Market survey of fodder supporting peri- urban livestock in Mandera
Market survey of fodder supporting peri- urban livestock in Mandera
Market survey of fodder supporting peri- urban livestock in Mandera
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<strong>Market</strong> <strong>survey</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong><br />
<strong>support<strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>peri</strong><strong>urban</strong><br />
<strong>livestock</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Mandera</strong><br />
For the Enhanced<br />
Livelihoods <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Mandera</strong><br />
Triangle and Enhanced<br />
Livelihoods <strong>in</strong> Southern<br />
Ethiopia – (ELMT/ELSE)<br />
Nyangaga, J., T Ounga, T, B Gebremedh<strong>in</strong>, D Baker, B. Lukuyu, and T. Randolph<br />
December 2009
Abstract<br />
This report is a result <strong>of</strong> a study explor<strong>in</strong>g the production <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong>, its trade and its use <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Mandera</strong><br />
Triangle, particularly the towns <strong>of</strong> <strong>Mandera</strong> (Kenya), Dollow Ado (Ethiopia) and Dollow and Luuq<br />
Somalia. The study describes the importance <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> for the community and how <strong>fodder</strong> production<br />
and market<strong>in</strong>g benefits those <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> its supply and use. Given the scarcity <strong>of</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>‐fed forage,<br />
attention is given to the adequacy <strong>of</strong> irrigated <strong>fodder</strong> supplied as feed and the susta<strong>in</strong>ability <strong>of</strong> the<br />
system <strong>in</strong> light <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g demand and supported <strong>in</strong>put supply that artificially reduces overall costs <strong>of</strong><br />
production. Data were collected us<strong>in</strong>g key <strong>in</strong>formant <strong>in</strong>terviews with relevant government <strong>of</strong>fices, local<br />
and <strong>in</strong>ternational NGOs, focus group discussions with various actor groups, and household <strong>survey</strong>s us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a detailed questionnaire. This <strong>in</strong>formation provides better understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> market structure<br />
and the relationship between pastoral and <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> systems and river<strong>in</strong>e agro‐pastoral<br />
farmers. The system <strong>in</strong>volves about 2000 agro‐pastoralists (farmers) liv<strong>in</strong>g along the banks <strong>of</strong> the rivers<br />
<strong>in</strong> the central area <strong>of</strong> the ELMT/ ELSE. Fodder is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly be<strong>in</strong>g produced and used by the agropastoralists<br />
themselves with deliberate and <strong>in</strong>cidental surpluses sold to resident and transit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>urban</strong><br />
and <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> keepers, estimated at 25000 to 30000 households. Various actors share the<br />
economic benefits, as <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong>comes from sales <strong>of</strong> healthier and larger <strong>livestock</strong> herds or replaced<br />
losses. The study reveals the crucial role <strong>of</strong> external <strong>in</strong>put supply and the fragility <strong>of</strong> such a system, and<br />
provides a better understand<strong>in</strong>g among all cha<strong>in</strong> actors <strong>of</strong> the economic system <strong>in</strong> which they act, their<br />
roles, potential opportunities and threats to the cha<strong>in</strong> structure and how <strong>in</strong>dividuals can best manage<br />
for cha<strong>in</strong>‐wide ga<strong>in</strong>. Recommendations focus on how to best exploit actor‐specific and cha<strong>in</strong>‐wide<br />
circumstances to enhance <strong>fodder</strong> supply and its role <strong>in</strong> <strong>support<strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>livestock</strong>‐dependent livelihoods.<br />
Keywords: Horn <strong>of</strong> Africa, <strong>fodder</strong>, value cha<strong>in</strong>, pastoralists, livelihoods
Abbreviations and acronyms<br />
Abbreviations, acronyms Full titles<br />
ADF<br />
Acid detergent fibre<br />
ADL<br />
Acid detergent lign<strong>in</strong><br />
AEZ<br />
Agro‐ecological zone<br />
ALRMP<br />
Arid Lands Resource Management Programme<br />
ArcGIS<br />
A suite <strong>of</strong> geographic <strong>in</strong>formation system (GIS) s<strong>of</strong>tware products<br />
AEZ<br />
Agro‐ecological zone(s)<br />
CARE Somalia, Kenya, Ethiopia The CARE <strong>of</strong>fices for Somalia, Kenya and Ethiopia<br />
CBO(s)<br />
Community‐based Organization(s)<br />
COOPI<br />
Cooperazione Internazionale<br />
CP<br />
Crude prote<strong>in</strong><br />
DLPO<br />
District Livestock Production Office or Officer<br />
DM<br />
Dry matter<br />
ELMT<br />
Enhanced Livelihoods <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Mandera</strong> Triangle<br />
ELSE<br />
Enhanced Livelihoods <strong>in</strong> Southern Ethiopia<br />
ESRI<br />
Environmental Systems Research Institute<br />
FAO<br />
Food and Agriculture Organization<br />
FGD<br />
Focus group discussions<br />
Ha, ha<br />
Hectare<br />
HH, HHs, hhs<br />
Household(s)<br />
ILRI<br />
International Livestock Research Institute<br />
KARI<br />
Kenya Agricultural Research Institute<br />
KEPHIS<br />
Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Station<br />
KES<br />
Kenya Shill<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
Kg (s)<br />
Kilogram(s)<br />
Km(s)<br />
Kilometre(s)<br />
NGO(s)<br />
Non‐Governmental Organization(s)<br />
NRC<br />
National Research Council<br />
RELPA<br />
Regional Enhanced Livelihoods <strong>in</strong> Pastoral Areas<br />
SAVE UK, SAVE US<br />
Save the Children UK and US<br />
TLU, TLUs<br />
Tropical <strong>livestock</strong> unit<br />
USAID<br />
United States Agency <strong>of</strong> International Development<br />
USD United States Dollars 1<br />
VSF‐Suisse<br />
Vétér<strong>in</strong>aires Sans Frontières Suisse<br />
w/w<br />
Weight to weight (when calculat<strong>in</strong>g percentage content)<br />
1 At the time <strong>of</strong> the <strong>survey</strong> (Aug – Sep 2009), 1 USD was equivalent to 6 Ethiopian birr, 75 Kenya and 450 Somalia shill<strong>in</strong>gs
Contents<br />
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ......................................................................................................................... 6<br />
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 8<br />
2. Survey objectives ......................................................................................................................... 8<br />
3. Methodology .............................................................................................................................. 10<br />
4. The <strong>fodder</strong> products ................................................................................................................... 11<br />
5. The <strong>fodder</strong> market actors ........................................................................................................... 13<br />
5.1. Actor pr<strong>of</strong>iles ............................................................................................................................... 16<br />
5.1. Fodder market size and cha<strong>in</strong> performance ................................................................................ 20<br />
6. Other players: cha<strong>in</strong> support systems ......................................................................................... 29<br />
7. Environmental and social impacts <strong>of</strong> the market cha<strong>in</strong> ............................................................... 32<br />
8. Discussion .................................................................................................................................. 34<br />
9. Recommendations and way forward .......................................................................................... 36<br />
9.1. <strong>Market</strong> structure organization and governance ......................................................................... 36<br />
9.1. The market system development approach ................................................................................ 36<br />
9.2. On policy and effective <strong>support<strong>in</strong>g</strong> environment ........................................................................ 36<br />
9.3. Production support ...................................................................................................................... 38<br />
9.4. On utilization ............................................................................................................................... 39<br />
9.5. On <strong>fodder</strong> market performance .................................................................................................. 40<br />
10. Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 42<br />
11. References .............................................................................................................................. 43<br />
12. Appendices ............................................................................................................................. 45<br />
Appendix 1: Questionnaire used ............................................................................................................. 45<br />
Appendix 2: Photographs from <strong>fodder</strong> production and market<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the ELMT ..................................... 47<br />
List <strong>of</strong> figures<br />
Figure 1. Map show<strong>in</strong>g the targeted rivers bas<strong>in</strong>s and towns ...................................................................... 9<br />
Figure 2. The <strong>fodder</strong> market cha<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> the EMLT area ................................................................................. 15<br />
Figure 3.Distribution <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> by agro pastoralists overall and dur<strong>in</strong>g the ra<strong>in</strong>y and dry season ............ 23
List <strong>of</strong> tables<br />
Table 1. Actor category sample size selection for detailed <strong>survey</strong> ............................................................. 11<br />
Table 2. Crops grown and traded as <strong>fodder</strong> crops <strong>in</strong> the ELMT region ...................................................... 12<br />
Table 3. Frequency respondents’ mention <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> species <strong>in</strong> production, use and sale ........................ 13<br />
Table 4. Estimation <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> market cha<strong>in</strong> actors’ populations (households or farms) ........................... 14<br />
Table 5. <strong>Market</strong> actor pr<strong>of</strong>iles, show<strong>in</strong>g gender, age, education, household size and permanent labour 16<br />
Table 6. Livestock ownership per household by agro‐pastoralists and <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> keepers found<br />
<strong>in</strong> the MKanedra Triangle ........................................................................................................................... 20<br />
Table 7. Total productivity <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> per day by the agropastoral farms <strong>in</strong> the ELMT river bas<strong>in</strong>s ........... 21<br />
Table 8. Nutrient composition <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> produced and shared out by the agro‐pastoralist .............. 22<br />
Table 9. An annual enterprise budget estimate for <strong>livestock</strong> and <strong>fodder</strong> produced by an agro‐pastoralist<br />
farm <strong>in</strong> the ELMT ......................................................................................................................................... 24<br />
Table 10. Daily purchases, sales and net earn<strong>in</strong>gs by <strong>fodder</strong> transporters dur<strong>in</strong>g the ra<strong>in</strong>y and dry season<br />
<strong>in</strong> the ELMT ................................................................................................................................................. 26<br />
Table 11. Daily purchases, sales and net earn<strong>in</strong>gs by traders dur<strong>in</strong>g the ra<strong>in</strong>y and dry season ................ 27<br />
Table 12 An annual enterprise budget estimate for <strong>livestock</strong> produced by a <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> farm <strong>in</strong> the ELMT<br />
.................................................................................................................................................................... 28<br />
Table 13. Distribution <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> seed to agro‐pastoral farmers by some <strong>of</strong> the organizations ................. 31<br />
List <strong>of</strong> boxes; case examples<br />
Box 1. SHARE CROPPING IN THE DAUE AND DOLLOW RIVER FARMS OF THE MANDERA TRIANGLE ......... 18<br />
Box 2. BASIN TROUGHS FACILITATE IRRIGATION ....................................................................................... 23<br />
Box 3. OMAR GURE – A FODDER TRANSPORTER ........................................................................................ 25<br />
Box 4. UJEEDO BADAN – A FARMERS COOPERATIVE FOR FODDER ............................................................ 30
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY<br />
The Enhanced Livelihoods <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Mandera</strong> Triangle (ELMT/ ELSE), is a project <strong>of</strong> USAID’s broader<br />
Regional Enhanced Livelihoods <strong>in</strong> Pastoral Areas (RELPA). The ELMT – through the VSF Suisse <strong>of</strong>fice –<br />
commissioned a market <strong>survey</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> for <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Mandera</strong> region. The broad<br />
objective was to study the <strong>fodder</strong> market practices <strong>in</strong> the EMLT operation area cover<strong>in</strong>g the three<br />
countries – the <strong>fodder</strong> production, transportation, trade and use – as an <strong>in</strong>come generat<strong>in</strong>g activity <strong>in</strong><br />
the target area. Data was collected from <strong>urban</strong> and <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>Mandera</strong>, Dollow Ado and<br />
Dollow and Luuq towns, us<strong>in</strong>g key <strong>in</strong>formants, focus groups and household <strong>survey</strong>s.<br />
The <strong>fodder</strong> markets are found associated with the <strong>urban</strong> centers along the rivers Daua (flow<strong>in</strong>g along<br />
the Kenya‐Ethiopia and Ethiopia‐Somalia borders) and Genale <strong>in</strong> Ethiopia before it jo<strong>in</strong>s with Daua<br />
around Dollow town to flow as river Jubba <strong>in</strong>to Somalia. The <strong>fodder</strong> is grown by the river<strong>in</strong>e farmers<br />
who, after us<strong>in</strong>g some for their own <strong>livestock</strong>, sell the surplus to other <strong>livestock</strong> users, either directly or<br />
through transporters and traders <strong>in</strong> and around the mentioned towns. The significant <strong>fodder</strong> types<br />
found <strong>in</strong> the area were maize stover, cowpeas v<strong>in</strong>es, sorghum stalks, Napier and fresh Sudan grass as<br />
well as weeds harvested from farms by labourers and share‐croppers.<br />
The agro‐pastoralists were ma<strong>in</strong>ly male‐headed households over thirty years <strong>of</strong> age own<strong>in</strong>g on average<br />
thirteen hectares <strong>of</strong> farmland. Some <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> is grown actually by labourers or relatives who have<br />
been allowed access to the river<strong>in</strong>e land by the owners <strong>in</strong> a share‐cropp<strong>in</strong>g arrangement. The <strong>fodder</strong> is<br />
transported to markets and consum<strong>in</strong>g <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> keepers by transporters (mostly young<br />
males) us<strong>in</strong>g donkey carts. The <strong>fodder</strong> traders were women who sell green fresh <strong>fodder</strong> bundles to<br />
<strong>livestock</strong> keepers com<strong>in</strong>g to the open markets. Other significant players <strong>in</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> market were the<br />
M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Livestock Development <strong>in</strong> Kenya, as the overall coord<strong>in</strong>ator <strong>of</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> improvement<br />
programs <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Mandera</strong>, and the Kenya‐based Arid Lands Resource Management Programme (ALRMP)<br />
which <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong>tensive <strong>fodder</strong> production <strong>in</strong> the region dur<strong>in</strong>g its first 1996 – 2003 phase. Other<br />
actors are local research stations and <strong>in</strong>ternational NGOs, such as VSF Suisse, COOPI, Save the Children<br />
US, <strong>Mandera</strong> Polytechnic, the Islamic Relief Foundation and Dollow Farmers Cooperative Society (DFCS).<br />
The agro‐pastoralists farms have the potential to produce an average 2,000 kgs <strong>of</strong> fresh <strong>fodder</strong> (255 kgs<br />
DM) per hectare. Us<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>tegrated tropical <strong>livestock</strong> unit (TLU) weight <strong>of</strong> 200 kgs, and an estimated<br />
daily DM <strong>in</strong>take <strong>of</strong> 3 – 4 % <strong>of</strong> the animals’ live weight, this has the potential <strong>support<strong>in</strong>g</strong> 4,000 TLUs<br />
compared to the current density <strong>of</strong> 1,000TLUs per ha (CIESIN, 2004).<br />
Fodder production and its use is be<strong>in</strong>g driven by the follow<strong>in</strong>g major factors:<br />
1. The rivers – Daua, Dollow and Jubba, which are the ma<strong>in</strong> source <strong>of</strong> water be<strong>in</strong>g used to irrigate the<br />
crops and <strong>fodder</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g produced.<br />
2. Urban and <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> population and associated demand for <strong>fodder</strong> have created a <strong>fodder</strong> market<br />
that is steadily grow<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
6
3. Extreme seasonal ex<strong>peri</strong>ences with more frequent droughts becom<strong>in</strong>g less predictable and ra<strong>in</strong>fall<br />
patterns more erratic. The <strong>livestock</strong> keepers can no longer rely on predictable pastures and are<br />
choos<strong>in</strong>g to settle near the <strong>fodder</strong> supplies which <strong>of</strong>fer more reliable availability.<br />
4. Improved <strong>in</strong>comes for livelihoods from <strong>fodder</strong> production and trade encourag<strong>in</strong>g more farmers who<br />
have access to land and water to go <strong>in</strong>to <strong>fodder</strong> production.<br />
5. Extension education and <strong>in</strong>creased awareness <strong>of</strong> the production potential <strong>of</strong>fer greater appreciation<br />
<strong>of</strong> benefits possible from <strong>fodder</strong> production and trad<strong>in</strong>g. Participants <strong>in</strong>terviewed expressed their<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> shift<strong>in</strong>g from pastoral lifestyles to farm<strong>in</strong>g practices rely<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>fodder</strong> production.<br />
The study makes the follow<strong>in</strong>g recommendations:<br />
1. Tra<strong>in</strong> all actors on the structure <strong>of</strong> this system, the value <strong>of</strong> their roles and demonstrate how they<br />
can work together to strengthen the cha<strong>in</strong> to <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong>dividual net ga<strong>in</strong>s. A more organized<br />
structure can develop a more effective l<strong>in</strong>k between the <strong>fodder</strong> production and these consumers.<br />
Collective actions, such as work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> groups, may help m<strong>in</strong>imize production and operational costs<br />
and <strong>in</strong>crease net marg<strong>in</strong>s.<br />
2. There is a case for the <strong>in</strong>troduction or improvement <strong>of</strong> current <strong>fodder</strong> types (species and varieties)<br />
to those that can be produced <strong>in</strong> larger amounts us<strong>in</strong>g the current irrigation system. This requires<br />
plant multiplication and agronomic coach<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>in</strong>troduce suitable forage types, while safeguard<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the environment’s diversity.<br />
3. It is possible to more effectively irrigate the land for food and <strong>fodder</strong> production through better<br />
provision or support <strong>of</strong> irrigation equipment and services through cost‐shar<strong>in</strong>g with affordable costrecovery<br />
programs. The second aspect is to have reliable source <strong>of</strong> seeds that are available from<br />
commercial sources <strong>in</strong> ways that will encourage local entrepreneurship.<br />
4. A specific policy recommendation is for support by the seed regulation agent <strong>in</strong> Kenya Plant Health<br />
Inspectorate Station (KEPHIS) to consider a regulatory environment that would support communitybased<br />
seed production and distribution.<br />
5. The <strong>fodder</strong> market will deliver the <strong>fodder</strong> for which the demand com<strong>in</strong>g or will come from farther<br />
<strong>in</strong>land nomadic pastoralists would be better supported by road networks that enable such delivery<br />
<strong>of</strong> the feed at low cost.<br />
The <strong>fodder</strong> market, as demonstrated, is a vibrant activity <strong>in</strong> the area. It is likely to cont<strong>in</strong>ue given the<br />
factors favour<strong>in</strong>g its existence. The agents operat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the area are asked to consider ways they can<br />
support the system <strong>in</strong> favour <strong>of</strong> the communities that rely on it for its livelihood.<br />
7
1. Introduction<br />
The Enhanced Livelihoods project <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Mandera</strong> Triangle (ELMT/ ELSE) is part <strong>of</strong> USAID’s broader<br />
Regional Enhanced Livelihoods <strong>in</strong> Pastoral Areas (RELPA) Program that aims to support a more effective<br />
move from emergency‐relief dependency to resiliency and susta<strong>in</strong>able actions promot<strong>in</strong>g long‐term<br />
economic development <strong>in</strong> pastoral areas (ELMT RELPA website, 2009). ELMT/ ELSE is be<strong>in</strong>g implemented<br />
by a consortium <strong>of</strong> humanitarian and development organizations work<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>in</strong>crease the self‐reliance<br />
and resiliency <strong>of</strong> drought prone pastoral communities <strong>in</strong> the region through improved livelihoods <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Horn <strong>of</strong> Africa.<br />
The consortium consists <strong>of</strong> six lead‐partners: CARE Somalia, CARE Kenya, CARE Ethiopia, VSF‐Suisse,<br />
SAVE US and SAVE UK as well as more than a dozen local partners. At the time <strong>of</strong> the study the program<br />
worked with about 550,000 beneficiaries <strong>in</strong> the southern Ethiopia, parts <strong>of</strong> Somalia and north/northeastern<br />
Kenya and has strategic objectives that <strong>in</strong>clude reduc<strong>in</strong>g the requirements for emergency<br />
assistance <strong>of</strong> populations liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> pastoral areas <strong>in</strong> the event <strong>of</strong> a livelihood crisis, <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g household<br />
<strong>in</strong>comes and economic resiliency <strong>of</strong> populations liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> pastoral areas; and strengthen<strong>in</strong>g conditions<br />
for pastoralists to participate <strong>in</strong> broader social and economic development processes.<br />
In July 2009, the ELMT – through the VSF Suisse <strong>of</strong>fice – commissioned a market <strong>survey</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> for<br />
<strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Mandera</strong>, which ILRI responded to.<br />
This is a report on the study f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs whose objectives are detailed below.<br />
2. Survey objectives<br />
The broad objective was to study the <strong>fodder</strong> market practices <strong>in</strong> the EMLT operation area cover<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
three countries (Figure 1) – the <strong>fodder</strong> production, transportation, trade and use – as an economic<br />
livelihood <strong>in</strong> the target area.<br />
The target area is shown <strong>in</strong> Figure 1<br />
8
Figure 1. Map show<strong>in</strong>g the targeted rivers bas<strong>in</strong>s and towns<br />
ETHIOPIA<br />
River Genale<br />
Dollow town<br />
River Daue<br />
<strong>Mandera</strong> town<br />
River Juba<br />
Luuq town<br />
KENYA<br />
SOMALI<br />
Source <strong>of</strong> map: Encarta World Atlas (http://encarta.msn.com)<br />
9
The specific objectives <strong>of</strong> the study guide the framework <strong>of</strong> this report and are listed as follows:<br />
1. To describe the <strong>fodder</strong> market cha<strong>in</strong><br />
a. The <strong>fodder</strong> products<br />
b. The market actors: producers, <strong>in</strong>termediaries and consumers.<br />
i. Their pr<strong>of</strong>iles and roles <strong>in</strong> the cha<strong>in</strong>. The market cha<strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>k to <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> keepers.<br />
ii. Their performance and <strong>fodder</strong> needs, especially the adequacy to <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> systems.<br />
iii. The roles <strong>of</strong> the other players. Cha<strong>in</strong> support structures.<br />
2. To estimate the numbers <strong>of</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> the cha<strong>in</strong> can support: <strong>fodder</strong> and <strong>livestock</strong> potential.<br />
3. To report on the environmental and social impacts <strong>of</strong> the market cha<strong>in</strong>.<br />
4. To make recommendations that will enhance overall cha<strong>in</strong> performance and value accrued to<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual actors.<br />
3. Methodology<br />
1.1 Area covered<br />
Data was collected from <strong>urban</strong> and <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>Mandera</strong>, Dollow Ado and Dollow and Luuq<br />
towns, us<strong>in</strong>g key <strong>in</strong>formants, focus groups and household <strong>survey</strong>s.<br />
1.2 Farm and market<br />
The <strong>fodder</strong> farms and market po<strong>in</strong>ts were visited to identify the <strong>fodder</strong> products, the method <strong>of</strong><br />
transport and exchange transactions and value made.<br />
1.3 Key <strong>in</strong>formant <strong>in</strong>terviews<br />
These were held with the follow<strong>in</strong>g agents <strong>in</strong> the three towns <strong>of</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong>fices:<br />
1. The District Livestock Production Officer, <strong>Mandera</strong> Kenya<br />
2. VSF Suisse staff<br />
3. Arid Lands Resource Management Project (ALRMP), <strong>Mandera</strong> Kenya<br />
4. COOPI, <strong>Mandera</strong> Kenya<br />
5. Save the Children US, Ethiopia<br />
6. Dollow Agricultural Research Station, Ethiopia<br />
1.4 Focus group discussions<br />
These were held with the follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>fodder</strong> cha<strong>in</strong> actor‐groups <strong>in</strong> the three towns<br />
1. Agro‐pastoralists produc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>fodder</strong><br />
10
2. Fodder traders<br />
3. Fodder transporters<br />
4. Peri‐<strong>urban</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> keepers<br />
1.5 Detailed <strong>survey</strong>s<br />
A detailed <strong>survey</strong> was done us<strong>in</strong>g a questionnaire (Appendix 1) conducted on representatives <strong>of</strong> the four<br />
actor groups. The sampl<strong>in</strong>g was purposive target<strong>in</strong>g geographical locations where the <strong>fodder</strong> was grown<br />
and there were active l<strong>in</strong>ks from the farms to the trad<strong>in</strong>g and consumption centres. This was followed<br />
by a detailed <strong>survey</strong> on randomly selected representatives sampled <strong>of</strong> the cha<strong>in</strong> actor categories. The<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g numbers <strong>of</strong> respondents <strong>in</strong>terviewed are shown <strong>in</strong> Table 1.<br />
Table 1. Actor category sample size selection for detailed <strong>survey</strong><br />
<strong>Market</strong> cha<strong>in</strong> actor<br />
Sample <strong>survey</strong> for <strong>survey</strong><br />
Agro-pastoralists 44<br />
Fodder traders 32<br />
Peri-<strong>urban</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> keepers 28<br />
Fodder transporters 17<br />
Total 121<br />
1.6 Fodder analysis – Estimat<strong>in</strong>g food production and use<br />
Samples <strong>of</strong> the forages were collected at the market po<strong>in</strong>ts for laboratory analysis. The fresh samples<br />
were weighed (fresh, as‐fed status) to determ<strong>in</strong>e Dry Matter content and nutritional value contribution<br />
to the <strong>livestock</strong> system. Bundles <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> sold were bought and weighed to establish average<br />
bundle weights and respective prices.<br />
1.7 Value cha<strong>in</strong> performance<br />
To determ<strong>in</strong>e the amounts <strong>of</strong> products and the values flow<strong>in</strong>g through the system it was necessary to<br />
develop a common measure that could be related to all the actors. The <strong>fodder</strong> products are many and<br />
diverse (Table 2). S<strong>in</strong>ce the actors used <strong>fodder</strong> bundles we used an estimation <strong>of</strong> the total weight (<strong>in</strong><br />
kilograms, kgs) exchanged at each po<strong>in</strong>t. The prices for each bundle also varied and the figures used are<br />
an aggregation from focus group discussion and <strong>survey</strong> data to derive buy<strong>in</strong>g and purchase prices at<br />
various po<strong>in</strong>ts. It was not possible to work out detailed revenues and expenses <strong>of</strong> the agro‐pastoralists<br />
and <strong>livestock</strong> keepers, so the value distribution for these two po<strong>in</strong>ts is given as net nutritional value<br />
potentially available.<br />
4. The <strong>fodder</strong> products<br />
The agro‐pastoralists <strong>in</strong> the area studied grow various food crops, some <strong>of</strong> which residues are used after<br />
harvest as <strong>livestock</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> while sell<strong>in</strong>g the rest to other farmers. Depend<strong>in</strong>g on the drought situation,<br />
11
some (e.g. the maize crop) are harvested well before matur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to human food and converted <strong>in</strong>to<br />
<strong>fodder</strong>. Crops grown and traded as <strong>fodder</strong> crops by the agro‐pastoralists are shown <strong>in</strong> Table 2.<br />
Table 2. Crops grown and traded as <strong>fodder</strong> crops <strong>in</strong> the ELMT region<br />
Fodders crops produced <strong>in</strong><br />
the system<br />
Maize<br />
Zea mays<br />
Cowpea<br />
Vigna unguiculata<br />
Sorghum<br />
Sorghum bicolour<br />
Hybrid sorghum grass<br />
Weed bundles<br />
Sudan grass<br />
Sorghum valgare var, sudanese<br />
Boma Rhodes grass<br />
Chloris gayana<br />
Columbus grass<br />
Sorghum almum<br />
Napier grass<br />
Pennisetum purpureum<br />
Sweet potatoes<br />
Ipomoea batatas<br />
Bananas<br />
Musa spp.<br />
Velvet beans (Mucuna<br />
pruriens), Leucaena (Leucaena<br />
spp) and Lucerne (Medicago<br />
spp)<br />
Use as <strong>fodder</strong><br />
• Maize stover is the most common <strong>fodder</strong> and is delivered or sold <strong>in</strong> tied bundles.<br />
• The maize was orig<strong>in</strong>ally grown for human food but now there is shift <strong>of</strong> use as green fresh<br />
<strong>fodder</strong>; <strong>in</strong> one FGD it was said that up to 85% <strong>of</strong> the maize is now primarily grown for <strong>fodder</strong>.<br />
This will also use <strong>in</strong>clude <strong>of</strong> the stover residues after th<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g and after harvest<strong>in</strong>g the cobs.<br />
• Cowpea v<strong>in</strong>es are the second most popular <strong>fodder</strong> and are delivered or sold <strong>in</strong> tied bundles.<br />
• The wild cowpea is grown <strong>in</strong>tercropped with maize specifically for use as green fresh <strong>fodder</strong>.<br />
• There were very few references <strong>of</strong> its use as a human food.<br />
• Be<strong>in</strong>g a legume, its nitrogen-fix<strong>in</strong>g quality is an added advantage to the maize crop, and<br />
compensated the absence <strong>of</strong> commercial fertilizers.<br />
• Sorghum stover is delivered or sold <strong>in</strong> tied bundles; it is the common variety but grown<br />
primarily for <strong>fodder</strong>.<br />
• High demand but most <strong>of</strong> it produced for home <strong>livestock</strong> consumption.<br />
• This is a special variety <strong>of</strong> sorghum that has been bred to grow well <strong>in</strong> water stressed<br />
environments, produc<strong>in</strong>g a fleshy s<strong>of</strong>t (possibly more palatable) stem and leafy foliage.<br />
• In a number <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>stances, some <strong>of</strong> the farmers have tried to make hay from it.<br />
• None was found on sale; all production for home <strong>livestock</strong> consumption, sometimes conserved<br />
as hay.<br />
• These are small bundles <strong>of</strong> mixed plants types consist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> natural grass types and herbs and<br />
were found <strong>in</strong> all <strong>fodder</strong> markets (third <strong>in</strong> popularity after maize and cowpea).<br />
• They are harvested by farm labourers as sole or part <strong>of</strong> payment for clear<strong>in</strong>g the farm lands.<br />
• These bundles are also used by labourers as <strong>fodder</strong> for their <strong>livestock</strong> and/or sold.<br />
• These are recent <strong>in</strong>troductions by organizations to improve on the production <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> from<br />
appropriate plant varieties.<br />
• They are harvested and used fresh or dried and stored and used as conserved hay.<br />
• Reports <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g production <strong>of</strong> Sudan and Boma Rhodes grass as hay, especially after<br />
successful sales <strong>of</strong> large amounts <strong>in</strong> recent droughts, and reported to provide best nutritional<br />
value (production response) as hay compared to other plants.<br />
• At the time <strong>of</strong> the <strong>survey</strong> Napier grass was found grown only <strong>in</strong> a few farms and no sales were<br />
observed <strong>in</strong> the markets. However, dur<strong>in</strong>g the household <strong>in</strong>terviews, it was mentioned as a<br />
popular <strong>fodder</strong> by all the actors.<br />
• Sweet potatoes are grown for food and the v<strong>in</strong>es used as <strong>fodder</strong>.<br />
• There were no sales <strong>in</strong>volved; what was available was only for home <strong>livestock</strong> consumption.<br />
• There was very limited presence and use. The stems and leaves used as <strong>fodder</strong> by agropastoralist<br />
homesteads grow<strong>in</strong>g the crops.<br />
• There were no sales <strong>in</strong>volved; what was available was only for home <strong>livestock</strong> consumption.<br />
These are recent <strong>in</strong>troductions by VSF S to some <strong>of</strong> the farms <strong>in</strong> the year 2008.<br />
12
Despite the long range <strong>of</strong> products grown, traded and used as <strong>fodder</strong>, this study focuses on the most<br />
common species produced and exchanged <strong>in</strong> the market each day. Go<strong>in</strong>g by the number <strong>of</strong><br />
transactions, they made up 80 ‐ 90% <strong>of</strong> all exchanges mentioned dur<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>survey</strong> (Table 3). These are<br />
bundles <strong>of</strong> maize stover, cowpeas v<strong>in</strong>es, sorghum stover, Napier stover, fresh Sudan grass and weeds<br />
harvested by labourers (or share‐croppers) work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the crop farms.<br />
Table 3. Frequency respondents’ mention <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> species <strong>in</strong> production, use and sale<br />
Frequency <strong>of</strong> species’ mention...<br />
Fodder species .. on-farm<br />
production<br />
... on-farm use ... <strong>in</strong> direct retail<br />
transactions<br />
... <strong>in</strong> wholesale sale to<br />
transporters and traders<br />
n = 290 n = 223 n = 91 n = 143<br />
Maize stover 30 34 47 45<br />
Cowpeas 24 23 25 27<br />
Sorghum stover 9 9 2 10<br />
Napier stover 8 5 5 6<br />
Sudan grass 8 8 11 3<br />
Weed bundles 4 4 1 2<br />
Not all feed <strong>of</strong>fered to the <strong>livestock</strong> is <strong>fodder</strong>; a substantial part <strong>of</strong> the animals’ feed is rangeland pasture<br />
and shrubs that the <strong>fodder</strong> supplements. The animals, especially sheep and goats, are taken out to graze<br />
on whatever pasture is available (which is very little dur<strong>in</strong>g the dry seasons), and the pastoralists make<br />
efforts to acquire <strong>fodder</strong> for the animals to supplement the little grass animals can access. Some<br />
pastoralists br<strong>in</strong>g their herds from the rangelands dur<strong>in</strong>g drought to come and graze on arable land left<br />
idle <strong>in</strong> the river<strong>in</strong>e farms. This is a commercial arrangement with the amount <strong>of</strong> money paid for hir<strong>in</strong>g<br />
this type <strong>of</strong> land depend<strong>in</strong>g on size <strong>of</strong> area and type <strong>of</strong> crop <strong>fodder</strong> or crop residue left for graz<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
5. The <strong>fodder</strong> market actors<br />
The <strong>fodder</strong> markets are found associated with the <strong>urban</strong> centers served by the rivers Daua (flow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
along the Kenya‐Ethiopia and Ethiopia‐Somalia borders) and Genale <strong>in</strong> Ethiopia before it jo<strong>in</strong>s with Daua<br />
around Dollow town to flow as river Jubba <strong>in</strong>to Somalia. The <strong>fodder</strong> is grown by the river<strong>in</strong>e farmers<br />
who, after us<strong>in</strong>g some for their own <strong>livestock</strong>, sell a deliberately produced surplus to other <strong>livestock</strong><br />
users, either directly or through transporters and traders <strong>in</strong> and around the mentioned towns. Focus<br />
group discussions and <strong>in</strong>terviews with key <strong>in</strong>formants identified the direct market cha<strong>in</strong> actors (actually<br />
produc<strong>in</strong>g and sell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>fodder</strong> product) and estimated their populations as shown <strong>in</strong> Table 4.<br />
13
Table 4. Estimation <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> market cha<strong>in</strong> actors’ populations (households or farms)<br />
Location<br />
Agropastoralists<br />
Fodder<br />
transporters<br />
Estimated total populations<br />
Fodder traders<br />
Along river Daua 600 50 150 <strong>in</strong> <strong>Mandera</strong> town 55,000<br />
Along river Genale 575 Less than 20 30 <strong>in</strong> Dollow Ado town 26,000+<br />
Along river Jubba 800 Less than 20 Less than 20 <strong>in</strong> Luuq town 62,700<br />
Total <strong>urban</strong> and pastoral<br />
households <strong>in</strong> target area<br />
(UNDP, 2005)<br />
Total populations 1,975 c 100 c 200 c150,000<br />
Source: Estimations from focus group discussions and key <strong>in</strong>formant <strong>in</strong>terviews<br />
The relationships among the various actors <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> market are shown <strong>in</strong> Figure 2.<br />
14
Figure 2. The <strong>fodder</strong> market cha<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> the EMLT area<br />
RIVERINE AGRO‐<br />
PASTORALISTS<br />
FODDER TRADERS<br />
PERI‐URBAN<br />
LIVESTOCK<br />
FARMERS<br />
‐ Produce <strong>fodder</strong><br />
‐ Feed own animals<br />
‐ Sell surplus through<br />
transporter or trader<br />
‐ Earn from <strong>fodder</strong> and<br />
<strong>livestock</strong> <strong>of</strong>f‐takes<br />
FODDER<br />
TRANSPORTERS<br />
‐ Hired to transport<br />
<strong>fodder</strong><br />
‐ Earns from transport<br />
service<br />
‐ Buy <strong>fodder</strong> from<br />
Agro‐pastoralists to<br />
sell to <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong><br />
<strong>livestock</strong> keepers<br />
‐ Earn from <strong>fodder</strong><br />
sales to <strong>urban</strong><br />
<strong>livestock</strong> farmers<br />
‐ Buy <strong>fodder</strong> from<br />
<strong>fodder</strong> traders and<br />
agro pastoralists<br />
‐ Earn from <strong>livestock</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong>f‐takes<br />
Population <strong>in</strong> cha<strong>in</strong>:<br />
1,975 along the river<br />
bas<strong>in</strong>s<br />
Population: About 70;<br />
most operat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Mandera</strong> town<br />
Population: 200; 75%<br />
operat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>Mandera</strong><br />
town<br />
Populations: 25,000 –<br />
30,000 households<br />
‐ Provide plant<strong>in</strong>g material,<br />
education, water pumps, fuel<br />
‐ Fam<strong>in</strong>e relief supplies<br />
enable purchases<br />
Local and International<br />
Government<br />
International Support<br />
NGOs<br />
(M<strong>in</strong>istry Livestock,<br />
(For example World Food<br />
(VSF S, COOPI, Islamic Relief<br />
ALRMP, Dollow Ado<br />
Program)<br />
Fndn, SAVE US, UK)<br />
Research)<br />
15
5.1. Actor pr<strong>of</strong>iles<br />
Details on the actor pr<strong>of</strong>iles <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> market were obta<strong>in</strong>ed from the <strong>survey</strong> and<br />
corroborated by <strong>in</strong>formation gathered dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>teractions with key <strong>in</strong>formants before and dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
<strong>survey</strong>. The pr<strong>of</strong>iles <strong>of</strong> the agro‐pastoralists, transporters, traders and <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> keepers are<br />
shown <strong>in</strong> Table 5. Information used to characterise them was gender, age, education, household size<br />
and number <strong>of</strong> family members <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the bus<strong>in</strong>ess activities, as well as numbers <strong>of</strong> employed<br />
labourers.<br />
Table 5. <strong>Market</strong> actor pr<strong>of</strong>iles, show<strong>in</strong>g gender, age, education, household size and permanent labour<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>ile parameters<br />
Agropastoralists<br />
Fodder<br />
transporters<br />
Fodder<br />
traders<br />
Peri-<strong>urban</strong><br />
<strong>livestock</strong> keepers<br />
Number <strong>in</strong> sample (n) 44 17 32 28<br />
Gender distribution (%)<br />
Male 75 76 28 17<br />
Female 25 26 72 73<br />
Age distribution (%)<br />
< 20 years 0 6 3.13 0<br />
20 – 30 years 18 35 40.63 14<br />
30 – 40 years 27 35 34.38 36<br />
40 – 50 years 27 18 6.25 32<br />
>50 years 27 6 15.63 18<br />
Education levels (% distribution <strong>of</strong> maximum level achieved)<br />
Illiterate 7 41 16 7<br />
Illiterate + Religious 45 24 66 68<br />
Adult education only 9 6 6 11<br />
Adult educ + Religious 7 6 0 4<br />
Primary + Religious 14 6 13 11<br />
Secondary + Religious 18 0 0 0<br />
Household sizes (numbers, std. dev.)<br />
Total 10 (4.5) 8 (3.9) 8 (3.9) 8 (3.9)<br />
Males 6 (3.5) 4 (2.9) 4 (2.7) 4 (2.2)<br />
Females 5 (2.4) 3 (1.5) 35 (1.5) 4 (1.9)<br />
Members <strong>in</strong> bus<strong>in</strong>ess (mean, std. dev.)<br />
Total 3 (2.2) 2 (0.9) 2 (0.7) 3 (0.3)<br />
Males 2 (2.1) 1 (0.9) 0.5 (0) 2 (0.5)<br />
Females 1 (0.7) 0.5 (0.5) 1 (0) 0.3 (0.5)<br />
Permanent laborers on farm or <strong>in</strong> bus<strong>in</strong>ess (numbers, mean and std. dev.)<br />
Total 8 (7.7) 2 (0.5) 3 (1.0) 2 (0.4)<br />
Males 7 (6.9) 2 (0.5) 3 (1.3) 1 (0.5)<br />
Females 1 (2.4) 0 0.3 (0.4) 0.2 (0)<br />
Group (agriculture-related organizations) membership (%) 14 12 3 11<br />
16
Fodder producers – the agro‐pastoralists<br />
Agro‐pastoralists own land along the banks <strong>of</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong> rivers us<strong>in</strong>g the water to irrigate crops and<br />
<strong>fodder</strong>. Most <strong>of</strong> the agro‐pastoralists household heads (75%) are male, confirm<strong>in</strong>g group discussions’<br />
revelations that farm land traditionally belongs to men; the participants said women have no land<br />
ownership rights. Most agro‐pastoralists (more than 80%) were over 30 years, with 54% over 40 years.<br />
Agro‐pastoralists <strong>in</strong> Kenya and Somalia own on average 13 hectares per household (12 and 13 hectares<br />
<strong>in</strong> Somalia and Kenya, respectively; there were no figures from Ethiopia). The farm sizes ranged from 1.2<br />
to 48.6 hectares (n = 32, std dev = 15.2). Some <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> is grown actually by labourers or relatives<br />
who have been allowed access to the river<strong>in</strong>e land by the owners <strong>in</strong> a share‐cropp<strong>in</strong>g arrangement. In<br />
essence most <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> is grown by sharecroppers, who – after the orig<strong>in</strong>al landowners take their<br />
share – sell the rest to <strong>livestock</strong> keepers. Some <strong>of</strong> land owners lease idle plots or land left fallow to<br />
roam<strong>in</strong>g <strong>livestock</strong> keepers for their animals to graze on the crop residues. The other group <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong><br />
producers are casual labourers who have been allowed to carry weeds collected from the farm they<br />
work <strong>in</strong>. These are the weed bundles found <strong>in</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> markets. These mixed grass‐weed bundles are<br />
cheaper than the fresh maize stover and cow pea bundles.<br />
The agro‐pastoralists’ pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>in</strong> Table 5 shows that most agro‐pastoralists (38%) have not gone through<br />
the formal education system (primary and secondary school<strong>in</strong>g) but have received religious education.<br />
Those exposed to primary, secondary and post secondary education are only about 22%.<br />
The agro‐pastoralists household size is relatively large at 10 members per household, with equal<br />
representation <strong>of</strong> males and females. On average only 2 – 3 <strong>of</strong> these are <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> farm activities<br />
supported by an average 8 permanent labourers. Such a large number <strong>of</strong> labourers was po<strong>in</strong>ted out to<br />
be due to the share‐cropp<strong>in</strong>g arrangement (Box 1) common <strong>in</strong> Somalia where the number <strong>of</strong> such<br />
labourers was 12 (compared to 4 <strong>in</strong> Kenya and 3 <strong>in</strong> Ethiopia). It has been po<strong>in</strong>ted out that the sharecropp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
is frequent <strong>in</strong> Somalia where there are limited cash payment arrangements for labour.<br />
Membership <strong>in</strong> agriculture‐related groups was low; only 14% <strong>of</strong> the agro‐pastoralists belonged to<br />
organizations mostly to get access to <strong>in</strong>puts and facilities (84% <strong>of</strong> benefits mentioned) and <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
(38%). The <strong>in</strong>puts were ma<strong>in</strong>ly access to water pumps or <strong>in</strong> the distributor network <strong>of</strong> irrigated water.<br />
Fodder transporters<br />
The <strong>fodder</strong> is transported from the farms to the town markets by donkey carts, usually commissioned by<br />
the <strong>fodder</strong> producers for the deliveries to the market. Independent donkey cart transporters <strong>in</strong> <strong>Mandera</strong><br />
collect money for <strong>fodder</strong> sales from the traders and deduct their fees before hand<strong>in</strong>g over the day’s<br />
collection to the agro‐pastoralist farmer. In Dollow and Luuq towns <strong>of</strong> Ethiopia and Somalia, respectively<br />
the presence <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dependent transporters and traders is not as strong as <strong>in</strong> <strong>Mandera</strong> <strong>in</strong> the Kenyan side;<br />
the <strong>fodder</strong> producers (the agro‐pastoralists) deliver their <strong>fodder</strong> themselves to the allocated market<br />
sites.<br />
17
Box 1. SHARE CROPPING IN THE DAUE AND DOLLOW RIVER FARMS OF THE MANDERA TRIANGLE<br />
Sharecropp<strong>in</strong>g allows farmer access to land when arrangements are made between the orig<strong>in</strong>al owner and the<br />
current user to use the land for crop and <strong>fodder</strong> production. In the Daua and Dollow river farms sharecropp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
are a common practice whereby the land owner provides farm<strong>in</strong>g space, a water pump and its fuel, as well as<br />
plant<strong>in</strong>g material. The tenant (<strong>in</strong> many cases an entire household) then prepares the land and grows crops<br />
mostly selected by them. After harvests, all <strong>in</strong>puts costs are deducted and the net <strong>in</strong>come is shared equally<br />
between the landowner and the tenant.<br />
This is a common cultural practice among the Somali own<strong>in</strong>g farms along the region’s river banks. Sometimes<br />
the tenant acquires a very important role dictat<strong>in</strong>g what is to be grown on the farm, gets to live <strong>in</strong> the<br />
compound with their families who assist <strong>in</strong> the farm<strong>in</strong>g. The landowner only visits the farm occasionally.<br />
Fodder transportation is becom<strong>in</strong>g a viable livelihood activity, and the number <strong>of</strong> these transporters is<br />
steadily <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g. Allocation <strong>of</strong> this task to the youth is believed to be due to their ability to handle the<br />
donkeys and the carts better than older men and women. The transporters acquire carts (<strong>in</strong>herit<strong>in</strong>g or<br />
buy<strong>in</strong>g them) and use them as a source <strong>of</strong> livelihood transport<strong>in</strong>g other cargo.<br />
Table 5 shows that the transporters are mostly males (76%) aged between 20 and 40 years (70%).<br />
Almost all <strong>of</strong> them (96%) had no formal school<strong>in</strong>g (primary or secondary school<strong>in</strong>g). The average<br />
household size is 7 – 8 members with 4 males and 3 females. They do not use any permanent labourer;<br />
and only 2 members (apart from children) are <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the transport bus<strong>in</strong>ess. In a focus group<br />
discussion some participants stated that they occasionally hire causal labourers to drive and feed the<br />
donkeys. Only 12% transporters belonged to a group <strong>in</strong> order to obta<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>puts, facilities and technical<br />
support.<br />
Fodder traders<br />
The <strong>fodder</strong> traders <strong>in</strong> both <strong>Mandera</strong> Kenya and Dollow Ethiopia have been <strong>in</strong> bus<strong>in</strong>ess s<strong>in</strong>ce 1991 shortly<br />
after the collapse <strong>of</strong> the Somalia government, which forced community members to f<strong>in</strong>d ways <strong>of</strong><br />
earn<strong>in</strong>g a livelihood. In <strong>Mandera</strong>, Kenya, the number <strong>of</strong> traders has steadily <strong>in</strong>creased to about 150<br />
currently operat<strong>in</strong>g from four sites <strong>in</strong> the town. In Dollow Ethiopia, <strong>fodder</strong> trad<strong>in</strong>g has <strong>in</strong>tensified the<br />
last five years due to <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g severity and frequency <strong>of</strong> drought with pastoralists seek<strong>in</strong>g traded<br />
<strong>fodder</strong> as the ma<strong>in</strong> source <strong>of</strong> feed for their <strong>livestock</strong>. There is a slow shift <strong>of</strong> lifestyle from pastoral<br />
nomadic to a more sedentary lifestyle which require forage to be brought to the animals. Almost all the<br />
<strong>fodder</strong> traders <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Mandera</strong> town are women and some are wives to the men who have sharecropp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
arrangements <strong>in</strong> the river<strong>in</strong>e farms. The women sell green fresh <strong>fodder</strong> bundles, which they<br />
buy at wholesale prices from the agro‐pastoralists farmers (directly or through the transporters) and sell<br />
to <strong>livestock</strong> keepers com<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the open markets. The traders <strong>in</strong> market centres also <strong>in</strong>clude the casual<br />
labourers sell<strong>in</strong>g weed bundles harvested from the farms where they work.<br />
The traders’ pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>in</strong> Table 5 shows that the traders are mostly women (72%) aged between 20 and 40<br />
years (75%). There a few (15%) over 50 years, who – on observation – were widowed grandmothers<br />
18
strong enough to operate <strong>in</strong> the markets. Education levels were mostly religious and primary (78%). The<br />
household sizes stood at 7 – 8 members and only the women were <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the bus<strong>in</strong>ess. No<br />
permanent labour was used. Only ten <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> traders said they belonged to a group.<br />
Fodder consumers<br />
The agro‐pastoralists use the <strong>fodder</strong> they grow to feed their own <strong>livestock</strong>. They then sell the rest to<br />
<strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> keepers <strong>in</strong> and around <strong>Mandera</strong>, Dollow Ado and Luuq towns as well as pastoral<br />
communities liv<strong>in</strong>g further away from the rivers, with little access to the river bank farms.<br />
Over time, the population <strong>of</strong> <strong>urban</strong> dwellers – as consumers <strong>of</strong> milk and meat and as <strong>livestock</strong> keepers –<br />
has been <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g, generat<strong>in</strong>g greater demand for the <strong>fodder</strong> from the agro‐pastoral farms. The<br />
nomadic pastoralists have <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly used <strong>fodder</strong> to feed their cattle as the rangeland pasture is<br />
decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g. These communities are the ones who are exert<strong>in</strong>g a demand on <strong>fodder</strong> supply which is<br />
targeted by the <strong>fodder</strong> producers, the transporters and the traders found at the market.<br />
The data <strong>in</strong> Table 5 is <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that the <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> household heads are mostly women (72%) and may<br />
have referred to the respondents found at the time <strong>of</strong> the <strong>survey</strong>, or the women were <strong>in</strong> charge <strong>of</strong> the<br />
households s<strong>in</strong>ce most <strong>of</strong> the men had moved with animals <strong>in</strong> search <strong>of</strong> pasture at the time <strong>of</strong> the<br />
<strong>survey</strong>. This contrasts with the agro‐pastoralists household heads who were ma<strong>in</strong>ly males (75%). The<br />
<strong>urban</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> keep<strong>in</strong>g women were between 30 and 50 years old (68%) with little or no exposure to<br />
formal school<strong>in</strong>g. Only 7% had formal primary school level education. The households were larger at 8 –<br />
9 members, with equal representation <strong>of</strong> males and females, with two males work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>livestock</strong><br />
rear<strong>in</strong>g supported by about one permanent labourer per household. This is aga<strong>in</strong> dramatically different<br />
from the 8 members per households employed by the agro‐pastoralists. The per‐<strong>urban</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> keepers<br />
had permanent labourers, ma<strong>in</strong>ly herd attendants tak<strong>in</strong>g animals out to graze dur<strong>in</strong>g the day.<br />
Animals kept <strong>in</strong>clude cattle, donkeys, sheep and goats. The most prom<strong>in</strong>ent <strong>livestock</strong> species were<br />
sheep and goats, counted together as ‘shoats’. At the time <strong>of</strong> the <strong>survey</strong> only four agro‐pastoralists <strong>in</strong><br />
the <strong>urban</strong> zones had camels, with one hav<strong>in</strong>g up to 80 head. No <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> keepers had any<br />
camel. The mean number <strong>of</strong> shoats per household (21) as shown <strong>in</strong> Table 6 varied across the three<br />
regions – 27 and 58 <strong>in</strong> Kenya and Somalia, respectively; there were no figures for Ethiopia), The mean<br />
for <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> keepers was 2 for Ethiopia and 24 for Kenya; there were no figures for Somalia.<br />
In general the agro‐pastoralists keep more animals than the <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> farmers – three times the TLU<br />
weight (Table 6) s<strong>in</strong>ce they have the land and are able to use the <strong>fodder</strong> they produce to support the<br />
numbers. The low number <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong> the <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> homes could be due to the herds that had been<br />
moved <strong>in</strong> nomadic search for pasture.<br />
Animals from both categories <strong>of</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> keepers (agro‐pastoral and <strong>urban</strong>) are still taken out to<br />
rangeland pasture and fed on <strong>fodder</strong> <strong>in</strong> the afternoons. In addition, and especially dur<strong>in</strong>g the dry<br />
19
seasons, a large number <strong>of</strong> cattle from remote areas are moved <strong>in</strong>to the system, <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the demand<br />
for the <strong>fodder</strong>. Livestock traders at the markets are also part <strong>of</strong> the consum<strong>in</strong>g market. They buy <strong>fodder</strong><br />
– both fresh and dry hay – to feed their animals at the market.<br />
Table 6. Livestock ownership per household by agro-pastoralists and <strong>peri</strong>-<strong>urban</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> keepers found <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Mandera</strong><br />
Triangle<br />
Livestock species<br />
Agro-pastoralists<br />
(with farms along the rivers)<br />
(n = 44)<br />
Mean number <strong>of</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> per HH<br />
Peri-<strong>urban</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> keepers<br />
(with farms <strong>in</strong> and around the towns)<br />
(n =28)<br />
Numbers TLUs Numbers TLUs<br />
Cattle Bulls 7 9 1 1<br />
Oxen, steers 8 9 2 2<br />
Cows 9 9 1 1<br />
Heifers 4 3 2 1<br />
Calves 7 2 4 1<br />
Total head 35 10<br />
Donkeys Donkeys 3 2 2 1<br />
Sheep and goats Shoats 38 4 21 2<br />
Total TLU 38 11<br />
5.1. Fodder market size and cha<strong>in</strong> performance<br />
In this section we describe the <strong>fodder</strong> market size and product volumes as they flow from production to<br />
consumption through the various cha<strong>in</strong> actors. The actors’ performance is based on the marg<strong>in</strong>s they<br />
earned which are affected by costs lowered by their <strong>in</strong>novative strategies. The market is supported by<br />
actors who supply regularly the buyers. The system provides high earn<strong>in</strong>g returns to producers as well as<br />
other cha<strong>in</strong> actors. S<strong>in</strong>ce this was only a one‐time cross‐sectional <strong>survey</strong> (appraisal), we used one<br />
reference po<strong>in</strong>t – for the year 2008 and the effect <strong>of</strong> the dry and ra<strong>in</strong>y seasons dur<strong>in</strong>g that year (net<br />
value accrued). In calculat<strong>in</strong>g the value earned <strong>in</strong> sales and transportation, we use the <strong>fodder</strong> product<br />
units (numbers <strong>of</strong> bundles that can be exchanged) – s<strong>in</strong>ce the prices are based on these means <strong>of</strong><br />
assessment, rather than the Dry Matter content. To assess the value accrued to production,<br />
transportation and trade, we work out the amounts <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> material us<strong>in</strong>g a related “standard unit”,<br />
such as the <strong>fodder</strong> product’s weight (<strong>in</strong> kilograms) – to compare the across‐cha<strong>in</strong> performance.<br />
Fodder production potential and adequacy<br />
20
All <strong>fodder</strong> comes from the river<strong>in</strong>e where agro‐pastoralists own on average 13 hectares per household<br />
(n = 32). Us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>survey</strong> data the total land placed under <strong>fodder</strong> along the river bas<strong>in</strong>s is estimated to be<br />
about 3,000 and 25,000 hectares dur<strong>in</strong>g the dry and ra<strong>in</strong>y seasons, respectively, as shown <strong>in</strong> Table 7.<br />
Us<strong>in</strong>g an average 500 meters either side <strong>of</strong> the three rivers be<strong>in</strong>g used for irrigation the result<strong>in</strong>g land is<br />
a total <strong>of</strong> 218 square kilometres (or about 22,000 hectares). This has been estimated us<strong>in</strong>g ArcGIS 9.3<br />
(ESRI). The land under the different crops has been estimated us<strong>in</strong>g bas<strong>in</strong> troughs as units <strong>of</strong> plant<strong>in</strong>g<br />
land. In some cases, the units are not exclusively separate: cowpeas bas<strong>in</strong>s may be found <strong>in</strong>terspersed<br />
with maize bas<strong>in</strong>s. Weed bundles are harvested by the labourers when prepar<strong>in</strong>g or weed<strong>in</strong>g the land<br />
for the ma<strong>in</strong> crops.<br />
Table 7. Total productivity <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> per day by the agropastoral farms <strong>in</strong> the ELMT river bas<strong>in</strong>s<br />
Current productivity<br />
(kgs per hectare per day,<br />
based on HH data)<br />
Potential production from<br />
the river bas<strong>in</strong>s<br />
(Tonnes per day from c.<br />
22,000 ha.)<br />
Fresh DM Fresh DM*<br />
Aggregate (total) 2,000 432 8,000 2,000<br />
Per Species<br />
Cowpeas bundles 1,943 302<br />
Maize stover bundles 1,686 302 6,710 1,458<br />
Napier stover bundles 1,657 281 6,611 1,319<br />
Sorghum stover bundles 2,257 562 9,020 2,611<br />
Sudan grass bales 2,657 972<br />
Sudan grass bundles 2,886 626<br />
Total dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Ra<strong>in</strong> season 2,114 462 8,520 2,083<br />
Dry season 1,857 410 7,417 1,912<br />
*Estimated us<strong>in</strong>g DM yields <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> crops <strong>in</strong> the AEZ as quoted by Muyekho, et al., 1999<br />
The agro‐pastoralists farms have the potential to produce an average 2,000 kgs <strong>of</strong> fresh <strong>fodder</strong> (255 kgs<br />
DM), translat<strong>in</strong>g to about 432 tonnes <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> dry matter per day per hectare. The number <strong>of</strong> animals<br />
that this amount <strong>of</strong> forage can support <strong>in</strong> the system will depend on several factors. Some <strong>of</strong> these<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude the digestibility <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong>, the levels and digestible availability <strong>of</strong> the forages’ nutrients<br />
(energy and prote<strong>in</strong>), and the species <strong>of</strong> animals (cattle, sheep and goats) and their feed‐dependent<br />
physiological status (grow<strong>in</strong>g, pregnant, lactat<strong>in</strong>g) (NRC, 2007). Us<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>tegrated tropical <strong>livestock</strong><br />
unit (TLU) weight <strong>of</strong> 200 kgs, and an estimated daily DM <strong>in</strong>take <strong>of</strong> 3 – 4 % <strong>of</strong> their live weight, the 2,000<br />
tonnes <strong>of</strong> DM the region could produce, there is a possibility <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> <strong>support<strong>in</strong>g</strong> 4,000 TLUs per<br />
hectare. The current <strong>livestock</strong> population density <strong>in</strong> the area under study (0.5 kilometres either side <strong>of</strong><br />
the rivers; 218.2 square kilometres) is estimated at 1,091 TLUs 1 per sq km (CIESIN, 2004). Table 8 has use<br />
and nutrient <strong>in</strong>formation on the common feed products.<br />
1 Comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g cattle, goats and sheep<br />
21
Table 8. Nutrient composition <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> produced and shared out by the agro-pastoralist<br />
Mean bundle<br />
weight (Kgs)<br />
Feed<strong>in</strong>g dry<br />
matter %<br />
Ash NDF ADF ADL CP<br />
See def<strong>in</strong>itions below<br />
As w/w DM %<br />
Cowpeas v<strong>in</strong>es 4.6 17 13 48 39 11 20<br />
Maize stover 5.2 31 11 65 40 4 7<br />
Napier stover 5.5 22 15 59 40 6 6<br />
Sorghum stover 9.0 43 7 67 38 6 11<br />
Sudan grass stover 6.5 32 8 67 41 5 6<br />
Weeds 1.3 24 16 66 41 8 13<br />
Ash = this is the non-organic fraction <strong>of</strong> a feed; used as a rough <strong>in</strong>dicator <strong>of</strong> the feed’s m<strong>in</strong>eral content.<br />
NDF = Neutral detergent fibre. A measure <strong>of</strong> most <strong>of</strong> the structural components <strong>in</strong> a feed’s plant cells (i.e. lign<strong>in</strong>, hemicelluloses<br />
and cellulose). The NDF level <strong>in</strong>fluences the <strong>in</strong>take <strong>of</strong> dry matter as well as how long the feed will take to rum<strong>in</strong>ate (ferment <strong>in</strong><br />
the rumen), hence a rough <strong>in</strong>dicator <strong>of</strong> the feed’s energy supply<br />
ADF = Acid detergent fibre.<br />
ADL = Acid detergent lign<strong>in</strong><br />
ADF and ADL represent the fraction <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>digestible material <strong>in</strong> forage, usually the lign<strong>in</strong>-coated cellulose. There is a general<br />
assumption that the digestibility <strong>of</strong> a feed is <strong>in</strong>versely proportional to this fibre content.<br />
CP = Crude prote<strong>in</strong>. It is a measure <strong>of</strong> the total prote<strong>in</strong> content <strong>in</strong> a feed which is essential for the growth <strong>of</strong> animals.<br />
Agro‐pastoralists’ benefit<br />
The agro‐pastoralists give out or sell 75% <strong>of</strong> all the <strong>fodder</strong> they produce and the amounts shared out will<br />
depend on the weather (Figure 3). They therefore enjoy double benefits from <strong>fodder</strong> production: they<br />
use some <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> for their own <strong>livestock</strong>, earn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>come from <strong>livestock</strong> <strong>of</strong>f‐take and products<br />
such as milk, and the sale <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> to other cha<strong>in</strong> actors. So they either produce a large surplus <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>fodder</strong> for sale or sell what they can after satisfy<strong>in</strong>g their own (<strong>livestock</strong>) needs, i.e. sell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>fodder</strong> may<br />
not be a primary objective for some. On‐farm use <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> enables them to keep more cattle or enjoy<br />
higher <strong>of</strong>f‐take values (types and number <strong>of</strong> animals kept, milk production, and weights at which the<br />
animals are disposed) than the <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> and pla<strong>in</strong> pastoralists.<br />
While land is accessed through ownership, mostly by <strong>in</strong>heritance or through sharecropp<strong>in</strong>g, the next<br />
most important capital is a water pump. Up to 80 % <strong>of</strong> the agro‐pastoralists own or have access to<br />
pumps. The pumps are s<strong>in</strong>gle‐ or double‐piston diesel eng<strong>in</strong>es obta<strong>in</strong>ed from Nairobi (Kenya) or<br />
Mogadishu (Somalia) for USD i 800 to 1,200. Some NGOs (for example COOPI and the Islamic Relief<br />
Foundation) have provided pumps to these agro‐pastoral farmers and groups on a cost‐shar<strong>in</strong>g basis<br />
and so the farmers either own or borrow pumps from those who have them.<br />
22
Figure 3.Distribution <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> by agro pastoralists overall and dur<strong>in</strong>g the ra<strong>in</strong>y and dry season<br />
Total kgs <strong>of</strong> fresh <strong>fodder</strong><br />
300 per day<br />
200<br />
Overall<br />
RAIN Season<br />
DRY Season<br />
100<br />
0<br />
Reta<strong>in</strong>ed for home<br />
use<br />
Given out as gift<br />
Sold direct (farm‐gate<br />
retail)<br />
Sold through<br />
transporters<br />
Sold through traders<br />
Box 2. BASIN TROUGHS FACILITATE IRRIGATION<br />
All crops along the river<strong>in</strong>e farms are grown <strong>in</strong> shallow troughs or bas<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong>to which water is irrigated. The key purpose <strong>of</strong><br />
the bas<strong>in</strong> is to allow water to flow <strong>in</strong>to a trough and stay long enough to allow seepage and absorption by the crop.<br />
The bounds <strong>of</strong> the bas<strong>in</strong>s (hence the size) is determ<strong>in</strong>ed by a number <strong>of</strong> (human) steps; it is usually known and can be used<br />
to determ<strong>in</strong>e the area under the crop <strong>in</strong> a farm. On average the bas<strong>in</strong>s vary from 2 x 3m to 3 x 4 m. In Dollow Agric<br />
Research Stations some bas<strong>in</strong>s were found to be as large as 10 x 10 m. But the size <strong>of</strong> the bas<strong>in</strong> may vary depend<strong>in</strong>g on :<br />
• The amount <strong>of</strong> water that can be pumped <strong>in</strong>to all the bas<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> a plot at a given time, i.e. the power <strong>of</strong> the pump<br />
• The water-hold<strong>in</strong>g capacity <strong>of</strong> the soil<br />
• The perceived rate <strong>of</strong> loss through evaporation which may also be a factor <strong>of</strong> the sun’s heat <strong>in</strong>tensity.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce the payments for labour sometimes are based on the number <strong>of</strong> bas<strong>in</strong>s prepared, weeded for and harvested, there are<br />
occasions when workers may dig small bas<strong>in</strong>s to <strong>in</strong>crease payments due to them.<br />
The ago‐pastoralists acquire maize and cowpea plant<strong>in</strong>g seed on their own (buy<strong>in</strong>g from stockists and<br />
shar<strong>in</strong>g self‐generated seed from previous crops). However, most Sudan and Columbus seed has, so far,<br />
been distributed free to the farmers by NGOs (see Section 7: Other players; cha<strong>in</strong> support systems). In<br />
Ethiopia, <strong>fodder</strong> production has <strong>in</strong>creased with help from Dollow Agricultural Research Institute, COOPI<br />
and Save the Children US, through provision <strong>of</strong> seeds and irrigation facilities. To encourage selfproduction<br />
<strong>of</strong> seed, some NGOs are ask<strong>in</strong>g farmers to give back 20% <strong>of</strong> their harvested seeds for redistribution<br />
to others and this is contribut<strong>in</strong>g to the <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> production <strong>in</strong> the area (FGDs). In<br />
<strong>Mandera</strong>, there are opportunities for local seed production and distribution but this cannot be done as a<br />
commercial undertak<strong>in</strong>g outside the quality regulations required by the Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate<br />
Station (KEPHIS), which <strong>in</strong>dicate that commercially sold seed must be certified seed. However, the<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> production is now grow<strong>in</strong>g to the extent that the farmers have started multiply<strong>in</strong>g<br />
their own seed for use the subsequent plant<strong>in</strong>g seasons. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>survey</strong>, several such plots were<br />
observed.<br />
23
The agro‐pastoralists do not use commercial fertilizers but rely on manure collected from the animals’<br />
overnight sheds. Some farmers have been tra<strong>in</strong>ed on how to prepare compost manure but this was not<br />
common across the region. They acknowledge that the soil is alkal<strong>in</strong>e and would rather use manure than<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrial fertilizer. Table 9 shows a budget enterprise <strong>of</strong> the agro‐pastoralists.<br />
Table 9. An annual enterprise budget estimate for <strong>livestock</strong> and <strong>fodder</strong> produced by an agro-pastoralist farm <strong>in</strong> the<br />
ELMT<br />
USD<br />
Livestock <strong>of</strong>f-take 1,2<br />
Cattle (total from bulls, cows, heifers, oxen and steers, calves) 7<br />
Camels 14<br />
Donkeys (14)<br />
Shoats 90<br />
Total from <strong>livestock</strong> 395<br />
Fodder sales 3<br />
Cowpeas bundles 497<br />
Maize stover bundles 376<br />
Napier stover bundles 146<br />
Sorghum stover bundles 73<br />
Sudan grass bales 24<br />
Sudan grass bundles 97<br />
Total from <strong>fodder</strong> sales 1,213<br />
TOTAL REVENUE 1,608<br />
Operat<strong>in</strong>g costs<br />
Herd/flock attendant labour 96<br />
Water pump costs (services, hir<strong>in</strong>g, fuel) 160<br />
Concentrates and m<strong>in</strong>erals 32<br />
Veter<strong>in</strong>ary services 80<br />
Total operat<strong>in</strong>g costs 368<br />
Returns above operat<strong>in</strong>g costs 1,240<br />
Fixed costs, mostly hired permanent labour 4 240<br />
TOTAL COSTS (OPERATING + FIXED) 1,608<br />
Net returns above costs 5 1,240<br />
1 Net value earned dur<strong>in</strong>g the year = Total value added to farm (i.e. <strong>livestock</strong> brought forward from previous year, born,<br />
purchased, received as gift, revenue from sales and slaughters) LESS value lost (i.e. deaths, given out as gift) and value carried<br />
forward to follow<strong>in</strong>g year.<br />
2 Milk sales were not mentioned as be<strong>in</strong>g produced <strong>in</strong> substantial amounts<br />
3 Total <strong>of</strong> sales exclud<strong>in</strong>g own use and given out as gift<br />
4 Fixed costs do not <strong>in</strong>clude land use (rent, lease, etc.), depreciation, <strong>in</strong>terests and taxes.<br />
5 Exclud<strong>in</strong>g other <strong>in</strong>put costs, ma<strong>in</strong>ly consist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the transporters’ lab our.<br />
24
Fodder transporters’ benefit<br />
From the <strong>fodder</strong> production activity, the second value earn<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> market structure is<br />
what transporters earn by ferry<strong>in</strong>g <strong>fodder</strong> from an agro‐pastoralist to a trader or <strong>livestock</strong> keeper.<br />
Fodder transporters mostly use donkey carts, although there are some who carry the <strong>fodder</strong> on their<br />
shoulders or backs. The basic capital required is one or two donkeys and a cart and read<strong>in</strong>ess to pay tax<br />
charged by the respective town councils. In Dollow Ethiopia, traders said they occasionally employ an<br />
attendant for the donkeys. Motor vehicles are only used dur<strong>in</strong>g severe drought when <strong>fodder</strong> has to be<br />
obta<strong>in</strong>ed from far beyond the district and <strong>in</strong> sufficiently large amounts, which was rare, accord<strong>in</strong>g to the<br />
focus group participants. The transporter operational costs are ma<strong>in</strong>ly the ma<strong>in</strong>tenance <strong>of</strong> the donkey<br />
and cart and taxes charged by the town council (local government) for every load enter<strong>in</strong>g the market.<br />
The <strong>Mandera</strong> town council charges USD 0.27 per donkey cart per day gett<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to the town. The charge<br />
is twice for <strong>fodder</strong> loads com<strong>in</strong>g from Somalia. In <strong>Mandera</strong> the total transport monthly expense for the<br />
transporter, cover<strong>in</strong>g feed<strong>in</strong>g, disease control for the donkey and cart ma<strong>in</strong>tenance, was said to be<br />
about USD 27 per month. A transporter case example is described <strong>in</strong> Box 3.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to farmers <strong>in</strong> Dollow Ethiopia, a donkey cart can carry between 40 and 50 bundles <strong>of</strong> fresh<br />
maize stover or cowpea v<strong>in</strong>e bundles <strong>in</strong> one trip. The value com<strong>in</strong>g to the transporter is thus the net<br />
from revenues earned by br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>fodder</strong> to the traders less the amount spent on manag<strong>in</strong>g the cart<br />
and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the donkeys. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the ra<strong>in</strong>y season when there is an abundant supply <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> the<br />
transporters only earned from deliver<strong>in</strong>g <strong>fodder</strong> to traders at the market po<strong>in</strong>t. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to group<br />
discussion participants a donkey cart can carry between 40 and 50 bundles <strong>of</strong> fresh maize stover or<br />
cowpea v<strong>in</strong>e bundles and either the agro‐pastoralists or traders pay the transporters USD 0.27 per<br />
bundle. In the dry seasons, when <strong>fodder</strong> is scarce, the transporters become enterpris<strong>in</strong>g by buy<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>fodder</strong> from the farmers and participat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> sell<strong>in</strong>g these directly to <strong>livestock</strong> keepers. The net earn<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
then depend on the comb<strong>in</strong>ations <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> types that the traders and transporters handle. Table 10<br />
shows the average volumes <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> the actors deal with the result<strong>in</strong>g net earn<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
Box 3. OMAR GURE – A FODDER TRANSPORTER<br />
OMAR GURE has been transport<strong>in</strong>g <strong>fodder</strong> for the last ten years start<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the year 2000. He transports <strong>fodder</strong><br />
from farms along the Daua river to the markets <strong>in</strong> <strong>Mandera</strong> town and earns on average USD 4 per day. Out <strong>of</strong> the<br />
day’s earn<strong>in</strong>gs he uses USD 2 to buy <strong>fodder</strong> for the donkeys. Most times his family (children) use more than he<br />
saves, so he feels he is not mak<strong>in</strong>g much money. However s<strong>in</strong>ce he started his bus<strong>in</strong>ess service, he has built himself<br />
a house, rented a farm and bought some goats and an extra donkey. The extra donkey enabled him to rest his other<br />
donkeys when he shared them on different days or tasks.<br />
Unfortunately he lost two <strong>of</strong> the donkeys dur<strong>in</strong>g last year’s drought. The biggest challenges faced: the <strong>in</strong>come is<br />
never enough to cover all his household expenses.<br />
25
Table 10. Daily purchases, sales and net earn<strong>in</strong>gs by <strong>fodder</strong> transporters dur<strong>in</strong>g the ra<strong>in</strong>y and dry season <strong>in</strong> the ELMT<br />
Ra<strong>in</strong> season<br />
Dry season<br />
Sales<br />
Weight<br />
(Kgs)<br />
Total sales<br />
(USD)<br />
Weight<br />
(Kgs)<br />
Total sales<br />
(USD)<br />
Cowpeas bundles 214 11 263 29<br />
Maize stover bundles 436 23 426 38<br />
Napier stover bundles 301 301 14<br />
Sorghum stover bundles 450 29 500 46<br />
Total (aggregated) revenue 63 127<br />
Costs <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> purchase<br />
Cowpeas bundles 235 15 289 25<br />
Maize stover bundles 446 16 470 33<br />
Napier stover bundles 390 8 329 10<br />
Sorghum stover bundles 450 17 600 27<br />
Total (aggregated) purchase costs 57 97<br />
Total fixed costs<br />
(tax, donkey feed and health, cart repairs)<br />
2 2<br />
Total costs 59 99<br />
Net returns to purchases and fixed costs 1 4 28<br />
Fodder traders’ benefit<br />
Like the transporters, the trader’s marg<strong>in</strong> is com<strong>in</strong>g from the sale <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong>. The traders buy and sell<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g both the ra<strong>in</strong>y and dry seasons, and their net values are determ<strong>in</strong>ed by any variations <strong>in</strong> related<br />
costs and prices. Operational costs are negligible s<strong>in</strong>ce they do not pay for use <strong>of</strong> the market po<strong>in</strong>ts and<br />
there is no charge for a market tax like for the transporters. To get <strong>in</strong>to the trad<strong>in</strong>g bus<strong>in</strong>ess, one only<br />
needs a start<strong>in</strong>g capital to buy <strong>in</strong>itial fresh <strong>fodder</strong> stock. There are times when this <strong>in</strong>itial capital is<br />
covered by acquir<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>fodder</strong> on credit from a <strong>fodder</strong> supplier (FGDs). The traders rarely store any<br />
<strong>fodder</strong>; they order and dispose all that they can dur<strong>in</strong>g the same day and they use the prevail<strong>in</strong>g<br />
demand to earn gross sales that cover their daily expenses. In the rare times when they seek storage for<br />
left‐over <strong>fodder</strong>, they keep it <strong>in</strong> some <strong>of</strong> the market stalls for a small fee (USD 0.27 per trader).<br />
1 Exclud<strong>in</strong>g other <strong>in</strong>put costs, ma<strong>in</strong>ly consist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the transporters’ labour<br />
26
Table 11. Daily purchases, sales and net earn<strong>in</strong>gs by traders dur<strong>in</strong>g the ra<strong>in</strong>y and dry season<br />
Ra<strong>in</strong> season<br />
Dry season<br />
Sales <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong><br />
Weight<br />
(Kgs)<br />
Total sales<br />
(USD)<br />
Weight<br />
(Kgs)<br />
Total sales<br />
(USD)<br />
Cowpeas bundles 141 25 160 24<br />
Maize stover bundles 148 16 220 24<br />
Napier stover bundles 95 6 77 6<br />
Sorghum stover bundles 188 13<br />
Sudan grass bundles 408 40<br />
Weeds bundles 14 1<br />
Total (aggregate revenue) 47 108<br />
Costs <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> purchase<br />
Cowpeas bundles 140 8 175 11<br />
Maize stover bundles 145 9 220 14<br />
Napier stover bundles 97 8 91 3<br />
Sorghum stover bundles 190 4<br />
Sudan grass bundles 408 25<br />
Weeds bundles 19 1<br />
Total purchase costs 25 58<br />
Total fixed costs<br />
(tax, <strong>fodder</strong> storage)<br />
1 1<br />
Total costs 26 59<br />
Net returns to purchases and fixed costs 1 21 49<br />
Livestock keepers’ benefit<br />
The f<strong>in</strong>al accrual value po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> market is what the <strong>livestock</strong> keeper br<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong>to the farm and<br />
the net determ<strong>in</strong>ed by <strong>of</strong> the result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>livestock</strong> <strong>of</strong>f‐take. As with agro‐producers revenues will be<br />
<strong>in</strong>fluenced by how well they feed their animals and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> them over the year, keep<strong>in</strong>g them free<br />
from disease, feed<strong>in</strong>g them well to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> weights and body conditions that attract high market<br />
prices. Table 12 below shows a <strong>livestock</strong> production enterprise budget for <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> keepers<br />
<strong>in</strong> the ELMT.<br />
1 Exclud<strong>in</strong>g other <strong>in</strong>put costs, ma<strong>in</strong>ly consist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the traders’ labour<br />
27
Table 12 An annual enterprise budget estimate for <strong>livestock</strong> produced by a <strong>peri</strong>-<strong>urban</strong> farm <strong>in</strong> the ELMT<br />
USD<br />
Livestock <strong>of</strong>f-take 1,2<br />
Cattle (total from bulls, cows, heifers, oxen and steers, calves) 246<br />
Camels -<br />
Donkeys 28<br />
Shoats 109<br />
Total from <strong>livestock</strong> 383<br />
TOTAL REVENUE 383<br />
Operat<strong>in</strong>g costs<br />
Herd/flock attendant labour 160<br />
Concentrates and m<strong>in</strong>erals 48<br />
Veter<strong>in</strong>ary services 80<br />
Total operat<strong>in</strong>g costs 288<br />
Returns above operat<strong>in</strong>g costs 95<br />
Fixed costs 3 -<br />
TOTAL COSTS (OPERATING + FIXED) 95<br />
Net returns above costs 4 95<br />
The potential earn<strong>in</strong>gs are affected by the nutrient contributed by the <strong>fodder</strong> purchased and given to<br />
the <strong>livestock</strong>, which <strong>in</strong> turn affects the farms’ <strong>livestock</strong> <strong>of</strong>f‐takes. The <strong>fodder</strong> purchased is used to feed<br />
the animals, and the result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>livestock</strong> <strong>of</strong>f‐take represented by reproduction, growth and body<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>tenance, milk production and sale <strong>of</strong> live animals. Consider that the <strong>fodder</strong> was supplement<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
available rangeland graz<strong>in</strong>g and a more pr<strong>of</strong>ound analysis would be necessary to the proportion and<br />
value contribution <strong>of</strong> the two different forage sources.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the time <strong>of</strong> the <strong>survey</strong> there was very little market<strong>in</strong>g (and household <strong>in</strong>come) com<strong>in</strong>g from sales<br />
<strong>of</strong> milk from <strong>Mandera</strong> <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> farms. Only two farms <strong>in</strong> <strong>Mandera</strong> Kenya were able to<br />
produce large enough amounts and br<strong>in</strong>g surpluses for sale <strong>in</strong> the town. Most <strong>of</strong> the milk consumed was<br />
from neighbour<strong>in</strong>g Somalia, as powdered or very small quantities <strong>of</strong> liquid milk. Where is occurred, fresh<br />
low milk sold for USD 67 cents a litre or for USD 40 cents for a more popular measure <strong>of</strong> a 500‐mls cup.<br />
Steers were sold at 2.5 – 3 years @ USD 133 to 200. In Luuq Somalia, there were def<strong>in</strong>ite sales <strong>of</strong> milk<br />
from <strong>livestock</strong> keepers with prices vary<strong>in</strong>g between USD 0.5 to 1 per litre, depend<strong>in</strong>g on demand and<br />
scarcity.<br />
1 Net value earned dur<strong>in</strong>g the year = Total value added to farm (i.e. <strong>livestock</strong> brought forward from previous year,<br />
born, purchased, received as gift, revenue from sales and slaughters) LESS value lost (i.e. deaths, given out as gift)<br />
and value carried forward to follow<strong>in</strong>g year.<br />
2 Milk sales were not mentioned as be<strong>in</strong>g produced <strong>in</strong> substantial amounts<br />
3 Fixed costs do not <strong>in</strong>clude land use (rent, lease, etc.), depreciation, <strong>in</strong>terests and taxes.<br />
4 Exclud<strong>in</strong>g other <strong>in</strong>put costs, ma<strong>in</strong>ly consist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the transporters’ labour.<br />
28
6. Other players: cha<strong>in</strong> support systems<br />
The M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Livestock Development <strong>in</strong> Kenya<br />
The M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>in</strong> Kenya (through the DLPO’s <strong>of</strong>fice) is acknowledged as the overall coord<strong>in</strong>ator <strong>of</strong> all<br />
<strong>fodder</strong> and <strong>livestock</strong> improvement programs <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Mandera</strong>, ensur<strong>in</strong>g that there is harmonization <strong>of</strong><br />
activities by the various <strong>support<strong>in</strong>g</strong> organizations. Organizations wish<strong>in</strong>g to provide any support to the<br />
agro‐pastoral communities must register their <strong>in</strong>tention with this Government <strong>of</strong>fice so that gaps are<br />
identified or areas assisted are known. The M<strong>in</strong>istry also cont<strong>in</strong>ues to provide extension education as<br />
part <strong>of</strong> its <strong>of</strong>ficial mandate. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the first phase <strong>of</strong> the ALARMP, the DLPO played a big role <strong>in</strong><br />
educat<strong>in</strong>g the communities about the advantages <strong>of</strong> the forages that were be<strong>in</strong>g brought <strong>in</strong>, how they<br />
were to established, and then followed up with advisory visits.<br />
Arid Lands Resource Management Programme (ALRMP)<br />
The first phase <strong>of</strong> this Kenya Government program was funded by FAO which started <strong>in</strong> 1996 and played<br />
a big role <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>fodder</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Mandera</strong> before com<strong>in</strong>g to an end<strong>in</strong>g 2003. The activities entailed<br />
adoption <strong>of</strong> improved <strong>fodder</strong> types and <strong>in</strong>tense extension educational campaigns. The second phase <strong>of</strong><br />
that program (ALRMP Phase 2, cover<strong>in</strong>g 2003 ‐ 2009) was funded by the World Bank, and has a<br />
component <strong>in</strong> Natural Resources management, which is cont<strong>in</strong>uation <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> objectives through<br />
provision <strong>of</strong> seeds and tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g. As mentioned earlier, <strong>in</strong> 2002 when the drought was quite severe<br />
ALRMP purchased substantial amounts <strong>of</strong> hay from the river<strong>in</strong>e agro‐pastoralists and delivered them to<br />
pastoral herds <strong>in</strong> remote rangelands to reduce <strong>livestock</strong> losses.<br />
Dollow Ado Agricultural Research Station, Ethiopia<br />
The research station has <strong>in</strong>tensified the production <strong>of</strong> Sudan and Panicum grasses <strong>in</strong> Dollow Ethiopia<br />
through a program us<strong>in</strong>g Community Based Seed multiplication process and us<strong>in</strong>g farmer research<br />
groups. As mentioned earlier the Dollow Ado Agricultural Research centre (DoPARC), work<strong>in</strong>g with the<br />
local agricultural extension <strong>of</strong>fices select farmers and allocate each 0.25 hectares, some seed and<br />
fertilizer. The farmers also receive irrigation support (<strong>in</strong> the form <strong>of</strong> fuel). The Station has been buy<strong>in</strong>g all<br />
the harvested <strong>fodder</strong> seed and re‐distribut<strong>in</strong>g to other farmers. The Research Station has a program to<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduce the Sudan and Panicum grasses on a large scale through Community Based Seed<br />
multiplication process and us<strong>in</strong>g farmer research groups. The Ujeene Daban Cooperative is one such<br />
group (See Box 4). The Research Station supports a group by provid<strong>in</strong>g access to plots on its agricultural<br />
station where the farmers can access water (pump and fuel), provides free seed then buys harvested<br />
seed for re‐distribution to other farmers. The research station has also taken some <strong>of</strong> the farmers<br />
through a Tra<strong>in</strong>ers‐<strong>of</strong>‐Tra<strong>in</strong>ers program to help dissem<strong>in</strong>ate better production and seed multiplication<br />
processes among other farmers.<br />
29
Local and <strong>in</strong>ternational NGOs<br />
These <strong>in</strong>clude VSF Suisse, COOPI (Cooperazione Internazionale), Save the Children US, <strong>Mandera</strong><br />
Polytechnic, the Islamic Relief Foundation and Dollow Farmers Cooperative Society (DFCS). The NGOs<br />
are ma<strong>in</strong>ly humanitarian organizations work<strong>in</strong>g to alleviate <strong>in</strong>justice, poverty and general disaster<br />
recovery to the pastoral and agro‐pastoral communities liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the area. The UN’s World Food Program<br />
supports food and medical supplies.<br />
Dollow Farmers Cooperative Society (DFS) is a cooperative and a CBO that coord<strong>in</strong>ates <strong>fodder</strong><br />
production and trade around Somalia. DFCS started from a group <strong>of</strong> farmers com<strong>in</strong>g together to manage<br />
the production and market<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> food crops. TROCAIRE <strong>in</strong>troduced to the group coord<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>fodder</strong><br />
market<strong>in</strong>g. Due to the recognition it has ga<strong>in</strong>ed. DFCS enables members to cross over to Ethiopia to sell<br />
or buy <strong>fodder</strong>, someth<strong>in</strong>g that was a challenge earlier.<br />
Moonlight Development Agency (MODA) is a local NGO operat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Dollow. The NGO supports activities<br />
on <strong>fodder</strong> production through tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and seed distribution.<br />
Box 4. UJEEDO BADAN – A FARMERS COOPERATIVE FOR FODDER<br />
Ujeedo Badanis a multi-purpose farmers’ cooperative <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> food and <strong>fodder</strong> production and market<strong>in</strong>g . It was<br />
formed 14 years ago and it currently has 21 <strong>in</strong>dividual members, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g four women. There is no other similar<br />
group <strong>in</strong> the area. If anyone is <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> jo<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g them there are no religious restrictions (belong<strong>in</strong>g to any one as a<br />
condition), they should read and be satisfied with the group’s constitution and pay for their contribution for the<br />
com<strong>in</strong>g season. Any group earn<strong>in</strong>gs are shared among members based on the fraction <strong>of</strong> share contribution. Initially<br />
group members only benefited from hav<strong>in</strong>g access to seed, but <strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>of</strong> faster and more commercial <strong>fodder</strong><br />
types (Sudan, Panicum and Sorghum) by Dollow Agricultural Research Station has resulted <strong>in</strong> their revenue base<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g due to sale <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong>.<br />
‐ Member advantages:<br />
‐ Initially, grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> maize and use <strong>of</strong> the stover for <strong>fodder</strong>; the <strong>fodder</strong> is sold to earn the members revenue.<br />
‐ S<strong>in</strong>ce membership registration <strong>in</strong>dicates <strong>in</strong>dividual shares members earn net revenue (after deduction <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>put costs) from <strong>fodder</strong> sales as a proportion <strong>of</strong> their <strong>in</strong>vestment.<br />
‐ Members also get <strong>fodder</strong> for their <strong>livestock</strong> and a share <strong>of</strong> the seed. At the time <strong>of</strong> the study the group had<br />
harvested and prepared 300 kgs <strong>of</strong> Sudan grass seed ready for distribution to members.<br />
In the last season, Save the Childers US <strong>in</strong> Dollow Ado bought 19,200 bales <strong>of</strong> Sudan and Panicum hay bales from<br />
the group.<br />
These organizations serve the cha<strong>in</strong> by provid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>put and help<strong>in</strong>g to reduce costs. Table 13 gives an<br />
<strong>in</strong>dication <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> the support provided so far.<br />
30
Table 13. Distribution <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> seed to agro-pastoral farmers by some <strong>of</strong> the organizations<br />
Organization Fodder crop seed Seeds distributed to agro-pastoral farmers over time (kg)<br />
2007 2008 2009<br />
VSF Suisse Sudan grass - 447.5 177.5<br />
Hybrid sorghum - - 187.5<br />
Lucaena - 5.2 -<br />
Mukuna (Velvet beans) - 13.3 9<br />
Napier cutt<strong>in</strong>gs (pieces) - 1,814 1 -<br />
Calliandra seedl<strong>in</strong>gs - - 3,794 2<br />
COOPI Boma Rhodes - 200 -<br />
Sudan grass - - 1500<br />
Pumps - 1 -<br />
Islamic Relief Foundation Boma Rhodes - 800<br />
Sudan grass - 800 600<br />
Cowpeas 180 1960 480<br />
Dollow Ado Agric<br />
Research Station, Ethiopia<br />
Source: Respective organizations’ reports<br />
The station has distributed up to 100 kgs <strong>of</strong> various <strong>fodder</strong> species to agro-pastoralists<br />
for the last two years<br />
1 Number <strong>of</strong> cutt<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
2 Number <strong>of</strong> seedl<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
31
7. Environmental and social impacts <strong>of</strong> the market cha<strong>in</strong><br />
6. The rivers – Daua, Dollow and Jubba<br />
As the ma<strong>in</strong> source <strong>of</strong> water be<strong>in</strong>g used to irrigate the crops and <strong>fodder</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g produced for the system,<br />
rivers are a powerful and central feature. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to participants <strong>in</strong> the group discussions the river<br />
water has been used from time immemorial for crop production that has supported the communities’<br />
sustenance and its importance <strong>in</strong> irrigat<strong>in</strong>g land for <strong>fodder</strong> production cannot be downplayed.<br />
The agro‐pastoralists expressed concerned about dropp<strong>in</strong>g water levels signall<strong>in</strong>g a loom<strong>in</strong>g water<br />
shortage. The drop <strong>in</strong> levels has not affected production much so far, but there was apprehension about<br />
dropp<strong>in</strong>g levels <strong>of</strong> flow from the Ethiopian highlands and the length <strong>of</strong> the season Daua River <strong>in</strong> Kenya.<br />
Farmers from Luuq Somalia said some parts <strong>of</strong> the river could no longer be used and deeper trenches<br />
would have to be dug to get to the water If the trend cont<strong>in</strong>ues; not only will the production <strong>peri</strong>ods get<br />
shorter, but the maximum possible <strong>fodder</strong> harvests are likely to drop, affect<strong>in</strong>g a whole range <strong>of</strong> other<br />
important dependent factors such as the number <strong>of</strong> farmers likely to benefit from farm production, the<br />
traders rely<strong>in</strong>g on deliveries to the markets and the very large number <strong>of</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> farmers and their<br />
herds <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly rely<strong>in</strong>g on this environmental feature for their wellbe<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
7. Urban and <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> population and associated demand for <strong>fodder</strong><br />
The <strong>urban</strong> and <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> populations <strong>of</strong> <strong>Mandera</strong>, Dollow Ado and other smaller neighbour<strong>in</strong>g towns<br />
(Suftu) and their <strong>livestock</strong> are <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g creat<strong>in</strong>g a <strong>fodder</strong> market that is steadily grow<strong>in</strong>g. Some <strong>of</strong><br />
these are nomadic pastoral communities who are f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g the extensive rangelands <strong>in</strong>adequate to their<br />
pasture seek<strong>in</strong>g practices. These rangelands – orig<strong>in</strong>ally open and allow<strong>in</strong>g free roam<strong>in</strong>g – have become<br />
drier. Restricted movement due to emerg<strong>in</strong>g ownership demarcation by resident communities may be<br />
contribut<strong>in</strong>g to over‐graz<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Demand for <strong>fodder</strong> is observed to be <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g, given the pressure com<strong>in</strong>g from agro‐pastoralists for<br />
plant<strong>in</strong>g material supplies. Some <strong>of</strong> the farmers have even shown <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> acquir<strong>in</strong>g seed from<br />
commercial stockists, although the presence <strong>of</strong> free supplies from NGOs and the government programs<br />
keeps underm<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g this shift. The supply <strong>of</strong> seeds by NGOs is not guaranteed, and some have even<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicated they may not fund this <strong>in</strong> future programs. The more practical and applicable alternative <strong>of</strong><br />
community‐based seed production requires approval and support by the Kenya Government seed<br />
regulation agency ‐ KEPHIS. The <strong>fodder</strong> purchase has yet to stimulate the development and susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />
production <strong>of</strong> high volumes <strong>of</strong> seed sales among the farmers.<br />
8. Extreme seasonal ex<strong>peri</strong>ences and more frequent droughts<br />
The seasons are becom<strong>in</strong>g less predictable and ra<strong>in</strong>fall patterns more erratic. As a result roam<strong>in</strong>g<br />
nomadic pastoral communities who can no longer rely on predictable pastures and are choos<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
settle near the town where <strong>fodder</strong> supplies are show<strong>in</strong>g more available reliability. On the other hand,<br />
the rivers’ water is no longer available for irrigation for sufficiently long enough <strong>peri</strong>ods to support<br />
32
extended and <strong>in</strong>creased production as would be desired by the farmers. Some have reported that water<br />
levels <strong>in</strong> river Jubba have dropped to levels that do not allow easy access to the water for irrigation.<br />
9. Incomes and improved livelihoods from <strong>fodder</strong> production and trade enterprises<br />
Better <strong>in</strong>comes from <strong>fodder</strong> sales are trigger<strong>in</strong>g use <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> as an enterprise. There may not be<br />
conscious net return analysis, but it is possible for agro‐pastoral farms to demonstrate that they are<br />
gett<strong>in</strong>g more from <strong>fodder</strong> production than traditional food crops. This is encourag<strong>in</strong>g more farmers who<br />
can access land and water to go <strong>in</strong>to <strong>fodder</strong> production.<br />
Women traders sell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>fodder</strong> are demonstrat<strong>in</strong>g the viability <strong>of</strong> their enterprises as source <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>come,<br />
and encourag<strong>in</strong>g others to jo<strong>in</strong> them, creat<strong>in</strong>g greater demand for the producers. Maize is grown ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
for <strong>fodder</strong> and the maize stover will sell for prices high enough to allow producers to buy the maize as<br />
food for their own consumption.<br />
10. The cont<strong>in</strong>ued support provided by development organizations<br />
A large number <strong>of</strong> emergency and development organizations <strong>in</strong> the area cont<strong>in</strong>ue to provide free<br />
<strong>in</strong>puts, particularly seeds and water pumps, enhanc<strong>in</strong>g positive net returns <strong>in</strong> the production and trade<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong>, and attract<strong>in</strong>g greater <strong>in</strong>terest and cont<strong>in</strong>ued production by many agro‐pastoral farmers.<br />
11. Extension education and <strong>in</strong>creased awareness <strong>of</strong> production potential.<br />
Some support organizations have <strong>in</strong>troduced the pastoralists to production systems with potential for<br />
greater land productivity. There is greater appreciation on benefits possible from <strong>fodder</strong> production and<br />
trad<strong>in</strong>g and participants <strong>in</strong>terviewed expressed <strong>in</strong>terest and shift from pastoral nomadism to more<br />
sedentary farm<strong>in</strong>g practices that rely on <strong>fodder</strong> for <strong>livestock</strong> production.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g extended dry or drought <strong>peri</strong>ods <strong>in</strong>creased use <strong>of</strong> farm land for <strong>fodder</strong> production could<br />
potentially have a negative impact on the area’s food security. VSF Suisse has recently embarked on<br />
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g pastoralists on rangeland rehabilitation us<strong>in</strong>g grasses like Boma Rhodes and Cenchrus ciliaris.<br />
Access to rangeland pastures may decrease the pressure to use farm land for <strong>fodder</strong> crops, but this<br />
rema<strong>in</strong>s to be seen.<br />
33
8. Discussion<br />
Agro‐pastoral farmers along the three rivers have traditionally used irrigated water to grow food crops<br />
such as maize, sorghum, cowpeas, tomatoes, onions and fruit crops. The use <strong>of</strong> some food crops for<br />
<strong>fodder</strong>, particularly maize and sorghum stover, cowpea v<strong>in</strong>es, Napier and natural grass as <strong>fodder</strong> has<br />
been an <strong>in</strong>tegral part <strong>of</strong> farm<strong>in</strong>g activities <strong>in</strong> the region. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the DLPO <strong>of</strong> <strong>Mandera</strong> district <strong>in</strong><br />
Kenya, extension advice passed to agro‐pastoralists has encouraged them to use a portion <strong>of</strong> their farms<br />
for <strong>fodder</strong> production.<br />
The tim<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> fam<strong>in</strong>e relief supplies is a contribut<strong>in</strong>g factor. From discussions with various actors, it was<br />
observed that <strong>in</strong> some <strong>in</strong>stances relief food for human consumption arrives late – a problem associated<br />
with logistics delay between early warn<strong>in</strong>g fam<strong>in</strong>e signals and the time it takes to mobilize and supply<br />
relief resources to the communities. The grow<strong>in</strong>g crops <strong>in</strong> the farm are then diverted to <strong>livestock</strong><br />
feed<strong>in</strong>g. In addition the diversion <strong>of</strong> relief food to local stores depresses the market price <strong>of</strong> gra<strong>in</strong>s,<br />
discourag<strong>in</strong>g farmers from produc<strong>in</strong>g for the market.<br />
Follow<strong>in</strong>g the 2002 drought, <strong>in</strong> which the pastoralists lost 30% <strong>of</strong> their cattle, sheep and goat and 19% <strong>of</strong><br />
the camel populations, the value <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> crops rose with the <strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>of</strong> other crop species such<br />
as Sudan, Columbus and velvet beans (ref: Mr Noor <strong>of</strong> Arid Lands). In Kenya, the efforts were led by the<br />
FAO‐funded Arid Lands Resources Management Project (ALRMP), work<strong>in</strong>g with VSF Suisse (the<br />
Emergency Pastoral Recovery Program) and the M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Livestock Development. The activities<br />
entailed mobiliz<strong>in</strong>g farmers to adopt better production and conservation methods, the provision <strong>of</strong> free<br />
seeds and extension education on the advantages <strong>of</strong> strategic use <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> to susta<strong>in</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
dry <strong>peri</strong>ods. Work<strong>in</strong>g with 60 pilot farmers <strong>in</strong> <strong>Mandera</strong> Kenya, the ALRMP was actually able to<br />
demonstrate higher returns and other benefits possible from <strong>fodder</strong> production and trade compared to<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g the land for food crops (ALARMP Phase I Report). In the Gedo area <strong>of</strong> Somalia, <strong>in</strong>tensive <strong>fodder</strong><br />
production and use was <strong>in</strong>troduced by TROCAIRE to the Moonlight Development Agency (MODA; a local<br />
farmers’ association) <strong>in</strong> 1999. In 2002, MODA received similar support from VSF Suisse and CARE<br />
Somalia.<br />
Dollow Farmers Cooperative Society (DFCS) was formed <strong>in</strong> 1999 to unite farmers <strong>in</strong> Dollow Somalia area<br />
to support resource mobilization, farm production and market<strong>in</strong>g. The cooperative started with eleven<br />
members, but has grown to a membership <strong>of</strong> 370 farmers. In July 2009 alone, they received n<strong>in</strong>e new<br />
group members. In 2004, DFCS decided to <strong>in</strong>crease their <strong>fodder</strong> production due to frequent and harsh<br />
droughts <strong>in</strong> the area and with advice from VSF Suisse and TROCAIRE. DFCS as a cooperative has 135<br />
pumps, 60 <strong>of</strong> which have been donated by TROCAIRE, AZEP and CARE Somalia, while the rest have been<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual private purchases. They also received Sudan and Columbus grass from Godey Research<br />
Station, but they have been buy<strong>in</strong>g maize seeds from stockists <strong>in</strong> Dollow town. Luuq district <strong>in</strong> Somalia’s<br />
Gedo region has the largest portion <strong>of</strong> agro‐pastoral farmers <strong>in</strong> the region because River Jubba w<strong>in</strong>ds<br />
through its longest course as it grows through the district (Figure 1). Focus group discussions with<br />
34
epresentatives from this region say there are about 800 agro‐pastoral farms along the river tak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>fodder</strong> to Bulla Hawa town next to <strong>Mandera</strong> town <strong>in</strong> Kenya.<br />
Some <strong>of</strong> the development support favour<strong>in</strong>g the production <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> is the provision <strong>of</strong> plant<strong>in</strong>g<br />
material and water pumps that enable the agro‐pastoral communities to ex<strong>peri</strong>ence higher returns than<br />
<strong>in</strong> the absence <strong>of</strong> subsidized <strong>in</strong>puts. S<strong>in</strong>ce 2002, more aid and development programs have cont<strong>in</strong>ued to<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude <strong>fodder</strong> production <strong>in</strong> their community programs, provid<strong>in</strong>g free seed and seedl<strong>in</strong>gs, reduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>put costs, and hence mak<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>fodder</strong> trade more viable (Table 11). Indirectly <strong>support<strong>in</strong>g</strong> this<br />
development is <strong>in</strong>creased food relief, mak<strong>in</strong>g it possible for farmers to release more farmland for <strong>fodder</strong><br />
production. This is supported by the agro‐pastoralists who po<strong>in</strong>t out that wait<strong>in</strong>g for the maize harvests<br />
has the double jeopardy <strong>of</strong> los<strong>in</strong>g the crop, due to the very short ra<strong>in</strong>s, and their animals dy<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
starvation before pastures re‐generate. So the farms are <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly be<strong>in</strong>g used to grow fast‐grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
maize stover and cowpea v<strong>in</strong>es. In <strong>Mandera</strong>, relief maize gra<strong>in</strong>, most <strong>of</strong> it com<strong>in</strong>g from Somalia, f<strong>in</strong>ds its<br />
way to the local shops, depress<strong>in</strong>g gra<strong>in</strong> prices and mak<strong>in</strong>g it un‐lucrative for farmers to wait to harvest<br />
their own maize for sale later.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> the region’s rivers to irrigate crops is not new; some <strong>of</strong> the agro‐pastoral farmers have used<br />
this approach to produce food crops for most <strong>of</strong> their lives. What is new is the greater emphasis and<br />
def<strong>in</strong>ite focus on <strong>fodder</strong> crops due to several factors described <strong>in</strong> this study.<br />
All <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> exchange transactions are on‐the‐spot cash payments; no contractual arrangements<br />
were reported. Some cash payments are given only a 24‐hour credit w<strong>in</strong>dow – a trader collects <strong>fodder</strong><br />
from a <strong>fodder</strong> producer or transporter <strong>in</strong> the morn<strong>in</strong>g and pays <strong>in</strong> the even<strong>in</strong>g or the next day after<br />
sell<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>fodder</strong>. Such credit arrangements are only observed at farm level – between the producer<br />
and the transporter or trader – and not with the f<strong>in</strong>al <strong>livestock</strong> keeper. There are no long‐term credit<br />
arrangements.<br />
Fodder quality or exact price parameters are sensitive to and determ<strong>in</strong>ed by the crop species, the<br />
bundle weights, proportions <strong>of</strong> leaf and its general colour (taken to <strong>in</strong>dicate the <strong>fodder</strong>’s palatability),<br />
and the extent <strong>of</strong> wilt<strong>in</strong>g after harvest. Apart from the isolated cases <strong>of</strong> hay bal<strong>in</strong>g – mostly <strong>in</strong> farms<br />
strongly supported by projects – there were no conservation practices <strong>of</strong> any surplus forage as silage,<br />
despite the potential opportunity follow<strong>in</strong>g copious growth <strong>of</strong> various forages dur<strong>in</strong>g the ra<strong>in</strong>s.<br />
Better use <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> and other <strong>livestock</strong> <strong>in</strong>puts is where these cha<strong>in</strong> actors could benefit. As it is, there is<br />
m<strong>in</strong>imum direct commercial benefit from the use <strong>of</strong> purchased <strong>fodder</strong>, e.g. such high production that<br />
could be reflected <strong>in</strong> sale <strong>of</strong> higher value, faster return products, e.g. <strong>in</strong>come earners like milk. Fodder<br />
buy<strong>in</strong>g, even at the time <strong>of</strong> the study which was a <strong>peri</strong>od <strong>of</strong> relative abundance, seemed to be aimed at<br />
basic ma<strong>in</strong>tenance <strong>of</strong> the exist<strong>in</strong>g herds and flocks; and not <strong>in</strong> high enough quantities to translate <strong>in</strong>to<br />
faster growth rates, more rapid reproduction or higher milk production. As a result, <strong>Mandera</strong> town is a<br />
net importer <strong>of</strong> milk com<strong>in</strong>g from neighbour<strong>in</strong>g Somalia.<br />
35
9. Recommendations and way forward<br />
Production and distribution <strong>of</strong> a deliberate surplus <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> for market<strong>in</strong>g through the teams <strong>of</strong><br />
transporters and traders <strong>in</strong> various towns to <strong>livestock</strong> keepers and migrat<strong>in</strong>g pastoralists, constitute a<br />
supply or value cha<strong>in</strong>, albeit without clearly coord<strong>in</strong>ated governance. The system supports a relatively<br />
large population if one considers number <strong>of</strong> actors, their employees and dependents. It is a source <strong>of</strong><br />
livelihood – <strong>in</strong> both direct cash earn<strong>in</strong>gs as well as <strong>in</strong>comes derived from benefitt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>livestock</strong> <strong>of</strong>f‐take.<br />
This is a system that requires support and <strong>in</strong>terventions target<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>in</strong> the market structure to<br />
further improve the livelihood benefits it can provide, as suggested <strong>in</strong> the next section.<br />
9.1. <strong>Market</strong> structure organization and governance<br />
The <strong>fodder</strong> market exists based on the apparent availability <strong>of</strong> a natural resource (the rivers), their<br />
exploitation for food and <strong>fodder</strong> production, entrepreneurial activities to supply the <strong>fodder</strong> where<br />
demand is – the <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> and nomadic pastoralists. The structure is <strong>in</strong>formal without any dist<strong>in</strong>ct<br />
governance patterns like those described by Gereffi et al (2005). The multiplicity <strong>of</strong> producers,<br />
<strong>in</strong>termediaries and consumers, reduces opportunities for power‐control relationships exerted at any<br />
given po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> the system. There are no clear power relationships but there is recognition <strong>of</strong> roles. A key<br />
recommendation would be education <strong>of</strong> all actors on the structure <strong>of</strong> this system, the value <strong>of</strong> their<br />
roles and how best they can work together to strengthen the cha<strong>in</strong> and <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong>dividual net ga<strong>in</strong>s. A<br />
key driver that can be exploited by the entire system is the <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g demand for <strong>fodder</strong> by <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong><br />
farms as well as the needs <strong>of</strong> nomadic pastoralists. A more organized cha<strong>in</strong> can develop a more effective<br />
l<strong>in</strong>k between the <strong>fodder</strong> production and these consumers. In some cases this may entail lobby<strong>in</strong>g or<br />
mak<strong>in</strong>g a case with governments <strong>of</strong> external support for more <strong>in</strong>frastructural support for irrigation and<br />
movement <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> to the consumption po<strong>in</strong>ts – public or private.<br />
Collective action (actors work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> groups) has potential value <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>imiz<strong>in</strong>g production and operational<br />
costs for actors <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> related market structures, reduc<strong>in</strong>g transaction costs and <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g their<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual net marg<strong>in</strong>s (KIT, et al 2006).<br />
9.1. The market system development approach<br />
The development <strong>of</strong> this market structure should be from with<strong>in</strong>, ensur<strong>in</strong>g the actors cultural values and<br />
concerns are taken on board. The market form as it is now has a strong cultural foundation and – <strong>in</strong><br />
some <strong>in</strong>stances – strong religious <strong>in</strong>fluence that must not be ignored. The process should be educative<br />
and participatory, mov<strong>in</strong>g at a pace at which the communities are able to appreciate the structure and<br />
<strong>in</strong>tentions and then be <strong>in</strong>vited to <strong>in</strong>corporate what works best for them.<br />
9.2. On policy and effective <strong>support<strong>in</strong>g</strong> environment<br />
The recommendation here will be <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e with the first recommendation on creat<strong>in</strong>g awareness and<br />
develop<strong>in</strong>g a market system that exploits exist<strong>in</strong>g opportunities (<strong>fodder</strong> available through irrigation and<br />
36
demand from <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> farms and nomadic pastoralists) and work<strong>in</strong>g for all actors. Some <strong>of</strong> the areas<br />
where policies could be developed to support the system expla<strong>in</strong>ed below. KEPHIS should consider its<br />
regulatory requirements that would support community‐based production and distribution <strong>of</strong> seed for<br />
such a system.<br />
1. Infrastructure – irrigation and road network<br />
Given the economic value irrigated <strong>fodder</strong> is br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to livelihoods <strong>in</strong> the dependent communities,<br />
there is a case for allocation <strong>of</strong> adequate (public) resources for more effective mobilization <strong>of</strong> the river<br />
water to po<strong>in</strong>ts where it can be better distributed or made more accessible to farms for irrigation and<br />
other domestic use by both humans and <strong>livestock</strong>. In addition to the <strong>in</strong>dividual farm irrigation<br />
structures, this will <strong>in</strong>clude <strong>in</strong>stallation and ma<strong>in</strong>tenance <strong>of</strong> ‘complex’ plumb<strong>in</strong>g and bulk storage<br />
facilities possibly by local or national government services. This undertak<strong>in</strong>g would ensure more<br />
reliable and possibly more affordable supplies <strong>of</strong> water to the agro‐pastoralists and other users. It would<br />
also ensure the water is channelled <strong>in</strong> ways that ensure the river<strong>in</strong>e environment is safeguarded for the<br />
whole system. It is possible to <strong>in</strong>crease irrigated land marg<strong>in</strong>s on either side <strong>of</strong> the rivers from 0.5 to 1.0<br />
kms, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the possibility <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g irrigated land from the current 25,000 to a total <strong>of</strong> 40,000<br />
hectares (439.3 sq km) as long as this massive undertak<strong>in</strong>g can be susta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
At the other end <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> market, delivery <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> to <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g demand from farther <strong>in</strong>land<br />
nomadic pastoralists would be better supported by road networks that enable such delivery <strong>of</strong> the feed<br />
at low cost. At the moment the entire area has <strong>in</strong>adequately ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed roads that cannot support<br />
extensive transportation <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong>. Improvement <strong>in</strong> road conditions may even attract <strong>fodder</strong><br />
transportation as an entrepreneurial activity benefit<strong>in</strong>g even more people.<br />
2. Introduction and use <strong>of</strong> appropriate forage species<br />
There is a case for resource allocation by government or other such body for the <strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>of</strong> or<br />
improvement <strong>of</strong> current <strong>fodder</strong> types (species and breeds) to those that can be produced <strong>in</strong> large but<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>able amounts the area us<strong>in</strong>g the current irrigation system. This requires plant breed<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
agronomic research to <strong>in</strong>troduce better forage types, while safeguard<strong>in</strong>g the environment’s diversity, as<br />
well as crop husbandry practices that maximise the <strong>fodder</strong> production. The objectives and activities <strong>of</strong><br />
the Dollow Ado Agriculture Research Station <strong>in</strong> support <strong>of</strong> irrigated <strong>fodder</strong> production Ethiopia should<br />
be scaled up and out <strong>in</strong> the entire region.<br />
The result from such support could be more affordable plant<strong>in</strong>g material, management techniques and<br />
higher yields that will translate to better direct and <strong>in</strong>direct earn<strong>in</strong>gs by the agro‐pastoralists and<br />
<strong>livestock</strong> keepers, respectively.<br />
3. Coord<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>put from various agencies<br />
There are several agencies <strong>support<strong>in</strong>g</strong> the pastoral and agro‐pastoral communities <strong>in</strong> the area. While the<br />
<strong>in</strong>tentions are noble and welcome <strong>in</strong> such a fragile system, an open and more effective coord<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong><br />
37
the <strong>in</strong>puts supplied by these agencies will lower total costs to the system while ensur<strong>in</strong>g there is a fair<br />
allocation <strong>of</strong> support for all communities (or households) across the region.<br />
Examples are harmonized <strong>in</strong>put acquisition, and clearer distribution programs that could save on<br />
logistical costs. The <strong>Mandera</strong> DLPO’s <strong>of</strong>fice <strong>in</strong> Kenya has taken charge <strong>of</strong> this coord<strong>in</strong>ation but there is<br />
still room for improvement, especially for movements across the countries’ borders. The harmonized<br />
coord<strong>in</strong>ation by governments (or similarly mandated public <strong>in</strong>stitutions) <strong>in</strong> the three countries will<br />
support more households’ participation the <strong>fodder</strong> market while the sav<strong>in</strong>gs are ultimately transferred<br />
to the market actors’ net benefits.<br />
4. Supportive cross border market<strong>in</strong>g systems<br />
In addition to the harmonized coord<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>puts, there is need to support cross border trad<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
movement <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong>. Cross border f<strong>in</strong>ancial transactions are currently not a problem; all the<br />
communities <strong>in</strong> the area transact <strong>in</strong> any <strong>of</strong> the three countries’ currencies, as well as the US dollar and<br />
there are no punitive fluctuations <strong>in</strong> exchange rates. However the border restrictions on movement<br />
complicate extensive <strong>fodder</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g and are a constra<strong>in</strong>t to the exploitation <strong>of</strong> the region’s full<br />
market potential. The primary obstacle <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>security from Somalia that has not only resulted <strong>in</strong> restricted<br />
movement <strong>in</strong>to and out that country but easily creates tension at any <strong>of</strong> the other border po<strong>in</strong>ts.<br />
There is need for the respective country to work towards alleviat<strong>in</strong>g the security situation <strong>in</strong> the region.<br />
This will be a big boost to the region’s trade, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>fodder</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustry.<br />
For all these policy support recommendations, the start<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t would be the generation <strong>of</strong> data and<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation to make the case for such policy support. This is extensive research and development effort<br />
that requires the allocation <strong>of</strong> adequate technical and f<strong>in</strong>ancial support.<br />
9.3. Production support<br />
1. Land under irrigation<br />
The amount produced by the agro‐pastoralists could be <strong>in</strong>creased to fully supply the agro‐pastoralist<br />
and <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> as well as for pastoralists further <strong>in</strong>land. Almost all the land under irrigation <strong>in</strong><br />
the river valleys has been be<strong>in</strong>g used but has not been fully exploited. It is possible to <strong>in</strong>crease or more<br />
effectively irrigate more land for food and <strong>fodder</strong> production through better provision or support <strong>of</strong><br />
irrigation equipment and services. Various agencies already support this through schemes that range<br />
from free supplies to organized groups, through cost‐shar<strong>in</strong>g or affordable cost‐recovery programs. This<br />
should be supported and scaled out.<br />
2. Fertilizer and seed supply<br />
The agro‐pastoralists reported that they did not use fertilizer and the seeds they use are not<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>uously available to facilitate cont<strong>in</strong>uous coord<strong>in</strong>ated production.<br />
38
An <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>organic fertilizers or well prepared compost manure could enhance the land’s<br />
productivity. Some <strong>of</strong> the agro‐pastoralists reported that they had been tra<strong>in</strong>ed on how to compost<br />
manure but the skill was not widespread. The use <strong>of</strong> cut‐and‐carry <strong>fodder</strong> is usually accompanied by<br />
large amounts <strong>of</strong> waste that are used <strong>in</strong> more <strong>in</strong>tensive systems to prepare farm manure, <strong>support<strong>in</strong>g</strong><br />
nutrient circulation and <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g productivity (Lekasi, et al, 2000; Utiger et al, 2000). The collection and<br />
preparation <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> waste for use <strong>in</strong> the river<strong>in</strong>e farms implies the creation <strong>of</strong> a relationship between<br />
the <strong>livestock</strong> keepers and agro‐pastoralists that <strong>in</strong>creases supplies <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>organic compost manure.<br />
The second aspect is a cont<strong>in</strong>uously reliable source <strong>of</strong> plant<strong>in</strong>g material that that allows the free supplies<br />
but works with commercial sources <strong>in</strong> ways that will support shortfalls and encourage local<br />
entrepreneurship. The latter development could be the foundation <strong>of</strong> more reliable and susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />
supply <strong>of</strong> seed <strong>in</strong>puts <strong>in</strong>to the system. For some <strong>of</strong> the forages that can be propagated us<strong>in</strong>g vegetative<br />
parts, bulk<strong>in</strong>g the seed <strong>in</strong>dividually or <strong>in</strong> collective action po<strong>in</strong>ts where farmers can access them free or<br />
at lower cost will be a great public support.<br />
3. Number <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> cutt<strong>in</strong>gs for sale<br />
The agro‐pastoralists mentioned the number <strong>of</strong> times that the forage crops can be harvested to<br />
maximise production throughout the year. However, this knowledge or skill was not widespread and<br />
there is still room to tra<strong>in</strong> farmers and farmer groups to maximise production (number <strong>of</strong> cutt<strong>in</strong>gs per<br />
<strong>peri</strong>od) from their farms. This has a bear<strong>in</strong>g on the types <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> species that can best be managed to<br />
maximise production through <strong>in</strong>creased harvests, and some <strong>fodder</strong> or grass crops lend themselves to<br />
frequent cutt<strong>in</strong>gs better than others. For example <strong>in</strong> high potential areas, Boma Rhodes grass can be<br />
harvested three to four times per year, depend<strong>in</strong>g on moisture supply (ra<strong>in</strong>fall or irrigation). Fodder<br />
species and types better suited to prevalent sal<strong>in</strong>e soils could be explored. This means creat<strong>in</strong>g a more<br />
effective l<strong>in</strong>k with local research <strong>in</strong>stitutions such as KARI <strong>in</strong> Kenya and Dollow Ado Agricultural Research<br />
Station <strong>in</strong> Ethiopia.<br />
9.4. On utilization<br />
1. Conservation<br />
The next gap that requires address<strong>in</strong>g is the farmers’ and <strong>livestock</strong> keepers’ abilities to preserve their<br />
<strong>fodder</strong> crops for longer and later use. It was po<strong>in</strong>ted out that prices vary mostly <strong>in</strong> relationship to<br />
season‐based supply. Fresh <strong>fodder</strong> is bulky and highly <strong>peri</strong>shable and there are times when <strong>fodder</strong> is<br />
produced <strong>in</strong> such high quantities that prices drop to levels where it is not lucrative to carry out trade.<br />
There was limited <strong>in</strong>dication <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> conservation. Hay bal<strong>in</strong>g had just been <strong>in</strong>troduced and was be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
used for the Sudan and Sorghum grass and may be used for the Boma Rhodes grasses. A<br />
recommendation would thus be production <strong>of</strong> pasture forages that can be stored as hay and us<strong>in</strong>g these<br />
to develop strategic hay reserves that can serve the communities and the greater demands beyond. This<br />
means identify<strong>in</strong>g actors that can provide this support – public or private enterprise. Beyond this is the<br />
39
development <strong>of</strong> forage products that enable easy transportation to consumer demands far from the<br />
river<strong>in</strong>e areas, for example the ability to transport large amounts <strong>of</strong> hay to distant nomadic herds.<br />
However a majority <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> crops are bulky succulents that do not lend themselves well to dry<br />
bal<strong>in</strong>g and are better conserved <strong>in</strong> other ways <strong>in</strong> such hot and humid conditions. In addition, the alcohol<br />
aspect <strong>of</strong> silage has made this approach un‐acceptable to this strongly Muslim community and – if the<br />
silage process is not appreciated at all – other methods, such as haylage‐mak<strong>in</strong>g, may have to be<br />
explored and implemented.<br />
2. Livestock genetics<br />
The pastoralists keep <strong>in</strong>digenous <strong>livestock</strong> best suited to survive <strong>in</strong> dry places where forage availability is<br />
a challenge. It is possible to explore the genetic potential available that could best use the available<br />
forage quantities but this must be done cautiously while consider<strong>in</strong>g the very many other advantages <strong>of</strong><br />
the current <strong>in</strong>digenous breeds – disease resistance, hard<strong>in</strong>ess and the ability to survive on scanty<br />
pasture. Where a secure supply <strong>of</strong> forage can be produced <strong>in</strong> large quantities, especially <strong>in</strong> the agropastoralists<br />
farms, there is potential to keep more productive dairy cattle and goat breeds.<br />
9.5. On <strong>fodder</strong> market performance<br />
1. Individual actor returns<br />
The agro‐pastoralists who grow <strong>fodder</strong> enjoy high returns because they benefit both from sales <strong>of</strong> their<br />
own <strong>livestock</strong> <strong>of</strong>f‐takes as well as revenue from <strong>fodder</strong> sales. Higher returns to the <strong>fodder</strong> growers will<br />
be <strong>in</strong>fluenced by how well they feed their animals and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> them over the full year develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
heavier weights and healthier conditions that attract high market prices. The agro‐pastoralists also<br />
ex<strong>peri</strong>ence better marg<strong>in</strong>s overall due to artificially reduced <strong>in</strong>put costs. It was not possible to get an<br />
exact estimate <strong>of</strong> the total and <strong>in</strong>dividual costs borne by external support but the free provision (or cost<br />
shar<strong>in</strong>g) <strong>of</strong> seeds and pumps by service organizations has the effect <strong>of</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g overall costs to<br />
producers. Some <strong>of</strong> the NGOs already <strong>in</strong>tend to cut down on seed provision and encourage farmers to<br />
buy them from stockists <strong>in</strong> town.<br />
The transporters play a crucial l<strong>in</strong>k between the traders <strong>in</strong> the markets and the agro‐pastoralists<br />
farmers, given the cultural separation <strong>of</strong> roles. In many cases, they act like delivery services for a farmer<br />
wish<strong>in</strong>g to get access to the market and they (the transporters) have little control on the <strong>fodder</strong> flows<br />
and pric<strong>in</strong>g. This may be <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e with cultural role separation but competitive market forces could alter<br />
this. Buy<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>fodder</strong> from the producers and sell<strong>in</strong>g it to the traders or directly to the <strong>livestock</strong><br />
keepers could give transporters greater control that can be used to use to leverage for better marg<strong>in</strong>s.<br />
Changes are already evident, given that they have been steadily <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> number from twenty to<br />
thirty with<strong>in</strong> the preced<strong>in</strong>g five years. The transporters are also free to use the carts for ferry<strong>in</strong>g other<br />
loads, even possibly at lower costs, given their costs may have been covered by the ma<strong>in</strong> task <strong>of</strong> ferry<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>fodder</strong>.<br />
40
The traders play a key role <strong>in</strong> mak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>fodder</strong> available to the <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> farmers. There do not<br />
ex<strong>peri</strong>ence extensive costs for storage and transportation and the marg<strong>in</strong>s they earn are based on<br />
location and demand. Given that they sell the <strong>fodder</strong> fresh as soon as it is received, they provide<br />
proximity value addition.<br />
At the time <strong>of</strong> the <strong>survey</strong> it was not clear what other roles traders can play <strong>in</strong> the supply cha<strong>in</strong> to<br />
enhance their contribution. The <strong>fodder</strong> products they deal with are bulky and they did not participate <strong>in</strong><br />
more direct collections and deliveries. Conservation to enable them store larger amounts could be an<br />
option but that would require space and <strong>in</strong>frastructural systems with implications on <strong>in</strong>vestment and<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>tenance costs. Knowledge <strong>of</strong> how to better use comb<strong>in</strong>ations <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> types could be passed<br />
along with the sales to improve their <strong>of</strong>fers but this is <strong>in</strong>formation likely to already be with the buyers<br />
and the advantage easily eroded.<br />
Returns to the <strong>peri</strong>‐<strong>urban</strong> <strong>livestock</strong> keepers are not as high as those ex<strong>peri</strong>enced by the agro‐pastoralist<br />
farms. The marg<strong>in</strong>s are still positive, provid<strong>in</strong>g a source <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>come and possibly food afforded by any<br />
surplus and disposable <strong>in</strong>come. The <strong>fodder</strong> made available through the system availability enables them<br />
to keep animals with reduced constra<strong>in</strong>t given that there is little other feed supply options. In the focus<br />
group discussions participants <strong>in</strong>dicated the greatest challenge as be<strong>in</strong>g poor knowledge <strong>of</strong> husbandry<br />
practices that can enable them lower production <strong>in</strong>puts and <strong>in</strong>crease outputs and related <strong>in</strong>comes. Their<br />
marg<strong>in</strong>s could be <strong>in</strong>creased through choice <strong>of</strong> animals that can best survive <strong>of</strong> the feed types, quantities<br />
and qualities available as is already demonstrated by the relatively larger number <strong>of</strong> sheep and goats<br />
rather than cattle – compared to the agro‐pastoralists. More strategic feed<strong>in</strong>g regimes could further<br />
enable them rear their animals more efficiently. This will require a demonstration <strong>of</strong> the relationship<br />
and potential opportunities with the service providers.<br />
41
10. Conclusion<br />
The study demonstrates that <strong>fodder</strong> as an economic activity is vibrant <strong>in</strong> the region <strong>support<strong>in</strong>g</strong> between<br />
25,000 and 30,000 households. The system has developed from and depends on the region’s rivers<br />
whose waters river<strong>in</strong>e agro‐pastoralists use to irrigate their food and <strong>fodder</strong> crop. The production has<br />
evolved with support from Government programs and <strong>of</strong>fices, the most notable be<strong>in</strong>g the role Arid<br />
Lands Program and M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Livestock and Fisheries Development <strong>in</strong> Kenya. The ALRMP <strong>in</strong>tensified<br />
the practice through <strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>of</strong> more productive <strong>fodder</strong> types, while the m<strong>in</strong>istry’s extension<br />
agency cont<strong>in</strong>ues to build local knowledge and capacity <strong>in</strong> production and use <strong>of</strong> these feeds.<br />
The production is <strong>of</strong> substantial enough quantities to support sales <strong>of</strong> deliberately surpluses to <strong>peri</strong><strong>urban</strong><br />
<strong>livestock</strong> farmers <strong>in</strong> close by town centres, but also serve an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g demand from migrat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
pastoralists <strong>in</strong> the region’s remote rangelands. These factors have raised the pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> trade as a<br />
bus<strong>in</strong>ess generat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terest and <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g participation.<br />
However, the capacity <strong>of</strong> the environment to support the system and <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g demand is rather<br />
fragile, given the reliance on the rivers’ water with the volumes <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly becom<strong>in</strong>g un‐reliable.<br />
The actors <strong>in</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> market do not have a clearly coord<strong>in</strong>ated supply cha<strong>in</strong> system. Though not<br />
directly demonstrable, cultural systems have played a role <strong>in</strong> allocat<strong>in</strong>g production, transportation and<br />
retail functions to various categories <strong>of</strong> the community. The actors enjoy vary<strong>in</strong>g marg<strong>in</strong>s from their<br />
participation, with the agro‐pastoralists tak<strong>in</strong>g a substantial proportion <strong>of</strong> the net benefits. External<br />
actors such NGOs have played key roles <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>put supply (seeds, irrigation facilities, etc.), lower<strong>in</strong>g overall<br />
production costs and enabl<strong>in</strong>g the realization <strong>of</strong> positive returns by the agro‐pastoralists. The external<br />
contribution implies a threat to the susta<strong>in</strong>ability <strong>of</strong> this advantage <strong>in</strong> the system that requires to be<br />
addressed.<br />
The study recommends a further development <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> market system <strong>in</strong> order to make it more<br />
productive and to its actors. This should be through educat<strong>in</strong>g the members <strong>of</strong> their relationships and<br />
explor<strong>in</strong>g with them how to best explore the opportunities <strong>of</strong>fered by <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g demand, while<br />
safeguard<strong>in</strong>g the environment. External actors such as the Governments, Research Stations and NGOs<br />
are and will cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be crucial <strong>in</strong> <strong>support<strong>in</strong>g</strong> low cost but high production <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fodder</strong> and its<br />
delivery to consumers.<br />
The study also recommends more detailed <strong>in</strong>vestigation <strong>of</strong> the system to get better quantification <strong>of</strong> the<br />
<strong>fodder</strong> products and benefit distribution among the actors to better advice any aris<strong>in</strong>g governance or<br />
relationship system for mutual and possibly equitable benefit <strong>of</strong> all members.<br />
42
11. References<br />
ALRMP (Arid Lands Resource Management Programme) Phase I Report.<br />
CARE website, 2009. Project details: Enhanced Livelihoods <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Mandera</strong> Triangle (ELMT).<br />
http://www.care.org/careswork/projects/SOM090.asp. Accessed 7 Sep 2009.<br />
CIESIN (Centre for International Earth Science Information Network), Columbia University; International<br />
Food Policy Research Institute (IPFRI); the World Bank; and Centro Internacional de Agricultural Tropical<br />
(CIAT); 2004. Global Rural‐Urban Mapp<strong>in</strong>g Project (GRUMP): Urban/Rural Population grids Palisades, NY:<br />
CIESIN, Columbia University. Available at http://sedac.cies<strong>in</strong>.columbia.edu/gpw/<br />
ELMT RELPA website, 2009. Enhanced Livelihoods <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Mandera</strong> Triangle (ELMT). http://www.elmtrelpa.org/aesito/elmt.<br />
Accessed 7 Sep 2009.<br />
FAO Gridded Livestock <strong>of</strong> the World database (April 2007).<br />
Gereffi, G., Humphrey, J., Sturgeon, T. (2005), “The governance <strong>of</strong> global value cha<strong>in</strong>s,” Review <strong>of</strong><br />
International Political Economy, 12 (1): 78‐104. United K<strong>in</strong>gdom: Routledge.<br />
Kerven, Carol. 1992. Customary commerce: Historical reassessment <strong>of</strong> pastoral <strong>livestock</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
Africa. Agricultural Occasional Paper, Overseas Development Institute, London<br />
KIT, Faida MaLi and IIRR. Cha<strong>in</strong> empowerment: <strong>support<strong>in</strong>g</strong> African farmers to develop markets. Royal<br />
Tropical Institute, Amsterdam; Faida market L<strong>in</strong>k, Arusha; and International Institute <strong>of</strong> Rural<br />
Reconstruction, Nairobi. 2006.<br />
Lekasi J., Tanner, J., Kimani, S.K. and Harris, P. 2000. Effect <strong>of</strong> cattle manure quality on maize<br />
productivity under field conditions <strong>in</strong> a central Kenya highland nitisol. Paper for presentation at<br />
the 7 th KARI Biennial Scientific Conference, 13‐17 November, 2000, KARI Headquarters, Nairobi,<br />
Kenya.<br />
McPeak, J G. And P D Little. 2006. Pastoral <strong>livestock</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> eastern Africa: Research and policy<br />
changes. Practical Action, Rugby, UK.<br />
Muyekho F.N., Mwendia C.W. and Lusweti F. (1999). An advisory booklet for extension workers. Support<br />
to dairy cattle nutrition <strong>in</strong> Kenya KARI/DFID NARP II. National Agricultural Research Centre Kitale. pp 34<br />
43
NRC (National Research Council (U.S.), 2007. Committee on Nutrient Requirements <strong>of</strong> Small Rum<strong>in</strong>ants.<br />
Nutrient requirements <strong>of</strong> small rum<strong>in</strong>ants: sheep, goats, cervids, and New World camelids. Published by<br />
NRC 2007. ISBN 0309102138, 9780309102131.<br />
Saarnak, N<strong>in</strong>a Larsen. Flood recession agriculture <strong>in</strong> the Senegal River Valley. Danish Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Geography 103(1): 99‐113, 2003.<br />
UNDP 2005. National trends <strong>in</strong> populations, resources, environment and development: country pr<strong>of</strong>iles.<br />
http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/publications.htm. Accessed December 2009.<br />
Utiger, C., Romney, D., Njoroge, L., Staal, S., Lukuyu, B. and Chege, L. Nutrient flows and balances <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>tensive crop‐dairy production systems <strong>in</strong> the Kenya highlands. Paper presented at the 3 rd All Africa<br />
Conference on Animal Agriculture and 11 th Conference <strong>of</strong> the Egyptian Society <strong>of</strong> Animal Production, 6‐9<br />
November, 2000, Alexandria, Egypt.<br />
44
12. Appendices<br />
Appendix 1: Questionnaire used<br />
Name <strong>of</strong> Enumerator:_____________________ Interview Date ___________ and Time ____________<br />
COUNTRY: ___________________________<br />
1A Location (area, <strong>urban</strong> sett<strong>in</strong>g)<br />
Location base (state or describe)<br />
Nearest town centre, Area <strong>of</strong> operation (state or describe)<br />
1B Identity <strong>of</strong> RESPONDENT (Household head)<br />
Primary occupation <strong>of</strong> the household head (Use codes): [1] Agro-pastoralist; [2] Fodder trader; [3 ] Fodder transporter [4] Peri<strong>urban</strong><br />
<strong>livestock</strong> keeper; [5]Non-agriculture<br />
Name (Optional)<br />
Age (tick age bracket)<br />
Education (Use codes): [0] Illiterate [1] Religious Education [2] Adult / Basic Education [3] Primary education [4] Secondary<br />
education [5] Above secondary<br />
Gender (M/F)<br />
Household size (numbers): Male, Female and Total<br />
Family members work<strong>in</strong>g on the farm (numbers): Male, Female and Total<br />
Permanently hired labourer(s) work<strong>in</strong>g for the household (Numbers hired at for more than one production season)<br />
1C Membership <strong>in</strong> any farmer or trader association and/or group; <strong>in</strong>dicate name, fee and benefits<br />
Name <strong>of</strong> the organization and Membership fees<br />
Membership benefits (Use codes): 1= High prices/ lower costs; 2 = Access to <strong>in</strong>puts and facilities; 3 = Access to f<strong>in</strong>ances; 4=<br />
Technical support; 5 = Better access to <strong>in</strong>formation; 6 = Other (specify) ____________<br />
2A Farmland and other assets (dur<strong>in</strong>g January 2008 – December 2008)<br />
Land type and size: Currently Farmed (Own, Rented, Shared In, Shared Out, Rented Out, Fallow Land, Pasture Land)<br />
Do you use communal land for graz<strong>in</strong>g Y=Yes; N=No<br />
Do you own the follow<strong>in</strong>g and what is approximate value (Water Pump, Plough Set, Other farm equipments<br />
(panga, hoe, jembe, etc.), Water well, Donkey Cart(s), Baler (wooden or metallic box for bal<strong>in</strong>g hay), Others, ...<br />
2B Livestock <strong>in</strong>ventory and <strong>of</strong>f‐take data for the year dur<strong>in</strong>g the year 2008<br />
Animal type:<br />
Number and value at beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> year – Jan’08<br />
Number and value <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>com<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g the year: Born, purchased, gifts<br />
45
Number and value <strong>of</strong> outgo<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g the year: Sold, slaughtered, given out, and lost.<br />
Number and value at end <strong>of</strong> year, Dec., 08<br />
3A and B Costs <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> production dur<strong>in</strong>g RAIN and DRY SEASONS<br />
Type <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> crop grown (Maize, Napier, Sorghum, Cow peas, Sudan grass, Columbus grass, Hybrid sorghum,<br />
Boma Rhodes, Lucaena, Lucerne, Sweet potato (v<strong>in</strong>es), Velvet beans, Natural grass + weeds, ).<br />
For each crop and dur<strong>in</strong>g the RAIN and DRY seasons: Number <strong>of</strong> bas<strong>in</strong>s used PER CROP, Size <strong>of</strong> bas<strong>in</strong> (m x m),<br />
costs <strong>of</strong> rent<strong>in</strong>g or leas<strong>in</strong>g, costs <strong>of</strong> labour for (Land preparation, Plant<strong>in</strong>g, Weed<strong>in</strong>g and water<strong>in</strong>g, Harvest<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
sell<strong>in</strong>g, Ox ploughs, Pump fuel and service, Fertilizer and herbicide used, Donkey cart<strong>in</strong>g, Other, ....)<br />
4A and B Fodder production and use PER DAY dur<strong>in</strong>g RAIN SEASONS<br />
For each crop and dur<strong>in</strong>g the RAIN and DRY seasons: (Us<strong>in</strong>g (number <strong>of</strong> bundles or bales) – Total production,<br />
amounts used at home, given as gifts, retailed at farm gate, sold wholesale to transporters and/or traders.<br />
4C Costs <strong>of</strong> <strong>fodder</strong> PURCHASE by TRANSPORTERS, TRADERS AND LIVESTOCK KEEPER<br />
For each crop and dur<strong>in</strong>g the RAIN and DRY seasons: (Us<strong>in</strong>g (number <strong>of</strong> bundles or bales PER DAY) – Total number<br />
bought used at, costs charged per bale or bundle, other costs spent on purchas<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
4D Revenue from <strong>fodder</strong> SALES by TRANSPORTERS, TRADERS AND LIVESTOCK KEEPER<br />
For each crop and dur<strong>in</strong>g the RAIN and DRY seasons: (Us<strong>in</strong>g (number <strong>of</strong> bundles or bales PER DAY) – Total number<br />
sold, prices charged per bale or bundle, other revenues earned from sell<strong>in</strong>g activities.<br />
5A and B Pasture and <strong>fodder</strong> crops use at home for LIVESTOCK KEEPERS<br />
For each animal type (cows, bulls, heifers, oxen, steers, calves, donkeys, camels, shoats) and dur<strong>in</strong>g the RAIN and<br />
DRY seasons: (Us<strong>in</strong>g (number <strong>of</strong> bundles or bales PER DAY) – Number <strong>of</strong> hours spent graz<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>fodder</strong> styles<br />
provided and number <strong>of</strong> bundles or bales given and consumed.<br />
6 Pasture and <strong>fodder</strong> crops use at home for LIVESTOCK KEEP<br />
For each animal type (cows, bulls, heifers, oxen, steers, calves, donkeys, camels, shoats) and dur<strong>in</strong>g the RAIN and<br />
DRY seasons: Do they use any concentrates, what concentrates and for what animals, total costs <strong>of</strong> concentrates<br />
per day, what veter<strong>in</strong>ary costs for which animals and total veter<strong>in</strong>ary costs.<br />
Thank you!!<br />
***************************<br />
46
Appendix 2: Photographs from <strong>fodder</strong> production and market<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the ELMT<br />
River Daua along the Ethiopia-Kenya border<br />
The pumps used to irrigate water <strong>in</strong>to the farms<br />
Water be<strong>in</strong>g pumped <strong>in</strong>to the troughs for distribution <strong>in</strong>to the crops<br />
Crop bas<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong>to which the water is pumped and crops planted<br />
47
A crop <strong>of</strong> cowpea just before harvest<strong>in</strong>g the v<strong>in</strong>es<br />
A transporter waits his turn to unload his cargo<br />
Fodder traders <strong>in</strong>spect <strong>fodder</strong> before sell<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Fodder traders and buyers<br />
Fodder buyers carry away their purchases<br />
48