undergraduates' attitudes and the study of mathematics at the ...

UNDERGRADUATES’ ATTITUDES AND THE STUDY OF
MATHEMATICS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF SWAZILAND*.
BY
DR. LUCKSON M. KAINO
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF BOTSWANA
PRIVATE BAG 002
GABORONE, BOTSWANA
PAPER PRESENTED TO THE ASSOCIATION OF AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES (AAU),
ACCRA-GHANA
*Version of the study titled “Gender attitudes and learning of maths among undergraduate
students at the University of Swaziland” conducted by the author while at the Faculty of
Education, University of Swaziland, Swaziland,1998.

‣ Abstract
‣ The paper analyses undergraduate attitudes and the study of mathematics at the University of
Swaziland. It involves performance, enrolment and dropout in mathematics;
interest,confidence and influencing factors to study the subject. The sample involves B.Sc
and B.Ed students,and University lecturers. A survey of literature on gender studies in Sub-
Saharan African countries is presented and particular attention is paid to gender studies on
mathematics done in the region and elsewhere. It is concluded that the teaching of the subject
should reflect the significance of the subject involving students’ future careers. The subject
should be taught with an application approach to arose interest among students; the curricula
as well as teaching of the subject are also to be gender sensitive. At the end, some
recommendations are suggested.
2

INTRODUCTION
Studies on gender disparities have been done in both developed and developing countries. In
these countries women in institutions of higher learning tend to concetrate in certain fields of
study such as humanities, home economics and arts, though more women have now enrolled in
other fields like business and public administration. The enrolment in the fields such as maths
and science related fields is however still limited. Low enrollment in maths and science fields
can be said to result from a number of factors affecting women especially at different levels of
schooling. For example traditional and cultural expectations from different societies in the
developing world in particular, seem to have an influence on subject choice and selection
especially at secondary school level.
In developed countries,where many studies on gender differences in maths have been done, some
different views have emerged whether the differences were declining in those countries or not.
Also some studies in both developed and developing countries have indicated that gender
differences in maths performance existed in upper grades and that they were not significant in
lower grades. The premise put forward is that gender differences could increase as students go to
higher levels of schooling. This article reviews such a trend with data involving performance,
attitudes, enrolment and dropout in the subject
Gender studies in Sub-Saharan Africa
Gender disparities in education in developing countries can be said to be characterised by some
influences from cultural and traditional practices. In Sub-Saharan Africa, education has been
influenced by for example indigenous cultures, religion and education provided in the western
3

culture style since 1960s most when African countries became independent. Although many
countries made efforts in education females and males in these countries were not equally
educated. The inequality in education is reflected in lower enrolment rates, higher dropout rates
and lower performances among girls in schools. Inequality is also found in curricular choices
offered at secondary and tertiary levels where for example low enrolment rates affected women
in science, maths and technical fields in general.
Some studies have indicated that the nature of schooling from the earliest years on, could shape
the capacities and strengths of the growing female (Maccia et al 1975). This implies that if we
have to look at the study of females at higher education e.g. at University level, we have also to
look into the schooling before entering university, by considering at these schools as even small
societies, the values they represent, the form and content of learning offered and the type of
educational environment which existed.
Some research findings on the relationship between gender and achievement has shown some
mixed results. For example, the study by Heyneman (1975) showed that gender was the most
single important variable in explaining differences in achievement in Ugandan schools where
boys performed better than girls. Using a national sample of secondary school leavers in
Tanzania, Amuge (1987) found that boys outperformed girls in secondary schools in almost
every subject except commerce. The study done in Mauritius by Chinapah (1983) found that girls
outperformed boys in both urban and rural areas. Another study done in Kenya by Boit (1986)
found that girls in government and government aided secondary schools performed as well as
boys, and pupils in single-sex schools performed better than those in mixed schools.
4

Some studies have shown that girls in single-sex schools performed better than girls in mixed
schools in Nigerian and Swaziland schools (Lockhead and Komenan, 1988; Kaino, 1996).
Though many studies did not investigate factors which affected girls performance in class,
factors such as family influences, traditional and school characteristics had a role to play in
influencing girls performance. For example girls had less time to study as they were burdened
with household tasks at home (than boys) and this was likely to lower their achievement
(Fapohunda 1978, Wrzesinska 1980, and Wheldon and Smith 1986). School characteristics could
involve for example the type of school (girls, boys or mixed), sex of teachers and the attitudes of
both students as well as teachers in learning in the school environment. Other school
characteristics could be the situation where teachers were less likely to encourage girls to pursue
maths and science subjects (Eshiwani 1983) and girls' schools where girls were more confident
with better performance than girls in mixed schools (Kaino, 1996).
Gender studies in mathematics
Many studies on gender differences in the study of maths have been done in developed countries
than in developing countries. While studies in developed countries have indicated that gender
differences in mathematical performance were diminishing in these countries, some other studies
have come up with contradicting views. The study by Hyde et al (1990) showed that for the past
30 years gender differences in maths performance were diminishing in developed countries. This
contention was supported by studies in Canada and United States by Lafortune (1989) and Frost
et al (1994) respectively. While Lafortune showed that girls and boys performed equally well in
maths the study revealed that girls had still some more negative attitude towards maths due to
their greater anxiety when learning maths.
5

A recent study done in Germany by Kaiser-Messmer (1994) contradicts the views that
gender differences in performance were diminishing. Kaiser-Massmer's study showed
that girls had significantly lower grades than boys in lower and upper secondary schools.
Furthermore, about twice as many girls as boys expressed no interest in maths at lower
secondary school level (11-15 year olds). At upper secondary school level (16-19 years)
there were no significant gender differences noted.
The existence of gender differences as early as in the fifth grade (at about 9 years of age)
and that they increased in higher grade was earlier noted by Winjstra (1988). This view
was also supported by Ethington and Wolfe (1984), Johnson (1987), and Martin and
Hoover (1987) who concluded that gender related differences in maths performance were
more clearer in older students (in higher grades). The above views would imply that
gender differences could exist beyond the high school level i.e. up to University level.
Some studies have indicated that socio-economic status of parents and family influences
(Gilbert 1986) and belief in maths future usefulness, positive attitudes towards maths and
socialising processes (Kaiser-Messmer, 1994) were significant factors in minimising
gender differences in maths performance. Experiences of girls, for example in the
classroom learning environment has tended to influence negative attitudes towards the
study of maths. Situations where for example teachers gave more attention to boys than
girls in class (Leder, 1987 & 1990; Becker, 1991), maths textbooks with gender bias
(Scott, 1980) and teachers reluctance to encourage girls to study maths (Eshiwani, 1983)
are among the factors considered to affect girls' attitudes as well as their performance in
maths.
6

The findings that girls were frightened of maths than boys (Tobias, 1978) and that girls
were unsure of their mathematical ability (Joffe and Foxman, 1986) could be a result of
such influences through negative practices in the classroom. A number of studies have
shown that boys' more interaction with teachers in class than girls tend to influence better
development of mathematical concepts among male students. Also the pattern of
interaction in class tended to make boys appear more competent in maths than girls
(Jungwirth, 1991). Boys greater use of verbal and non-verbal language to dominate more
of the teacher's time in terms of attention and classroom control is one of the influencing
factors favouring boys in class (Skelton, 1993). For example, boys attraction to the
teacher's time could be attained by boys being more mobile than girls in the classroom
(Serbin, 1978 and Lee, 1990).
The belief to some people that maths was a male domain Boswell (1985) was not only
held by ordinary people in society e.g. those who were not in the field of maths, but also
to maths teachers themselves. Some maths teachers had a belief that boys were more
academically capable than girls and that boys' maths contributions were more impressive
(Fennema at el 1990 and Fennema, 1990). Though some girls' work could be identical to
that of boys, boys could still be rated higher than girls. The sex of the teacher could also
be an influencing factor where for example the assessment of boys by a female teacher
could produce a generous mark, whilst the most severe marking of girls' work by a male
teacher (Goddar-Spear, 1989).
As some studies have shown, girls in co-education schools had some negative attitude
7

towards maths and that girls in single sex schools had a higher opinion of their
mathematical ability than girls in mixed schools (Gwizdala and Steinbach, 1990; Kaino,
1996) was an indication that studying in the co-education envirionment could be an
influencing factor affecting girls performance. As Martin (1981) argues, the premise that
the provision of the same learning materials e.g. books, laboratory equipment, qualified
teachers, etc. could produce female and male students with equal opportunities i.e.
perform equally well, build up confidence and interest in maths, was not likely to be
achieved if maths teachers were not sensitive to differences between boys and girls in coeducation
schools.
The views provided in the above cited studies indicate that there was still some mixed
feelings on the magnitude of gender differences in maths at lower levels and the increase
of gender differences at secondary and high schools. While there was some more
evidence that gender differences were not significant in lower grades, many studies have
shown that gender differences existed in upper grades. Though studies on gender
differences in maths were not many and much of the research has been done in developed
countries, the few studies done in developing countries and in Sub-Saharan African
region in particular showed almost similar results in maths gender differences done
elsewhere. However, literature on maths gender differences beyond high school level i.e.
at University level is scanty.
8

EMPIRICAL DATA AND ANALYSIS
The enrolment of students by gender in various courses at the University of Swaziland for 12
academic years (1982-1994), showed an increase of more than 100% (124%) in female
enrollment compared to an increase of about 50% for male enrolmment. However, the inrease in
female enrollment at the university did not imply an increase in female enrollment in the maths
course. For example, in the past 8 academic years i.e. 1989-1997, the rate of female enrollment
in maths at the univesity did not increase and on the average the enrollmewnt was only 8 female
students per academic year within this period (fig.1) below
9

Fig.1 ENROLMENT BY GENDER IN MATHS SUBJECTS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF SWAZILAND FROM SECOND
TO FOURTH YEAR BETWEEN 1989-1997
Academic
1989/90 1990/91 1991/92 1992/93 1993/94 1994/95 1995/96 1996/97
Year
YEAR M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F
II 33 8 36 7 44 6 43 10 33 5 25 6 23 9 28 8
III 29 4 29 4 23 6 40 6 28 5 40 * 5 27 * 8 * 21 7
IV 24 2 26 4 26 3 18 6 21 6 28 5 33 2 23 7
* Some students from other Universities enrolled in third year.
The findings also indicate that male student enrollment was declining year after year though the enrollment was higher than that of female students.
10

For example, the period 1989-1997 showed a decline of male enrollment, and up to 1996/97 academic year there was a decrease of 50% male
enrollment compared to the highest male enrollment in 1991/92 academic year. In 1996/97 academic year, male enrollment increased than the
previous academic years. Also in 1995/96 and 1996/97 there was an average increase in female enrollment. Whether this increase was realised in
following academic years after 1996/97 could not be predicted by the available information.
The student dropout showed some gender differences in certain periods of time. For instance, an increase in dropout in sex corresponded with a
decrease in dropout in the opposite sex and vice versa (fig.2) below. On the average, the rate of dropout for both sexes between 19898 and 1997 was
about 34% for female and 30% for male students per term of study i.e. from the time of enrollment to the end of the 3 year corse of study. Since the
difference was small, it could still be argued that the dropout by gender during this period was almost the same.
11

FIG. 2:
DROPOUT PERCENTAGE BY GENDER FOR STUDENTS IN
MATHS BETWEEN 1989-1997
ACADEMIC YEARS
PERCENTAGE DROUPOUT
FEMALE
MALE
1989/90 - 1991/92 63% (5) * 21% (7) *
1990/91 - 1992/93 14% (1) * 50% (18) *
1991/92 - 1993/94 0% (0) * 53% (23) *
1992/93 - 1994/95 50% (5) * 35% (15) *
1993/94 - 1995/96 60% (3) * 18% (7) *
1994/95 - 1996/97 13% (1) * 19% (5) *
*DropoutNumber.
13

Students' performance in the past academic years i.e. from 1989-1996 showed an almost equal
average score in maths between girls and boys, though generally girls scored a bit higher than
boys (fig.3) below. However, further analysis showed that Girls scored higher than boys in maths
(on the average) throughout their study i.e. since their enrolment in the course till they graduated
except in the three academic years (1989/90-1991/92) where average scores were about the same
for both sexes. The rest enrolment years i.e. 1990/91-1992/93, 1991/92-1993/94 and 1992/93-
1994/95, girls performed better than boys.
15

FIG.3: STUDENTS' AVERAGE SCORES IN PERCENTAGES (BY GENDER) IN MATHS IN END OF THE YEAR EXAMINATIONS
1989/90-1995/96
Academic
1989/90 1990/91 1991/92 1992/93 1993/94 1994/95 1995/96
Year
YEAR F M F M F M F M F M F M F M
II 60 61 61 59 63 58 60 56 66 64 63 63 56 59
III 60 57 57 57 62 55 55 53 69 58 59 61 57 60
IV 64 63 53 57 55 59 56 54 62 64 68 61 56 56
Key: 80 and above = A (Distinction)
70-79 = B (Very Good)
60-69 =C (Good)
16

50-59 =D (Pass)
40-49 =E (Fail-Supplementable)
below 40 =Fail
17

Undergraduate students who studied maths were generally intersted in the subject. All students in
the second and third years said they were interested inmaths. About 83% of students in the forth
year were interested in maths unlike about 17% who said they were not. The interest by gender,
showed that almost the same percentage of both sexes were interested and vice versa i.e. 86% of
females and 83% of males were interested while 14% of females and 17% of males were not
intersted. The reasons given for interest were scattered i.e. there was no dominating reason for
interest. Reasons given centred reasons such that maths gave base to other subjects, that it was
easy to study, that it helped in solving physical problems, that it was a logical subject (needed no
cramming), that it involved solving problems, and that it required a lot of thinking and many
others.
The students who did not like the subject said that maths was difficult, that some topics were not
applicable to daily life problems and that maths was not related to their major subjects at the
university. The background of students in the study showed that most students were mainly
encouraged to study the subject by maths teachers at secondary and high school levels. There
was also indications that both female and male students had less influence from their families to
study the subject.
Male students in the second and third years rated themselves higher than female students in their
mathematical ability at the average of 73% and 30% respectively. In the fourth year the rating of
mathematical ability by both sexes did not differ much i.e. females at about 57% and males at
50%. At this time of their final year most students expressed difficulty in studying the subject
and found some difficulties in relating maths to their future careers. Second year students were
more satisfied in the way maths was taught than other students in the third and fourth years.
19

About 70% said they were satisfied while 43% and 28% in the third and fourth years respectively
said they not were satisfied. In second year also, more females (75%) were more satisfied than
male students (64%) while in both third and fourth years almost the same percentage of males
and females were not satisfied (57%).
The findings indicated that students were more interested in maths in the second year than in the
last two years of their study. For example,the number of interestung topics to students dropped
from 17 in the second year to 10 in both third and fourth years. Both undergraduates and
postgraduates indicated that they lacked tutorials in the subject to reinforce what was taught in
lectures, and lacked time to cover the topics as lecturers had little time to thoroughly teach
especially abstract topics.
Students’ less interest in maths, that the subject had little application to real life situations
especially to their future careers, that it was not related to other subjects taken by them, that there
were no maths projects, reference books and textbooks, could be major reasons which made
students loose interest in the final year of study. At this final stage (in final year), where students
were thinking more of their future, the relevance of the subject or topics became crucial to their
expected careers. Some students’ dissatisfaction on how some maths lecturers taught the subject
could be related to the fact that some difficult topics were not thoroughly covered to involve
applications which could probably be acquired by students for future use either in daily activities
or in their careers.
Maths lectures indicated that students’ difficulties in grasping abstract mathematical concepts at
the university could be due to their poor background in the subject. It could also be argued that
20

the type of subject combination they study at unuversity, whereby students failed to relate maths
with their other majors could be another reason of losing interst in the subject. While students
identified many difficult topics in the second year of study, the number of difficult topics
decreased in the third year and was smaller in the fourth year. This finding indicated that while
students said they encountered some difficulties in maths at their final year, these difficulties
could be more related to their attitudes towards the subject upon graduation.
Mathematics topics in Real Analysis, Algebra and Foundations of maths featured frequently in
all the three years of study as difficult topics. The Real Analysis topic which was taught in the
third year and fourth years was also mentioned in the second year to be difficult,though student
at this level had not studied the topic. This situation indicated that some students could be
influenced by other students in upper classes in certain topics even if they have not been taught
the topic. The Foundations of maths topic,a seemingly easy topic taught in the second year was
also mentioned in the third year as one of the difficulkt topics. Lack of time to cover thoroughly
the maths content and lack of tutorials could be some of the reasons why such a topic could be
difficult to students. Courses like Linear Algebra and Abstract Algebra were rated as difficult by
all students throughout the course of their study.
Whereas generally many students were of the view that maths was not necessary for intelligent
studentd,there were some mixed feelings from both female and male students. Some students
(both female and males) said maths was for intelligent students as it was a tough subject and few
students managed to study the subject to higher levels. They added that maths needed sharp and
fast thinking, the qualities found with intelligent students. Those who said it was not for
intelligent students argued that maths could be learnt if more effort were applied to the subject
21

with positive attitudes and concetration.
Another view by most male students was that male students knew maths better than females
They were of the view that it were male students who got higher grades in the subject than
females, that males had higher thinking abilities, that boys at school did better than girls in the
subject and that at the university there were many male maths lecturers. In this study, out of 8
maths lecturers at the University of Swaziland, there was only one female lecturer. However,
considering the few number of students taking the subject, a generalization of their views could
not be made as it required a relatively larger sample which could be compared to other samples
elsewhere.
Cooperation (in the study of maths) between male and female students was welcomed by most
female students (82% against 61%) in the three years of study. Many female students indicated
that most male students were patient with them,that they were ready to help when required to and
that they were more cooperative than fellow female studnts. Some male students who were
against the idea of studying with females said that female students were lazy, that they did not
contribute to discussions, that they were emotional and that they could not concetrate when
studying with females.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The data used in the analysis was small due to the small number of students who studied maths
from the considered sample and the findings could not be generalized and compared with some
other data from larger samples. However, the data gave some important information on gender
attitude clues and trends in the study of maths for comparison elsewhere. For example, unlike in
22

high schools in Swaziland where gender differences in interest towards the subject existed, there
were no gender differenses in interest in the subject at undergraduate level. Also contrary to the
views in some studies that gender differencse in performance could be more clearer
at higher levels of schooling, no gender differences were noted in maths performance at
universaity level.
While both female and male students at university were less influenced by their parents and
guardians to study maths, they seemed tohave developed interest in the subject mainly from their
maths teachers at secondary and high school levels. This finding tend to imply that the few
students who were studying maths at undergraduate level were those students who were mostly
motivated at lower levels by their teachers. Such view could be related to some maths’ lecturers’
views at the university that students’ poor performance was due to students’ poor maths
background. Poor maths background had also to be related to the motivation of students at lower
levels of schooling. A decrease in the number of students who were interested in the subject
when they entered their last year of sudy (fourth year) could make an impact on future enrolment
in maths. Students’ view that maths was difficult and that it had no future career prospects could
affect students who intended to enroll in the course in future.
As some students said that they were discouraged by friends and relatives who were maths
graduates, the discouragement trend would definitely affect some students in enrolling in maths.
Furthrmore, the fact that some students identified topics which they had not studied was an
indication that some students e.g. in the first year were influenced by other students in the second
and third years that certain topics were difficult to understand. Also second year students could
be influenced by third year students.
23

To develop more interest in the subject it showed that the enrolment in the subject at University
level could be increased if more students were motivated to study the subject at lower levels.
And to attract more female students at lower levels the teaching of the subject had to be gender
sensitive. This would involve for example teachers who taught the subject and the teaching
materials e.g. textbooks. The teachers' role could be to avoid biases in class for example when
questioning students of both sexes, in providing assistance and motivation as already noted in
studies by Shifferraw, 1982; Eshiwani, 1983; Leder, 1987, 1990; Becker 1991, and Seegers &
Boekarts, 1996. The textbooks used could be gender sensitive that the content in these books
does not reinforce the masculine language as is the case with maths textbooks used in Swaziland
schools. For example, these textbooks identified more female activities in dressmaking and
cooking, unlike men who were identified in building, painting, driving cars, doing business,
insuring cars, etc. (Kaino, 1996). This situation could be taken to have a cultural or traditional
background where boys' and girls' activities were demarcated.
In many African countries, south of the Sahara, boys did the type of work which were regarded
more tougher than work done by the girls. For example, girls carried out duties which were
associated with domestic work and gardening while boys did duties like looking after cattle or
crops. Such social expectations from the society could also have influence on occupational
choices for both girls and boys. In order to overcome such influences, the maths textbooks used
at lower levels should be gender sensitive in content presentation or in other words the content
should be more "girl-friendly" as Whyte, et al (1985) put it.
24

On the other hand, it could be argued that maths students at undergraduate level were the
products of the biased maths curricula at lower levels. For example the higher rating of maths
ability among male students than that of females could be traced from lower levels (at both
secondary and high schools in swaziland) where boys rated themslves higher than girls though in
some cases girls were better than girls.The analysis in this article showed that female students
performed equally well as male students and the general performance of females was better than
that of male students. Such attitude could be taken to be the influence from lower levels where in
some stuydies it had shown that girls were unsure of their mathematiucal abilities (Soffe and
Foxman, 1986).
Female students' more willingness to study maths with male students at university could also be
related to girls views at secondary and high schools in the country where girls considered boys to
be more superior in maths subject. Though some girls at lower levels were not ready to
cooperate with boys in studying maths because of the reason that they could not concentrate,
many female students at university had no such problem. Such a situation could be taken as
female students' experience and maturity at undergraduate level. As the findings showed, female
willingness to cooperate with male students did not imply that females were weak in the subject.
But still, female students at this level needed more cooperation from male students and maths
lecturers.
The findings in studies by McCombs and Whislers (1989) and Jones & Jones (1989) that girls
needed teachers who were patient with them and teachers who could listen to them so that they
could build up self-concept ability, could also be related to undergraduate female students in this
study who still required such attention at this level. To remedy the studying environment where
25

gender was involved such an attention should not be ignored. Both students (of both sexes) and
maths lecturers were to be gender sensitive in the studying environment. To create a gendersensitive
situation requires some strategies on how to overcome such a situation. In some
countries where gender study courses were introduced at undergraduate levels, the programmes
did not involve male students as well. Some critics argued that the gap in gender awareness was
thus biased as males were not involved. While it could be difficult to enroll many male students
in gender courses it was important that males were also invited so that they could be aware of
gender issues. Instead of designing separate gender courses at university, which could face some
resistance from some students and may be from some staff members, such courses could be
integrated in the university curriculum by rewriting some courses which were gender sensitive.
In some universities where courses like Development Studies were compulsory for first year
students, it could be one of the areas where gender issues could be introduced if such a course
were also to be introduced at the University of Swaziland. It is through such courses where
different gender issues could be addressed. This involved also seminars and workshops for the
entire University community. The University had also to provide more facilities for training
female academic staff in courses like maths where for example there was one female lecturer in
maths at the University. This could be possible if more females were attracted from lower school
levels before joining the University.
Like in other universities elsewhere, the large enrolment of students in various courses does not
necessarily mean an increase in maths course enrolment. In order for students to be more
interested in maths, the teaching of maths at University level had to take a different approach
where application aspects were involved. This would mean to rewrite the curriculum which
26

eflected real life situation in the study so that students could realise maths applications in their
future careers. Though it could be difficult to relate some areas of maths to real situations, many
topics in the subject could be taught by identifying certain areas which could be illustrated
involving application aspects. For example, the significance of innovating the maths curriculum
to involve applications was seen from students’ lower rating of their abilities at their final year of
study. This situation gave some clue that while students seemed to have understood the taught
content they were not confident with the material covered as it could not be related to their future
careers.
RECOMMENDATIONS
It is recommended that (1) maths be taught with an application approach by involving real life
aspects, (2) maths curricula be designed to involve students’ career prospects, (3) maths curricula
and teaching methods be designed to involve gender issues, (4) to enrol more maths
undergraduates of both sexes, students should be motivated from lower levels and (5) further
research be done involving (1) a larger sample in the region for comparison purposes,and (ii)
maths curricula offered at university level and the demand of maths graduates in the market i.e.
outside university, in places like educational institutions, factories, industries, etc.
REFERENCES
27

Amuge, I.M. (1987): Gender Differences in Academic and Post-School Experience among
Tanzania Secondary School Students. ED.D.diss. State University of New Dale,
Albany.
Becker, J. (1981): Differential treatment of females and males in mathematics in classes. In
Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 12, pp. 40-53.
Boit, M.K. (1986): The Relationship of Teacher Behaviour to Student Achievement in High and
Low Achievement High Schools in Nairobi, Kenya. PhD
dissertation,UniversityofOregon,Eugen.
Boswell, S. (1985): The influence of sex-role stereotyping on women attitude and achievement
in mathematics. In S. Chipman, L.Brush, and D. Wilson (eds) Women
and
Mathematics: Balancing the Equation, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, pp. 175-198.
Chinapah, V. (1983): Participation and Performance in Primary Schooling In Studies in
Comparative and International Education 8. University of Stockholm,
Institute of International Education.
Ethington, C.A. and Wolfe, L.M. (1984): Sex Differences in Causal Model of Mathematics
377.
Achievements. In Journal for Research Mathematics Education 15, pp. 361-
28

Eshiwani, G. (1983): A Study of Women's Access to Higher Education in Kenya with special
reference to maths and science. In Engendering School Learning. University
of Stockholm.
Fapohunda, E.R. (1978): Women at Work in Nigeria. Factors Affecting Modern Sector
Employment. In U.G. Damachi and V.P. Diejomaoh, eds, Human Resources
and African Development, New York, Praeger.
Fennema, E. (1990): Teachers' Belief and Gender Differences in Mathematics. In E.
Fennema and G. Leder (eds) Mathematics and Gender. Teacher College, Columbia
University, New York, pp.169-187.
Fennema, E. et al (1990): Teachers' Attribution and Beliefs about Girls, Boys and Mathematics.
In Educational Studies in Mathematics Journal, Vol21, pp.55-69.
Frost, L.A. et al (1994): Gender, Mathematics Performance and Mathematics Related
Attitudes and Affect. A Meta -analytic Synthesis. International Journal of
Educational Research, 21, pp.373-385.
Gilbert, C. (1986): Influence Familiale Daws Le Choix d'une Carrie're Non Tradiationale Chex
Les Files. In L. Lafortune (ed) Feunnes at Mathe'matique, Les Editions du
Renne Me'nage, Montreal, pp.165-194.
29

Goddard-Spear, M. (1989): Differences Between the Written Work of Boys and Girls. In
British Educational Research Journal, 15(3), pp.272-277.
Gwizdala, J and Steinback, M. (1990): High School Females Mathematics Attitudes: An Interim
Report. In School Science and Mathematics 90, pp. 215-222.
Hyde, S.H. et al (1990): Gender Differences in Mathematics Performance: A Meta-analysis. In
Psychological Bulletin 107, pp.139-155.
Heyneman, J. (1975): Influences on Academic Achievement in Uganda. A'Coleman Report,
from a Non-Industrial Society. PhD Dissertation. University of Chicago,
CHICAGO.
Joffe, L. and Foxman, D. (1986): Attitudes and Sex Differences- Some APU Findings. In L.
Burton (ed), Girls, into Maths Can Go, Holt Educational, London, pp. 38-50.
Johnson, S. (1987): Early Development Sex Differences in Science and Mathematics in the
United Kingdom. In Journal of Early Adolescence 7, pp. 21-33.
Jungwirth, H. (1991): Interaction and Gender-Findings of Micro-ethnographical Approach to
Classroom Discourse. In Education Studies in Mathematics 22, pp.263-284.
Kaino, L.M. (1996): The Analysis of Gender Differences in Attitudes Towards the Study of
Mathematics Among Secondary and High School Students in Swaziland.
30

Kaiser-Messmer, G. (1994): Result of an Empirical Study into Gender Differences in
Attitudes Towards Mathematics. In Educational Studies in Mathematics Journal
vol.25, pp. 209.
Lafortune, L. (1989): Attitudes, Differences at Enseignement Des Mathematiques. In 1,
Lafortune (ed) Quelle Differences Les Editions du Renue-Me'nage, Montreal,
pp. 151-158.
Leder, G. (1987): Teachers Student Interaction: A Case Study. In Educational Studies in
Mathematics Journal Vol. 18 pp. 255-273.
Leder, G. (1990): Teachers/student interactions in Mathematics Classroom: A Different
Perspective. In E. Fennema & G. Leder (eds), Mathematics and
Gender, Teacher College, Columbia University, New York pp.149-168.
Lee, D. (1990): "Chatterboxes". In Child Education, 67 (7), pg.26-27.
Lockheed, M.E. and Komenan, A. (1988): School Effects on Student Achievement in
Nigeria
and Swaziland. Policy Research Working Paper 71. World Bank, Washington D.C.
Maccia, E.S. et al (1975): Women and Education. Charles C. Thomas, U.S.A.
Martin, D.J. and Hoover, H.D. (1987): Sex Differences in Educational Achievement.
Cognitudinal Study. In Journal of Early Adolescence, 7, pp. 65-83.
31

Masemann, V.L. (1977): The Hidden Curriculum of a West African Girls' Boarding School. In
Canadian Journal of African Studies (3).
McCombs, B.L. & Whisler, J.S. (1989): The role of affective variables in autonomous learning.
In Education Psychologist, 24, pp.227-306.
Scott, M. (1990): Teach Her a Lesson. Sexist Curriculum in Patriarchal Education. In
Learning To Lose, Spender, D. & Sarah, E. (eds), London.
Seegers, G. & Boekaerts, M. (1996): Gender-related differences in self-referenced cognitions
in relation to maths. In Journal for Research in Mathematics Education,
Vol.27, No.2, pp. 215-240.
Serbin, (1978): Teachers, Peers and Play Preference. In Perspective on Non-Sexist Early
Childhood Education, Spring, B. (ed), Teacher College Press, London.
Shifferraw, F.D. (1992): The Socialization in Zambian Secondary Schools. Educational
Policy and Practice. Paper presented at H.S. Seminar Seeries. Institute for
African Studies, University of Zambia.
Tobias, S. (1978): Overcoming Maths Anxiety, Norton, New York.
Winjstra, J.M. (1988): Mathematics in Primary Education. First results of the Dutch
32

National Assessment Program in Education in Grades 5 and 8. Aruhem, Netherlands,
National Institute for Educational Measurement.
Wheldon, A. & Smith A. (1986): Gender Based Differences in 'O' Level subjects Choic and
Performance in Swaziland. SIER BULLETIN 7, pg 78-100.
Wrzesinska, A. (1980): A Young African Girl, Her School and Her Family Environment. In
Africa 35, pg. 357-38
Whyte, J. (1981): Home Economics and Sex Differentiation in the Secondary School
Curriculum. In Journal of Consumer Studies and Home Economics, No. 4
pg. 361-377.
33