this publication would not be possible.<br />
We present this 21st edition <strong>of</strong> The Upsilonian in <strong>the</strong> hope that <strong>the</strong> lessons and<br />
facts contained herein may present to a future generation <strong>the</strong> key to unlocking a future<br />
historical mystery. Happy reading and God bless.<br />
Mat<strong>the</strong>w C. Bro<strong>the</strong>rton<br />
Student Editor, Upsilon-Upsilon<br />
2009-2010<br />
iv
Comments From The President<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r academic year has come and gone and it is time, once again, to publish<br />
The Upsilonian. As one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> authors included in this edition, let me say that it<br />
is an honor to have a paper printed in this volume, and allow me to extend hardy<br />
congratulations to <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r two students who have been granted <strong>the</strong> same privilege.<br />
Their papers are truly exceptional, and I am certain that those who read this journal will<br />
find its contents engaging and enjoyable.<br />
This year has been a good one for <strong>the</strong> Upsilon-Upsilon Chapter. In addition to (and<br />
as a result <strong>of</strong>) our group’s fundraising efforts, three <strong>of</strong> our members were able to attend<br />
<strong>the</strong> Phi Alpha Theta Biennial National Convention in San Diego, California, where we<br />
had a paper presented. Two <strong>of</strong> us were also able to present at <strong>the</strong> Kentucky Regional<br />
Conference, where Kiersten Friend won first place for <strong>the</strong> very paper published in this<br />
edition. We are very proud <strong>of</strong> her. Our group has been blessed with a dedicated faculty<br />
sponsor in Dr. Eric Wake as well as with <strong>the</strong> support <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> entire History and Political<br />
Science Department. I would like to <strong>of</strong>fer a word <strong>of</strong> thanks to Dr. Chuck Smith, who<br />
consistently supplies our chapter’s bake sales and who has been <strong>the</strong> faculty advisor for<br />
this edition, and to Fay Partin, <strong>the</strong> department secretary who has, even now, begun to<br />
piece our Best Chapter application toge<strong>the</strong>r. We are much indebted to you both.<br />
The end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> school year is always a bittersweet affair. On <strong>the</strong> one hand, many <strong>of</strong><br />
us are graduating, moving on to higher levels <strong>of</strong> education or venturing out into <strong>the</strong> real<br />
world to encounter <strong>the</strong> joys and pressures <strong>of</strong> life beyond academia. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r, we<br />
are leaving behind many friends and faculty that we have come to respect and cherish,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> Upsilon-Upsilon Chapter is losing several dedicated members. But such is life.<br />
Changes <strong>of</strong> this kind are inevitable, and <strong>the</strong>re is nothing left for me to do as President<br />
except to express, one final time, my gratitude for this year’s Phi Alpha Theta members<br />
and <strong>the</strong> faculty and staff that have seen us through. I appreciate you all and wish each<br />
<strong>of</strong> you <strong>the</strong> best in your future endeavors.<br />
Taylor Bowman, President<br />
Upsilon-Upsilon, 2009-2010<br />
Comments From The Advisor<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r year has come and gone. It is hard to believe that I have been <strong>the</strong> advisor<br />
<strong>of</strong> this chapter for twenty-five years. The time has been a joyful one for me because<br />
I have had <strong>the</strong> pleasure <strong>of</strong> working with some great individuals many <strong>of</strong> whom I still<br />
hear from every now and <strong>the</strong>n. All <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m have contributed to making Upsilon-<br />
Upsilon one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> more outstanding chapters in Phi Alpha Theta.<br />
This year we have had a core <strong>of</strong> dedicated students who could always be depended<br />
upon to do what needed to be done. We went to <strong>the</strong> national convention in San Diego<br />
and <strong>the</strong> group worked hard in helping to raise <strong>the</strong> money. The Chapter was able to pay<br />
for <strong>the</strong> airplane fare and <strong>the</strong> hotel and food expenses. This event demanded much work,<br />
and I am grateful to all who participated. We even presented a paper which received<br />
some good comments. At <strong>the</strong> regional convention, two <strong>of</strong> our people presented papers<br />
and one, Kiersten Friend, won <strong>the</strong> best undergraduate paper. So <strong>the</strong> conferences were<br />
good to us. As was our lecture series, where attendance was good at each lecture.<br />
The “Health Care Debate” drew around 150 people. Most had around 50 people.<br />
So it was a good year for our attendance.<br />
But <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> year is always a little sad because many who have worked so<br />
hard will graduate and move on into <strong>the</strong>ir adult life. Yet, this is how it should be and<br />
this is what we try to prepare <strong>the</strong>m to do. Remember, however, you are a part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phi<br />
Alpha Theta tradition and you will always be a part <strong>of</strong> us!<br />
Eric L. Wake, Ph.D<br />
Advisor, Upsilon-Upsilon Chapter<br />
v
Authors<br />
Kiersten Friend was a May 2010<br />
graduate with a major in history and<br />
a minor in Communication Arts. The<br />
original draft <strong>of</strong> her paper was written for<br />
<strong>the</strong> Departmental capstone course.<br />
Taylor Bowman was a May 2010<br />
graduate with majors in History and<br />
English. The original draft <strong>of</strong> his paper<br />
was written for <strong>the</strong> Departmental capstone<br />
course.<br />
Megan Hensley was a May 2010<br />
graduate with a major in history and<br />
minors in Art and French. The original<br />
draft <strong>of</strong> her paper was written for <strong>the</strong><br />
Departmental capstone course.<br />
vi
“LET NOT MY SEX BE AN OBJECTION:”<br />
OLYMPE DE GOUGES AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION<br />
By Kiersten Friend<br />
The onset <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> French Revolution in 1789 completely changed <strong>the</strong><br />
political culture <strong>of</strong> France. The nation, Paris especially, was steeped in thoughts<br />
<strong>of</strong> liberty. The future seemed to promise a much freer society, where anyone who<br />
wanted to participate in political activities could do so, including women. They<br />
hosted political club meetings and openly discussed <strong>the</strong> activities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> National<br />
Assembly. 1 Olympe de Gouges was especially active. She firmly believed in<br />
equal rights, and saw <strong>the</strong> Revolution as <strong>the</strong> perfect time to give equal rights to<br />
everyone in France. However, it soon became evident to her that <strong>the</strong> only ones<br />
who would truly benefit from <strong>the</strong> Revolution were men. Olympe de Gouges was<br />
a groundbreaking women’s rights pioneer who refused to be bound by <strong>the</strong> mores<br />
<strong>of</strong> her time and unabashedly wrote what she believed, even though it eventually<br />
led to her death.<br />
De Gouges was very active in <strong>the</strong> Revolution from its beginning until<br />
her death in 1793. She served as a commentator on <strong>the</strong> events occurring in <strong>the</strong><br />
government and among <strong>the</strong> people. 2 From 1784 to 1793 she wrote more than<br />
sixty political pamphlets, a true feat for a woman <strong>of</strong> that time. 3 She was also a<br />
playwright and was able to get four plays staged during <strong>the</strong> Revolution. All <strong>of</strong><br />
her plays somehow related to political issues <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> day. 4 She was obviously<br />
very passionate about what was happening around her.<br />
De Gouges’s desire for women to have <strong>the</strong> same rights as men came<br />
from her own experiences. Born in sou<strong>the</strong>rn France, she was given <strong>the</strong> name<br />
Marie Gouze. She was not born into an aristocratic family, so she did not have<br />
<strong>the</strong> educational opportunities to read <strong>the</strong> works <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> enlightenment. Her fa<strong>the</strong>r<br />
was a butcher, but she and many o<strong>the</strong>rs in <strong>the</strong> community believed that her real<br />
fa<strong>the</strong>r was actually a local nobleman. 5 Whe<strong>the</strong>r this is true or not, de Gouges<br />
certainly believed it. She felt that she was denied a proper education since <strong>the</strong><br />
nobleman never claimed her as one <strong>of</strong> his children. 6<br />
In 1765, Olympe was married to Louis Aubry, a friend <strong>of</strong> her fa<strong>the</strong>r’s<br />
who was much older than she was. This was an arranged marriage that lasted<br />
until Aubry’s death a year later. The marriage did produce one child, a son<br />
named Pierre. 7 In 1767, de Gouges met a wealthy military supplier and left for<br />
Paris with him. However, she never remarried and raised her son alone. Once<br />
in Paris, she changed her name to Olympe de Gouges and began working to<br />
educate herself and her son. She discovered that she was a talented writer and<br />
eventually wrote thirty plays. 8 Her lack <strong>of</strong> education as a child and her forced<br />
marriage caused her to take an interest in <strong>the</strong> welfare <strong>of</strong> all oppressed peoples,<br />
but especially <strong>the</strong> inequality that was shown towards women.<br />
When <strong>the</strong> French Revolution began in 1789, Olympe de Gouges greeted<br />
it with enthusiasm. She saw it as <strong>the</strong> ultimate opportunity for women to achieve<br />
equal rights with men. She used <strong>the</strong> fame that she had achieved from her <strong>the</strong>ater<br />
career to help promote her ideals and interests. 9 When <strong>the</strong> National Assembly<br />
adopted <strong>the</strong> “Declaration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rights <strong>of</strong> Man and Citizen” in August 1789, de<br />
Gouges believed that <strong>the</strong> term ‘man’ meant universal mankind, not just those<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> male gender. The hopes <strong>of</strong> de Gouges and o<strong>the</strong>r feminists were dashed<br />
1
when prominent assemblyman Abbé Sieyès declared that <strong>the</strong>re were two types<br />
<strong>of</strong> citizens: active and passive. He placed women in <strong>the</strong> passive category, along<br />
with children, beggars, and vagrants. 10<br />
De Gouges did not sit back and accept her status as a passive citizen. She<br />
wrote more pamphlets about <strong>the</strong> debates taking place in <strong>the</strong> National Assembly.<br />
One <strong>of</strong> her favorite topics to discuss was marriage. De Gouges believed that<br />
property should belong to both spouses, not solely <strong>the</strong> husband. 11 In her<br />
pamphlet entitled “Social Contract,” de Gouges outlined a property agreement<br />
that those who wished to be married would have to sign. The agreement stated:<br />
“we wish to make our wealth communal, meanwhile reserving to ourselves <strong>the</strong><br />
right to divide in favor <strong>of</strong> our children or towards those whom we might have a<br />
particular inclination.” 12 This idea was very controversial in a time when all <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> property belonged to <strong>the</strong> husband and was left primarily to <strong>the</strong> eldest son.<br />
De Gouges was also very passionate about helping children and called<br />
for illegitimate children to be recognized by <strong>the</strong>ir fa<strong>the</strong>rs. This was no doubt<br />
because she believed herself to be illegitimate. In “Social Contract,” she<br />
declared that couples need to recognize that “property belongs directly to our<br />
children, from whatever bed <strong>the</strong>y come.” 13 She also said that it should be a<br />
crime for a parent to renounce one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir children. 14 In addition to helping<br />
children, a law like this would also help single mo<strong>the</strong>rs who had been raped or<br />
taken as mistresses. De Gouges was also interested in helping poor children. She<br />
called on wealthy families to adopt poor children so that <strong>the</strong>y might have <strong>the</strong><br />
opportunity to get an education and better <strong>the</strong>mselves. 15<br />
De Gouges did not only comment on issues that held particular interest<br />
for women (marriage and children), but also lent her pen to answering <strong>the</strong><br />
question <strong>of</strong> what to do with <strong>the</strong> monarchy. In 1790, she wrote: “I would sacrifice<br />
nei<strong>the</strong>r my king to my country, nor my country to my king, but I would sacrifice<br />
myself to save <strong>the</strong>m as a single entity, fully convinced that one cannot exist<br />
without <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r.” 16 De Gouges believed that <strong>the</strong> monarchy should be kept<br />
in place, but that it should be a constitutional monarchy. 17 She defended <strong>the</strong><br />
institution <strong>of</strong> a constitutional monarchy until <strong>the</strong> infamous Varennes Flight in<br />
June 1791. 18 However, she did not support <strong>the</strong> killing <strong>of</strong> Louis XVI. Her views<br />
on <strong>the</strong> monarchy would be one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> causes that led to her downfall.<br />
She also argued that women should be allowed to actively participate in<br />
<strong>the</strong> legislative process, both by voting and by being eligible for elected <strong>of</strong>fice. 19<br />
Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, she claimed that “These two powers [executive and legislative],<br />
like man and woman, should be united but equal in force and virtue to make a<br />
good household.” 20 It was very courageous <strong>of</strong> de Gouges to publish her ideas<br />
about government, an area that was traditionally a man’s venue. This action<br />
alone shows that she truly was a groundbreaking pioneer for women’s rights.<br />
In September 1791, de Gouges wrote <strong>the</strong> work that would cement her<br />
status as one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> great early women’s rights advocates, “Declaration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Rights <strong>of</strong> Women and Citizen.” This pamphlet was relatively unknown in her<br />
time, but today it is her most famous work. As <strong>the</strong> title suggests, de Gouges<br />
patterned her pamphlet after <strong>the</strong> 1789 “Declaration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rights <strong>of</strong> Man.” 21<br />
Basically, <strong>the</strong> only way that de Gouges changed her work from <strong>the</strong> original was<br />
in substituting or adding ‘woman’ to man. 22 This document was revolutionary<br />
2
ecause it was one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> first <strong>of</strong> its kind and it explained why women should be<br />
equal to men in <strong>the</strong> eyes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> law and society.<br />
Like <strong>the</strong> original “Declaration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rights <strong>of</strong> Man,” de Gouges based<br />
many <strong>of</strong> her views on <strong>the</strong> concept <strong>of</strong> ‘nature.’ The idea <strong>of</strong> ‘nature’ was an<br />
Enlightenment ideal that meant absolute truth and goodness. 23 She refers to<br />
nature in <strong>the</strong> preamble saying that this document is “a solemn declaration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
natural, inalienable, and sacred rights <strong>of</strong> woman.” 24 De Gouges was claiming<br />
that since nature was perfect, and that nature had given women <strong>the</strong> same rights<br />
as men, <strong>the</strong>n women must surely be equal to men. It was a crime to deny anyone<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir natural rights. 25 De Gouges drew heavily from <strong>the</strong> ideology <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> time to<br />
support <strong>the</strong> claims that she put forth in her declaration.<br />
“The Declaration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rights <strong>of</strong> Woman and Citizen” contains<br />
seventeen articles, or rights, that de Gouges rewrote based on <strong>the</strong> articles in “The<br />
Declaration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rights <strong>of</strong> Man.” De Gouges adjusted <strong>the</strong>m to state what she<br />
felt women were entitled to have. The first article sums up de Gouges’s beliefs<br />
on equality; “Woman is born free and remains equal to man in rights.” 26 In<br />
September 1791, a statement such as this was ground-breaking. Men <strong>of</strong> various<br />
classes were becoming more equal, but women had been largely left behind by<br />
<strong>the</strong> 1791 Constitution. De Gouges believed that because women had contributed<br />
to <strong>the</strong> Revolution, <strong>the</strong>y had earned <strong>the</strong> same rights as men. 27<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r article dealt with what de Gouges believed about government.<br />
She claimed that its purpose was for “<strong>the</strong> preservation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> natural and<br />
imprescriptable rights <strong>of</strong> woman and man. These rights are liberty, property,<br />
security, and especially <strong>the</strong> resistance to oppression.” 28 Even though this article<br />
is essentially a revision <strong>of</strong> “The Declaration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rights <strong>of</strong> Man,” de Gouges<br />
clearly did not want a big, powerful government that would oppress its people. 29<br />
She believed that an oppressive government would give rise to inequality, which<br />
was exactly what she was fighting against. According to de Gouges, <strong>the</strong> new<br />
government should be based on <strong>the</strong> principles <strong>of</strong> liberty and equality, and that it<br />
should strive to protect its citizens and <strong>the</strong>ir rights. Her eagerness to comment on<br />
government shows how unconcerned she was with <strong>the</strong> expectations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> time.<br />
Many women discussed government, but few were willing to publically state<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir views. Her willingness to publish her views shows how pioneering she<br />
really was.<br />
De Gouges very strongly believed in <strong>the</strong> absolute equality <strong>of</strong> men and<br />
women. In article six, she discussed employment; “citizenesses and citizens,<br />
being equal in its [<strong>the</strong> law’s] eyes, should be equally admissible to all public<br />
dignities, <strong>of</strong>fices and employments, according to <strong>the</strong>ir ability, and with no<br />
distinction o<strong>the</strong>r than that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir virtues and talents.” 30 In this article, de<br />
Gouges states that she believes people should be given jobs based on <strong>the</strong>ir skills<br />
and merits, not because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir gender. The sixth article in de Gouges’s work<br />
was <strong>the</strong> same as <strong>the</strong> sixth article in <strong>the</strong> “Declaration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rights <strong>of</strong> Man.” 31<br />
Not surprisingly, “The Declaration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rights <strong>of</strong> Woman and Citizen”<br />
did not go over well when it was published. The press was especially negative<br />
towards it. Most papers viewed de Gouges, and o<strong>the</strong>rs like her, as foolish. 32<br />
Newspapers from both sides <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> spectrum blasted her for it. The Royalist<br />
paper Tableau de Paris called de Gouges and o<strong>the</strong>r feminists a “choir <strong>of</strong> national<br />
virgins just as extravagant as <strong>the</strong>y are ridiculous.” 33 A pro-Revolution paper<br />
3
called Révolutions de Paris said that de Gouges was “just showing <strong>of</strong>f.” 34 De<br />
Gouges’s willingness to state her views did nothing to bolster her popularity<br />
with <strong>the</strong> extremists who were wrangling for control <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Revolution.<br />
Interestingly, <strong>the</strong> part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> “Declaration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rights <strong>of</strong> Woman and<br />
Citizen” that got de Gouges into <strong>the</strong> most trouble with <strong>the</strong> extreme leftist<br />
groups <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Revolution did not come from her views on women’s rights.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> introduction to <strong>the</strong> document, de Gouges dedicated <strong>the</strong> work to Marie<br />
Antoinette. 35 This decision caused <strong>the</strong> far left clubs to view her as a Royalist. 36<br />
De Gouges, however, hoped that if <strong>the</strong> Queen championed <strong>the</strong> cause <strong>of</strong> women,<br />
it would lend more credibility to <strong>the</strong> movement and possibly make women’s<br />
equal rights a reality.<br />
Marie Antoinette likely never saw de Gouges’s pamphlet. Even though de<br />
Gouges went to great lengths to get her pamphlets into <strong>the</strong> hands <strong>of</strong> government<br />
<strong>of</strong>ficials, very rarely did <strong>the</strong>y actually see <strong>the</strong>m. They were considered to be<br />
‘junk mail’ and were simply discarded. When some did find <strong>the</strong>ir way into <strong>the</strong><br />
legislative chambers, <strong>the</strong>y were typically disregarded. 37 The same was true <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> general populace <strong>of</strong> Paris. De Gouges plastered up posters and distributed<br />
pamphlets all over <strong>the</strong> city, but most people ignored <strong>the</strong>m. Despite her work<br />
being disregarded, de Gouges’s fame continued to grow. 38 Most people in Paris<br />
knew who she was, even if <strong>the</strong>y did not agree with her actions.<br />
After <strong>the</strong> publication <strong>of</strong> “Declaration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rights <strong>of</strong> Woman and<br />
Citizen,” de Gouges continued to write and speak in favor <strong>of</strong> women’s rights.<br />
Some <strong>of</strong> her ideas actually became law on September 20, 1792, when <strong>the</strong><br />
National Assembly proclaimed equal rights for men and women. The National<br />
Assembly also made it easier for women to obtain divorces and serve as<br />
witnesses in trials. 39 Women did not receive all <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> gains that de Gouges had<br />
hoped for, but she viewed it as a step in <strong>the</strong> right direction. Sadly however, <strong>the</strong><br />
strides made by women were completely erased with <strong>the</strong> establishment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Napoleonic Codes in 1804. 40<br />
Aside from women’s rights issues, de Gouges continued to speak her<br />
mind on issues pertaining to <strong>the</strong> government and its leaders. She was especially<br />
leery <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jacobins. While <strong>the</strong> Legislative Assembly was meeting during 1791-<br />
1792, she frequently referred to <strong>the</strong> Jacobins as a “hideaway for reprobates”<br />
and “a den <strong>of</strong> thieves.” 41 She criticized <strong>the</strong> overthrow <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> monarchy on June<br />
20, 1792 and in <strong>the</strong> autumn <strong>of</strong> 1792 she again criticized <strong>the</strong> Jacobins. 42 Her<br />
criticism <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jacobins was what really brought her to <strong>the</strong> attention <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
government.<br />
De Gouges’s favorite Jacobins to criticize were Maximilien Robespierre<br />
and Jean-Paul Marat. De Gouges considered Marat to be “a destroyer <strong>of</strong> laws,<br />
mortal enemy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> order, <strong>of</strong> humanity, and <strong>of</strong> his country.” 43 She also accused<br />
him <strong>of</strong> “living large in a society in which he was both a tyrant and a plague.” 44<br />
De Gouges was even more critical <strong>of</strong> Robespierre and wrote two pamphlets<br />
accusing him <strong>of</strong> seeking to be a dictator. She addressed him directly in those<br />
pamphlets saying, “You tell yourself that you’re <strong>the</strong> unique author <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Revolution, you haven’t been, you are not, you will never be anything o<strong>the</strong>r than<br />
disgrace and execration.” 45 She even suggested that Robespierre meet her at <strong>the</strong><br />
Seine River, because <strong>the</strong>re <strong>the</strong>y could both do a service to <strong>the</strong>ir country: he by<br />
dying and she by giving her life drowning him. 46<br />
4
De Gouges stirred up more trouble for herself in December 1792 when<br />
she <strong>of</strong>fered to defend Louis XVI in his trial. Even though she was no longer an<br />
adamant supporter <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> monarchy, she did not believe that Louis should be<br />
killed. She wrote an impassioned letter to <strong>the</strong> National Convention in December<br />
1792 <strong>of</strong>fering herself to defend Louis in his trial. She even brought feminism<br />
into <strong>the</strong> issue saying, “let not my sex be an objection: that heroism and liberty<br />
may be possessed by women <strong>the</strong> Revolution has shown by more than one<br />
example.” 47 De Gouges had no training as a lawyer, but she so strongly believed<br />
that Louis should be spared she <strong>of</strong>fered to defend him. Most historians agree that<br />
this action sealed her fate more than any o<strong>the</strong>r because it enabled <strong>the</strong> Jacobins to<br />
depict her as a traitor to <strong>the</strong> Revolution, and <strong>the</strong>refore to France.<br />
De Gouges’s arguments in favor <strong>of</strong> sparing Louis’s life were sound<br />
and also very perceptive. She claimed that Louis could not be incriminated<br />
because “his ancestors filled to overflowing <strong>the</strong> cup <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sufferings <strong>of</strong> France;<br />
unhappily <strong>the</strong> cup broke in his hands and all its fragments rebounded upon his<br />
head. I may add that, had it not been for his court’s perversity, he might perhaps<br />
have been a virtuous king.” 48 She also said that since <strong>the</strong>y had stripped him <strong>of</strong><br />
his power, he was no longer a threat. 49 De Gouges even used an example from<br />
history to prove her point: “In <strong>the</strong> eyes <strong>of</strong> posterity <strong>the</strong> English are dishonored<br />
by <strong>the</strong> execution <strong>of</strong> Charles I.” 50 In this statement, she told <strong>the</strong> National<br />
Convention that <strong>the</strong>y would shame <strong>the</strong>ir nation by killing Louis.<br />
Her most insightful comment was “Beheading a king does not kill him.<br />
He lives long after death; he is really only dead when he survives his fall.” 51<br />
This meant that if <strong>the</strong> Convention killed Louis, <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong>y would turn him into a<br />
martyr and he would be a rallying point for all those opposed to <strong>the</strong> Revolution.<br />
De Gouges’s arguments, and <strong>the</strong> fact that it was a woman presenting <strong>the</strong>m,<br />
immensely angered <strong>the</strong> Jacobins and practically ensured that she would be<br />
arrested and executed. The only question remaining was when it would happen.<br />
Despite her impending demise, Olympe de Gouges refused to stop<br />
writing about women’s rights and criticizing <strong>the</strong> government. The Committee<br />
<strong>of</strong> Public Safety finally had her arrested on July 22, 1793. The immediate cause<br />
<strong>of</strong> her arrest was a pamphlet that she had written entitled “The Three Urns, The<br />
Salvation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Fa<strong>the</strong>rland.” In this pamphlet, de Gouges said that argument<br />
over which type <strong>of</strong> government France should have could be decided by letting<br />
<strong>the</strong> people vote on it. She suggested that three urns be set up, one for each type<br />
<strong>of</strong> government (monarchy, republic, federation), and <strong>the</strong> people put <strong>the</strong>ir vote in<br />
<strong>the</strong> urn representing what <strong>the</strong>y chose. 52 Ano<strong>the</strong>r work that was used against her<br />
was a play she was working on which centered around Marie Antoinette and <strong>the</strong><br />
royal family <strong>the</strong> night before <strong>the</strong>y were overthrown. Jacobins used this play as<br />
fur<strong>the</strong>r evidence <strong>of</strong> her supposedly being a royalist. 53<br />
De Gouges’s trial was held on November 1, 1793. She was charged with<br />
publishing “a work contrary to <strong>the</strong> expressed desire <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> entire nation [“The<br />
Three Urns”].” 54 The prosecutors also said that she had “openly provoked civil<br />
war and sought to arm citizens against one ano<strong>the</strong>r” by publishing “The Three<br />
Urns.” They claimed that “There can be no mistaking <strong>the</strong> perfidious intentions<br />
<strong>of</strong> this criminal woman, and her hidden motives, when one observes her in all<br />
<strong>the</strong> works to which, at <strong>the</strong> very least, she lends her name.” 55 Because <strong>of</strong> how<br />
ridiculous <strong>the</strong> charges against de Gouges were, it is obvious that <strong>the</strong> real reasons<br />
5
that de Gouges was even on trial were because <strong>of</strong> her attacks on <strong>the</strong> Jacobin<br />
leaders and her support <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> monarchy.<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> de Gouges’s trial record is filled with accounts <strong>of</strong> her slandering<br />
Robespierre and <strong>the</strong> Jacobin party. On her treatment <strong>of</strong> Robespierre, <strong>the</strong><br />
prosecutors accused de Gouges <strong>of</strong> “spewing forth bile in large doses against <strong>the</strong><br />
warmest friends <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> people, <strong>the</strong>ir most intrepid defender.” 56 It is clear from<br />
this statement that Robespierre had been <strong>of</strong>fended by de Gouges, and that de<br />
Gouges had been writing pamphlets condemning <strong>the</strong> Jacobins and <strong>the</strong>ir goals.<br />
De Gouges’s early support <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> monarchy and her defense <strong>of</strong> Louis’s<br />
life were also used against her. The prosecutors said that “The Three Urns,”<br />
“sees only <strong>the</strong> provocation to <strong>the</strong> reestablishment <strong>of</strong> royalty on <strong>the</strong> part <strong>of</strong> a<br />
woman who, in one <strong>of</strong> her writings, admits that monarchy seems to her to be<br />
<strong>the</strong> government most suited to <strong>the</strong> French spirit.” 57 Her warning about sparing<br />
Louis’s life and <strong>of</strong>fer to serve as his lawyer was also used as evidence against<br />
her. 58<br />
De Gouges was not given a lawyer because <strong>the</strong> court told her she had<br />
“wit enough to defend [herself].” 59 She was found guilty and sentenced to death.<br />
When her sentence was given, de Gouges, in an attempt to buy some extra time<br />
for herself, claimed that she was pregnant and could not be executed. It is not<br />
clear why she said this. She may have hoped that she might see her son, Pierre,<br />
one more time, or at <strong>the</strong> very least hear some news as to his whereabouts. 60<br />
When de Gouges was examined by a doctor from <strong>the</strong> Tribunal, she was found<br />
not to be pregnant and was scheduled to be executed. She was able to write one<br />
last letter, and she addressed it to her son. She told Pierre that “I am a victim <strong>of</strong><br />
my idolatry for <strong>the</strong> fa<strong>the</strong>rland and for <strong>the</strong> people.” 61<br />
De Gouges was guillotined on November 2, 1793. 62 An obituary that<br />
appeared in <strong>the</strong> Moniteur on November 3 said, “Olympe de Gouges, born<br />
with an exalted imagination, believed her delusions were inspired by nature.<br />
She wanted to be a Statesman; it would seem that <strong>the</strong> law has punished this<br />
plotter for having forgotten <strong>the</strong> virtues suitable to her own sex.” 63 De Gouges<br />
had overstepped <strong>the</strong> boundaries for women at that time by publishing so many<br />
works against <strong>the</strong> government and for repeatedly calling for women’s rights. It is<br />
also <strong>of</strong> interest to note that within days <strong>of</strong> de Gouges’s death, ano<strong>the</strong>r feminist,<br />
Madame Roland, was also executed. 64<br />
While de Gouges was imprisoned, <strong>the</strong> National Convention voted to<br />
make women’s clubs illegal. This vote took place on October 29-30. The main<br />
reason given for this decision was that “women are hardly capable <strong>of</strong> l<strong>of</strong>ty<br />
conceptions and serious cogitations.” 65 On November 17, Pierre-Gaspard<br />
Chaumette, a Jacobin leader, denounced a crowd <strong>of</strong> women protestors and all<br />
political activism on <strong>the</strong> part <strong>of</strong> women. He told <strong>the</strong>m that “It is shocking, it is<br />
contrary to all <strong>the</strong> laws <strong>of</strong> nature” for women to want <strong>the</strong> same rights as men.<br />
He said it was <strong>the</strong> same as trying to change one’s sex. He used de Gouges as<br />
an example <strong>of</strong> what would happen to <strong>the</strong>m if <strong>the</strong>y continued; “Remember <strong>the</strong><br />
shameless Olympe de Gouges, who was <strong>the</strong> first to set up women’s clubs, who<br />
abandoned <strong>the</strong> cares <strong>of</strong> her household to involve herself in <strong>the</strong> republic, and<br />
whose head fell under <strong>the</strong> avenging blade <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> laws.” 66 Olympe de Gouges<br />
was executed, not only for her writings, but also because she did not conform to<br />
<strong>the</strong> behavior acceptable for her gender.<br />
6
Olympe de Gouges believed that women should have <strong>the</strong> same rights<br />
as men. She had a flair for writing, and she put that gift to use arguing for her<br />
beliefs. Most <strong>of</strong> her works went unnoticed in her day, but <strong>the</strong>y did garner enough<br />
attention to get her into trouble. She had no reservations about criticizing <strong>the</strong><br />
leadership <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> day, and fearlessly stood up for what she thought was right.<br />
Because <strong>of</strong> her defiant and courageous stance on <strong>the</strong> issues <strong>of</strong> her time, Olympe<br />
de Gouges really was a ground-breaking women’s rights advocate.<br />
7<br />
ENDNOTES<br />
1<br />
Jeremy D. Popkin, A Short History <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> French Revolution, 5th ed. (Upper Saddle River,<br />
NJ: Pearson, 2010), 52.<br />
2<br />
Shirley Elson Roessler, Out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Shadows: Women and Politics in <strong>the</strong> French Revolution,<br />
1789-95. <strong>Vol</strong>. 14 <strong>of</strong> Studies in Modern European History, ed. Frank J. Coppa (1996; repr., New<br />
York: Peter Lang Publishing, 1998), 63.<br />
3<br />
Janie Vanpée, “Performing Justice: The Trials <strong>of</strong> Olympe de Gouges,” Theatre Journal 51,<br />
no. 1 (1999): 50, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25068623 (accessed September 14, 2009).<br />
4<br />
Ibid., 51.<br />
5<br />
Joan Wallach Scott, “French Feminists and <strong>the</strong> Rights <strong>of</strong> Man: Olympe de Gouges’s<br />
Declarations,” History Workshop, no. 28 (Autumn, 1989): 8, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4288921<br />
(accessed September 11, 2009).<br />
6<br />
Sophie Mousset, Women’s Rights and <strong>the</strong> French Revolution: A Biography <strong>of</strong> Olympe de<br />
Gouges, trans. Joy Poirel (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2007), 10-11.<br />
7<br />
Ibid., 16.<br />
8<br />
Ibid., 17-19.<br />
9<br />
Vanpée, “Performing Justice: The Trials <strong>of</strong> Olympe de Gouges,” 50-51.<br />
10<br />
Lisa Beckstrand, Deviant Women <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> French Revolution and <strong>the</strong> Rise <strong>of</strong> Feminism<br />
(Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson <strong>University</strong> Press, 2009), 89.<br />
11<br />
Joan B. Landes, Women and <strong>the</strong> Public Sphere in <strong>the</strong> Age <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> French Revolution<br />
(Ithaca, NY: Cornell <strong>University</strong> Press, 1988), 126.<br />
12<br />
Olympe de Gouges, “Declaration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rights <strong>of</strong> Women and Citizen & Social Contract,”<br />
September 1791, in <strong>the</strong> Modern History Sourcebook, Fordham, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/<br />
mod/modsbook.html (accessed September 17, 2009).<br />
13<br />
Ibid.<br />
14<br />
Ibid.<br />
15<br />
Landes, Women and <strong>the</strong> Public Sphere in <strong>the</strong> Age <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> French Revolution, 126.
8<br />
16<br />
Olympe de Gouges, “A Female Writer’s Response to <strong>the</strong> American Champion or a Well–<br />
Known Colonist,” January 18, 1790, Center for Modern History, George Mason <strong>University</strong>,<br />
http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/344/ (accessed September 17, 2009).<br />
17<br />
Landes, Women and <strong>the</strong> Public Sphere in <strong>the</strong> Age <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> French Revolution, 124.<br />
18<br />
Roessler, Out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Shadows, 64.<br />
19<br />
Ibid., 125.<br />
20<br />
Olympe de Gouges (1791), quoted in Landes, Women in <strong>the</strong> Public Sphere in The French<br />
Revolution, 127.<br />
21<br />
Janie Vanpée, “La Déclaration des Droits de la Femme et de la citoyenne: Olympe de<br />
Gouges’s Re-Writing <strong>of</strong> La Déclaration des Droits de l’homme,” in Literate Women in <strong>the</strong> French<br />
Revolution <strong>of</strong> 1789, ed. Ca<strong>the</strong>rine Montfort-Howard (Birmingham, AL: Summa Publications, 1994), 68.<br />
22<br />
Ibid.<br />
23<br />
Beckstrand, Deviant Women <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> French Revolution and <strong>the</strong> Rise <strong>of</strong> Feminism, 76.<br />
24<br />
Olympe de Gouges, “The Declaration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rights <strong>of</strong> Woman and Citizen,” September<br />
1791, Center for Modern History, George Mason <strong>University</strong>, http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/477/<br />
(accessed September 17, 2009).<br />
25<br />
Roessler, Out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Shadows, 66.<br />
26<br />
Olympe de Gouges, “The Declaration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rights <strong>of</strong> Woman and Citizen,” September 1791.<br />
27<br />
Sarah E. Melzer and Leslie W. Rabine, Rebel Daughters: Women and <strong>the</strong> French<br />
Revolution (Ithaca, NY: Cornell <strong>University</strong> Press, 1992), 236.<br />
28<br />
Olympe de Gouges, “The Declaration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rights <strong>of</strong> Woman and Citizen,” September 1791.<br />
29<br />
Mousset, Women’s Rights and <strong>the</strong> French Revolution, 67.<br />
30<br />
Olympe de Gouges, “The Declaration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rights <strong>of</strong> Woman and Citizen,” September 1791.<br />
31<br />
“Declaration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rights <strong>of</strong> Man and Citizen,” August 27, 1789, in P.M. Jones, The<br />
French Revolution 1789-1804, part <strong>of</strong> Seminar Studies in History (London: Pearson Education, Ltd,<br />
2003), 115.<br />
32<br />
Melzer and Rabine, Rebel Daughters, 235. O<strong>the</strong>r prominent proponents <strong>of</strong> women’s rights<br />
included Madame Roland, Etta Palm d’Aelders, and <strong>the</strong> Marquis de Condorcet. All but d’Aelders<br />
would perish during <strong>the</strong> Reign <strong>of</strong> Terror.<br />
33<br />
Tableau de Paris, July 1792, quoted in Roessler, Out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Shadows, 67.<br />
34<br />
Ibid.<br />
35<br />
Olympe de Gouges, “Declaration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rights <strong>of</strong> Women,” quoted in Mousset, Women’s<br />
Rights and <strong>the</strong> French Revolution, 63-64.
9<br />
36<br />
Roessler, Out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Shadows, 65.<br />
37<br />
Vanpée, “Performing Justice: The Trials <strong>of</strong> Olympe de Gouges,” 51.<br />
38<br />
David W. Del Testa, Florence Lemoine, & John Strickland, “Olympe de Gouges,” in<br />
Government Leaders, Military Rulers, and Political Activists: Lives and Legacies (Westport, CT:<br />
Greenwood Publishing, 2001), 52. http://www.netlibrary.com/Reader/. Net Library (accessed<br />
September 19, 2009).<br />
39<br />
Mousset, Women’s Rights and <strong>the</strong> French Revolution, 85-86.<br />
40<br />
Jane Abray, “Feminism in <strong>the</strong> French Revolution,” American Historical Review 80, no. 1<br />
(February 1975), 59, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1859051 (accessed November 2, 2009).<br />
41<br />
Olympe de Gouges, 1792, quoted in Roessler, Out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Shadows, 66.<br />
42<br />
Roessler, Out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Shadows, 67.<br />
43<br />
Olympe de Gouges, 1792, quoted in Roessler, Out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Shadows, 67.<br />
44<br />
Ibid.<br />
45<br />
Olympe de Gouges, 1792, quoted in Beckstrand, Deviant Women in <strong>the</strong> French<br />
Revolution, 127.<br />
46<br />
Roessler, Out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Shadows, 67.<br />
47<br />
Olympe de Gouges to National Convention, December 1792, quoted in Winifred Stephens<br />
Whale, Women <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> French Revolution (London: Chapman & Hill, ltd, 1922), 168,<br />
http://www.archive.org/details/cu3194024300109, American Libraries (accessed September 14, 2009).<br />
48<br />
Ibid., 169.<br />
49<br />
Whale, Women <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> French Revolution, 169.<br />
50<br />
Olympe de Gouges to National Convention, December 1792, quoted in Whale, Women <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> French Revolution, 169.<br />
51<br />
Ibid.<br />
52<br />
Vanpée, “Performing Justice: The Trials <strong>of</strong> Olympe de Gouges,” 47.<br />
53<br />
Ibid., 48.<br />
54<br />
“The Trial <strong>of</strong> Olympe de Gouges,” November 1, 1793, in Women in Revolutionary Paris,<br />
1789-1795, ed. Darline Gay Levy, trans. Harriet Branson Applewhite, Mary Durham Johnson<br />
(Urbana, IL: <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Illinois Press, 1981), 255.<br />
55<br />
Ibid.<br />
56<br />
Ibid., 256.<br />
57<br />
Ibid.<br />
58<br />
Ibid.
59<br />
Olympe de Gouges to Citizen Degouges, November 1793, in Last Letters: Prisons and<br />
Prisoners in <strong>the</strong> French Revolution, 1st American edition, ed. Oliver Blanc, trans. Alan Sheridan<br />
(New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1987), 131.<br />
60<br />
Mousset, Women’s Rights and <strong>the</strong> French Revolution, 96.<br />
10<br />
61<br />
Olympe de Gouges to Citizen Degouges, Last Letters, 131.<br />
62<br />
Del Testa, Lemoine, and Strickland, Government Leaders, Military Rulers, and Political<br />
Activists, 52.<br />
63<br />
Moniteur, November 1793, quoted in Mousset, Women’s Rights and <strong>the</strong> French<br />
Revolution, 97.<br />
64<br />
Mary Seidman Trouille, Sexual Politics in <strong>the</strong> Enlightenment: Women Writers Read<br />
Rousseau, part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> SUNY Series, The Margins <strong>of</strong> Literature (Albany, NY: New York State<br />
<strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> New York, 1997), 278, http://www.netlibrary.com /Reader, Net Library (accessed<br />
September 18, 2009).<br />
65<br />
“Discussion <strong>of</strong> Women’s Political Clubs and Their Suppression, October 29-30, 1793,”<br />
Center for Modern History, George Mason <strong>University</strong>, http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/294/<br />
(accessed September 17, 2009).<br />
66<br />
Pierre-Gaspard Chaumette, “Speech at City Hall Denouncing Women’s Political<br />
Activism,” November 17, 1793, Center for Modern History, George Mason <strong>University</strong>,<br />
http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/489/ (accessed September 17, 2009).
ANGEL OF ASSASSINATION:<br />
CHAROLOTTE CORDAY AND THE DEATH OF JEAN-PAUL MARAT<br />
By Taylor Bowman<br />
On July 13, 1793, Marie-Charlotte de Corday, a young and reportedly<br />
attractive woman from <strong>the</strong> Norman town <strong>of</strong> Caen, drove a large knife through<br />
<strong>the</strong> heart <strong>of</strong> French Revolutionary leader Jean-Paul Marat, killing him almost<br />
instantly. 1 Corday viewed Marat as evil incarnate. To her, he was a devil who<br />
brought to <strong>the</strong> originally beneficent Revolution an atmosphere <strong>of</strong> chaos and<br />
<strong>of</strong> terror. Unless he were destroyed, she thought, all <strong>of</strong> France would erupt in<br />
civil war and be consumed in <strong>the</strong> fires <strong>of</strong> a revolution that had moved too far<br />
beyond its earliest intents. 2 Corday, however, misjudged her victim’s influence.<br />
She assumed that, were he eliminated, <strong>the</strong> Revolution would be undone―terror<br />
would cease immediately, and all threat <strong>of</strong> civil war would abate in a single<br />
moment. This was not <strong>the</strong> case. The Revolution did not expire with Marat, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> National Convention began supporting <strong>the</strong> Reign <strong>of</strong> Terror with renewed<br />
vigor. Corday failed to restore peace to France, but Marat’s death none<strong>the</strong>less<br />
had severe consequences for <strong>the</strong> Revolution. Following <strong>the</strong> assassination, <strong>the</strong><br />
Terror’s harshness made enemies <strong>of</strong> its former allies and streng<strong>the</strong>ned anti-<br />
Revolutionary sentiment until Robespierre and o<strong>the</strong>r leaders were ultimately<br />
removed. 3 While her assassination <strong>of</strong> Marat did not abruptly end <strong>the</strong> Revolution<br />
as she had hoped, Corday’s actions, never<strong>the</strong>less, ignited a chain <strong>of</strong> events that<br />
ultimately occasioned <strong>the</strong> collapse <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Terror.<br />
Charlotte Corday belonged to <strong>the</strong> petite noblesse. When she reached her<br />
adolescence, her fa<strong>the</strong>r sent her to a convent in Caen, where she received an<br />
education befitting a young woman <strong>of</strong> her status. 4 There, she was exposed to<br />
<strong>the</strong> writings <strong>of</strong> various <strong>the</strong>ologians, scholars, and philosophers, including those<br />
<strong>of</strong> Rousseau and <strong>Vol</strong>taire (<strong>the</strong> latter <strong>of</strong> whom was read without <strong>the</strong> knowledge<br />
and against that mandate <strong>of</strong> her instructors). 5 As she began to mature, Corday<br />
developed a fascination with <strong>the</strong> realm <strong>of</strong> politics. Highly idealistic, she was<br />
an early and enthusiastic supporter <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Revolution. While at <strong>the</strong> convent, <strong>the</strong><br />
young woman met and befriended Gustave Doulcet de Pontécoulant, a young<br />
lawyer and politician who would later become an important member <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
National Convention. Toge<strong>the</strong>r, <strong>the</strong>y followed <strong>the</strong> events <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Revolution with<br />
unparalleled interest, beginning with <strong>the</strong> fall <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Bastille on July 14, 1789.<br />
It was Doulcet that first informed Corday <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> events set in motion by <strong>the</strong><br />
National Assembly on August 4, and from that time forward, <strong>the</strong> young lady<br />
dreamed <strong>of</strong> a government and society in which The Rights <strong>of</strong> Man would be<br />
made law. 6<br />
Shortly after <strong>the</strong> completion <strong>of</strong> her education, Corday took up residence<br />
with her aunt Madame de Bretteville, a wealthy and well-respected citizen <strong>of</strong><br />
Caen. Though <strong>of</strong>ten praised for her beauty, Corday expressed little desire for <strong>the</strong><br />
attentions <strong>of</strong> men. Her most fervent wish was that she might someday discover<br />
a grandiose means by which to aid both France and humanity. 7 She was an avid<br />
reader <strong>of</strong> political literature, which, as <strong>of</strong> September, 1789, included Marat’s<br />
11
L’ami du Peuple. 8 With this journal, Marat earned <strong>the</strong> title <strong>of</strong> “Friend <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
People,” and in it, Corday first encountered Marat and his brand <strong>of</strong> radicalism.<br />
She disliked <strong>the</strong> <strong>of</strong>ten violent rhetoric <strong>of</strong> Marat and his fellow Jacobins, and her<br />
exposure to his writings marks <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> her disillusionment with <strong>the</strong><br />
Revolution and its leaders. 9<br />
In July, 1790, <strong>the</strong> Civil Constitution <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Clergy was enacted. Riots<br />
erupted throughout rural France, and <strong>the</strong> church was divided. The outrage<br />
with which provincial communities, particularly Caen, reacted to this newlyimplemented<br />
legislation seemed evidence to Corday <strong>of</strong> Parisian abuse and<br />
perversion <strong>of</strong> Revolutionary sentiments. The establishment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Civil<br />
Constitution, to her, revealed <strong>the</strong> extent to which <strong>the</strong> Revolution’s most<br />
prominent figures hindered <strong>the</strong> true spirit <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir pr<strong>of</strong>essed cause. 10 The<br />
deposition <strong>of</strong> King Louis XVI in 1791 resulted from and contributed to <strong>the</strong><br />
chaos that had been brewing in Paris since <strong>the</strong> early moments <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> revolution.<br />
Following <strong>the</strong> royal family’s failed escape attempt and subsequent arrest,<br />
Marat, by <strong>the</strong>n a prominent figure in <strong>the</strong> Legislative Assembly, began calling<br />
for <strong>the</strong> king’s execution. 11 Corday found <strong>the</strong> notion repugnant. In <strong>the</strong> past, she<br />
had refused to toast Louis XVI, and she did not nearly possess <strong>the</strong> same level<br />
<strong>of</strong> Royalist sympathies that is commonly attributed to her. She considered<br />
herself a Republican. Never<strong>the</strong>less, she felt that execution would be far too<br />
extreme and that such a measure would contradict <strong>the</strong> humanist values touted by<br />
Revolutionary leaders. 12 The frequent incendiary speeches made by <strong>the</strong> Jacobins<br />
against <strong>the</strong> king increased tensions in Paris and bolstered Corday’s increasingly<br />
negative opinion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Revolution.<br />
The events <strong>of</strong> 1792 stifled any <strong>of</strong> Corday’s hopes that <strong>the</strong> Revolution<br />
might be redeemed. Between September 2 and September 8, Paris prisons<br />
were overrun by ardent Jacobins and Sans-Culottes, who, convinced that those<br />
being held were potentially dangerous enemies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Republic, tried and<br />
executed everyone found inside. 13 An article printed in Revolutions de Paris<br />
(a newspaper sympa<strong>the</strong>tic to <strong>the</strong> vigilantes) read, “The people are human, but<br />
without weakness; wherever <strong>the</strong>y detect crime, <strong>the</strong>y throw <strong>the</strong>mselves upon it<br />
without regard for <strong>the</strong> age, sex, or condition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> guilty.” 14 Many observers,<br />
<strong>the</strong>n and hence, have attributed <strong>the</strong> brutal actions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mobs here described<br />
to a panic caused by <strong>the</strong> fall <strong>of</strong> Verdun to <strong>the</strong> advancing forces <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Duke<br />
<strong>of</strong> Brunswick. The <strong>the</strong>ory <strong>of</strong>ten propagated states that, when Parisians heard<br />
<strong>of</strong> Verdun’s surrender, <strong>the</strong>y were alarmed, knowing that <strong>the</strong>re remained no<br />
additional strongholds between <strong>the</strong>ir city and <strong>the</strong> advancing Prussian forces. In<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir supposed fear and rage, <strong>the</strong>y invaded <strong>the</strong> prisons and killed all captives. 15<br />
While <strong>the</strong> fear <strong>of</strong> Brunswick may have motivated some segments <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
population, Corday as well as several members <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Legislative Assembly<br />
held Marat responsible for inciting (through his journal and through speeches)<br />
what came to be known as <strong>the</strong> Prison Massacres. 16 The belief was so strong in<br />
<strong>the</strong> minds <strong>of</strong> some Assembly members that he was brought before that body to<br />
give an account <strong>of</strong> his actions. Largely due to <strong>the</strong> backing <strong>of</strong> several prominent<br />
Montagnards, Marat was acquitted, but Corday continued to lay <strong>the</strong> blame for<br />
<strong>the</strong> Prison Massacres squarely on his shoulders. 17 The Revolution had grown<br />
bloody, and she identified Marat as <strong>the</strong> progenitor <strong>of</strong> its pitiless violence. 18<br />
12
By <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> September, <strong>the</strong> National Convention had replaced <strong>the</strong><br />
Legislative Assembly as France’s central government. Shortly <strong>the</strong>reafter, Marat,<br />
a recently elected deputy and member <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Montagnard party, renewed his<br />
call for <strong>the</strong> execution <strong>of</strong> Louis XVI. This time, <strong>the</strong> call did not go unanswered,<br />
and in December <strong>of</strong> 1792, <strong>the</strong> former king’s trial began. Regardless <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
enthusiasm with which he was defended and regardless <strong>of</strong> all attempts made to<br />
have execution eliminated as a form <strong>of</strong> punishment, <strong>the</strong> Convention voted to<br />
behead Louis XVI on January 21, 1793. In spite <strong>of</strong> her previous disillusionment,<br />
Corday could not believe <strong>the</strong> king had been guillotined. Reports indicate that,<br />
despite her disdain for <strong>the</strong> Old Regime, <strong>the</strong> news <strong>of</strong> Louis XVI’s death moved<br />
<strong>the</strong> young woman to tears. She saw <strong>the</strong> execution not only as an affront to<br />
<strong>the</strong> philanthropic ideology <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> early Revolution but as breach <strong>of</strong> authority<br />
committed by <strong>the</strong> Convention. 19 This violation she also attributed principally<br />
to Marat. 20 Corday felt that such misuse <strong>of</strong> power could not go unpunished and<br />
was no longer willing to tolerate <strong>the</strong> abuses <strong>of</strong> Marat and <strong>the</strong> Convention. She<br />
began to contemplate her own ability to end <strong>the</strong> destructive sequence into which<br />
<strong>the</strong> Revolution had fallen, and what transpired in April and June <strong>of</strong> that year set<br />
her on <strong>the</strong> road to assassination. 21<br />
While Corday sat at home in Caen, reading about <strong>the</strong> latest atrocities<br />
committed by <strong>the</strong> Paris Jacobins, Marat was staging a coup. Since <strong>the</strong> Prison<br />
Massacres, he and his fellow Montagnards had been unable to pass <strong>the</strong>ir own<br />
agenda through a Convention dominated by Girondins, members <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> largest<br />
party within <strong>the</strong> government. Between May 31, and June 2, 1793, Marat took<br />
<strong>the</strong> first steps toward remedying his predicament. In that three-day period, a<br />
mob <strong>of</strong> Sans-Culottes, organized and incited by Marat, marched on <strong>the</strong> Tuileries<br />
and forcibly evicted 22 Girondin deputies from <strong>the</strong>ir seats in <strong>the</strong> Convention.<br />
Nearly all <strong>of</strong> those removed were leading figures within <strong>the</strong> Gironde, and <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
expulsion meant <strong>the</strong> ascendance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Montagnards to power. Those ousted<br />
were escorted from <strong>the</strong> hall and promptly placed under house arrest. Some<br />
managed to escape, but for those who did not, proscription and prison soon<br />
followed. Imprisonment invariably led to execution. Those who escaped house<br />
arrest, <strong>the</strong>refore, effected a hasty departure from Paris. Many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m made for<br />
Caen. There, Corday, who heard <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> overthrow only two days after it occurred<br />
and who had been a long-time Girondin sympathizer, eagerly awaited <strong>the</strong> arrival<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> refugees. By June 9, several <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> escaped Girondins had reached <strong>the</strong><br />
Norman town, and almost all <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m came prepared with stories <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> vile<br />
Marat and <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> abominations committed by <strong>the</strong> Montagnards in <strong>the</strong> name <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Revolution. 22<br />
Corday was an eager audience. Among <strong>the</strong> former deputies <strong>the</strong>n in Caen<br />
were Jerome Pétion, Francois Buzot, and Charles Barbaroux, all <strong>of</strong> whom<br />
were figures she recognized from her extensive reading. She had sympathized<br />
with <strong>the</strong>m from afar and now had <strong>the</strong> immense honor <strong>of</strong> meeting and speaking<br />
with <strong>the</strong>m face to face. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, she detested Marat and never passed on<br />
an opportunity to hear him vilified. In that regard, she was not disappointed.<br />
The Girondins spoke <strong>of</strong> endless evil. They told <strong>the</strong> citizens <strong>of</strong> Caen about<br />
<strong>the</strong> policy <strong>of</strong> Terror that had been enacted following <strong>the</strong> coup and delivered<br />
tales <strong>of</strong> horrendous carnage lately sprung up in Paris. They demonized Marat<br />
considerably and reported that <strong>the</strong> guillotine had already claimed nearly<br />
13
100,000 heads and that <strong>the</strong> “Friend <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> People” had found a cure for his<br />
recently contracted ailments in <strong>the</strong> spilling <strong>of</strong> human blood. 23 Such accounts<br />
were doubtless exaggerated, but <strong>the</strong>y fascinated Corday immeasurably. She<br />
had, by this time, already hated Marat and, in fact, had already given thought<br />
to killing him. For her, <strong>the</strong> expulsion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> elected Girondin leaders from <strong>the</strong><br />
National Convention represented a violation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> people’s sovereignty and<br />
an intolerable assault on <strong>the</strong> noble ideas <strong>of</strong> undiluted liberalism. She despised<br />
Marat, and <strong>the</strong> presence and eloquence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Girondins fur<strong>the</strong>r cemented<br />
her hatred. 24 In <strong>the</strong> weeks following <strong>the</strong>ir arrival, Corday became convinced<br />
that direct action against <strong>the</strong> Convention was needed. Marat would have to be<br />
eliminated.<br />
While she liked and appreciated <strong>the</strong> Girondins’ powerfully delivered<br />
stories, Corday did not admire <strong>the</strong> impotence with which <strong>the</strong>y opposed <strong>the</strong><br />
sitting government. In fact, it disgusted her. On July 7, 1793, General Wimpffen<br />
ga<strong>the</strong>red a small group <strong>of</strong> Girondin sympathizers and attempted to arrange a<br />
militant gala, complete with speeches, songs, banners, and a parade. The event<br />
was intended to demonstrate solidarity among <strong>the</strong> Girondins and to rally support<br />
behind <strong>the</strong>m. The sparse attendance generated made <strong>the</strong> ga<strong>the</strong>ring a pitiful<br />
spectacle and a failure. It embarrassed and distressed Corday, who had already<br />
begun to realize that her new friends were incapable <strong>of</strong> any but a feeble response<br />
to <strong>the</strong> oppressive Convention. 25 Two days prior to Wimpffen’s attempted rally,<br />
Corday purchased a one-way ticket on a Coach set to leave Caen for Paris on<br />
July 9. She had convinced herself that Marat was <strong>the</strong> source <strong>of</strong> all that had gone<br />
awry with <strong>the</strong> Revolution and that he must be killed to restore order in France. 26<br />
His assassination would be her grandiose gesture for <strong>the</strong> good <strong>of</strong> her country and<br />
for <strong>the</strong> betterment <strong>of</strong> humanity.<br />
Prior to purchasing her ticket, Corday went to see Barbaroux at <strong>the</strong> Hotel<br />
de L’Intendance, introducing herself as Marie-Charlotte de Corday. She secured<br />
from <strong>the</strong> former deputy a letter <strong>of</strong> introduction to Lauze Duperret, a Girondin<br />
deputy who, not having been expelled, remained in <strong>the</strong> Convention and served<br />
as an intermediate between Barbaroux and <strong>the</strong> proscribed Girondins (such as<br />
Madame Rolland) who failed to escape imprisonment. 27 Upon acquiring a seat<br />
on <strong>the</strong> next coach to Paris, Corday returned home and burned all <strong>of</strong> her political<br />
literature, arranged for <strong>the</strong> payment <strong>of</strong> her debts, bequea<strong>the</strong>d her valuable<br />
items to friends and loved ones, and returned all <strong>the</strong> books she had borrowed.<br />
Once her affairs were in order, she made her goodbyes. She told Madame<br />
de Bretteville that she would be going to stay with her fa<strong>the</strong>r in Argentan.<br />
Meanwhile, she wrote a letter to her fa<strong>the</strong>r, explaining that she planned on taking<br />
a trip to England. 28 Thus she traveled to Paris on <strong>the</strong> morning <strong>of</strong> July 9 without<br />
<strong>the</strong> knowledge <strong>of</strong> friends or family.<br />
Corday arrived in Paris on July 12, 1793. She sought out Duperret and<br />
gave him <strong>the</strong> letter <strong>of</strong> introduction she had received from Barbaroux. She wanted<br />
to kill Marat publicly, preferably during a meeting <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Convention, and she<br />
asked Duperret how she would go about gaining entrance into a Convention<br />
session. Duperret seemed willing to arrange for her admittance, but Corday soon<br />
learned that Marat no longer attended Convention meetings. He had, prior to<br />
<strong>the</strong> coup, contracted a debilitating skin condition that had worsened in severity<br />
14
to such an extent that he was forced to remain at home. 29 This discovery<br />
momentarily disappointed Corday, but shortly <strong>the</strong>reafter, she discovered that,<br />
while he was not <strong>the</strong> leader he had been formerly, he remained active and<br />
continued to conduct Convention business despite his lack <strong>of</strong> mobility. 30 Corday<br />
remained convinced that <strong>the</strong> key to peace lay in <strong>the</strong> death <strong>of</strong> Marat, so she<br />
resolved to pay him a visit on <strong>the</strong> following morning and to accomplish her task<br />
at that time.<br />
Corday arose at 6:00 on <strong>the</strong> morning <strong>of</strong> July 13. Her first destination<br />
was <strong>the</strong> Palais Royal, where she intended to purchase <strong>the</strong> tools necessary for<br />
<strong>the</strong> task that lay ahead <strong>of</strong> her. In her zeal, she arrived before any <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> shops<br />
were yet open for business, so she was obliged to wait, which she did with little<br />
patience. When <strong>the</strong> vendors had arrived, Corday began her search. Ultimately,<br />
she purchased her knife from a Monsieur Badin for two francs. Its blade was<br />
six inches in length, and its handle was ebony. The young woman concealed<br />
her purchase in <strong>the</strong> bosom <strong>of</strong> her dress and went to secure a coach. 31 When<br />
she arrived at Marat’s home in <strong>the</strong> Rue des Cordeliers, she was greeted by his<br />
common law wife Simmone Evrard, who turned her away. Corday explained<br />
that she had come to give Marat information about an underground Girondist<br />
movement, but Evrard insisted that <strong>the</strong> Revolutionary leader was in no condition<br />
to receive guests. 32 Nonplussed, Corday retreated, but she returned around 7:30<br />
in <strong>the</strong> evening, after having sent a letter to Marat explaining <strong>the</strong> purpose <strong>of</strong> her<br />
visit. This time, Marat ensured that she received an audience with him. 33<br />
Corday was shocked by what she encountered. She was escorted to<br />
Marat’s quarters, where she found <strong>the</strong> villainous Montagnard sitting in a<br />
shoe-shaped tub with a vinegar-soaked towel wrapped around his head. Warm<br />
baths were <strong>the</strong> only proven method <strong>of</strong> soothing his painful skin condition,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> towel had been contrived as a method <strong>of</strong> counteracting his frequent<br />
headaches. 34 Corday wasted little time. As soon as she and her unsuspecting<br />
victim were alone, she began telling him <strong>of</strong> a fabricated Girondin conspiracy,<br />
naming several <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Girondins she had come to know in <strong>the</strong> past month. Upon<br />
Marat’s response that those named would soon be guillotined, Corday pulled<br />
<strong>the</strong> knife from her dress and, with a single thrust, drove it into his heart up to<br />
<strong>the</strong> handle. 35 Her blow was astonishingly accurate. The blade pierced Marat’s<br />
heart and left lung, rendering him lifeless in a matter <strong>of</strong> seconds. 36 Corday was<br />
hindered when attempting to leave Marat’s apartment by a man (one <strong>of</strong> Marat’s<br />
close friends) who purportedly struck her with a chair. News <strong>of</strong> her deed spread<br />
almost instantly, and <strong>the</strong> scene on <strong>the</strong> street quickly grew tumultuous. Charles<br />
Henri Sanson, Public Executioner for <strong>the</strong> Convention, recorded <strong>the</strong> following<br />
conversation among Parisians just a few minutes after <strong>the</strong> assassination:<br />
‘Who [killed Marat]’<br />
‘A woman.’<br />
‘Has she been arrested’<br />
Some said, ‘no’ with an air <strong>of</strong> delight. O<strong>the</strong>rs said, ‘yes’ and fell<br />
silent again. One inquired discreetly if <strong>the</strong> wound was mortal.<br />
‘Where was he struck’<br />
‘Below <strong>the</strong> collar bone, between two ribs.’<br />
‘Was it a bullet’<br />
‘No. A knife driven into his lungs to <strong>the</strong> full length <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> blade.’<br />
‘Plague on it! She must have struck hard.’ 37<br />
15
Within seconds <strong>of</strong> Marat’s death, <strong>the</strong> police were called for. In just a few<br />
minutes’ time, <strong>the</strong>y arrived amid a growing mass <strong>of</strong> men and women that had<br />
begun to congregate outside <strong>the</strong> home <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> dead Marat. 38<br />
Corday was taken into custody immediately. The police did not even<br />
wait to remove her from Marat’s apartment before subjecting her to a rigorous<br />
questioning process. Jaques-Philibert Guellard, police superintendant <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
district, set up a desk in one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> rooms adjacent to <strong>the</strong> crime scene and, less<br />
than an hour after <strong>the</strong> assassination, had Corday brought in for interrogation. 39<br />
She admitted her crime from <strong>the</strong> outset <strong>of</strong> his inquiry. 40 He asked her where<br />
she had purchased her knife and if she had received <strong>the</strong> aid <strong>of</strong> any accomplices,<br />
to which she replied that she had been to <strong>the</strong> Palais Royal <strong>the</strong> day before.<br />
She denied ever having accomplices. All present for <strong>the</strong> interrogation were<br />
impressed by <strong>the</strong> young woman’s calm and dignified comportment. To many it<br />
did not seem possible that she had so recently committed an act <strong>of</strong> homicide. In<br />
his report, Guellard wrote, “Guellard: Asked her if, after having accomplished<br />
<strong>the</strong> crime, she had not tried to escape by <strong>the</strong> window. Corday: Replied no,<br />
she had no intention <strong>of</strong> escaping by <strong>the</strong> window, but she would have gone out<br />
by <strong>the</strong> door if she had not been stopped.” 41 When all police reports had been<br />
assembled, Corday was asked if she would like to alter any <strong>of</strong> her testimony. She<br />
replied that she would not and signed her confession. 42<br />
Her trial was set for July 7, 1793. It would be a mere formality; she<br />
had no hope <strong>of</strong> acquittal. The people <strong>of</strong> Paris considered Marat a martyr.<br />
Songs and hymns comparing him to Christ were sung in mourning throughout<br />
<strong>the</strong> streets <strong>of</strong> Paris. 43 The famous French painter Jacques-Louis David was<br />
commissioned to paint a portrait <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> dead Marat and was given charge <strong>of</strong><br />
funeral arrangements. David’s desire (as well as that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Convention) was<br />
to fur<strong>the</strong>r perpetuate <strong>the</strong> image <strong>of</strong> Marat as a saint who had given his life for<br />
<strong>the</strong> Revolution. To this end, David decided to display Marat’s body on a large<br />
bed with a damp sheet concealing everything below <strong>the</strong> waist (this hid Marat’s<br />
decaying flesh and combated putrefaction) and a crown <strong>of</strong> oak leaves on <strong>the</strong><br />
dead man’s head. Flowers were strewn across <strong>the</strong> bed, and Marat’s chest was<br />
left bare to fully display <strong>the</strong> knife-wound. 44 Devoted to this image <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> slain<br />
Marat, <strong>the</strong> citizens <strong>of</strong> Paris developed vehement hatred for Corday. An article<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Gazette Nationale, published just one week after her assassination <strong>of</strong><br />
Marat, characterized Corday as “a remarkable example <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> seal <strong>of</strong> reprobation<br />
with which nature stamps those women who renounce <strong>the</strong> temperament, <strong>the</strong><br />
character, <strong>the</strong> tastes and <strong>the</strong> inclination <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir sex.” 45 Most <strong>of</strong> Paris seems<br />
to have held this opinion, but Corday’s trial and execution would win her <strong>the</strong><br />
admiration <strong>of</strong> many, including her accusors.<br />
In her last days, Corday expressed little fear <strong>of</strong> her fate. On July 15,<br />
she wrote to <strong>the</strong> Convention, saying, “Since I have only a few minutes to live,<br />
might I hope, citizens, that you would allow me to have my portrait painted.” 46<br />
Citizen Haüer, an artist she had observed in <strong>the</strong> courtroom, was sent to her <strong>the</strong><br />
following day. 47 Anticipating <strong>the</strong> trial ahead <strong>of</strong> her and recognizing <strong>the</strong> reality <strong>of</strong><br />
its predetermined outcome, she wrote a letter to her fa<strong>the</strong>r in Argentan. It read as<br />
follows:<br />
16
17<br />
Forgive me, my dear papa, for disposing <strong>of</strong> my life without<br />
your permission. I have avenged many innocent victims. I<br />
have prevented many ano<strong>the</strong>r disaster. The people will one<br />
day be disabused and rejoice at being delivered from such<br />
a tyrant…I beg you to forget me, or ra<strong>the</strong>r to rejoice at my<br />
fate, its cause is a fine one. 48<br />
In a letter to Barbaroux written that same day, she said, “Goodbye, citizen, I ask<br />
all true friends <strong>of</strong> peace to remember me.” 49 Corday’s courageous acceptance<br />
<strong>of</strong> her fate so evident in <strong>the</strong>se letters was also clearly visible in her demeanor<br />
at trial. She endured <strong>the</strong> testimony <strong>of</strong> Simmone Evrard and o<strong>the</strong>rs present on<br />
that evening as well as <strong>the</strong> questioning <strong>of</strong> her prosecutors without showing even<br />
<strong>the</strong> least sign <strong>of</strong> becoming unnerved. When <strong>of</strong>fered <strong>the</strong> services <strong>of</strong> a priest,<br />
she gently replied that she had no sins to confess and <strong>the</strong>n politely thanked <strong>the</strong><br />
Tribunal for its courtesy. Her apparent tranquility was nearly impossible for her<br />
judges to comprehend. On two separate occasions, <strong>the</strong>y had a doctor examine<br />
her for signs <strong>of</strong> sexual immorality—<strong>the</strong> thinking was that only a truly depraved<br />
woman could commit such a violent act with so little remorse. Examination<br />
confirmed her virginity. 50 When she was marched to execution on July 17, her<br />
resolve remained immutable. A German historian at <strong>the</strong> scene, identified in his<br />
writings only as Klause, was mesmerized by <strong>the</strong> sight <strong>of</strong> Corday approaching<br />
<strong>the</strong> guillotine. In a description <strong>of</strong> her execution, he recorded, “Already half<br />
transfigured, [Corday] seemed like an angel <strong>of</strong> light…she approached <strong>the</strong> death<br />
machine and, <strong>of</strong> her own accord, placed her head on <strong>the</strong> appointed spot…solemn<br />
silence reigned. The fatal blade fell…thus ended Charlotte Corday, <strong>the</strong> sublime<br />
maiden <strong>of</strong> Caen.” 51<br />
Marat was dead and Corday executed for his assassination. Despite<br />
<strong>the</strong> optimism <strong>of</strong> her letters, however, <strong>the</strong> young woman had not succeeded<br />
in ending <strong>the</strong> Revolution or <strong>the</strong> Convention’s policy <strong>of</strong> Terror. She had, in<br />
fact, inspired <strong>the</strong> Convention to impose harsher restrictions on <strong>the</strong> people <strong>of</strong><br />
France. Never<strong>the</strong>less, her shadow and that <strong>of</strong> her actions loomed over France<br />
for <strong>the</strong> next year as an era began in which <strong>the</strong> Revolution began to consume its<br />
founders. 52 In <strong>the</strong> wake <strong>of</strong> Marat’s assassination, Jacque Roux and Theophile<br />
Leclerc continued publication <strong>of</strong> L’ami du Peuple and, in it, caustically criticized<br />
<strong>the</strong> Convention for its inability to adequately address counter-revolutionary<br />
efforts. Along with o<strong>the</strong>r Sans-Culotte leaders, <strong>the</strong> pair <strong>of</strong> enragés called for a<br />
more stringent enforcement <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Terror. Jacques Hébert, ano<strong>the</strong>r prominent<br />
Sans-Culotte radicalized his publication Pére Duchesne, and <strong>the</strong> Convention<br />
began conceding to many Sans-Culotte demands. 53 The fact that a woman from<br />
Caen could ride into Paris and assassinate one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> foremost leaders <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Revolution was alarming, and many Convention leaders feared that <strong>the</strong>y would<br />
be targeted next. 54 Measures must be taken to counteract potential resistance.<br />
Corday’s was <strong>the</strong> first truly sensational public trial conducted by <strong>the</strong><br />
Tribunal, but more soon followed. 55 Between July 14 and 28, eight previously<br />
unsuspected deputies faced accusation for having aided Corday, and a series<br />
<strong>of</strong> repressive acts were passed in <strong>the</strong> following months. Between July 30 and<br />
August 6, several o<strong>the</strong>r deputies were exiled or brought before <strong>the</strong> tribunal,
18<br />
and <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> those proscribed rose to fifty-five. 56 On September 17,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Law <strong>of</strong> Suspects was passed, encouraging all French citizens to spy on<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir neighbors for <strong>the</strong> sake <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Convention. This led <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> those<br />
guillotined to escalate dramatically. 57 Women were also beginning to trouble<br />
many Convention deputies who began to view <strong>the</strong> female sex as inherently<br />
problematic. Within <strong>the</strong> next few months, Marie Antoinette, Olympe de Gouges,<br />
and Madame Roland were all executed. Their trials, like Corday’s, were highly<br />
public and <strong>the</strong>atrical. On November 5, 1793, women’s political associations and<br />
public ga<strong>the</strong>rings were banned as well as <strong>the</strong>ir admittance into men’s clubs. 58<br />
Violence and repression continued to grow in spite <strong>of</strong> a growing popular<br />
distaste for it. On October 31, 1793, twenty-one Girondins were convicted <strong>of</strong><br />
crimes against <strong>the</strong> Republic and sentenced to death by guillotine. One <strong>of</strong>ficial<br />
present for <strong>the</strong> event wrote, “Sillery was executed first. Those that followed him<br />
displayed a villainous courage…The execution proceeded at such a vigorous<br />
pace that several heads rolled down <strong>the</strong> scaffold at once…I noticed when it came<br />
to <strong>the</strong> sixth to be executed, many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> onlookers began to walk away with<br />
sad expressions and in <strong>the</strong> greatest consternation.” 59 This journal entry clearly<br />
betrays a growing dislike among Parisians for <strong>the</strong> guillotine and for public<br />
executions, but despite mounting popular disdain for <strong>the</strong>se events, brutality<br />
continued well into 1794. As <strong>the</strong> Terror became even more stringent, anyone<br />
associated with former governments or around whom stories circulated was put<br />
to death. 60 Distrust was omnipresent, even within <strong>the</strong> Montagnard party, and <strong>the</strong><br />
Terror, with its remorseless cruelty, could not ultimately sustain itself.<br />
The aggressively chaotic nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Terror ignited by Corday’s<br />
assassination <strong>of</strong> Marat persisted until July 27, 1794. On that day, Maximillian<br />
Robespierre, who had (in <strong>the</strong> wake <strong>of</strong> Marat’s murder) brought his Committee<br />
<strong>of</strong> Public Safety to <strong>the</strong> leading position within <strong>the</strong> National Convention, accused<br />
his fellow Committee members <strong>of</strong> plotting against him. In response, several<br />
members <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Committee turned against Robespierre, put him on trial, and<br />
executed him via guillotine. Those who participated in <strong>the</strong> overthrow received<br />
<strong>the</strong> favor <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> people, who saw <strong>the</strong>ir actions as an important step away from<br />
Terror and toward a return <strong>of</strong> normal and stable government. 61 Corday’s desire,<br />
it seemed, had finally come to fruition. The assassination failed to destroy <strong>the</strong><br />
Terror, but <strong>the</strong> chaos that sprang from it ultimately accomplished her goal. The<br />
Revolution would continue for several years after <strong>the</strong> fall <strong>of</strong> Robespierre, but <strong>the</strong><br />
Terror had reached its end.<br />
ENDNOTES<br />
1<br />
Hugh Gough, The Terror in <strong>the</strong> French Revolution (London: Macmillian Press, Ltd., 1998), 82.<br />
2<br />
Marie Scherr, Charlotte Corday and Certain Men <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Revolutionary Torment (New<br />
York: D. Appleton and Company, 1929), 121-122.<br />
3<br />
Gough, Terror in <strong>the</strong> French Revolution, 36; Louis R. Gottschalk, Jean Paul Marat: A<br />
Study in Radicalism (New York: Benjamin Blom, 1966), 190-191.
4<br />
Halina Sokolnikova, Nine Women Drawn From <strong>the</strong> Epoch <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> French Revolution,<br />
translated by H.C. Stevens (New York: Jonathan Cape and Harrison Smith, 1932), 36; J. Mills<br />
Whitham, Men and Women <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> French Revolution (Freeport, New York: Books for Libraries, Inc.,<br />
1968), 155.<br />
5<br />
Sokolnikova, Nine Women, 37-38.<br />
19<br />
6<br />
Whitham, Men and Women, 155-156.<br />
7<br />
Ibid., 157-158.<br />
8<br />
Stanley Loomis, Paris in <strong>the</strong> Terror, June 1793-July1794 (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott<br />
Company, 1964), 99; Cynthia Burlingham and James Cuno, “Catalogue <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Exhibition: VII.<br />
Marat,” French Caricature and <strong>the</strong> French Revolution, 1789-1799 ed. James Cuno (Los Angeles:<br />
UCLA, 1988), 220.<br />
9<br />
Loomis, Paris in <strong>the</strong> Terror, 99.<br />
10<br />
Whitham, Men and Women, 159.<br />
11<br />
Burlingham and Cuno, “Catalogue <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Exhibition,” 220.<br />
12<br />
Loomis, Paris in <strong>the</strong> Terror, 103.<br />
13<br />
Ibid.,73; Laura Mason and Tracey Rizzo, The French Revolution: A Document Collection<br />
(New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1999), 174.<br />
14<br />
“Article on <strong>the</strong> events <strong>of</strong> September 1-8, 1792,” Revolutions de Paris no. 165 (September<br />
1792), trans. Laura Mason, quoted in Laura Mason and Tracey Rizzo, The French Revolution: A<br />
Document Collection (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1999), 174.<br />
15<br />
Loomis, Paris in <strong>the</strong> Terror, 73; Mason and Rizzo, The French Revolution, 174.<br />
16<br />
Loomis, Paris in <strong>the</strong> Terror, 98.<br />
17<br />
Ibid.; Burlingham and Cuno, “Catalogue <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Exhibition,” 220.<br />
18<br />
Witham, Men and Women, 160.<br />
19<br />
Loomis, Paris in <strong>the</strong> Terror, 103.<br />
20<br />
Witham, Men and Women, 160.<br />
21<br />
Loomis, Paris in <strong>the</strong> Terror, 103.<br />
22<br />
Ibid, 12-13; Burlingham and Cuno, “Catalogue <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Exhibition,” 225.<br />
23<br />
Sokolnikova, Nine Women, 35-36.<br />
24<br />
Ibid., 40.<br />
25<br />
Ibid.; Whitham, Men and Women, 168; Paul R. Hanson, The Jacobin Republic Under<br />
Fire: The Federalist Revolt in <strong>the</strong> French Revolution (<strong>University</strong> Park, Pennsylvania: Penn State<br />
<strong>University</strong> Press, 2003), 197.
20<br />
26<br />
Loomis, Paris in <strong>the</strong> Terror, 111.<br />
27<br />
Ibid., 109.<br />
28<br />
Ibid., 110-111; Whitham, Men and Women, 169.<br />
29<br />
Sokolnikova, Nine Women, 48.<br />
30<br />
Ernest Belfort Bax, Jean-Paul Marat: The People’s Friend (London: Grant Richards, 1901), 300.<br />
31<br />
Loomis, Paris in <strong>the</strong> Terror, 121; Whitham, Men and Women, 173.<br />
32<br />
Sokolnikova, Nine Women, 49.<br />
33<br />
Loomis, Paris in <strong>the</strong> Terror, 126-127.<br />
34<br />
Bax, Jean-Paul Marat, 300.<br />
35<br />
Loomis, Paris in <strong>the</strong> Terror, 130.<br />
36<br />
Whitham. Men and Women, 176.<br />
37<br />
Charles Henri Sanson, “Recollection <strong>of</strong> a Conversation Concerning <strong>the</strong> Murder <strong>of</strong> Marat,”<br />
Personal Diary (13 July 1793), quoted in Reay Tanahill, ed., Paris in <strong>the</strong> Revolution: A Collection <strong>of</strong><br />
Eye Witness Accounts (London: The Folio Society, 1966), 82.<br />
38<br />
Scherr, Charlotte Corday, 125.<br />
39<br />
Tanahill, Paris in <strong>the</strong> Revolution: A Collection <strong>of</strong> Eye Witness Accounts, 82.<br />
40<br />
Scherr, Charlotte Corday, 125.<br />
41<br />
Jacques-Philibert Guilard, Report Filed on <strong>the</strong> Events <strong>of</strong> Marat’s Murder (13 July 1793)<br />
quoted in Tanahill, ed., Paris in <strong>the</strong> Revolution: A Collection <strong>of</strong> Eye Witness Accounts, 84.<br />
42<br />
Scherr, Charlotte Corday, 127.<br />
43<br />
Gottschalk, Jean Paul Marat, 187.<br />
44<br />
Antoine de Baecque, Glory and Terror: Seven Deaths Under <strong>the</strong> French Revolution trans.<br />
Charlotte Mandell (New York: Routelage, 2003), 6.<br />
45<br />
Fabre d’Eglantine, “Article on Charlotte Corday,” Gazette Nationale (20 July 1793),<br />
quoted in Nina Corazzo and Ca<strong>the</strong>rine R. Montfort, “Charlotte Corday: femme-homme,” Literate<br />
Women <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> French Revolution <strong>of</strong> 1789 (Birmingham: Summa Publications, 1994), 33-54, 35-36.<br />
46<br />
Marie-Charlotte de Corday, “Letter to <strong>the</strong> Committee <strong>of</strong> General Safety” (15 July 1793),<br />
quoted in Olivier Blanc, Last Letters: Prisons and Prisoners <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> French Revolution, 1793-1794,<br />
trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: The Noonday Press, 1987), 11.<br />
47<br />
Blanc, Last Letters: Prisons and Prisoners <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> French Revolution, 1793-1794, 12.<br />
48<br />
Marie-Charlotte de Corday, “Final Letter to her Fa<strong>the</strong>r” (16 July 1793), quoted in Blanc,<br />
Last Letters: Prisons and Prisoners <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> French Revolution, 1793-1794, 12.
49<br />
Marie-Charlotte de Corday, “Final Letter to Citizen Barbaroux” (16 July 1793), quoted in<br />
Scherr, Charlotte Corday and Certain Men <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Revolutionary Torment, 130.<br />
50<br />
Loomis, Paris in <strong>the</strong> Terror, 140-141; Witham, Men and Women, 183.<br />
21<br />
51<br />
Klause, “Reflections on <strong>the</strong> Execution <strong>of</strong> Charlotte Corday,” Personal Diary (17 July<br />
1793), quoted in Tanahill, Paris in <strong>the</strong> Revolution: A Collection <strong>of</strong> Eye Witness Accounts, 86.<br />
52<br />
Tanahill, Paris in <strong>the</strong> Revolution, 85.<br />
53<br />
Gough, Terror in <strong>the</strong> French Revolution, 36.<br />
54<br />
Gottschalk, Jean Paul Marat, 188.<br />
55<br />
Loomis, Paris in <strong>the</strong> Terror, 245.<br />
56<br />
Gottschalk, Jean Paul Marat, 189-190.<br />
57<br />
Gough, Terror in <strong>the</strong> French Revolution, 82.<br />
58<br />
Caroline Webber, Terror and its Discontents: Suspect Words in Revolutionary France<br />
(Minneapolis: <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Minnesota Press, 2003), 105.<br />
59<br />
“Account <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> October 31 Execution,” (October 1793), Quoted in Blanc, Last Letters:<br />
Prisons and Prisoners <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> French Revolution, 1793-1794, 65.<br />
60<br />
Blanc, Last Letters, 65.<br />
61<br />
Gottschalk, Jean Paul Marat, 190-191.
REFLECTIONS OF THE REVOLUTION: A STUDY OF PAINTINGS BY<br />
JACQUES-LOUIS DAVID<br />
By Megan Hensley<br />
The period <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1790s was very eventful and turbulent in French<br />
history. During <strong>the</strong>se years, <strong>the</strong> country suffered from <strong>the</strong> French Revolution,<br />
which brought rapid and dramatic change to <strong>the</strong> country. Many suffered through<br />
<strong>the</strong> chaos, but a few, such as Jacques-Louis David, were able to harness <strong>the</strong><br />
emotion and focus <strong>the</strong> energy into art. David, a neoclassical painter, played a<br />
very significant role in <strong>the</strong> Revolution. He was not only an artist, but he also<br />
worked as pageant-master, giving him a degree <strong>of</strong> power. In his work, which<br />
was some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> best from this period, he attempted to capture history in his<br />
paintings and create a chronicle <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> time. As <strong>the</strong> Revolution developed,<br />
David’s paintings changed dramatically, reflecting <strong>the</strong> changing spirit <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Revolution.<br />
David was born in Paris in 1748, a time when <strong>the</strong> French monarchy<br />
seemed unshakable. Yet, in his life time, he saw not only <strong>the</strong> fall <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
monarchy, but <strong>the</strong> beheading <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> king. France in <strong>the</strong> late eighteenth century<br />
was struggling financially. The country had undergone <strong>the</strong> luxurious reign <strong>of</strong><br />
Louis XIV, had fought in wars, and had suffered through years <strong>of</strong> financial<br />
advisors possessing l<strong>of</strong>ty ideas that always failed. While <strong>the</strong> country was<br />
struggling, David was flourishing. In 1774, he won <strong>the</strong> Prix de Rome, a prize<br />
allowing him to go to Rome, which he had fought to win for four years. 1 This<br />
sent <strong>the</strong> young painter to Italy, where he thrived, immersed in classical art.<br />
He developed his skills as a neoclassical painter, and his work for years to<br />
come reflected <strong>the</strong> Roman images. He returned to France, after a five year<br />
stay in Rome, and found <strong>the</strong> country still struggling financially. Even so, <strong>the</strong><br />
Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture (<strong>the</strong> Royal Academy <strong>of</strong> Painting<br />
and Sculpture), which was <strong>the</strong> institution that had sent David to Rome, was<br />
still commissioning art. Because <strong>of</strong> his achievements in <strong>the</strong> Salons, which<br />
were art shows commissioned by <strong>the</strong> Academy, he was propelled into being<br />
acknowledged as one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most talented artists in France. David’s reputation<br />
led him to being accepted into some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most elite circles in Parisian society,<br />
and it allowed him to make contacts with foreign visitors. 2 By <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Salon <strong>of</strong> 1789, France had politically and economically reached its breaking<br />
point, and David was one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most revered painters in Paris. 3<br />
David, on a commission, crafted a large painting for <strong>the</strong> Salon <strong>of</strong> 1789.<br />
Entitled, The Lictors Bring to Brutus <strong>the</strong> Bodies <strong>of</strong> his Sons (fig. 1), <strong>the</strong> painting<br />
was David’s second to be entered into that year’s Salon and was much more<br />
controversial than <strong>the</strong> first. 4 His o<strong>the</strong>r exhibitions were commissioned privately,<br />
unlike Brutus, which was commissioned by <strong>the</strong> Royal Academy. 5 Brutus was<br />
not <strong>the</strong> subject that <strong>the</strong> King’s government or <strong>the</strong> Academy expected. In 1787,<br />
David proposed to submit a painting to <strong>the</strong> Salon <strong>of</strong> 1789 and it was determined<br />
that he would paint “Coriolanus being restrained by his family from seeking<br />
revenge.” However, <strong>the</strong>re is no evidence that David ever began work on this<br />
painting. Instead, he began <strong>the</strong> sketches for Brutus and spent <strong>the</strong> next two years<br />
very involved in completing it. In doing this, he was committing a blatant act<br />
22
<strong>of</strong> defiance and created a symbol <strong>of</strong> liberty and republican ideas. As David<br />
was finishing his painting, <strong>the</strong> Estates-General was meeting, allowing <strong>the</strong> three<br />
Estates (<strong>the</strong> Clergy, <strong>the</strong> Nobility, and <strong>the</strong> common men) to discuss problems and<br />
come up with possible solutions for <strong>the</strong> failing economy. This showed a decline<br />
in <strong>the</strong> power in <strong>the</strong> monarchy, as <strong>the</strong> king had to come up with solutions with <strong>the</strong><br />
people. Because <strong>of</strong> this tension, his subject choice became controversial. 6<br />
The painting depicts Lucius Junius<br />
Brutus. He had helped rid Rome <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> tyranny <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> king, Tarquin <strong>the</strong><br />
Proud. The empire was in need <strong>of</strong><br />
new leadership after <strong>the</strong> king’s son,<br />
raped Lucretia, who <strong>the</strong>n committed<br />
suicide. Her death was witnessed by<br />
both Collatinus and Brutus, who vowed<br />
to avenge her death by destroying <strong>the</strong><br />
corrupt monarchy. After expelling<br />
Figure 1: The Lictors Bring to Brutus <strong>the</strong> Bodies <strong>of</strong> his Sons<br />
<br />
Tarquin, <strong>the</strong>y created <strong>the</strong> first Roman<br />
Republic in 508 BC. Not long after<br />
<strong>the</strong> creation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Republic, Brutus’<br />
sons, Titus and Tiberius were pulled into a plot to restore <strong>the</strong> monarchy. The<br />
conspiracy was soon discovered by <strong>the</strong>ir fa<strong>the</strong>r, who was forced to sentence<br />
<strong>the</strong>m to death. 7<br />
Using changes in light and lines, David breaks <strong>the</strong> painting into three<br />
sections. First, on <strong>the</strong> left and in <strong>the</strong> background, <strong>the</strong> lictors are carrying <strong>the</strong><br />
bodies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> dead. Though <strong>the</strong>y are mostly illuminated and had harsh lines,<br />
both <strong>of</strong> which draw in <strong>the</strong> viewer’s eye, <strong>the</strong> scene is fading into <strong>the</strong> darkness. 8<br />
Original sketches <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> painting show severed heads on spikes. This image was<br />
taken out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> final piece, as David felt it took from <strong>the</strong> subtle nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
representation <strong>of</strong> bodies being carried. 9<br />
The middle-ground <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> painting, which is shown on <strong>the</strong> right side,<br />
depicts <strong>the</strong> image <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> women mourning <strong>the</strong> deaths <strong>of</strong> Titus and Tiberius.<br />
Unlike most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> painting, <strong>the</strong> women are fully catching <strong>the</strong> light, becoming<br />
a focal point. 10 The blatant emotion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> women is shown in <strong>the</strong>ir expression<br />
and body language. The women cling to one ano<strong>the</strong>r in a manifestation <strong>of</strong><br />
grief and anguish. Brutus’ wife calls <strong>the</strong> attention <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> painting’s audience<br />
with her outstretched hand, which creates an implied line directly to <strong>the</strong> bodies<br />
<strong>of</strong> her dead sons. Along with using light to create distinction between <strong>the</strong><br />
sections, David also uses lines. The women are drawn more undulated than <strong>the</strong><br />
background or foreground. Here, <strong>the</strong> images are flowing and have a rise and<br />
fall to <strong>the</strong> lines, unlike <strong>the</strong> harsh, defined lines <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> dead. This technique is<br />
common in David’s work: he created contrast in men and women by making<br />
<strong>the</strong> men appear strong, while <strong>the</strong> women appeared s<strong>of</strong>t. An empty chair in this<br />
section separates <strong>the</strong> dead sons and Brutus from <strong>the</strong> women, who represent <strong>the</strong><br />
domestic, family life <strong>of</strong> which <strong>the</strong> men will never be able to return. 11<br />
The last section <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> painting is Brutus himself. Seated in <strong>the</strong><br />
foreground and to <strong>the</strong> left, he is almost completely in shadows except for a sliver<br />
<strong>of</strong> light shining on his feet. His face, barely visible in <strong>the</strong> darkness, is somber<br />
and tense. His toes are gnarled and stiff, showing <strong>the</strong> tension in his body as <strong>the</strong><br />
23
epercussion <strong>of</strong> his actions are shown. His body is turned away from <strong>the</strong> lictors<br />
carrying his sons. Again, David uses line to create contrast: Brutus’ section is<br />
marked by nervous, quick lines, unlike <strong>the</strong> flowing lines <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> women or <strong>the</strong><br />
harsh lines <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> dead. This depicts a nervous energy in Brutus. He chose <strong>the</strong><br />
Republic over his family, and his suppressing <strong>the</strong> emotion that comes with it. 12<br />
This painting, like most <strong>of</strong> David’s early work, was a symbol <strong>of</strong> Roman<br />
patriotism. It showed <strong>the</strong> conflict between love <strong>of</strong> state and love <strong>of</strong> family.<br />
Brutus put his loyalty in <strong>the</strong> state, sacrificing his sons. This type <strong>of</strong> extreme<br />
patriotism was mirrored to <strong>the</strong> events <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> start <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> French Revolution.<br />
Brutus had an unwavering, dedicated devotion to <strong>the</strong> state, to <strong>the</strong> point <strong>of</strong><br />
doing anything to remain loyal. The attitude <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Third-Estate was reaching<br />
this level. Instead <strong>of</strong> being faithful to <strong>the</strong> monarchy, as was common years<br />
before, loyalties were shifting toward <strong>the</strong> state and national pride. The image<br />
<strong>of</strong> Brutus shows <strong>the</strong> tension that can be created in reforming government.<br />
Because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> symbolism in <strong>the</strong> painting, and <strong>the</strong> fact that it was exhibited<br />
during a radical time <strong>of</strong> French history, it was quickly adapted as a symbol that<br />
strongly advocates <strong>the</strong> ideas <strong>of</strong> republic and revolution in <strong>the</strong> troubled world. 13<br />
Because <strong>of</strong> this, when <strong>the</strong> news <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> subject <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> painting came out, it was<br />
met with resistance. The Academy saw <strong>the</strong> image as bad propaganda against<br />
<strong>the</strong> monarchy at a time when <strong>the</strong> King needed as much support as he could get,<br />
especially from an influential man such as David. Because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> negative sparks<br />
<strong>the</strong> painting produced, <strong>the</strong> newspapers were soon reporting that <strong>the</strong> government<br />
was not allowing <strong>the</strong> painting to be shown. Because <strong>the</strong> tensions were so high<br />
in France, <strong>the</strong> public outcry was phenomenal, and soon <strong>the</strong> <strong>of</strong>ficials were forced<br />
to give in. In <strong>the</strong> end, not only was <strong>the</strong> painting shown, but it was protected by<br />
David’s art students. 14<br />
The year <strong>of</strong> 1789 proved to be an eventful one. After <strong>the</strong> Third Estate<br />
realized <strong>the</strong>y were not going to be treated fairly in <strong>the</strong> Estates-General, <strong>the</strong>y<br />
decided to call <strong>the</strong>mselves, along with some members <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> clergy, <strong>the</strong><br />
National Assembly. The group was forced to meet in a tennis court in order to<br />
discuss <strong>the</strong>ir position. On June 20, 1789, <strong>the</strong>y decreed “that all members <strong>of</strong> this<br />
assembly immediately take a solemn oath never to separate, and to reassemble<br />
wherever circumstances require, until <strong>the</strong> constitution <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> realm is established<br />
and fixed upon solid foundations; and that said oath having been sworn, all<br />
members and each one individually confirm this unwavering resolution with his<br />
24<br />
Figure 2: Tennis Court Oath<br />
signature. 15 This event was known as <strong>the</strong> Tennis Court Oath. The men did craft<br />
a constitution for France, and when it was clear that <strong>the</strong> Oath was a momentous<br />
event, <strong>the</strong>y commissioned David to paint it. David, who was very intrigued by<br />
<strong>the</strong> idea <strong>of</strong> capturing history into his paintings as it happened, readily accepted. 16<br />
He began, as always, by creating a sketch <strong>of</strong> what he wanted <strong>the</strong> final<br />
image to look like. The sketch, an ink and pen drawing, <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Tennis Court Oath<br />
(fig. 2) is enormous. 17 The sketch shows 629 citizens, though David wanted<br />
<strong>the</strong>re to be at least a thousand in <strong>the</strong> final product. Because David captured <strong>the</strong><br />
image from <strong>the</strong> width <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> tennis court as opposed to <strong>the</strong> length, he created<br />
tension that would not be <strong>the</strong>re o<strong>the</strong>rwise. In <strong>the</strong> middle <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> drawing, Jean-<br />
Sylvain Bailly, <strong>the</strong> president <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Assembly stands reading <strong>the</strong> proclamation<br />
that <strong>the</strong>y had created. Men and a few women peer in through <strong>the</strong> windows above<br />
<strong>the</strong> scene. A lightning bolt strikes in one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> windows, aimed toward <strong>the</strong><br />
raised hand <strong>of</strong> Bailly, as if he were a lightning rod. This is to show <strong>the</strong> charged<br />
energy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> men as <strong>the</strong>y give <strong>the</strong>ir oath to <strong>the</strong> President. 18<br />
The image shows <strong>the</strong> men positioned in poses that were almost<br />
<strong>the</strong>atrically dramatic. Many were reaching toward <strong>the</strong> middle, pledging<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir allegiance to <strong>the</strong> Assembly. O<strong>the</strong>rs were lifting <strong>the</strong>ir hats toward <strong>the</strong><br />
ceiling. Robespierre, who later becomes very influential to both David and<br />
<strong>the</strong> Revolution, was included in <strong>the</strong> painting. Placed slightly to <strong>the</strong> right, he<br />
clutches his hands to his chest. Even this early in <strong>the</strong> Revolution, David saw<br />
Robespierre as a passionate revolutionary. These reactions show <strong>the</strong> passion<br />
that was involved in <strong>the</strong> creation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> constitution. The men were fervent<br />
about <strong>the</strong> revolutionary ideas and were dedicated to forming a better, reformed<br />
government. Brutus showed <strong>the</strong> French <strong>the</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> a republic. The Tennis<br />
Court Oath showed <strong>the</strong> joyful reaction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> men as <strong>the</strong> idea <strong>of</strong> a republic<br />
becomes closer to reality and truly captured <strong>the</strong> spirit <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> moment. 19<br />
It was intended for <strong>the</strong> painting to be completely for <strong>the</strong> Salon <strong>of</strong> 1791,<br />
<strong>the</strong> first Revolutionary Salon. However, by 1791, only <strong>the</strong> sketch and a very<br />
small portion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> painting were finished. These years had proved to be very<br />
turbulent and situations were changing rapidly. Because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> turmoil <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
time, by 1791, David was unsure if he would ever finish <strong>the</strong> painting. As <strong>the</strong><br />
Revolution had developed, men had changed. The Tennis Court Oath was meant<br />
to show <strong>the</strong> l<strong>of</strong>ty idea <strong>of</strong> fraternity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> National Assembly, but by 1791, <strong>the</strong><br />
group had broken into sects and <strong>the</strong> men were no longer bonded as <strong>the</strong>y once<br />
were. Now, some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> men that were deemed heroes at <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Oath<br />
were now seen in a much more negative light. Some men, even men within <strong>the</strong><br />
same political groups, no longer saw <strong>the</strong> Tennis Court Oath as <strong>the</strong> best course<br />
<strong>of</strong> action, though it was unclear in what <strong>the</strong>y would have done alternatively. 20<br />
Many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> men that David included in <strong>the</strong> preliminary sketches were part<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> elite middle class. By 1792, <strong>the</strong> Revolution was attempting to embrace<br />
<strong>the</strong> lower class citizens and give <strong>the</strong>m <strong>the</strong> rights <strong>the</strong>y deserved after years <strong>of</strong><br />
oppression. By completing <strong>the</strong> work, David’s loyalties would be questioned,<br />
and it would put him in a dangerous position. David was determined to capture<br />
history as it happened, and vowed to finish <strong>the</strong> work in <strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
next few years, hoping <strong>the</strong> country would become more stable. However, <strong>the</strong><br />
enormous work, <strong>the</strong> final canvas measuring nineteen by thirty feet, was never<br />
completed. 21<br />
25
The tension in France continued to build. By 1792, <strong>the</strong> country had<br />
gone from a monarchy, to <strong>the</strong> National Assembly, to <strong>the</strong> Legislative Assembly,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> National Convention had just been formed. An influential journalist,<br />
Jean Paul Marat, nominated David to <strong>the</strong> National Convention on September<br />
6, 1792. The two men, both <strong>of</strong> whom were part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jacobin club <strong>of</strong> thought,<br />
were against <strong>the</strong> tyranny <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> monarchy and supported <strong>the</strong> republican ideas.<br />
They were for <strong>the</strong> will <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> people being honored above all else, especially<br />
supporting <strong>the</strong> poor and oppressed. 22 Ano<strong>the</strong>r man, Maximilen Robespierre,<br />
was becoming more and more powerful by controlling <strong>the</strong> Committee <strong>of</strong> Public<br />
Safety. David found himself aligning with <strong>the</strong> radical ideas <strong>of</strong> Robespierre.<br />
By 1792, David was a willing and active member <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jacobin dictatorship.<br />
David became fur<strong>the</strong>r involved and caught up in <strong>the</strong> Revolution, and fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
attached to Robespierre, who he idealized greatly. 23 Also in this year, David<br />
decided to resign from <strong>the</strong> Academy. He felt as though he, and o<strong>the</strong>r artists, were<br />
being suppressed by <strong>the</strong> institution that obviously veered toward Royalist ideas.<br />
Without <strong>the</strong> powerful persona <strong>of</strong> David backing it, <strong>the</strong> Academy lost a great<br />
deal <strong>of</strong> support. Not long after his resignation, <strong>the</strong> institution was suspended<br />
because its loyalties were clearly to <strong>the</strong> monarch. Getting rid <strong>of</strong> an institution<br />
that had existed for many years showed not only <strong>the</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> David under<br />
Robespierre, but also <strong>the</strong> changing spirit <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> country. 24<br />
The members <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Committee <strong>of</strong> Public Safety, which was created in<br />
April, 1793, had been elected by <strong>the</strong> National Convention. When <strong>the</strong> Committee<br />
was restructured in July <strong>of</strong> that year, Robespierre was elected as one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
twelve members. Because France was in a state <strong>of</strong> war, <strong>the</strong> Committee became<br />
a very powerful de facto government, meaning that it had executive rights,<br />
including <strong>the</strong> power to execute. Robespierre quickly became <strong>the</strong> dominate<br />
force <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Committee. David, though not a direct member <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Committee,<br />
was very good friends with Robespierre and was a member <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> National<br />
Convention and later a member <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Committee <strong>of</strong> Public Security, thus had<br />
quite a bit <strong>of</strong> power. So much in fact, that he voted for <strong>the</strong> death <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> King.<br />
Because <strong>of</strong> David’s artistic skills and creativity, he became pageant-master, and<br />
was in charge <strong>of</strong> planning events, ranging from parties to funerals. He was also<br />
in charge <strong>of</strong> most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> propaganda <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Committee, including <strong>the</strong> painting<br />
that captured <strong>the</strong> death <strong>of</strong> Marat. 25<br />
Marat was viewed as one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most influential men involved in <strong>the</strong><br />
Revolution. He was a deputy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Convention and was <strong>of</strong>ten violent. He had<br />
developed a skin disease and <strong>the</strong> only relief he had was from soaking in <strong>the</strong><br />
bathtub. This is where he was on <strong>the</strong> evening <strong>of</strong> July 13, 1793, working on <strong>the</strong><br />
desk top that had been erected. Charlotte Corday, a closet royalist from Caen,<br />
entered <strong>the</strong> house under <strong>the</strong> pretense <strong>of</strong> speaking to Marat about criminals, secret<br />
royalists in her home town. She stood beside <strong>the</strong> tub and read a list <strong>of</strong> names <strong>of</strong><br />
those who had been deemed enemies <strong>of</strong> France. As he thanked her and told her<br />
<strong>the</strong>y would be executed within <strong>the</strong> week, she pulled a kitchen knife out from her<br />
skirts. She <strong>the</strong>n reached forward and stabbed him in <strong>the</strong> chest, fatally. Corday<br />
was arrested soon after and executed on July 17. 26<br />
David, a good friend <strong>of</strong> Marat, saw him as a model <strong>of</strong> “virtue.” 27 On July<br />
14, David was invited into <strong>the</strong> Convention to discuss <strong>the</strong> funeral arrangements<br />
26
and was asked to paint Marat’s portrait. David accepted this task readily. The<br />
men thought that by painting a close likeness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> dead, <strong>the</strong>y were bringing<br />
<strong>the</strong> spirit closer to <strong>the</strong>m, one last time.<br />
The image, however, came out idealized<br />
as Marat’s body had already begun to<br />
decompose. Also, David had a limited<br />
time to complete <strong>the</strong> piece, and his<br />
emotions were running high. These<br />
factors created <strong>the</strong> painting Death <strong>of</strong><br />
Marat (fig. 3). 28<br />
The painting depicts a dying Marat.<br />
He is bent over, right arm slid to <strong>the</strong><br />
ground. His head is resting heavily<br />
Figure 3: Death <strong>of</strong> Marat<br />
<br />
on his shoulder, and his eye lids are<br />
drooping. Though Marat was an older<br />
man, David showed his body as still<br />
being youthful and healthy. A deep, red wound is on his chest, directly below his<br />
clavicle and a bloody knife is lying on <strong>the</strong> floor beneath him. His left hand holds<br />
<strong>the</strong> list <strong>of</strong> criminals that Corday had brought him, stained in his blood. Because<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> muted colors and <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> decoration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> room, <strong>the</strong> blood stands out<br />
vividly. The rest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> painting is simple. The light cuts in, falling very s<strong>of</strong>tly<br />
on Marat’s face and shoulders, and more harshly on Corday’s petition. A crate<br />
stands beside <strong>the</strong> bathtub, with <strong>the</strong> words “À Marat, David” on <strong>the</strong> side. 29 The<br />
angle at which David presents Marat’s body allows <strong>the</strong> viewer to somehow look<br />
down on and straight at <strong>the</strong> image at <strong>the</strong> same time. Symbolically, this gives<br />
Marat both sympathy and respect. 30<br />
Death <strong>of</strong> Marat was used <strong>the</strong> next year, when Robespierre’s regime<br />
executed hundreds, as propaganda for <strong>the</strong> republic. The painting symbolized a<br />
martyr, a fallen man that had been dedicated to only helping <strong>the</strong> people. David’s<br />
painting was copied and distributed, as <strong>the</strong> Committee knew that <strong>the</strong> haunting<br />
image cast a horrible glow on <strong>the</strong> royalists. 31<br />
Though Robespierre and his Committee <strong>of</strong> Public Safety attempted to<br />
control France for <strong>the</strong> so called good <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> people, movements began to form<br />
against <strong>the</strong>m, most focusing on Robespierre. The Committee, along with <strong>the</strong><br />
Committee <strong>of</strong> General Security that David had been elected to, was policing <strong>the</strong><br />
nation in a very harsh, uncontrollable manner. Many men were being executed<br />
on a daily basis. Finally, events hit a breaking point. After Robespierre’s speech<br />
on Thermidor (August) 8 in which he announced that <strong>the</strong>re was a plot against<br />
public liberty, it was clear his time was running short. The members <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Convention were unsure as to who <strong>the</strong> conspirators were, some claiming it was<br />
Robespierre himself. A meeting <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jacobins that night led to Robespierre<br />
announcing that if <strong>the</strong>y could not deliver <strong>the</strong> Convention from those trying to<br />
take it, he would drink hemlock. David, rushing forward with emotion, declared<br />
“If you drink <strong>the</strong> hemlock I will drink it with you.” 32 The next day, David, who<br />
was not feeling well, missed <strong>the</strong> meeting <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Convention. This most likely<br />
saved his life from ending immediately by guillotine. On Thermidor 10, <strong>the</strong> day<br />
following <strong>the</strong> meeting, Robespierre was executed. Over eighty <strong>of</strong> his followers<br />
27
were executed in <strong>the</strong> next few days. David was arrested on <strong>the</strong> 15th <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
month. 33<br />
While in prison, David flourished artistically. Here, his work was not<br />
being interrupted by <strong>the</strong> political demands he had before. This time, from his<br />
arrest in August to his release at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> 1795, is known as one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most<br />
fruitful <strong>of</strong> his career. In prison he<br />
learned <strong>the</strong> story <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sabine<br />
Women, and had begun sketches<br />
for a painting by <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> 1795.<br />
His urge to start <strong>the</strong> painting<br />
was so strong that in 1796, he<br />
deserted ano<strong>the</strong>r project in favor<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Intervention <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sabine<br />
Women (fig. 4). 34<br />
In <strong>the</strong> early days <strong>of</strong><br />
Roman history, <strong>the</strong> Romans<br />
Figure 4: Intervention <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sabine Women<br />
<br />
abducted <strong>the</strong> daughters <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
neighbors, <strong>the</strong> Sabines. The<br />
Sabines, in return, attacked<br />
Rome. However, Hersilia, <strong>the</strong> daughter <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sabine leader Tatius had married<br />
<strong>the</strong> Roman leader, Romulus. Because <strong>of</strong> this, <strong>the</strong> attack was delayed. David’s<br />
painting Intervention <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sabine Women depicts Hersilia standing between<br />
her fa<strong>the</strong>r and her husband, arms outstretched, and it is clear that battle had<br />
been going on behind <strong>the</strong>m. This painting marks David’s return to <strong>the</strong> classical<br />
iconology he captured prior to <strong>the</strong> Revolution. In this, he was turned to go<br />
back to <strong>the</strong> “source.” He was determined to capture <strong>the</strong> artistic principles <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Greeks. Though his subject was Roman, as before, his style was Greek. 35<br />
Just as <strong>the</strong> Greeks painted <strong>the</strong>ir heroes and gods, David decided to make<br />
his warriors nude. This was his attempt to strip away <strong>the</strong> unnecessary and leave<br />
only what was simply needed. In <strong>the</strong> painting, Hersilia and <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r Sabine<br />
Women appear to be practically bursting from in between <strong>the</strong> warriors. They,<br />
along with several small children, dominate <strong>the</strong> middle <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> painting. Hersilia<br />
captures <strong>the</strong> attention <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> audience as she stands, arms outstretched, in a<br />
white garment. Unlike his Tennis Court Oath, this painting only suggests <strong>the</strong><br />
presence <strong>of</strong> hundreds <strong>of</strong> men by showing only <strong>the</strong> tops <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir spears. Unlike<br />
earlier paintings, such as Brutus, David mutes his colors, allowing <strong>the</strong> vivid<br />
red he frequently utilized before to only be used sparingly. The majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
painting is done in bronze tones, under a cloudy sky with just a hint <strong>of</strong> bright<br />
blue. Also unlike Brutus, he limits <strong>the</strong> effects <strong>of</strong> shadowing and chiaroscuro, a<br />
term meaning contrast <strong>of</strong> light and dark. The majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> painting is washed<br />
in light, and it highlights <strong>the</strong> Sabine Women. 36<br />
David completed <strong>the</strong> image, one <strong>of</strong> his largest paintings, in 1799. Though<br />
<strong>the</strong> painting is stylistically different from his o<strong>the</strong>r work, <strong>the</strong> major difference<br />
is that this painting represents reconciliation over destruction and love over<br />
war. The painting depicts a battle, but <strong>the</strong> two sides are not fighting. The<br />
Sabine Women are blocking <strong>the</strong> two sides from one ano<strong>the</strong>r, forcing <strong>the</strong> battle<br />
to stop. The women represent love, and are trying to pull <strong>the</strong> Romans and <strong>the</strong><br />
28
Sabines toge<strong>the</strong>r. Unlike o<strong>the</strong>r paintings, such as Brutus, <strong>the</strong> painting shows<br />
no death. Also, David is no longer stressing <strong>the</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> a republic as he<br />
did in previous paintings. Instead, he is simply making <strong>the</strong> statement that love<br />
conquers all. 37<br />
The painting, like most <strong>of</strong> David’s work, represents <strong>the</strong> state <strong>of</strong> France<br />
at <strong>the</strong> time. By <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1790s, <strong>the</strong> French were growing tired <strong>of</strong> fighting<br />
with one ano<strong>the</strong>r. They had seen many governments come and go, and most<br />
were grieving <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> at least one loved one. The French were at war with<br />
<strong>the</strong>mselves, forcing some in <strong>the</strong> position <strong>of</strong> Hersilia in <strong>the</strong> painting: stuck<br />
between two people <strong>the</strong>y cared about, fighting one ano<strong>the</strong>r. People were willing<br />
to go to extremes in order to stop <strong>the</strong> fighting. The painting represents <strong>the</strong><br />
change in <strong>the</strong> French spirit. Unlike <strong>the</strong> enthusiastic Tennis Court Oath which<br />
pushed for a Republic above all else, this painting sought for reconciliation<br />
and a stop to <strong>the</strong> violence. Unlike <strong>the</strong> Death <strong>of</strong> Marat and o<strong>the</strong>rs, this painting<br />
was not commissioned as propaganda. This was David’s interpretation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
physiological state <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> country. He felt <strong>the</strong> urgent need to complete <strong>the</strong><br />
Intervention <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sabine Women in hopes <strong>of</strong> resolution. This painting also<br />
depicts women in a much stronger manner than <strong>the</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> David’s work.<br />
Typically, as in Brutus, women are shown in a weak manner. Now, women are<br />
<strong>the</strong> ones stepping forward in order to end <strong>the</strong> chaos <strong>of</strong> war. 38<br />
David attempted to capture <strong>the</strong> spirit <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> French Revolution through<br />
his paintings. The Lictors Bring to Brutus <strong>the</strong> Bodies <strong>of</strong> his Sons, one <strong>of</strong> his<br />
early works, depicts <strong>the</strong> feelings <strong>of</strong> France just before <strong>the</strong> Revolution began.<br />
This painting idealizes <strong>the</strong> Roman Republic, and shows that man should be<br />
willing to put <strong>the</strong> republic above all else. It shows a desperate attempt to create<br />
a republic, even at <strong>the</strong> death <strong>of</strong> loved ones. The Tennis Court Oath gives <strong>the</strong><br />
audience an inside view <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> forming <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> National Assembly. The images<br />
<strong>of</strong> men are enthusiastic and emotional, excited over what is to come. This<br />
sketch is a very realistic portrayal <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> feelings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> event. Death <strong>of</strong> Marat is<br />
unlike <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs, in that it is a symbol <strong>of</strong> propaganda for Robespierre’s regime.<br />
Instead <strong>of</strong> directly capturing <strong>the</strong> state <strong>of</strong> France in <strong>the</strong> manner <strong>of</strong> those before it,<br />
this painting was used to spark emotion in its audience. It depicts <strong>the</strong> pain and<br />
suffering that comes in <strong>the</strong> Revolution, and gives <strong>the</strong> Royalists a very negative<br />
image. Finally, <strong>the</strong> Intervention <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sabine Women shows <strong>the</strong> feelings <strong>of</strong><br />
France towards <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Revolution. The people had grown tired during<br />
<strong>the</strong> constantly changing government and most were mourning <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> loved<br />
ones. This painting inspires a calm ending to <strong>the</strong> war, with love prevailing over<br />
<strong>the</strong> fury. Each piece depicts <strong>the</strong> feeling <strong>of</strong> France at <strong>the</strong> time it was created.<br />
David’s work, as <strong>the</strong>se paintings exhibit, mirrors <strong>the</strong> changing spirit <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Revolution.<br />
29<br />
ENDNOTES<br />
1<br />
Hubertus Kohle, “The Road from Rome to Paris: The Birth <strong>of</strong> a Modern Neoclassicism,”<br />
Dorothy Johnson, ed. Jacques-Louis David: New Perspectives (Newark: <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Delaware<br />
Press, 2006), 71-72.
30<br />
2<br />
Philippe Bordes, “Jacques-Louis David’s Anglophilia on <strong>the</strong> Eve <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> French<br />
Revolution,” The Burlington Magazine 134, no. 1073 (August, 1992): 482-483,<br />
http://www.jstor.org/stable/885156 (accessed October 21, 2009).<br />
3<br />
David Lloyd Dowd, Pageant-Master <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Republic: Jacques-Louis David and <strong>the</strong> French<br />
Revolution (Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries Press, 1969), 6-19.<br />
4<br />
Jacques-Louis David, The Lictors Bring Brutus <strong>the</strong> Bodies <strong>of</strong> his Son, 1789, The Louvre<br />
Museum, Paris. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:David_Brutus.jpg (Accessed May 1, 2010) The<br />
full title <strong>of</strong> this work is J Brutus, First Consul, returned to his house after having condemned his two<br />
sons who had allied <strong>the</strong>mselves with <strong>the</strong> Tarquin and conspired against Roman liberty; <strong>the</strong> lictors<br />
return <strong>the</strong>ir bodies so that <strong>the</strong>y may be given burial, but it is rarely seen in full.<br />
5<br />
Simon Lee, David (London: Phaidon Press Limited, 1999), 116-119.<br />
6<br />
Warren Roberts, Jacques-Louis David, Revolutionary Artist: Art, Politics, and <strong>the</strong> French<br />
Revolution (Chapel Hill: <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> North Carolina Press, 1989), 33.<br />
7<br />
Lee, David, 116-121.<br />
8<br />
Luc de Nanteuil, Jacques-Louis David, The Library <strong>of</strong> Great Painters (New York: Harry N.<br />
Abrams, Inc., Publishers, 1985), 100.<br />
9<br />
Thomas Crow, Emulation: David, Drouais, and Girodet in <strong>the</strong> Art <strong>of</strong> Revolutionary<br />
France, rev. ed. (New Haven: Yale <strong>University</strong> Press, 2006), 107.<br />
10<br />
Nanteuil, Jacques-Louis David, 100.<br />
11<br />
Crow, Emulation, 108.<br />
12<br />
Nanteuil, Jacques-Louis David, 100.<br />
13<br />
Lee, David, 116-119.<br />
14<br />
Anita Brookner, Jacques-Louis David (New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1980), 91-92.<br />
15<br />
Internet Modern History Source Book: French Revolution, “The Tennis Court Oath: June,<br />
20, 1789,” Fordham <strong>University</strong> Internet History Sourcebooks Project,<br />
http://www.fordham.eduhalsall/mod/modsbook13.html (accessed November 3, 2009).<br />
16<br />
Roberts, Jacques-Louis David, Revolutionary Artist, 50-51.<br />
17<br />
Jacques-Louis David, The Tennis Court Oath, 1791, Chateau de Versailles,<br />
http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/File:Se ment_du _jeu_de_paume.jpg (accessed May 1, 2010).<br />
18<br />
Dorothy Johnson, Jacques-Louis David: <strong>the</strong> Farewell <strong>of</strong> Telemachus and Eucharis (Los<br />
Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Museum, 1997), 20; Warren Roberts, Jacques-Louis David and Jean-<br />
Louis Prieur, Revolutionary Artists: The Public, <strong>the</strong> Populace, and Images <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> French Revolution<br />
(Albany: State <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> New York, 2000), 227-228.<br />
19<br />
Antoine Schnapper, David (New York: Publishers <strong>of</strong> Fine Art Books, 1980), 102-106.<br />
20<br />
Brookner, Jacques-Louis David, 95-100, 155.<br />
21<br />
Lee, David, 141.
31<br />
22<br />
Helen Rosenau, The Painter Jacques-Louis David (London: Nicholson and Watson,<br />
1948), 53-55, 58-60.<br />
23<br />
Ewa Lajer-Burcharth, Necklines: The Art <strong>of</strong> Jacques-Louis David after <strong>the</strong> Terror (New<br />
Haven, CT: Yale <strong>University</strong> Press), 50-51.<br />
24<br />
Jacques-Louis David, “Resignation from <strong>the</strong> Académie” (November 11, 1792), quoted in<br />
Anita Brookner, Jacques-Louis David (New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1980), 100-101.<br />
25<br />
Roberts, Jacques-Louis David, Revolutionary Artist, 72-73.<br />
26<br />
William Vaughan and Helen Weston, ed. Jacques-Louis David’s Marat (Cambridge, NY:<br />
Cambridge <strong>University</strong> Press, 2000), 9-14.<br />
27<br />
Nanteuil, Jacques-Louis David, 112.<br />
28<br />
Jacques-Louis David, Death <strong>of</strong> Marat, 1793, Royal Museums <strong>of</strong> Fine Arts <strong>of</strong> Belgium,<br />
Brussels, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Death_<strong>of</strong>_Marat_by_David.jpg (accessed May 1, 2010).<br />
29<br />
Nanteuil, Jacques-Louis David, 112.<br />
30<br />
Vaughan, Jacques-Louis David’s Marat, 15-16.<br />
31<br />
Ibid., 17.<br />
32<br />
Roberts, Jacques-Louis David, Revolutionary Artist, 95.<br />
33<br />
Ibid., 99-101.<br />
34<br />
Ibid.; Jacques-Louis David, The Intervention <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sabine Women, 1799, The Louvre<br />
Museum, Paris, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sabine_women.jpg (accessed May 1, 2010).<br />
35<br />
Bordes, Philippe. Jacques-Louis David: Empire to Exile (New Haven: Yale <strong>University</strong><br />
Press, 2005), 195-198.<br />
36<br />
Karen Domenici, “James Gillray: An English Source for David’s Les Sabines” The<br />
Art Bulletin 65, no. 3 (September, 1983): 493-495, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3050351 (accessed<br />
October, 20, 2009); Robert Rosenblum, “A New Source for David’s ‘Sabines’,” The Burlington<br />
Magazine 104, no. 709 (April, 1962): 158-159, http://www.jstor.org/stable/873618 (accessed<br />
October 21, 2006).<br />
37<br />
Brookner, Jacques-Louis David, 143-145.<br />
38<br />
Roberts, Jacques-Louis David, Revolutionary Artist, 115.