2010 Vol 101.pdf (1.63mb) - Primate Society of Great Britain

Primate Society of Great Britain
No. 101
JUNE 2010

THE PRIMATE SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN Registered Charity No. 290185
Officers:
President: Prof. Kim Bard (10)
(Centre for the Study of Emotion, Department of
Psychology, University of Portsmouth, King Henry
Building, King Henry I Street, Portsmouth,
Hampshire, PO1 2DY)
Hon. Secretary: Dr Sarah Elton (10)
(Functional Morphology and Evolution Unit, Hull York
Medical School, The University of York, Heslington,
York, YO10 5DD)
Hon. Treasurer Dr Gillian Brown (09)
(School of Psychology, University of St Andrews,
St Mary’s College, South Street,
St Andrews, Fife, Scotland, KY16 9JP, UK)
Membership Secretary: Dr Clare Cunningham (09)
(Department of Psychology, School of Social and
Health Sciences, University of Abertay, Kydd
Building (Level 5), Bell Street, Dundee, DD1 1HG)
e-mail: membership@psgb.org
Council Members:
Ms K. Balolia (University College London) – Student Representative (09)
Prof. H. Buchanan-Smith (Stirling) (08)
Dr H. Chatterjee (University College, London) – Marketing Committee Convenor (09)
Prof. R. Dunbar (Oxford University) (09)
Dr A. Fletcher (University of Chester) (09)
Dr R. Kendal (Durham) (10)
Dr S. Koski (Cambridge) (10)
Dr J. Lehmann (Roehampton) (10)
Dr N. Newton-Fisher (Kent) (08)
Dr V. Nijman (Oxford Brookes University) (09)
Dr S. Pika (Manchester) (08)
Dr K. Pullen (Paignton Zoo) – Book Review Editor (09)
Dr C. Schwitzer (Bristol Zoo) (10)
Dr S. Thorpe (Birmingham) (10)
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Neston, Wirral, CH64 7TE, UK) - Convenor, Conservation Working Party
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Upton-by-Chester, Chester, CH2 1LH) - Convenor, Captive Care Working Party
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EDITORIAL
This time last year, I commented on the media hoopla surrounding the
announcement of Ida, the now-world-famous ‘missing link’ (or
cercamonine adapid strepsirhine, as I suggested). A scientific response
subsequently appeared; Seiffert et al. (Nature 461: 1118-1121, 2009)
reported the discovery of a new African adapid (Afradapis longicristatus)
similar to Darwinius (Ida’s genus); the authors showed convincingly that
both of these Eocene genera belong to the strepsirhine side of the primate
clade. Not surprisingly, this did not make the front page of every daily
newspaper, nor did it generate any television news coverage. Thus, once
again, the non-Nature-reading general public are left with the mental
residue of misleading hyperbole without exposure to the more considered,
analysis-driven research.
Sadly, it would appear that the cycle is beginning again. Anderson et al.
(2010) sparked a similar media feeding-frenzy with their recent paper
entitled ‘Pan thanatology’.* The authors suggest that the behaviour of
captive chimpanzees during the period surrounding the death of a member
of the troop bears similarities to the reactions of humans to the death of a
relative. The new coverage, on the other hand, went straight to the
conclusion that chimpanzees have a human-like understanding of death;
they illustrated the story with an older photo, taken from National
Geographic, showing an unrelated group of chimpanzees. As with the Ida
debacle, the journal article raises legitimate scientific issues; the academic
debate has already begun on the Current Biology website
. The public-at-large, however, will
almost necessarily be excluded from these discussions. As a result,
‘conclusions’ reached entirely by the print and online media (‘Chimps
grieve when faced with death’, as reported in the Independent newspaper)
will be accepted as legitimate inferences. And, as with other media
favourites like aquatic ape ‘theory’, it means I’ll have to spend an inordinate
amount of my lecturing time have to ‘un-teach’ this to my students.
There may not be a simple solution to this frankly unacceptable state of
affairs. We are increasingly urged by our institutions and granting agencies
to make our work accessible to the general public. This brings us into
contact with reporters, who are under pressure to deliver content that can be
considered news (derived from the word ‘new’, implying an emphasis on
novelty) and that will generate interest at a glance. There is little room for
caveats, modifiers or conditions – as Ben Goldacre’s Guardian column
continually points out, the media filtering process often results in
simplifying to the point of deception. One colleague of mine provided
ample information on a recent journal article to the print media, only to
have the country in which the research took place misreported and to have
his name attached to entirely made-up quotes. Another had hours of
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interview videotaped, only for the editors to cut it in such a way as to
suggest he was saying the opposite of what he actually said (and meant).
Given these experiences, it is more important than ever to make sure that
our statements to the press are as clear and precise as possible. Even if there
is no guarantee that they will be reported that way.
Complete reference to the original paper: James R. Anderson, Alasdair
Gillies and Louise C. Lock (2010) Pan thanatology. Current Biology 20(8):
R349-R351
* I had to look it up, too.
The articles and abstracts included in Primate Eye are not for citation or
quotation without permission of the authors. The deadline for the next issue
of Primate Eye is 15th September 2010. Items (manuscript or electronic in
any standard format) for future issues should be sent to:
Todd C. Rae
Editor, Primate Eye
Centre for Research in Evolutionary Anthropology
School of Human and Life Sciences
Whitelands College
Roehampton University
Holybourne Avenue
London SW15 4JD
Email: editor@psgb.org
Tel: UK (0)20 8392 3726
Fax: UK (0)20 8392 3527
PSGB correspondence unrelated to Primate Eye should be addressed to the
Hon. Secretary. Notification of change of address should be sent to the
Membership Secretary.
The PSGB WebSite can be found at
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REPORT: PSGB Spring Meeting 2010
Social Cognition and Human Evolution
7 th and 8 th April 2010, University of Abertay, Dundee
The University of Abertay, Dundee hosted the Spring Meeting of the
Primate Society of Great Britain for the first time in its history. The
conference took place on the 7 th and 8 th of April featuring typical Dundee
Spring weather (sunny but cold). Successfully organised by Dr Clare
Cunningham, the meeting consisted of 4 invited speakers, 18 proffered
speakers, 14 poster presentations and a workshop.
Following registration, Abertay Principal and Vice Chancellor Professor
Bernard King CBE addressed the delegates, welcoming them to the
University. Clare Cunningham opened the conference and introduced the
chair of this first session. Our first invited speaker of the conference was
Professor Carel Van Schaik from the University of Zürich. His talk
concentrated on suggestions that the role of cooperative breeding extends
the ‘expensive brain’ framework in human cognitive evolution. This was
followed by talks on social network analysis as a tool to explore the social
structure and cumulative culture in chimpanzees. Morning coffee then gave
us a chance to engage in some social networking of our own and the
opportunity to browse the poster presentations.
The second session, chaired by Sean O’Hara, consisted of talks based on
social behaviour in the form of gestural repertoire in wild chimpanzees, non
linguistic vocal behaviour in human infants and play back calls as a
facilitator of increased social affiliation. Everyone then was directed back to
the student centre for lunch (which was excellent), more browsing of
posters and further opportunity to catch up with colleagues and meet new
members.
Dr Susanne Shultz from the University of Oxford was the second invited
speaker of the conference and was introduced by chair Sarah Elton.
Susanne’s presentation discussed further evidence illustrating
encephalisation across mammals as a result of social bonds and social
stability. This led onto further presentations in the session based on
anatomical and anthropological perspectives on social behaviour. The final
session of the day was chaired by Hannah Buchanan-Smith. Invited speaker
Dr James Anderson from the University of Stirling presented evidence from
his many years of research, on primate self-awareness, empathy and
awareness of death. Within his talk a moving piece of film was shown
capturing the moments of death of an old chimpanzee and the reaction of
others in the group. A wine reception concluded the first part of the spring
conference.
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The evening entertainment in true Scottish tradition was a Céilidh at the
Apex City Quay Hotel, which was a huge success and seemed to be enjoyed
by all who attended. There was no escape for the faint-hearted; we danced,
we drank and were merry!
So, to return to serious business, day two kicked off with a workshop hosted
by Sarah Elton and Joanna Setchell on how to get published, which was
extremely helpful and well worth the early start. Chairing the first session of
the day, Sonya Hill introduced invited speaker Professor Thomas Bugnyar
from the University of Vienna. Diverging from primatology, Thomas
examined the role of social relationships in socio-cognitive abilities in
ravens compared to primate social relationships; illustrating that ravens
have the same relationship quality as chimpanzees. Continuing the ‘non
primate’ topic the next talk was on forest elephants’ social arenas and
ending the morning oral presentation session was a presentation providing
evidence that social relationships affect choice of sleeping area in captive
chimpanzees.
After coffee and a last chance to browse the posters on display, chair Scott
Hardie introduced the last three speakers of the conference all based on
anatomical perspectives on human evolution. The conference came to a
close with the presentation of the student prizes for best oral presentation
and best poster which were reported as being of extremely high standard
and diverse in content. Steven Montgomery from the University of
Cambridge received the prize for best oral presentation covering the topic of
microcephaly genes and their role in primate brain evolution and Catherine
Hobaiter from the University of St Andrews was runner-up presenting a
comparative study of gestural repertoire between captive and wild
chimpanzees. Cris Casar, also from the University of St Andrews, won best
student poster presentation on predator alarm calls in wild black fronted titi
monkeys.
On the whole the conference was a success thanks to the University of
Abertay and all who helped in the organisation. From a personal
perspective, I specifically enjoyed James Anderson’s presentation, which
had me captivated. Faye Clark’s talk on social network analysis was also
very enjoyable being relevant to my own research. Emma Nelson’s talk on
digit ratio as a predictor of social systems in fossil hominids and Catherine
Hobaiter’s study were also ones that stood out for me. Clare has received
nothing but praise for her hard work in putting together such an enjoyable
conference. The only complaint made was too little time for discussion,
reflecting the amount of good research to discuss. Not a bad complaint!
Mairi McLeod
University of Abertay Dundee
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REPORT: Pre-PSGB Spring Meeting Workshop
Training Primates for Cognitive Research, RZSS Edinburgh Zoo
Before the PSGB Spring meeting began in Dundee, a small group of
workshop delegates met at the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland’s
Edinburgh Zoo. The workshop, hosted by staff of the Living Links to
Human Evolution Research Centre and Budongo Trail, both zoo and
academic, focussed on the establishment of cognitive research within a zoo
setting.
The day started with introductions from both Graham Catlow (RZSS
Edinburgh Zoo) and Prof. Hannah Buchanan-Smith (University of Stirling),
both of whom highlighted the uniqueness within the UK of the
collaboration between the zoo and academic institutions. Living Links was
opened just two years ago, and Prof. Andy Whiten (Director of Living
Links, University of St Andrews) highlighted how many research projects
had already been conducted there. We were given a brief overview of the
establishment of the Living Links centre, which houses mixed-species
groups of capuchin and squirrel monkeys, and the subsequent development
of the Budongo Trail chimpanzee exhibit by the zoo. We then had guided
tours of each of the facilities including to their especially designed research
testing areas.
In each building, tours were divided into small enough groups to allow
demonstrations of the current work being undertaken. There was particular
emphasis on how well-designed enclosures coupled with well-designed
training programmes can facilitate the separation of animals for cognitive
testing without compromising either the social group or the zoo’s animal
welfare, breeding and conservation objectives. Each demonstration was
accompanied by both zoo staff and researchers, giving the opportunity to
discuss issues both from a zoo and a research point of view.
The afternoon consisted of talks from both researchers and keeping staff
associated with the two facilities. It was good to see not only the enthusiasm
of the researchers but how that has obviously spread to the zoo staff of both
the facilities and the wider zoo. In addition Dr Mark Bowler’s talk
highlighted the convergent needs of both a zoo and an academic situation:
engaging the public. It also reminded us of the potential for additional
funding available to achieve taking science to the public.
The day was full of interest; it was very apparent that good collaboration
can allow institutions with different objectives to achieve high quality
research and to find a common ground in the education of the visiting
public. Although Living Links is the only such dedicated research centre in
the UK, it is refreshing to see that other collaborations between zoos and
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academic institutions are continuing to emerge (Southampton University
and Marwell Wildlife; Exeter University and Paignton Zoo).
Thanks to all those involved - managers, researchers and keepers - for a
great day; lots of fun and an encouraging demonstration of the potentials
possible with a strong collaboration.
Kirsten Pullen
Whitley Wildlife Conservation Trust
Jack Griffey (University of Stirling) and the staff of Living Links
have trained capuchins using positive reinforcement to enter cubicles
and perform visual preference tests (photo by Mark Bowler)
Betsy Herrelko (University of Stirling) and the keepers of Budongo Trail
have trained the chimpanzees to do touch screen tasks
(photo by Kevin Flay)
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PSGB Spring Meeting 2010
Social Cognition and Human Evolution
April 7 th and 8 th
University of Abertay Dundee
Organised by:
Clare Cunningham (University of Abertay Dundee)
Abstracts for oral presentations
The evolution of brain size: benefits, costs and consequences
C.P. van Schaik, J.M. Burkart and K. Isler
Anthropological Institute & Museum, University of Zürich, Switzerland
Among primates, brain size predicts cognitive performance. Thus, selection
on intelligence is selection on brain size. However, brains are energetically
very expensive, which implies that brain size increases must not only bring
behavioural benefits, but must also be possible energetically. The
"expensive brain" framework predicts that relatively large-brained animals
either exhibit increased total energy flow or re-allocate energy from other
expensive functions such as digestion or production (growth and
reproduction). Extensive comparative tests support most of this framework.
Particularly relevant is the effect of brain size on life history, leading to the
concept of the grey ceiling. The framework also predicts that cooperative
breeding, through the energetic support to breeding females, reduces
energetic constraints and thus allows for brain enlargement; this prediction
is supported for altricial birds and mammals. We present evidence that the
different psychology of cooperative breeders changes prosocial behaviour.
We then use these results to speculate about the role of cooperative breeding
in human cognitive evolution.
From individual to community: using social network analysis to explore
the social structure of captive chimpanzees
F.E. Clark
Department of Biological Anthropology, University of Cambridge, Royal
Veterinary College and Zoological Society of London
The social lives of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) have captivated
researchers for decades, from the pioneering field-work of Goodall, to more
recent explorations of ‘chimpanzee politics’ in the zoo. However, research
has traditionally focused on the behaviour of individuals, dyads or whole
groups without considering how these interplay. Recent analytical advances
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now make it possible to quantify entire animal social networks, and ‘Social
Network Analysis’ (SNA) techniques are ripe for the picking by
‘chimpologists’, and indeed other primatologists. This study investigated
the social structure of captive chimpanzees housed at Edinburgh Zoo, UK.
Patterns of association and interaction among individuals were sampled
using focal observations and scans of sub-groups (parties). Social network
diagrams (sociograms) were produced from spatial association, and
interaction data. Comparisons were made within and between networks, and
cluster analysis was used to identify sub-grouping within networks. There
were four main findings. (1) Matrix correlation tests showed that
individuals preferred to associate and interact affiliatively with their
maternal kin, and individuals spent time close to those with whom they had
an affiliative bond. (2) Cluster analysis revealed significant sub-groups
related to agonistic encounters, and parties frequently changed over time
and space. (3) The community exhibited a low level of ‘fission-fusion’
behaviour because parties frequently changed over time and space. (4) The
dominant female held highly central positions in both affiliative and
agonistic networks, and was pivotal to group cohesion. This study used
SNA techniques to study chimpanzee social structure at a number of levels,
from individual to community, and I encourage other researchers to use
SNA in pure and applied contexts.
Constraints on cumulative culture in chimpanzees
L.G. Dean 1 , R.L. Kendal 2 and K.N. Laland 1
1. School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Fife, U.K.
2. Department of Anthropology, Durham University, Durham, U.K.
Most researchers agree that humans are the only species with cumulative
culture. A number of hypotheses have been proposed to explain this
difference, but few studies have explicitly tested them. Here we used a
cumulative puzzle-box, which could be solved to gain three sequentially
better rewards. We tested 76 chimpanzees in 8 groups with trained
demonstrator seeded and unseeded open diffusion experiments. We also
presented the puzzle-box to 35 children in 8 groups in unseeded open
diffusion experiments. Of the 76 chimpanzees there were only four that
learned to open the puzzle-box beyond the first, simplest, stage accessing
only the least desirable food reward. In only one group did more than one
chimpanzee learn to access the higher stages of the puzzle-box. In contrast,
multiple children, both across and within groups, accessed the higher, more
difficult, stages of the puzzle-box to access the more desirable sticker
rewards. By analysing when and how animals manipulated the puzzle-box
and learned to use it, we assess which hypotheses our data are consistent
with. Accordingly we posit that a lack of imitation, teaching and
cooperation in chimpanzees inhibits the evolution of cumulative culture.
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The case for a common gestural repertoire among great apes: evidence
from the wild chimpanzees
C. Hobaiter and R.W. Byrne
Centre for Social Learning and Cognitive Evolution and Scottish Primate
Research Group, School of Psychology, University of St Andrews
We compare and contrast the results from captive work on gestural
communication in all great apes with observations from the first systematic
study of gestural communication in wild chimpanzees, a 2-year study of the
Sonso community in Budongo, Uganda. We describe the gestural repertoire
of wild chimpanzees. Until recently, the acquisition of great ape gestures
has been accepted to derive from ontogenetic ritualization, with
communicative gestures shaped from effective actions by mutual
conditioning between dyads of individuals. Biologically inherited gestures
were considered to be a minor subset of gestures used inflexibly and
without intention (Tomasello et al., 1985, 1994). This view has recently
been challenged with data on gorilla gesture (Genty et al., 2009). Here we
use evidence from wild chimpanzees, and a meta-analysis of the existing
great-ape literature, to propose an alternative model of flexible, intentional
gestural communication in terms of species-typical chimpanzee gestures
and a family-typical repertoire of great-ape gesture.
Non-linguistic vocal behaviour in human infants (Homo sapiens):
primatological perspective
V.Kersken, J.C.Gomez and K. Zuberbühler
School of Psychology, University of St Andrews
In order to examine whether infants between the ages of 7 and 20months
selectively produce certain non-linguistic vocalizations in specific contexts,
we observed the vocal behaviour of 30 infants in one of their natural
habitats – a nursery environment. We identified the contexts in which
vocalization occurred and conducted an analysis of the acoustic features of
the vocalizations in five distinct contexts: protests, requests for food or
actions, vocalizations co-occurring with declarative pointings, and
accompanying acts of giving objects to others. A discriminant function
analysis was conducted on different acoustic variables of each of the 209
calls and could correctly classify 56.8% of the call types. We conducted a
Monte Carlo simulation and found that the model could classify
significantly more cases correctly than a randomly generated data set (chi
squared = 26.99, df = 1, p> .0001). The results suggest that prelinguistic
infants do produce vocal behaviours selectively in certain contexts and that
these classes of vocalizations might serve specific functions be. Although
this is not a complete description of infant vocal behaviour, it nevertheless
suggests some homogenous classes of non-linguistic vocalizations that are
systematically related to their production context and therefore could
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function referentially in comparable way to the vocalizations of non-human
primates. This consistency in production could provide caregivers with nonlinguistic
referential clues to what the infant wants or needs.
Can a social culture of increased affiliation be facilitated in captive
monkeys through call playback?
C.F.I. Watson, C.A. Caldwell and H.M. Buchanan-Smith
Department of Psychology, University of Stirling
Empirical investigation of cultural transmission mechanisms has focused on
culture conceived as discrete, group specific, non-species typical behaviour.
Sapolsky (2006) proposed an alternative conception of culture as a set of
species typical behaviours performed to an atypical degree within particular
groups, termed ‘social culture’. Changes towards a more pacific social
culture have been recorded in wild baboons and similar shifts to a less
aggressive culture have been observed after cross-species interaction in
captive juvenile macaques. However, the transmission of social culture
within species of nonhuman primates has not yet been experimentally
investigated. We have previously demonstrated that spontaneous chirp
vocalisations produced by captive marmosets are associated with an
increase in the affiliative behaviour of nearby social groups through social
contagion. The current study investigated whether a social culture of
increased affiliation could be artificially generated in social groups of
captive marmosets through the playback of conspecific chirp calls. We
recorded the behaviour: before, during, and after 11 days of playback (3 hr
per day) of 16 focal marmosets in the experimental condition (exposed to
playback of pre-recorded chirp calls at an above average rate) and 16
marmosets in the control condition (playback of recorded silence). A
significant increase in the time spent performing affiliative behaviour by
marmosets in the experimental condition during and following call
playback, relative to before playback and to marmosets in the control group,
would indicate a shift in social culture. We report the results of this
experiment and discuss implications for mechanisms underlying social
culture.
What role do microcephaly genes play in primate brain evolution?
S.H. Montgomery¹, I. Capellini 2 , C. Venditti 3 , R.A. Barton² and N.I. Mundy 1
1. University of Cambridge, 2. University of Durham, 3. University of
Reading
Understanding the genetic basis of phenotypic change can aid our
understanding of what processes constrain or contribute to the evolution of
a trait. Where evolution proceeds in parallel directions along independent
lineages it can also help us to understand whether similar phenotypes are
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produced by similar genetic changes, and if not, help identify species
specific adaptation. Genes linked to human microcephaly have received
much attention as they have accelerated evolutionary rates along lineages
leading to humans. However, the link between gene and brain evolution is
disputed. We analyzed the molecular evolution of four genes associated
with microcephaly (ASPM, CDK5RAP2, CENPJ, MCPH1) across 21
primates representing all major clades of anthropoids. We show that all four
loci have experienced positive selection across anthropoids. We found a
relationship between CDK5RAP2 and absolute neonatal brain mass, and
ASPM and absolute neonatal brain mass when a strong outlier, the
marmoset, was removed. We also found evidence for a weak association of
ASPM and CDK5RAP2 and adult brain size. The stronger association of
ASPM and CDK5RAP2 evolution with neonatal brain size than adult brain
size is consistent with a direct effect of these loci on neuronal proliferation,
which is plausibly related to their cellular functions in mitotic spindle
orientation. In contrast, we find no evidence linking CENPJ and MCPH1 to
either neonatal or adult brain size evolution. These results suggest ASPM
and CDK5RAP2 may have a conserved role in primate brain evolution.
Evolutionary encephalisation is not a general phenomenon in
mammals, but is common to socially bonded groups
S. Shultz
Institute for Cognitive and Evolutionary Anthropology, University of
Oxford
Across vertebrates, variation in total and relative brain size across mammals
is marked, and is proposed to have a functional basis because brains are
metabolically costly. Species should be expected to maximise the costbenefit
ratio of supporting costly tissues. A vast and expanding literature
has identified associations between relative brain size amongst extant
species and ecological and behavioural correlates including social
characteristics, ecological flexibility, resilience, innovation, social learning,
etc. However, a still unresolved question is how (and why) evolutionary
trends in encephalisation vary across taxonomic groups. This is for two
main reasons: 1) variation in extant species between and within groups is
commonly accepted as a measure of evolutionary trends, and 2) evaluating
allometric signals of encephalisation is notoriously contentious. In this talk,
I will discuss the insights from and limitations of current approaches to
estimating evolutionary encephalisation and propose a novel quantitative
macroevolutionary approach. In contrast to the conventional approach of
evaluating variation in extant species, I evaluated changes in relative brain
size within taxa as a function of first appearance dates. The results
challenge the conventional assumption that encephalisation is a general
trend within mammalian groups. For example some groups, such as
ruminants, felids and insectivores show no evidence of directional selection
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for large brains. However, those groups characterized by strong
encephalisation signals were also likely to show bonded, stable sociality
amongst extant species. Some non-social groups, particularly amongst the
carnivores, also showed strong evidence of encephalisation. These results
finally are put into the context of conventional ecological and social
explanations of brain size increase. I will also discuss encephalisation in
primates versus other mammals.
Clinal patterns of craniofacial morphology in baboons (Papio spp.): a
geometric morphometric approach
J. Dunn 1 , A.Cardini 2 and S. Elton 1
1. Hull York Medical School, The University of Hull, 2. Museo di
Paleobiologia e dell’Orto Botanico, Universitá di Modena e Reggio Emilia,
Italy
Clinal variation in morphology is found in several primate species, yet the
ecological underpinning of these trends is unknown. Recent research on
African monkeys has discovered a trend common to three disparate taxa.
Blue monkeys, vervets and red colobus monkeys all exhibit a decreasing
size cline from Central to East Africa. This raises the question which other
species exhibit similarities in this clinal pattern and what can be learnt by
comparing these patterns? The baboon has an extensive geographical range
and exhibits subspecific diversity lending itself well to the exploration of
clinal variation. This study uses a trend surface analysis to visualise and
quantify the clinal trend. Environmental factors of known significance in
baboon ecology are included in a partial regression along with spatial terms
allowing the effects of the two factors to be quantified. The morphological
cline is separated into its allometric and nonallometric components. Size is
found to decrease from Central to East Africa in baboons as with red
colobus, vervets, and blue monkeys. Comparing allometrically and
nonallometrically controlled clines reveals that most of the observed
morphological diversity in baboons is the result of size only. Taxa
considered outliers in size, such as the Kinda baboon, cease to be such when
allometry is controlled for. However, some clinal patterning remains but
along a north-south axis and is perhaps indicative of a more ancient
diversification in morphology. These observations should aid further
research on determining the mechanisms underpinning clinal variation.
Ecological and life history considerations related size are discussed.
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Application of the comparative method in reconstructing extinct
primate social behaviour
K. Balolia
Department of Anthropology, University College London
The comparative method has had some application to date in reconstructing
the social behaviour of extinct primates, in that many researchers have used
observed level of skeletal dimorphism in extant primates to make inferences
about mating systems of extinct taxa. However, in this context, the
comparative method is limited in its application to the reconstruction of
primate social behaviour in that dimorphism alone is not able to distinguish
between specific types of mating behaviour (Plavcan, 2000; J Hum Evol 39,
327-344).
A new approach to the study of extinct hominin social behaviour by
Lockwood et al. (2007; Science 318, 1443-1446) showed that Paranthropus
robustus males underwent extended development into adulthood and
matured later than females to attain a high level of cranial dimorphism. In
taking this approach, they provided new scope for considering the
relationship between social behaviour and morphology using a comparative
framework. Through measuring overall levels of sexual dimorphism
combined with size and shape changes in the adult skull of Pan, Gorilla,
Pongo, Hylobates and Papio, I show how this approach, in conjunction with
methodological advances in quantifying cranial morphology, can be used to
investigate the relationship between morphology and intrasexual
relationships in primates. In addition to males showing prolonged growth to
attain full adult size, I consider the suggestion that cranial size and shape
changes occur, which relate to social dominance, both in males and in
females. Associated implications for future attempts to reconstruct extinct
primate social organisation using a comparative framework are discussed.
Digit ratios and social systems in fossil hominids
E. Nelson
School of Archaeology, Classics and Egyptology, University of Liverpool
Social systems underpin many aspects of primate behaviour and predicting
the social systems of extinct hominids (great apes) is critical for
understanding human palaeobiology, as well as social and cognitive
evolution. However, predicting social systems from fossils is problematic
due to difficulties in estimating body size dimorphism from fragmentary
remains and, in hominins, low canine size dimorphism. Recent studies have
shown that the second-to-fourth digit length ratio (2D:4D), a putative
biomarker for prenatal androgen effects, co-varies with social systems
across haplorrhines; polygynous species have significantly lower 2D:4D
ratios (high prenatal androgen effects) than pair-bonded species. This study
13

uses proximal phalanx ratios from extant apes and discriminant function
analysis to predict the social systems from the fossilised hand bone ratios of
five extinct hominids and one early anatomically modern human. The
method predicts polygynous social systems for the early apes
Pierolapithecus catalaunicus, Hispanopithecus laietanus, and supports a
proposed pair-bonded social system for Australopithecus afarensis, but not
for Ardipithecus ramidus. Evidence also suggests that the social systems of
Neanderthals and early modern humans may have been similar and could
have been characterised by higher levels of competition than evident in
most contemporary human societies. Small fossil sample sizes and
taphonomic factors preclude drawing firm conclusions using this method
but, as more fossil hand bones become available, digit ratios could
supplement current techniques used for predicting the social systems of
fossil hominids.
Public Engagement with Science at the Living Links to Human
Evolution Research Centre
M. Bowler¹, H. Buchanan-Smith² and A. Whiten¹
1. School of Psychology, University of St Andrews, 2. Department of
Psychology, University of Stirling
‘Public Engagement with Science’ (PES) is a hot topic for Universities and
researchers. It is becoming an important or essential component in attracting
funding and assessing ‘impact’ and there are calls for PES to be
incorporated into the mission statements of UK Universities. Living Links
is a university research centre built with PES as one of its primary goals.
Situated within Edinburgh Zoo it has already received hundreds of
thousands of visitors, many of whom have witnessed live cognitive research
in action. We describe the development of the visitor experience at Living
Links in terms of activities and interpretive displays and discuss our efforts
to maximise and measure the impact of our engagement activities.
Primate “I”
J.R. Anderson
Department of Psychology, University of Stirling
What is the nature of nonhuman primates’ sense of self? Are there
differences among species in the capacity to become the object of one’s
own awareness? These questions have occupied comparative psychologists
for the past three decades, with no lack of controversy. The study of selfrecognition
has given rise to many claims and counterclaims regarding not
only the use of reflections for mirror-guided self- or environment-directed
behaviour, but also the cognitive implications of these abilities. Some of
this work will be reviewed, with additional discussion of two phenomena
14

that might illustrate cognitive differences across species, namely empathy
and awareness of death.
What is personality and how can we study it in primates?
J. Uher
Free University Berlin, Germany
Primatologists are increasingly interested in personality differences in
nonhuman primates. Yet definitions and concepts are often vague and
suitable methods of their measurement and analyses not well known. I
introduce basic meta-theoretical concepts underlying the various theoretical
concepts commonly used in the field. I clarify that differences in personality
or temperament denote variations of individual-specific patterns in
behaviour and mind. Methodological difficulties arise because individualspecific
patterns are always masked by considerable random or ephemeral
variations that derive from behavioural flexibility, ephemeral environmental
conditions, and measurement error. Therefore, their empirical identification
requires specific methodologies and analytical perspectives that are
fundamentally different from those of other areas of behavioural
primatology. I introduce two principal perspectives that allow exploring
behavioural data for meaningful individual differences. The variablecentred
perspective focuses on population-level phenomena and studies
between-individual differences; the individual-centred perspective focuses
on individual-level phenomena and studies the single individual’s unique
configuration of behavioural patterns and their deviations relative to those
of the other individuals in the population. These two perspectives also allow
exploring the puzzling finding that the individuals’ patterns of behaviour
and mind are often only moderately consistent across different situational
contexts. Finally, I critically discuss the utility of observer ratings that have
become more popular among animal researchers. I highlight that the
apparent advantages of observer judgments, such as higher correlations
among measurement variables or across situations, may derive from biased
perceptions and ascriptions of human observers that need not accurately
reflect the behavioural reality of primate individuals.
Enriching the individual: Can personality predict response to
enrichment in primates?
K. Knight 1,2,4 , S. Robinson 2 , K. Stubbs 2 , A. Stacey 3 and V. Melfi 1,2,3,4
1. Newquay Zoo, 2. University of Exeter, 3. University of Plymouth,
4. Whitley Wildlife Conservation Trust
Individual differences in personality, whether defined as differences in
‘temperament’, ‘coping style’ or ‘behavioural traits’, have been studied in
great detail in humans, and there has been a recent increase in the number of
15

animal personality studies. Many of these studies have found evidence for
fixed personality types in a wide range of taxa including non-human
primates (NHP). We would expect that these differences in personality may
affect other variables such as an animal’s use of environmental enrichment
items (EE). This study looked at personality and enrichment use in Sulawesi
crested black macaques (Macaca nigra). Subjects were 12 (6.6.0) M. nigra,
housed at Paignton Zoo Environmental Park. Personality data were
collected through keeper questionnaires. Broad state behaviours and
enclosure use were recorded using instantaneous scan sampling every
30mins, from 0800-1700 for 6 days for each condition. Six conditions were
presented to the macaques: baseline (no enrichment), food in cages, kongs,
food in bags, egg boxes and herb paste. Factor analysis were used to explore
the data collected and revealed that M. nigra have a 3 factor model of
personality. The factors were labeled ‘Extroversion’, ‘Dominance’ and
‘Sociability’. Regression analysis was used to see if individual scores on
these personality factors could predict behavioural responses to EE. Results
showed that the ‘Extroversion’ and ‘Dominance’ Factors could significantly
predict the response of individuals to EE, in two of the five EE conditions;
Kongs (R2= 0.75, F3,11 = 8.079, p

Exploring social arenas for forest elephants
V. Fishlock and P. Lee
Psychology Department, University of Stirling
African savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana africana) have complex,
well-studied social lives with stable multi-female groups and gregarious but
independent males. Individuals live in an intricate social landscape, in
which associations may persist for decades. In contrast, relatively little is
known of social dynamics in forest elephants (Loxodonta africana cyclotis)
inhabiting the Congo basin and no model of sociality has been empirically
demonstrated. Social systems represent the outcomes of dynamic
interactions among an individual, its conspecifics and its environment. Thus
our lack of understanding of forest elephant sociality limits our
understanding both of their environmental requirements and important
drivers in the evolution of elephant social systems. Direct observations of
forest elephants were made at forest clearings, and these data are used to
address questions of social dynamics. Clearings represent a special
environment, providing mineral and food resources, as well as potential
social opportunities and possible predation risks. They are hypothesised to
function as social arenas for the individuals that use them, but traditional
methods of analysing or describing social structure fail due to the nature of
fixed point observations and relatively low identification rates. The advent
of accessible network analyses, as have been successfully applied to
cetacean and primate societies, provides an alternative approach to model
and explore the nature of forest elephant society and evaluate the role of
clearings as social arenas. We couple the use of network analyses with an
age-sex class approach, to explore our forest clearing data.
Daytime associations, kinship, and preferred sleeping areas: their
influence on sleep site selection in captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
L. Lock
University of Stirling
The study of non-human primates’ behaviour has traditionally been biased
toward daytime activities, despite the fact that resting and sleep can account
for up half of primate’s life spans. Most primates are gregarious, and so
their social behaviours and relationships have been well studied, but the
effects of these behaviours and relationships on sleep-related activities have
not received comparable levels of empirical investigation. Over 30 days, we
recorded the daytime associations of a small group of zoo-housed
chimpanzees, and the areas of the enclosure they subsequently retired to.
The data showed that male chimpanzees that associate frequently during
daytime also retired to the same area to sleep, especially the highest-ranking
males. We also found that sleep site selection was not strongly dependent
on the presence of kin. Our data also suggest that chimpanzees habitually
17

eturn to the same sleeping areas; there are even preferred sleeping locations
within the enclosure. There is a general need for more systematic studies
into sleep-related behaviours of captive primates. Research into social
aspects that influence sleep site selection, and group and individual
preferences for sleeping sites might also have implications for enclosure
design and welfare of captive primates
The socioecological adaptive basis of primate mosaic brain evolution
J. B. Smaers
University College London and University of Cambridge
Neocortex hyperscaling in primates is commonly interpreted as the prime
factor behind brain enlargement and as a main factor underlying primate
‘higher’ cognition. Hypotheses attempting to clarify neocortical adaptation
are thus fundamental to the study of primate cognitive evolution. In this
context, it has been debated whether social or ecological factors are the
main driving force behind brain adaptation. Although these hypotheses
make specific predictions about subregions of the neocortex, they have been
tested using the neocortex as a whole because of a lack of data. In our recent
work we presented new data on frontal and non-frontal neocortical lobe and
neocerebellum. We show that distinct cortico-cerebellar neural circuits
related to distinct aspects of learned behaviour can be recognized as
important mosaic patterns of a concerted brain structure evolution across the
primate clade. We also indicate that although both social and ecological
variables are associated to size changes in whole neocortex volume, social
variables are solely responsible for the evolution of frontal lobe size, while
ecological factors explain the evolution of non-frontal lobe size. We
propose a new model of primate brain evolution emphasizing the mosaic
evolution of neural circuits of interconnected brain structures and
integrating both social and ecological selective pressures driving brain
evolution. Our results help clarify a longstanding debate on the nature of
primate neocortical adaptation and demonstrate that primate brain
architecture reflects adaptation at an intracortical neuroanatomical level.
The neuro-anatomy of the face processing area in chimpanzees and
humans.
S. A. Chance 1 , E. K. Sawyer 1 , P. R. Hof 2 and T. J. Crow 3
1. Neuropathology, John Radcliffe Hospital, Headington, Oxford
2. Department of Neuroscience, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New
York, USA
3. SANE POWIC Centre, Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford
Face recognition provides important social cues in primates. Multiple
studies report that faces are processed on the right side of the brain in
18

humans and such brain asymmetries may be a key component of human
evolution. However, it is not clear how asymmetrical structures and
functions are linked. One hypothesis for leftward language lateralization in
Wernicke’s area is based on the asymmetry of vertical units of cells
(minicolumns) in the cerebral cortex, where minicolumns are wider in the
left hemisphere in humans but symmetrical in non-human primates. It is not
known whether there is a similar species difference in the face processing
region, the fusiform cortex. We investigated the fusiform of 14 human and
14 chimpanzee post-mortem brains for species differences in minicolumn
and cell size symmetry. Minicolumn spacing and neuron size were
asymetrical* in humans (wider and larger on the left, respectively), but
symmetrical* in chimpanzees (species differences p

Abstracts for poster presentations
Vocal communication in captive ruffed lemurs.
L. Rudge 1,2 , N. Laici 1,2 , B.M. Bezerra 1 , C. Schwitzer 2 and G. Jones 1
1. School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol
2. Bristol Conservation and Science Foundation, Bristol Zoo Gardens
Species and subspecies differences in vocalisations have proved to be useful
for taxonomic classification. There has been an ongoing debate regarding
the taxonomic status of ruffed lemurs due to their possibly overlapping
distributions in eastern Madagascar. Early classification inferred that there
were two subspecies of ruffed lemurs – the red ruffed lemur (Varecia
variegata rubra) and the black-and-white ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata
variegata). After further research, both former subspecies were elevated to
species status, with most authors recognising three subspecies of the blackand-white
ruffed lemur (V. variegata variegata, V. v. subcincta and V. v.
editorum). We studied the vocal behaviour of the red ruffed lemur (Varecia
rubra). Furthermore, we investigated whether the red ruffed lemur could be
discriminated from two subspecies of black-and-white ruffed lemur,
Varecia variegata variegata and V. v. editorum, from their conspicuous
loud calls. We recorded naturally occurring calls of ruffed lemurs at Bristol
Zoo Gardens, Dudley Zoo and Twycross Zoo (United Kingdom). Seven out
of 13 calls described in the vocal repertoire of the red ruffed lemur were
observed in our study animals. There were significant differences in the
physical structure of the ‘pulsed squawk’ loud call between V. rubra and the
two V. variegata subspecies, supporting the current taxonomic classification
of ruffed lemurs. Our results show that bioacoustics can be used efficiently
as a taxonomic tool to discriminate between lemur taxa.
Preliminary investigation of social integration and social success in
captive female capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella)
M. McLeod, C.L. Cunningham and S. Hardie
Evolutionary and Biological Approaches to Behaviour Research Group,
University of Abertay Dundee
Primates are intensely social, spending much of their time engaged in
interactions with others. Social investment in other group members can be
beneficial; individuals can secure future reciprocity and reduce stress. How
individuals manage their social investment will depend on both intrinsic and
extrinsic factors, both of which will influence the opportunities available for
interacting with others. Being well integrated (or central) in the group,
rather than on the periphery and often alone, will afford greater social
prospects and so animals should work to improve their level of integration
and show detriments in behaviour (and health) if they are not able to spend
time with conspecifics. This study is a preliminary investigation into social
20

integration as a promoter of social success (support), measured by level of
integration in the group and level of stress exhibited. Female capuchins (n =
6) are members of two separate (East and West) but environmentally similar
groups of captive female capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) housed at the
Living Links to Human Evolution research centre at Edinburgh Zoo.
Behaviour such as grooming (given and received), time spent alone or with
group members, dominance and scratching (as a measure of stress) were
documented by both scan and focal methods. Social integration was
calculated by mean time spent alone or with others. Statistical analysis
revealed significance between level of integration and the percentage of
time spent grooming others. All other analyses were non-significant;
however, mean amounts of scratching were lower when percentage of time
spent grooming was higher; also level of social integration illustrated some
relevance to rank position and amount of time spent grooming. To
conclude, this suggests that grooming is a commodity traded for a central
position in the group, to reduce stress, as well as to maintain rank position.
Bonobos (Pan paniscus) use copulation calls as a social signal
Z. Clay and K. Zuberbühler
Department of Psychology, University of St Andrews
Females of many primate species produce distinct vocalisations known as
‘copulation calls’ during mating events. Typically, copulation calls are
produced during heterosexual matings and thus their adaptive significance
is considered to be for promoting reproductive success. However, in
bonobos (Pan paniscus), females regularly engage in homosexual as well as
heterosexual matings and produce copulation calls in both contexts. The
way in which copulation calls have become detached from their biological
function in bonobos challenges theories explaining these calls as purely
reproductive strategies. In the current study, we examined bonobo
copulation calling behaviour to investigate how females use these
vocalisations as tools to pursue certain social and reproductive goals. We
recorded copulation calls produced by mature females at Lola Ya Bonobo
Sanctuary, DRC, during both homosexual and heterosexual interactions.
Acoustic analyses revealed considerable similarity in the acoustic structure
of copulation calls produced in both contexts. Furthermore, whilst females
called more during heterosexual copulations, we found that copulation calls
were used similarly in both contexts. For both homo- and heterosexual
copulation calls, we observed strong effects of relative dominance rank,
with low-rank females calling more with higher-ranked partners. In
homosexual matings, the identity of the initiator also predicted calling. Our
results suggest that bonobos use copulation calls as social signals to express
social status and to advertise bonding relationships. Thus, rather than being
restricted to purely reproductive contexts, copulation calls in bonobos
appear to have assumed a greater social significance.
21

Social monitoring by reputation: How to compare human and animals
in an evolutionary framework?
Y.I. Russell
Institute of Social and Cultural Anthropology, University of Oxford
Reputation is usually defined as an entirely human construct. This is
because the majority of studies in human disciplines (economics,
commerce, psychology, etc.) define reputation as a sort of one-dimensional
yardstick whereupon the same information is accessible to everyone. This
definition is of limited usefulness to animal studies because it requires
language ability and ubiquitous sources of public information. The exact
psychological processes that underlay social reputation monitoring are
poorly understood even in humans. In order to begin a comparative study of
human and animal reputation monitoring, “reputation” should be redefined
in a way that accommodates all animals. Here, I present a framework for
investigating the evolution of social monitoring abilities across all animal
taxa. I define reputation as “knowledge about an individual’s typical
behaviour, based on a knowledge of that individual’s past behaviour”
(Russell, 2007). The psychological process of reputation monitoring should
be dissected into its constituent parts in order to compare the abilities
between animals in a componential way (this approach is similar to
Hockett’s design features approach to language). Most organisms are
capable of some form of social eavesdropping and intention reading, but the
smallest brained animals are unlikely to cogitate much on the personalities
of their conspecifics. At the human end of the continuum, social reputation
monitoring probably involves a type of social expertise. It is important to be
aware, however, that human social expertise will necessarily involve a
series of memory distortions, affected by highly emotional events, schema
effects, primacy, and recency.
Emotional laterality - the influence of emotion upon visual field
preferences
A. Milligan
Department of Psychology, University of Stirling
Emotional lateralisation may influence motor lateralisation, and may
therefore have played a significant role in the evolution of social signals in
both humans and non-human animals. The ‘affective state’ of animals has
been shown to exert influence upon functional lateralisation in species from
five classes of vertebrates with studies observing strong lateral biases during
particular social interactions. However, the association between specific
emotions and social interactions may be more complex than previously
thought. Almost all of these studies focused upon scenarios of negative
emotion such as fear or aggression, and in each case visual field preferences
were identified as suitable indicators of lateral preference whereby subjects
22

consistently observed conspecifics with the same eye. There exist two
competing theories that posit the lateralisation of emotion within the brain:
one suggests right-hemisphere dominance in the interpretation and
expression of all affective states (Campbell, 1982), whilst the other
contends that the right hemisphere is responsible for negative emotion alone
whereas positive emotion is regulated by the left hemisphere (the Valence
Hypothesis; Davidson, 1992) but the almost exclusive investigation of
aggressive/fearful scenarios prevents objective evaluation of these
competing theories. This study addresses the problem by considering
interactions across the full spectrum of emotion, testing both theories whilst
also considering whether the strength of emotional intensity can be
correlated to lateral bias, and whether age-sex effects exist.
Composition of vigilance periods in gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) social play
J.A. Mayhew and J.C. Gómez
School of Psychology, University of St Andrews
Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) play bouts are complex and dynamic social
interactions that incorporate locomotory movements and behaviours from
outside social contexts such as aggression or predation. Such diverse bouts
are typically punctuated with intermittent periods where the close physical
activity between the interacting individuals seems to momentarily conclude.
During these cessations, or “vigilance periods”, the play partners may break
contact and give pause to their physical interaction, may readjust their body
positioning, move in or out of proximity from their partner, or they may
transition from one type of generalized play pattern to another. This study
presents a preliminary examination of the structure and composition of
vigilance periods taking into account several variables including eye gaze,
head orientation, body orientation and posturing of the interacting
individuals. Specific organization of these subtle social cues may be
essential for initiating, maintaining, and terminating play and may also shed
light on the advantages and preferences of using certain social cues over
others. During vigilance periods, young gorillas might learn about the social
cues that signal attention and intention in others as well as in themselves
and an investigation of these periods can be useful in further exploring what
social cognitive functions social play may have for young gorillas.
Can hand and footpad morphology distinguish slow loris taxa?
C. J. Wheeler, R.A. Munds and K.A I. Nekaris
Nocturnal Primate Research Group, School of Social Sciences and Law,
Oxford Brookes University
Once considered a widespread homogeneous taxon, a minimum of five
species of slow loris (Nycticebus) are now recognised based on genetic,
23

morphological and behavioural data. Characteristics such as pelage, body
size, and reproductive parameters indicate further variability, but logistical
difficulties preclude their study throughout much of their range. Museum
specimens thus offer an insight into their diversity. In particular, hand and
foot pad morphology has been used to identify species of galago, tarsier and
lemur. For lorises in particular, that rely to varying degrees on grasping of
large trunks to engage in exudativory, hands and feet may show distinctive
characters. Here, we quantitatively describe the palmar and plantar surface
morphology of 142 loris specimens from five zoological collections. We
took digital photographs of the palmar and plantar surfaces; we
subsequently performed comparative scaling and both qualitative and
quantitative investigation using imaging software. We used SPSS to analyse
the resultant data. All lorises displayed six palmar and plantar pads,
although in some specimens, pads 1 and 6 merged. Discriminant function
analyses grouped between 3 and 9 taxa based on palmar and plantar
morphology, with pads 1, 4, and 5 usefully distinguishing groups. These
taxonomic designations support recent studies, and provide evidence for 2-3
taxa on the island of Borneo. Pad measurements were log transformed to
compare across the variably-sized taxa. Preliminary analyses reveal that
hand pads tend to be larger in taxa currently known to exploit more gum,
potentially providing them with more surface area grip on vertical surfaces.
What factors determine successful reintroductions? A slow loris case
study
A.L. Doughty, R.S. Moore and K.A.I. Nekaris
Nocturnal Primate Research Group, School of Social Sciences and Law,
Oxford Brookes University
Slow lorises are amongst the most widely traded primates in Southeast Asia,
popular with consumers as both medicine and pets. In Indonesia, more than
100 animals are regularly confiscated each month, and the need for
reintroducing these wild-born yet highly endangered primates is becoming
vital. In October 2009, we began the first large-scale systematic slow loris
restocking project in Ciapus, Mt Salak, Indonesia. Previous slow loris
reintroductions have failed due to: lack of funding; no pre- or post-release
monitoring; death due to starvation and hypothermia; predation; and release
of species into the wrong geographic areas. As one means to determine how
to avoid such problems for the current project, we systematically analysed
eight categories regarding success or failure of 52 reintroduction projects,
reported in the same format to the IUCN Reintroduction Specialists Group
(IRSG) in 2008. We entered ordinal and categorical data for six higher
taxonomic groupings of 48 species of reintroduced animals into SPSS.
Success rate differed significantly (2=19.2, df=3, p

enclosures (81% of studies) and long-term post-release monitoring (77% of
studies) were deemed as contributing to a project’s success, whereas lack of
local community support (43%) and lack of specialised skills and
knowledge (38%) contributed notably to projects’ failures. These data
strongly support the use of the IRSG’s guidelines, which have been too
often ignored in the case of slow lorises, as good practice.
Grooming reciprocity and kinship in captive lion tailed macaques
(Macaca silenus)
F.R. Moore 1 , C. Cunningham 1 and M. Kingston Jones 2
1. Evolutionary and Biological Approaches to Behaviour Research Group,
Division of Psychology, University of Abertay Dundee, 2. Howletts Wild
Animal Park, Bekesbourne, Canterbury
We investigated grooming reciprocity in relation to within-dyad relatedness
in a group of captive Macaca silenus. We predicted an inverse relationship
between within-dyad relatedness and time-matching of grooming bouts, as
grooming kin has indirect fitness benefits for the individual. We also
predicted that high ranking individuals would receive more, and contribute
less, grooming and that there would be an inverse relationship between
time-matching of reciprocal bouts and within-dyad dominance rank
distance. Subjects were a captive group of females (n = 5) housed at
Howletts Wild Animal Park (UK). Related dyads did not time-match their
grooming bouts to the same extent as non-related dyads and there was a
strong negative relationship demonstrating that high-ranking individuals
groomed down and low-ranking individuals groomed up the hierarchy.
Further analysis suggested that this was due to strategic preferential
grooming by mid- and low-ranking individuals up the hierarchy and
preferential grooming down, rather than across, the hierarchy by highranking
individuals. We conclude that our results support biological markets
theory of grooming and implicate a role of relatedness in the dynamics of
grooming interactions.
Predator alarm calls in wild black-fronted titi moneys Callicebus
nigrifrons
C. Cäsar 1,2,3 , R. Byrne 1 , R. Young 2 and K. Zuberbühler 1
1. Scottish Primate Research Group, School of Psychology, University of St
Andrews, 2. Conservation, Ecology and Animal Behaviour Group,
Department of Post-Graduate Studies in Zoology, Pontifícia Universidade
Católica de Minas Gerais, Brazil, 3. Inhotim, Rua B 20, 35460-000,
Brumadinho, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Some primates produce acoustically distinct alarm calls to different
predators. In some species there is evidence that recipients react with
25

adaptive responses to such calls. Callicebus monkeys have been known for
their large repertoire of vocalizations, and some of their calls are combined
into long and complex sequences. However, the monkeys’ vocal responses
to distinct external events have not been studied systematically. We studied
the alarm calls of undisturbed black-fronted titi monkey (C. nigrifrons) in
Minas Gerais, southeast Brazil, by presenting visual predator models. Our
preliminary results show that monkeys produce two different types of calls
when first encountering different types of predators. Furthermore, they
produce a long sequence of calls, in which some of them can be further
subdivided into four acoustic variants, which are obtained by optional
suffixation and duplications of the call stem. In addition, one of the alarm
calls, given to puma for instance, is also used in other contexts, such as
when monkeys were foraging close to the ground, and in response to a non
predator animal. Overall, our results indicate no fundamental differences to
the acoustic flexibility previously reported from Old World monkeys,
suggesting an early origin within the primate lineage. However, the fact that
some calls or call sequences were given in both predatory and nonpredatory
situations illustrate the need for empirical studies that focus on
naturally produced calls and their context. Additionally, future research
using playback experiments with alarm calls and analyses of listeners’
responses is required.
Sponsors: CAPES/Brazil and FAPEMIG/Brazil.
The Aspinall Foundations in situ primate conservation projects
M. Kingston Jones 1 and N. Laurence 2
1. Howletts and Port Lympne Wild Animal Parks
2. The Aspinall Foundation
The Aspinall Foundation (TAF) is a registered charity that is actively
involved with several projects that incorporate a diverse range of in situ
conservation activities. These include the well-established overseas projects
in the Republic of Congo and Gabon and more recent developing projects in
Indonesia and Madagascar. Our main spheres of in situ conservation-based
activity include ecosystem management, local community education
projects, capacity building, habitat surveys, rehabilitation of confiscated
wild animals and reintroduction of captive-bred and confiscated wild-born
animals. This poster will summarise our recent activities over these three
key projects, including - from Congo and Gabon - updates from the PPG
field sites with the Western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) and
wildlife law enforcement in Congo. In Indonesia, our new rehabilitation and
possible reintroduction site in Java for the moloch gibbon (Hylobates
moloch) and Javan langur (Trachypithecus auratus), protected area
management in Indonesia and Camera trapping in Java and Sumatra. And
from Madagascar, updates on the current status of new projects with the
26

greater bamboo lemur (Prolemur simus) and crowned sifaka (Propithecus
coronatus).
Testing the stress-linked immunocompetence handicap hypothesis in
human male faces
F.R. Moore 1 and D.I. Perrett 2
1. Evolutionary and Biological Approaches to Behaviour Research Group,
Division of Psychology, University of Abertay Dundee
2. School of Psychology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews
Recent research implicates the role of stress in the Immunocompetence
Handicap Hypothesis (ICHH) of sexual selection. An interaction between
putative cues to immunocompetence (masculinity) and current health in
men’s faces suggests that this may apply to humans. We explored
relationships between sex- and stress-hormones (i.e., testosterone and
cortisol) and facial masculinity and attractiveness. Twenty-four facial
stimuli were constructed from images of males on the basis of levels of
salivary cortisol and testosterone. These were rated by female participants
across fertile and non-fertile phases of the menstrual cycle. Results
demonstrated that preferences for cues to testosterone in the face are
contingent upon co-occurring levels of cortisol and are discussed in the
context of the stress-linked ICHH.
Crops, conflict and behaviour on farms among Buton macaques
R. Wyper 1 , P.C. Lee 1 and N.E.C. Priston 2
1. Anthropology and Geography, Oxford Brookes University
2. Psychology, University of Stirling & Scottish Primate Research Group
Predicting behavioural responses and survival probabilities for populations
of threatened endemic species in human-dominated and changing
environments are global concerns facing many primatologists. This problem
is particularly acute for the Buton macaque (Macaca ochreata
brunnescens), which is endemic to Buton Island, southeast Sulawesi,
Indonesia. Our study aimed to investigate the crop raiding characteristics of
this endemic species over time, and to explore the value of longitudinal
studies for assessing crop raiding. The behavioural repertoire exhibited
during crop raiding inside the farm perimeter was observed over a period of
seven years (2002-2008). The average raid frequency per year decreased
slightly during the study period, raising interesting questions about the
feeding behaviour of the macaques over time and in response to
management strategies. Behaviour differed significantly as a function of
penetration distance into the farm, as well as among some age-sex classes,
but not all. Storage organ crops (e.g., sweet potato) were most abundant and
most frequently raided by macaques. Future work on wild versus cultivated
27

food choice is essential for ensuring the survival of the Buton macaque in a
human-dominated environment. We aim to investigate the ecological
determinants of crop raiding over an 18-month period, to assess feeding
ecology in relation to forest phenology. The results of this PhD study will
be used directly to support conservation efforts for the Buton macaque and
to benefit the people of Buton. This study is funded by a NERC/ESRC joint
studentship to R. Wyper.
A sex difference in effect of relevant object experience on objectmediated
problem-solving in gibbons (Hylobatidae)
C. Cunningham 1 , J. Anderson 2 and A. Mootnick 3
1. Evolutionary and Biological Approaches to Behaviour Research Group,
University of Abertay Dundee, 2. Department of Psychology, University of
Stirling, 3. Gibbon Conservation Center, Santa Clarita, California, USA
Understanding the functional properties of objects that make them useful in
novel situations is likely facilitated by prior exposure during which object
affordances can be explored. However, explorations of effects of previous
object experience on object-mediated problem solving have provided
conflicting results. Previous opportunity to explore objects and their
properties could manifest as increased propensity to approach and interact
with novel objects (a requirement for successful object-mediated solutions),
and improved efficiency in goal-directed manipulation. Here, we examine
the effects of prior domain-specific experience on acquisition of object
manipulation skills in gibbons (Hylobatidae). These small arboreal apes do
not frequently use tools. This argues against any evolved cognitive
mechanism specifically for processing object properties. Gibbons provided
with the opportunity to learn about the affordances of a potential tool before
using it to obtain a reward were expected to demonstrate increased
efficiency in goal realisation. Using a simple zero-order manipulation that
required the apes to use a rake-tool to pull in an out-or-reach item, 14 out of
22 tested individuals successfully solved the task. Prior exposure did not
facilitate appropriate tool use in males although females performed
significantly more efficiently with previous experience, seemingly
benefitting from a period of learning about the objects neutrality. This may
be due to gender differences in costs and benefits of perceived risk-taking.
28

Future Meetings
PSGB Winter Meeting 2010
Gombe 50
8 th and 9 th December 2010
Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, London
This year marks the 50th anniversary of the start of Dr Jane Goodall DBE’s
ground-breaking research on chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii)
at Gombe Stream, Tanganyika - now Gombe Stream National Park,
Tanzania. It also marks the beginning of a long tradition of other
primatological research at this site, including olive baboons (Papio
cynocephalus anubis), red colobus (Colobus badius tephrosceles), and
people.
The Primate Society of Great Britain is proud to hold its two-day scientific
Winter Meeting, on 8 th and 9 th December 2010, in celebration of the
primatological research done at, or inspired by, the Gombe research over
the past 50 years, and looking forward to the future. Gombe’s impact is farreaching
globally, and covers a wide range of scientific disciplines, from
human evolution, to ethology, to disease transmission, to conservation. Dr
Goodall and the Gombe research have also inspired many young scientists
around the world to go into careers relating to primate behaviour, as well as
more broadly in biodiversity conservation and other related fields, in the
wild, in zoos and in sanctuaries.
We are delighted to announce that the invited speakers at “Gombe 50”
include the following:
• Dr Jane Goodall DBE* (Founder, The Jane Goodall Institute;
http://www.janegoodall.org/; http://www.janegoodall.org.uk/home)
• Dr D. Anthony Collins* (Gombe Stream Research Centre,
Tanzania)
• Tara Golshan (Executive Director for Education, The Jane
Goodall Institute–UK)
• Dr Shadrack Kamenya (Gombe Stream Research Centre,
Tanzania)
• Prof. Phyllis C. Lee* (University of Stirling, UK)
• Prof. William C. McGrew* (University of Cambridge, UK)
• Guy Norton* (Anglia Ruskin University, UK / Director of the
Animal Behaviour Research Unit, Mikumi National Park,
Tanzania)
• Prof. Anne E. Pusey* (Duke University, USA)
29

• Ian Redmond OBE* (Chief Consultant, GRASP -
UNEP/UNESCO Great Ape Survival Partnership)
• Prof. Richard Wrangham (Harvard University, USA)
Prof. Andy Whiten* (St Andrews University) will give this year’s Osman
Hill Lecture: “Cultural elements in a chimpanzee community (Goodall,
1973) 37 years on."
(* indicates confirmed speaker)
We anticipate that advance registration will be required, as we expect a
great deal of interest. As in recent years, the Winter Meeting will include
oral and poster presentation sessions, and we welcome proffered oral papers
on areas of primatological research relating to, or stimulated by, Gombe
studies, as well as proffered posters on any area of primatological research
of interest to PSGB members. Registration and the call for papers will be
announced in the near future, so please keep an eye on the PSGB website
for updates . Announcements
will also be sent to PSGB members via our JISCmail list
.
During the Winter Meeting, we plan to hold a book-signing event with Dr
Goodall, and also a social event on the evening of 8 th December. The
evening ‘do’ allows delegates and speakers an opportunity to discuss their
work with each other, as well as to catch up with old friends, and make new
ones.
We do hope you will be able to join us for this very exciting scientific
meeting, in celebration of “Gombe 50” and the influential work of Dr Jane
Goodall DBE and others!
Further information on the contributions of Dr Goodall to the fields of
ethology, primatology and conservation, can be found at
.
If you have any questions about the event in the meantime, please contact
the organiser:
Dr Sonya P. Hill
Conservation Medicine Division
North of England Zoological Society
Chester Zoo
Caughall Road, Upton-by-Chester
Chester, CH2 1LH
UK
30

Announcement:
International Symposium – Compassionate Conservation
Compassionate Conservation:
Animal Welfare in Conservation Practice
An International Symposium
Lady Margaret Hall, University of Oxford
1 – 3 September 2010
The Wildlife Conservation Research Unit (WildCRU) and the Born Free
Foundation are delighted to announce an International Symposium on
animal welfare in conservation practice, to be held at Oxford. The
Symposium will bring together scientists and practitioners from a range of
disciplines to debate animal welfare issues in conservation, examine
potential synergies, look for practical outcomes and promote a dialogue
between these two disciplines that are often perceived as mutually
exclusive.
The Symposium will be organized around the following themes:
Animal welfare in field conservation
Captive animal welfare and conservation
Conservation consequences of wildlife rescue, rehabilitation and release
International trade in live wild animals
The Symposium will be of interest to academics and graduates in
conservation biology, animal welfare and animal ethics, as well as
conservation and animal welfare organisations and practitioners.
Further details and online registration will shortly be available at
.
To express your interest in attending the symposium, please contact Chris
Draper (email: chris@bornfree.org.uk; tel: +44(0)1403 240170)
About the Organisers
Born Free Foundation
The Born Free Foundation is an international wildlife charity working
throughout the world to stop individual wild animal suffering and protect
threatened species in the wild. www.bornfree.org.uk
Wildlife Conservation Research Unit (WildCRU), University of Oxford
Founded in 1986, WildCRU was the first university-based conservation
research unit in Europe. WildCRU’s mission is to achieve practical
solutions to conservation problems through original scientific research.
www.wildcru.org
31

Announcement:
Charles A. Lockwood Memorial PSGB Grants
As previously reported, the family of Charles Lockwood generously
donated a sum of money to fund a scheme of special PSGB grants,
dedicated to the memory of the late UCL lecturer and designed to support
the research of PSGB student members. The Society received over 20
applications for Charles A. Lockwood Memorial PSGB Grants. The
standard of applications was exceptionally high, and the awards panel
(comprising Andrew Smith, Robin Dunbar, Simone Pika and Alison
Fletcher) had a tough job making the final decision. The range of proposals
received shows the great breadth and depth of primatological research
amongst students in the UK, and bodes very well for the future of PSGB.
We are pleased to announce that Lockwood grants have been awarded to:
Graham Banes, University of Cambridge: ‘Factors influencing male orangutan
reproductive success’
Conrad Brimacombe, University of Sheffield: ‘Growth and development in
the genus Pan: a life history approach’
Laura Buck, Roehampton University: ‘Craniofacial morphology, paranasal
sinuses and adaptation in Pleistocene hominins’
Camille Coudrat, Oxford Brookes University: ‘Ecology of the red-shanked
douc monkey in Nakai Nam Theun National Protected Area, central-eastern
Laos’
Blake Morton, University of Stirling: ‘Inter-individual differences in
cognitive ability and social networking strategies in brown capuchin
monkeys’
Caroline Phillips, University of Cambridge: ‘Chimpanzee diet:
pyrosequencing DNA from faeces’
Isabelle Winder, University of York: ‘Linking primate foot anatomy,
ecology and landscape use’
Rebecca Wyper, University of Stirling: ‘Ecological drivers of macaque crop
raiding in Buton, Indonesia: human responses and implications for
conservation’
Awardees will present the results of their research at a PSGB meeting, and
are also encouraged to submit their work for publication. The Society would
like to congratulate the grant recipients and thank all the applicants and the
award committee for their time and effort.
32

CONSERVATION GRANT REPORTS
Ecology and status of the drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus) in Korup
National Park, Southwest Cameroon: implications for their
conservation
CHRISTOS ASTARAS
christos_astaras@yahoo.ca
Awarded a PSGB Conservation Grant in August 2006
The drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus) is a terrestrial primate endemic to the
Cross-Sanaga-Bioko rainforests of Central Africa whose survival is
endangered by increasing pressure from hunting and habitat loss. Few
studies have ever examined the ecology of wild drills and our current
understanding of the conservation needs of the species is limited. This
project studied the ecology of drills in a 63 km 2 section of Korup National
Park in southwest Cameroon over twelve months (Feb – Jun 2006, Jul 2007
– Jan 2008). It also evaluated the status and threats of the drill in the greater
Korup region with the intent of improving the species’ protection. Finally,
the appropriateness of assuming near-identical ecologies between the drill
and its better studied, allopatric and sole congener – the mandrill (M.
sphinx) – was assessed.
Wild drills in foliage, Korup National Park (2006)
33

Analysis of faecal samples and feeding remains showed that the drill
maintains a diverse, yet not indiscriminate, omnivorous diet throughout the
year consisting primarily of fruits and seeds, and to a lesser extent leaves,
mushrooms and insects. Drills ingested and dispersed intact seeds from 110
plant types primarily during periods of fruit abundance, while there was a
shift towards increased seed predation during the pronounced fruit-scarce
dry season.
Visual and audio encounters of drill groups during 3,284 km of trail patrols
provided information on group structure and primate associations. Mean
group size was 43.3 ± 18.4 (range 25-77) and groups with both one and
multiple males emitting the adult male specific two-phase-grunt were
observed. Solitary males were encountered twice. Drills were in association
with at least one additional primate species at some time during most of the
encounters, involving all of the diurnal primates in Korup (Cercopithecus
mona, C. nictitans, C. erythrotis, C. pogonias, Procolobus pennantii preussi
and Cercocebus torquatus) except the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes).
The total drill population was conservatively estimated at 950-1450 within
Korup National Park and 2,500-3,000 in the entire Korup region, which
makes the region a stronghold for the species’ survival. However, drill subpopulations
are becoming increasingly isolated within the ever more
fragmented landscape and are under hunting pressure everywhere. Eight
core areas were identified across the region as priorities for protection.
Interviews with local communities offered insight on the destructive
practice of hunting with dogs as well as the socioeconomic role of dogs –
information needed for effectively managing this major threat to drill
survival. The drill was also found to suffer from a limited local recognition
of its current status and legal protection, which is unfavourable for
conservation. As a result of the project’s findings, a list of drill-focused
conservation recommendations was developed and submitted to government
agencies and non-government organizations active in wildlife management
and conservation in the region.
34

Conducting hunter interviews (Fabe village, May 2006)
Population density surveys and taxonomic assessment of the Western
tarsier (Tarsius bancanus borneanus) and Bornean slow loris
(Nycticebus menagensis) in the Lower Kinabatangan Floodplain, Sabah,
Malaysia
RACHEL A. MUNDS
Awarded a PSGB Conservation Grant in August 2008
The Bornean slow loris (Nycticebus menagensis) and tarsier (Tarsius
bancanus borneanus) are the only nocturnal primates on Borneo. Their
current classification as Vulnerable (VU) by IUCN is based only on habitat
loss. No recent systematic surveys have been done to determine if they are
truly VU. Found only on Borneo and a few surrounding islands, these
primates are threatened not only by habitat loss but also by the pet,
medicinal and food markets. The aim of this research was to provide a
current assessment of the estimated abundance of these primates in a
protected degraded floodplain in east Sabah, Malaysia Borneo.
The research took place in the Danau Girang Field Centre (DGFC) (5°24'
48"N, 118°02' 16"E, elevation 15 m asl), a cooperative research facility
between Cardiff University and the Sabah Wildlife Department. It is a 123-
ha flat forest located in the centre of the Lower Kinabatangan Wildlife
35

Sanctuary (LKWS) (5°20'-5°45'N, 117°40'-118°30'E). Two types of forest
dominate the DGFC: semi-inundated and mixed riparian. Forest density
could restrict visibility to as little as 2 m. The study was conducted from the
17 March-4 Sept, 2009, between the hours of 18:30-02:00. Surveys were
done on seven trails/transects and walked a minimum of four times each.
Average trail length was 1.1 km, walked at 600 m/hr. Between 2-3 people
surveyed with the use of a Petzl Myo Zoom 4.5 V headlamp, with a mix of
red and white filters. Lorises were detected by their reflective eye-shine.
Tarsiers were detected by movement or by a dull red eye glare which was
only noticeable with the use of a red light. Results yielded a survey effort of
68.56 km, with only 8 lorises (0.1 lorises/km or 5.05 lorises/km²) and 5
tarsiers (0.06 tarsiers/km or 2.75 tarsiers/km²) sighted.
Although the slow loris results are low, they fall within their expected range
of abundance (0.02-1.63 individuals/km). Being primarily arboreal animals,
lorises were sighted at heights between 8.5-30 m. Such heights, plus the
extreme forest density in some areas, made them difficult to detect. Their
semi-solitary or monogamous social structure, slow and silent locomotion,
and their anti-predator strategy of remaining still for a long period of time
contributed to the challenge of finding these elusive primates.
36

The low encounter rate of tarsiers was surprising, as they are presumed to
be common throughout much of their range. Outdated by 25 years,
Crompton & Andau (1986) estimated Bornean tarsier populations to range
from 15-80 individuals/km². Tarsiers were difficult to detect, as unlike the
Sulawesi species, they do not vocalize regularly and as mentioned before,
they lack a distinct reflective eye-shine. But if these results are an accurate
estimation, then a 5-30%
decline is concerning.
More research on these
cryptic primates of Borneo
is needed to provide an
accurate depiction of how
habitat loss and other
anthropogenic threats are
affecting populations. This
study was an essential part
of a longer-term project that
will investigate the
taxonomy, population
viability and social
structures of these primates
in the LKWS and Borneo.
Primates for posterity: assessment of a primate conservation education
programme on 15- 17 year old students in schools in Tamil Nadu, India
MARTINA VICTORIA STEPHEN PAUL ANANDAM
Awarded a PSGB Conservation Grant in March 2009
India is home to vast diversity of wildlife. Sixteen species (after the addition
of Macaca munzala in 2005) and 39 subspecies of non-human primates
occupy the subcontinent, with certain endemic species such as the liontailed
macaque (Macaca silenus) and the Nilgiri langur (Trachypitecus
johnii) occupying a narrow range in the Western Ghats of Southern India
37

and Gee’s golden langur (Trachypitecus geeii) in the Eastern Himalayas.
Knowledge of primates and their conservation crisis should bring about
ecological awareness and responsibility: conservation education best serves
this function. ‘Primates for Posterity’ was designed to endow the
participants with techniques and values required to exhibit ecologically
responsible behaviour. The project was conducted in four schools in Tamil
Nadu, India: 2 test schools (one from a lowland area and one from a
mountain region) and 2 control schools (again, one from a lowland and one
from a mountain area). The authenticity of the programme was measured in
a number of ways.
The project demonstrated that time is not a barrier to an environmental
education programme by proving the credibility of ‘Primates for Posterity’
through pre-test and post-test knowledge and attitude score assessment of
the participants. A significant rise in post-test scores was evident across the
sample. The test schools scored higher than the control schools in the posttest
indicating that the education programme had a positive effect. The
attitude scores of the participants remained fairly constant before and after
the programme. The mandatory Environmental Science module and
religious views of the participants could be considered to influence the
attitude of the participants towards animals. The impact of geographical
location (participants were either from the mountain region close to wildlife
or a plain farther from wildlife) was tested as a possible factor of influence
on the environmental knowledge and attitude of the participants.
Geographical location was found to have a significant impact on the
environmental knowledge and attitude quotient of the participants. Both
male and female participants showed no difference in knowledge and
attitude scores, thus removing gender as a possible factor of disparity.
The credibility of tools such as Microsoft PowerPoint was tested and a new
tool namely Jungle Sounds was introduced and assessed. The first
presentation “Primates for Posterity: Primates and their conservation” was
most favoured by the participants followed by the ‘Virtual Jungle: Jungle
sounds’ session. This assessment paves the way for introducing more
creative tools that bring conservation to life in a classroom by prompting the
aesthetic awareness of the participants. Another important feature of
“Primates for Posterity” is the career lecture which sought to explain to the
participants the prospective careers one could have in conservation.
Twenty-five percent of the test group participants found the lecture to be
“very informative” and 46.9% found the lecture to be “informative”, thus
reinstating the importance of such features in environmental education in
India.
38

Students with the principal investigator
Conservation assessment of Taï monkey fauna from two survey
methods and a bushmeat market study: how hunting impacts Taï
National Park
RYAN COVEY
Awarded a PSGB Conservation Grant in March 2009
Primates throughout Côte d’Ivoire are at risk of being hunted to extinction.
The national park status afforded to Taï National Park and its inclusion on
UNESCO’s World Heritage List has failed to protect its biodiversity. In
addition to hunting, deforestation, gold panning, and overuse of the buffer
zone by locals threatens many species with extinction. In order to assess the
threats facing Taï National Park’s primate fauna, I used two survey methods
to determine density and distribution of eight diurnal monkey species
adjacent to a protected research area. In addition, I assessed the most
significant threats facing these primates, and analyzed the impact of a local
bushmeat market.
39

My study was conducted at the Taï Monkey Project field site, located in Taï
National Park, Côte d’Ivoire. Line-transect distance sampling was used to
determine group density of eight monkey species within a protected
research area and the surrounding non-protected forests. Twenty 500 m
transects were walked four times each within a protected 2 x 1 sq km grid
and six 3 km transects were walked three times each outside of the
protected area. Occupancy modelling was tested within the protected
research area to determine its accuracy in detecting primate fauna. Over the
course of nine weeks I visited a local bushmeat market seven times. Meat
from all animal species observed at the market was recorded.
Cercopithecus diana (5.84 groups/km²) and Procolobus badius (6.02
groups/km²) had the highest group density estimates determined from linetransect
sampling in the research grid. Outside the protected area, group
density could only be calculated for three monkey species because of the
significant decrease in monkey observations (i.e., Cercopithecus diana - 3.4
groups/km²; Procolobus badius – 2.75 groups/km²). Based on the frequency
of detections, ranging patterns, and vocal repertoire of the monkey species,
occupancy modelling was reliable in determining primate presence. The
most numerous and vocal monkeys were Cercopithecus diana and
Procolobus badius, and thus had the highest detection probability (0.55 &
0.67 respectively). Cercocebus atys (large home ranges) and Procolobus
verus monkeys (few vocalizations) had the lowest detection probability
(0.09 & 0.07 respectively). A total of 634 animals were observed at the
40

ushmeat market. A weekly average of 33 primates (1,716/year) reveal
unsustainable hunting is occurring in the adjoining forests of Liberia.
The protection afforded to primates within the Taï Monkey Project research
grid from the presence of researches has allowed them to flourish. The
observed drop-off in detections and calculated group densities reveals that
where hunting occurs, group densities are significantly lower than in areas
where protection occurs. Occupancy modelling appears to be a reliable
method in detecting primate presence. The number of primates harvested
from the forests of Liberia, which could form a natural corridor to Taï
National Park, reveals the degree of unsustainable hunting occurring.
Conservation efforts in this area should focus on the immediate protection
of the animal fauna within Taï National Park. Protection efforts need to
begin in Liberia to prevent genetically isolated populations from occurring.
41

Identifying the CITES Appendix I-listed Asian slow loris Nycticebus
spp: a training programme for enforcement officials and rescue centres
in Southeast Asia
TRICIA PARISH
Awarded a PSGB and Born Free Grant in August 2008
All five recognised species of Asian slow lorises (Primates: Lorisidae:
Nycticebus) were listed on Appendix I of the Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 2007 due
to unsustainable harvesting for the illegal pet and medicine trade as well as
due to habitat loss. N. javanicus was added to the 25 Most Endangered
Primates List in 2008 due to the severe risks it faces from the same threats
but which are compounded in its smaller habitat.
No IUCN species survival programme is in place for slow lorises but the
Southeast Asian Mammal Database and CITES call for additional slow loris
education to be conducted as officials are unable to identify the species seen
in illegal trade. This project provided five one-day workshops to
enforcement officials and rescue centres in slow loris range countries and
East Asian trade hubs (peninsular Malaysia, Malaysian Borneo (Sarawak),
Brunei, Taiwan and Japan) between February and November 2009. The
project was based on a set of four pilot workshops that were conducted in
slow loris range states in 2008.
The workshop used a range of training materials (PowerPoint presentations,
identification leaflet, training DVD and picture flashcards) and techniques
(lecture, small and large group discussions) to maximise learning. Topics
included slow loris taxonomy, identification and behaviour, look-alike
species, legislative protection, key threats, common smuggling techniques
and captive slow loris care protocols (both short- and long-term). Workshop
effectiveness was assessed using pre- and post-workshop questionnaires,
review sheets and video exercises. The project aimed to raise awareness
about slow lorises with enforcement officials, improve their knowledge of
Nycticebus spp. and enhance individual slow loris species identification
abilities. Over the longer term it is hoped that equipping enforcement
officials with improved knowledge about slow lorises and how to identify
them will contribute to a reduction of illegal slow loris trade and the
inappropriate release of confiscated slow lorises.
Quantitative analysis of the workshops showed that significant
improvements in knowledge levels were achieved across key areas
including individual slow loris species identification ability (Wilcoxon: n =
180, z = -8.782, p = 0.000), slow loris range countries (Wilcoxon: n = 179, z
= -3.564, p = 0.000), that the slow loris is a primate (Wilcoxon: n = 179, z =
42

-5.545, p = 0.000) and that the slow loris is protected under CITES
(Wilcoxon: n = 180, z = -4.447, p = 0.000). The results support previous
findings that knowledge levels are low amongst enforcement officials and
that training is lacking. This research does however indicate that the
learning deficit can be addressed and that one-day workshops can affect
significant knowledge change. Although this training workshop was
designed for slow lorises, the education model is applicable to other species.
Workshop participants in Kuching
43

BOOK REVIEWS
MOUNTAIN GORILLAS: BIOLOGY, CONSERVATION, AND
COEXISTENCE
Gene Eckhart and Annette Lanjouw (2008)
The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore
ISBN: 080189011 (Softback) £19.00
This impressive-looking book is both large and easy on the eye, illustrated
throughout with beautiful photographs of mountain gorillas, their habitat,
and people living in, or visiting, their range countries. A scientific text book
this isn’t, but nonetheless it is a resource that I am certain will be of great
interest to primate and conservation enthusiasts. The authors state that part
of their intent is that this book will “make available to a larger audience the
valuable information gained through many people’s work over the years,”
especially in areas relating to research and conservation and, generally, I
think they succeed in this.
The first chapter is an account of a tourist visit to the Susa group in
Rwanda, written with the descriptive, familiar tones of a personal travel-log
entry or a letter home, thus painting a very informative scene of what it is
actually like to do one of these visits. Some of the photo captions are
somewhat ‘over the top,’ as they are written in rather flowery language that
isn’t necessary when the main text of the book is more than capable of
setting the scene; some of the captions actually detract from it, so it’s a
good job the photographs themselves are stunning. The second chapter goes
on to describe matters relating to evolution and classification in accessible
terms, although a figure showing the classification of apes is so oversimplified
as to inadvertently imply that only Hylobatidae and Hominidae
make up the order Primates. Again, the photo captions are a bit longer/more
detailed than are probably necessary - almost acting as summaries of some
of the main points of the chapter – and so it is probably the case that some
readers will find this helpful, and others annoying; it is the same throughout
the whole book.
The following eight chapters summarise other areas of gorilla natural
history, including several chapters on aspects of social relationships, daily
patterns, and feeding habits; none of these present anything particularly new
to a gorilla person, but will still be a good introduction to, or reminder of,
the topic for general enthusiasts; as I mentioned, this is not intended to be a
text book, although some scientific data are cited. In places, the text seems
unnecessarily childish/basic, such as the section title: “Martha Robbins: She
Wants her Research to Have Conservation Implications” – but, at least this
section does introduce non-scientists to the work of people like Martha,
about which they might not otherwise get to hear. The book then moves on
to include a ‘gorilla gallery’, showing photographs of a range of individuals
44

of different ages and sexes, highlighting the individuality of these apes, and
how different each one looks – not necessarily something that is generally
known to non-primatologists. Further chapters then describe the forests and
National Parks in which mountain gorillas live, including summaries of
classification of vegetation types for the Virungas and for Bwindi, and
fauna in the region. The importance of the forests is also discussed, not only
in terms of their environmental impact, but also in terms of human presence,
such as the Batwa/Bantu populations, local staff working to protect the
forests and habituate gorillas, and so on. The discussion of the human
impact on gorilla range countries goes on to explore colonialism in the
region, and the horrific conflicts in DRC and Rwanda, and tourist killings at
Bwindi in 1999, in terms of the impact on gorilla conservation as well as the
region as a whole. These are clearly heavy and diverse topics for such a
book to cover, but it does so well, and all within the context of celebrating
the people working to protect and study mountain gorillas and their habitat.
The next couple of chapters focus more on the livelihoods of those living
and working around the gorillas’ range areas, whose lives are affected in
some way by gorilla conservation and tourism (whether a positive impact,
such as making a living from tourism, or negative, such as crop-raiding by
gorillas and other animals). With the theme of conservation running
throughout this book, the final chapters deal with this topic specifically,
starting from a historic perspective, through to the present and future. There
are useful summaries of key organisations in the region, such as the Office
Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux (ORTPN), the Ugandan
Wildlife Authority, the Mountain Gorilla Veterinary Project, as well as
profiles of one of the national parks’ guides, and other people working
towards gorilla conservation, all of which help to bring the book to life. All
in all, this book is a must-have for anyone interested in gorillas.
Sonya P. Hill
North of England Zoological Society, Chester Zoo
ENDOCRINOLOGY OF SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS
Peter T. Ellison and Peter B. Gray (eds.) (2009)
Harvard University Press
ISBN: 9780674031173 (Hardback) £36.95
Understanding how hormones and behaviour are linked is one of the most
fascinating topics in biology today. For primatologists this is a field of
research that has just started to produce a wealth of new exciting materialnot
least because new non-invasive techniques are starting to allow us to
monitor hormones of wild animals without the need for trapping and taking
blood. One of the most exciting outcomes of this research is that studies of
wild animals can now investigate the causes of behaviour at a variety of
levels – both proximate and ultimate.
45

In 16 chapters various authors review a large range of studies on recent
research that look at relationships hormones and social relationships. The
first section of the book introduces important theoretical ideas. Lee’s
introduction to animal mating and parenting systems gives a framework for
the rest of the book- as it discusses the evolutionary basis of diversity in
social systems and the ways in which different parenting systems might
evolve. Further chapters introduce the ways in which mammalian
neuroendocrine system integrates neural and hormonal responses to the
environment and the physiological mechanisms that regulate it (Wallen and
Hauser; Wingfield) and Ellison’s chapter focuses on how the endocrine
system regulates reproductive ecology. Ellison makes the crucial point that
the evolution of the endocrine system can only be understood in relation to
evolution as ‘social relationships trigger endocrine signals to help regulate
reproductive effort’. Given this, it is perhaps not surprisingly that much of
the book focuses on the ways in which hormones regulate reproductive
systems, with sexual and parental relationships being discussed in detail and
an emphasis on sexual dimorphism and infant care patterns.
The majority of the book looks at humans, with all of part three (chapters
10-16) looking at humans, and some of the other chapters also being
primarily human-focused. However, part two has four chapters that look at
non-human animals with one (Carter et al.) discussing rodents and three
non-human primates. The non-human primate chapters look at
endocrinology of social relationships in callitrichids (Ziegler and Snowdon),
other group living monkeys (Fairbanks) and apes (Emery Thompson). All
three of the non-human primate chapters provide excellent overviews of
recent research but with different areas highlighted. Zeigler and Snowdon
give an overview of a range of work carried out on pair-bonding and
parental care in callitrichids and stress the importance of long-term bonds
and chemical signalling for reproductive success in these species. Hence,
they focus particularly on hormonal regulation of parental care and
communication between mated pairs. In contrast, Fairbanks deals primarily
with studies on group-living matrilineal monkeys where paternal care in
minimal and male rank is likely to have a major influence on male
reproductive success. Fairbanks discusses hormonal correlates of
dominance and aggression in a range of species, including some extremely
useful summary tables that allow the reader to easily see the variety of
species and hormonal studies. Finally, Emery Thompson examines how the
evolution of mating systems and reproductive strategies in apes are related
to the endocrine physiology of female cycling and male competition.
Some interesting themes arise through the book. For example, authors
comment on the way in which paternal care influences males in both
humans and other species. Lancaster and Kaplan discuss how male’s
commitment to pair-bonding may be increased with the birth of children
and Zeigler and Snowdon explain the effect of previous paternal experience
46

on callitrichid males’ responses to infants. Gray and Campbell discuss
whether testosterone levels are correlated with mating and paternal effort in
men. In all cases the authors suggest that looking at variation in paternal
effort may offer insights into understanding different male reproductive
strategies.
It is perhaps surprising that, in a book with this title, so little of it discusses
social relationships other than those related to mating and parenting. Given
that most authors’ work on humans and/or other primates this is even more
surprising as a huge number or social interactions in social species involve
neither mates nor offspring. For many individuals, particularly prereproductive
animals such interactions may make up all or most of their
social behaviour. The exceptions to this are chapters by which touch on
some of the ways in which hormones may mediate other social interactions.
For example, McIntyre and Hooven’s chapter on sex differences in children
and adults looks at how androgens are involved in sex differences in
behaviour and personality traits such as dominance and narcissism. Two
chapters that concentrate on the effects of the neuropeptides, oxytocin and
vasopressin on behaviour also suggest that non-reproductive social
behaviour may be important. Carter et al. examine rodents and particularly
the monogamous prairie voles. This provides both an excellent overview of
both function of oxytocin and vasopressin in social behaviour with good
summary tables listing previous work done in this area and then goes on to
discuss the authors’ work on prairie voles in detail. The second chapter
(Sanchez et al.) focuses on humans and reviews studies that have
investigates mood, memory and behaviour. Although most research in voles
has looked at how these oxytocin and vasopressin regulate parental and
pair-bonding behaviour, the work on humans show that they have an effect
on many other aspects of behaviour as well- perhaps suggesting future lines
of research in other species.
The book is very well produced with a high standard of editing and with all
chapters keeping to a standard well-written format and provides an up-todate
and comprehensive overview of a wide range of studies in this area.
Summary tables of previous research and clear introduction to each topic
make it accessible for those who are unfamiliar with some of the ideas.
However this is a scholarly work and not a ‘popular’ read. I would hesitate
to recommend it to a first year undergraduate, but it should be accessible to
more advanced undergraduate and postgraduate students who are looking
for an inroad into recent research. This book will undoubtedly be of interest
to researchers and lecturers who are seeking to integrate their understanding
of endocrinology, social relationships and evolution, and would certainly be
a welcome addition to many libraries.
Caroline Ross
Roehampton University
47

CONSERVATION IN THE 21 ST CENTURY GORILLAS AS A CASE
STUDY
T.S. Stoinski, H.D. Steklis, & P.T. Mehlman (eds) 2008
(Developments in primatology: progress and prospects)
Springer
ISBN: 9780387707204 (Hardback) £87.50
This book describes the status of gorilla conservation and looks at actual
and potential tools, plans and strategies that are being or could be used in an
attempt to counteract current threats. One strength of the book is the
incorporation of ideas, tools and strategies used in other countries for other
species that might be potentially useful for gorilla, and indeed, primate
conservation in general.
The first section, containing only one chapter by Patrick Mehlman,
describes the threats facing each gorilla species and outlines the problems of
surveying and estimating gorilla numbers in different habitats and
conditions with particular emphasis on Grauer’s gorilla. Mehlman reviews
current conservation strategies and makes suggestions for future research. I
found this chapter very useful as some of the information provided on
surveying mountain gorillas is applicable to my study area in northern
Morocco where conventional methods like line transect surveying are not
appropriate.
The second section is all about conservation on the ground with information
of benefit to everyone managing a primate conservation project. The
impressive work of the Mountain Gorilla Veterinary Project with its holistic
approach to both gorilla and human health is of interest to all. Farmer &
Courage give a long overdue review of the roles of sanctuaries and
reintroduction in gorilla conservation. The chapter on gorilla tourism
attempts to summarise this sometimes controversial conservation strategy,
outlining guidelines for current best practise and warning against an over
dependence on ecotourism as the only strategy to conserve gorillas. Steklis
and Steklis outline the benefits of a long-term research project for
conservation. Jim Sanderson gives a brief but useful guide on how to do
camera trapping using an example of such a study in the Virungas but,
frustratingly, not expanding the chapter to include the results! Another
inspirational chapter was the description of the potential benefits of using
theatre to increase awareness amongst local people of chimpanzees and
their conservation around the Taï Forest by Christophe Boesch and his
team.
Tools facilitating the planning and implementation of conservation
strategies are the focus of the penultimate section. These include a
description of Population and Habitat Viability Analysis workshops, the
TAMARIN system of landscape planning for conservation, a method
48

empowering local communities living alongside endangered species, a
description of the difficulties and benefits of producing a GIS map of
mountain gorilla habitat, and the use, collection and analysis of
biomaterials. All these chapters have something to offer those attempting to
put conservation into practise on the ground.
The final section focuses mainly on the importance of building relationships
between governments (mountain gorilla transboundary conservation), and
NGOs and researchers (the Great Ape World Heritage Species Project and
www.western-gorilla.com). Stoinski et al. encourage zoos to coordinate
their funding efforts and thus improve the effectiveness of their
contributions and the final chapter focuses on the Bushmeat Crisis
Taskforce and its work in combating the unsustainable bushmeat trade.
I would have liked to see a chapter on human-gorilla conflict resolution
along with more information on the work being conducted with the local
communities in and around gorilla habitats. That aside, I found it a very
useful volume and will be referring back to it in relation to my own project
as it holds so many potentially useful ideas, strategies and initiatives that
can be put into practice albeit on a much smaller scale. The price of the
hardback is high for those on a limited budget but maybe Springer can be
encouraged to bring it out in paperback!
Siân S. Waters
Barbary Macaque Conservation in the Rif (BMCRif), Royal Zoological
Society of Scotland and Durham University
THE GIBBONS: NEW PERSPECTIVES ON SMALL APE
SOCIOECOLOGY AND POPULATION BIOLOGY
S. Lappan & D.J. Whittaker (eds) 2009
Springer
ISBN: 9780387886039 (Hardback) £90
Today there are six surviving kinds of ape: humans, bonobos, chimpanzees,
gorillas, orang-utans, and gibbons. Within this domain, however, it seems
that classification of “greatness” in ape species is largely determined by size
alone; and unfortunately, the gibbons have consistently been under
acknowledged by primatologists, and consequently overlooked by the
public eye. Indeed, there is little doubt that substantially more focus has
been placed on great apes rather than their smaller counterparts; still,
gibbons bear many of the same requisites praised in other apes, notably a
high encephalisation quotient, no tail, and rotary shoulder blades.
Additionally, when we consider the value of small apes as being the only
representatives of the evolutionary link between monkeys and great apes, it
is surprising how we still know comparatively little about them.
49

Small apes are notoriously difficult to study, travelling silently at high
speeds through the forest. Yet, unlike any other primate, they provide
unique insight into the evolution of primate socioecological systems: Why
do gibbons occupy an overall niche that contradicts the majority of other
primate societies? Why is monogamy so successful for this group of
primates, but rarely seen in others? Why do they occupy the smallest home
range of any other primate, yet are a group-living primate with a highly
frugivourous diet? In the newly published book entitled The Gibbons: New
Perspectives on Small Ape Socioecology and Population Biology, the
authors have composed a set of studies to capture different socioecological
facets of the small ape clade to address these questions and more.
Part I of the book opens with a general discussion on the study of
hylobatids, emphasising the importance of population-wide studies in
providing critical information towards identifying the mechanistic ways in
which their societies function. Gibbon taxonomy is briefly mentioned, as
well as a tentative examination of the flexibility in gibbon socioecological
behaviour.
This carries over into Part II, which discusses the biogeographical variation
seen among gibbon species – such as inter-population and individual
differences in vocal communication. In this section of the book, the authors
dive more deeply into the taxonomical and geographical distribution of
gibbons, showing different scenarios in the phylogenetic inter-relationships
between species that have been proposed by colleagues over the last three
decades. An overview of the paleontological record of gibbons and their
forest environment is given, as well as inferences on phylogenetic
placements of species based on DNA sequencing, recent gene flow, and
historical gene flow between populations.
The final chapter of Part II deserves special mention, as it is a complete
record of gibbon fossils found to date. Often primatologists ask
evolutionarily-relevant questions using extant primates as models from
which ancestral lifestyles are reconstructed. However, while it depends on
the kind of questions being asked, modern primates are simply a product of
their evolutionary history. Food species distribution, phenological patterns,
predator density, and inter-species competition are all features that regulate
primate societies today, yet given that these ecological variables are
dynamic within themselves; it seems unlikely that their degree of selective
force remained consistent throughout the millennia. The fossil data
presented in Part II are discussed in light of morphological changes in
gibbon populations throughout their evolutionary history, allowing us to
compliment these findings with data on historical landscape changes to
begin unearthing key features of past gibbon socioecology.
50

Part III discusses ecological diversity in gibbons, addressing important
theoretical issues in primatology such as the relationships between body
mass and diet quality, and niche overlap between gibbons and other
sympatric species. This combines nicely with Part IV of the book, which
explores factors influencing inter- and intraspecific variation in gibbon
communities, and how this is a function of contextual ramifications such as
social systems, defensibility, and habitat use.
Part V presents a nice overview of the mating systems of hylobatids, and
tentatively addresses particular evolutionary advantages of living in a
monogamous society and the proximate means through which this structure
is maintained. Following this synopsis, complimentary data are given on
specific species, notably siamangs and white-handed gibbons, to highlight
particular behavioural and hormonal aspects of gibbon societies. Female
reproductive status is examined in relation to temporal fluctuation in genital
swellings and hormone concentrations using data from captive and wild
individuals. The authors also discuss differences between male and female
gibbons living in polyandrous and monogamous groups, and how flexible
grouping and mating, relatedness, infanticide risk, and social networks are
causal factors for variation in allocation of parental care and degree of
monogamy.
While socioecological data on primates is meaningful from a purely
academic point of view, we must not forget the obligations researchers have
towards the welfare and conservation of the species they study. Indeed,
while gibbons are arguably the most successful species of non-human ape
on the planet, some species are among the rarest and most critically
endangered of any primate. In the final chapter of The Gibbons, several
authors bring forth case studies on a few gibbon species to discuss
important threats to gibbon populations in the wild, highlighting regions of
major impact, habitat requirements, and population trends. This section of
the book concludes with a discussion of the urgent need for further
information on gibbon behaviour to refine protocols for conservation
management, and provides recommendations for improving conservation
success through rehabilitation programs and canopy bridges.
The Gibbons represents an important progression towards better
understanding small ape behaviour. This book should be treated as a wellrounded
reference for scholars interested in learning more about small apes,
or for anyone wishing to examine important topics in primatology from a
small ape standpoint. Commonly labelled “the lesser ape” by non-partisans,
this book celebrates the importance of such exceptional beings, warranting
the small apes recognition far “greater” than what they typically are given
within the scientific and public domain.
F. Blake Morton
Scottish Primate Research Group and University of Stirling
51

THE INFANTICIDE CONTROVERSY: PRIMATOLOGY AND THE
ART OF FIELD SCIENCE
Amanda Rees (2009)
Chicago University Press
ISBN 0226707113 (Hardback) £27.50
As a discipline, primatology has a relatively short and complex history, with
early researchers drawn from fields as diverse as biology, mathematics,
anthropology and social science. This complexity is reflected in the mature
discipline we know today, with primatologists still regularly working and
publishing with collaborators from other fields and located anywhere from
medical schools to archaeology departments depending upon institutional
perspectives and the precise nature of their research. Much of this history,
and many of the (potential and actual) tensions between proponents of
different modes of primatological thinking are discussed in fascinating
detail in Amanda Rees’s book, The Infanticide Controversy, which uses the
sociobiological revolution and concomitant debate over infanticidal
behaviour in primates as a vehicle through which to examine the nature of
field science and the emergence of primatological theories and paradigms.
The book is organised into three sections which reflect the nature of Rees’s
arguments about the importance of theory, method and disciplinary history
to the development of the infanticide controversies. Part one, entitled
“Fielding the Question” takes a primarily historical approach to
primatology, discussing the development of disciplinary perspectives to
field science and the study of primate social behaviour, thus providing a
useful background for those whose disciplinary history is not so welldeveloped.
It introduces the key players in the nascent primatology, and
quotes extensively from publications to demonstrate how the attitudes and
methods employed by primatologists changed through the twentieth
century, particularly in response to a change in emphasis from explanations
relying upon socioecology to those employing sociobiological principles in
the 1970s. Part two, “The Infanticide Debates”, covers the same
chronological period but with emphasis on the development of just one
series of observations and arguments: those relating to the “infant biting”
behaviour newly observed in non-human primates in Asia and Africa.
Particular emphasis during these chapters is given to theories developed to
explain infant biting (or infanticide, as it is known in humans) and the
nature of the controversy apparent in the 1970s and 1990s as a result of
differential perspectives on primatological fieldwork. Rees’s methods,
which include detailed interviews with primatologists as well as a clearly
extensive survey of the primatological literature, produce abundant
observations and insights into the thought processes of scientists on both
sides of the debate, while her background in the sociology and history of
science shows in the comprehensive links she forges between the specifics –
of one debate in one field – and the general attitudes of scientists,
52

governments, researchers and the public to scientific research and activity.
Part three, in contrast, returns readers to the present (with a chapter detailing
the most recent developments in the infanticide controversy) and the
broader viewpoint associated with an evaluation of the role of “Controversy
and Authority, Narrative and Testimony” in primatology and science in
general.
Rees states early on that she is not going to judge the winners of the
infanticide controversy (and indeed, mentions that the open nature of that
controversy helps in that it ensures she cannot view it “knowing who won”),
but nonetheless manages to use her detailed history of this one debate to
shed light on several intriguing aspects of primatology and science. In
particular, my relatively modest knowledge of the history of primatology
was substantially expanded – especially as many of the theoretical and
methodological topics discussed were of relevance to a much wider part of
the field than just the infanticide debates. In addition, a number of puzzling
questions about the philosophy and sociology of science are raised and
discussed. Rees’s “fieldworker’s regress”, the situation in which
observations can never be replicated in field science because of specifics
and uniqueness of place and conditions, is linked to some interesting
debates over the importance of personality to behavioural observations, our
tendency to anthropomorphise the primates, and the role of theory in
developing and testing hypotheses, all of which are ably evaluated in the
book.
At the same time, however, I would question whether the infanticide
debates are really still “open”. As Janson (2000) states, research into
primate infanticide today has largely moved on from questioning whether
the behaviour is adaptive to consider the reproductive consequences on
adult females and the counterstrategies they employ to minimise the
consequences. That said, Rees does note in several places that the
infanticide debates are more important to modern primatology in the USA,
and, indeed, fourteen of her eighteen interviewees are, or were, based in
American institutions. Perhaps, as she notes, the anthropological aspect of
American primatology (which drew more of its early practitioners from
anthropology while European countries drew heavily upon zoology) is
sufficient to explain the difference in opinion and justify the retention of the
debate in that country; alternatively, perhaps there are just a few key players
in the infanticide debates who refuse to accept the majority opinion. Indeed,
The Infanticide Controversy does emphasise the importance of individuality
– not only of place, but also of person – in the conception and design of
primatological research, suggesting that perhaps controversy is not so much
an objective discussion as a conflict between personalities and world-views
in a discipline which cannot, for good or for ill, conduct completely
objective research. While many scientists may consider this an
inconvenience or even a substantial barrier to research, however, Rees’s
53

ook does an admirable job not only of showing that complete objectivity is
impossible in any science, but also of demonstrating that primatology can
still produce high-quality, important research despite being subject to the
fieldworkers’ and experimenters’ regresses.
Isabelle C. Winder
University of York
Reference:
Janson, C.H. (2000). Primate Socio-Ecology: The End of a Golden Age.
Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews 9: 73-86.
54

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THE PRIMATE SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN
founded on May 22 1967 by the Primate Group of the Zoological Society of London
Founding Council:
J.R. NAPIER (President), R.P. MICHAEL (Hon.Sec.), R.J. ANDREW (Hon.Treasurer),
E.H. ASHTON, L.D. BROOKES, C.R. COID, P. COTES, J.H. CROOK, J. DAVIES,
R.N. T-W-FIENNES, R.A. HINDE, G.H. MANLEY, I. ROWLANDS, A.C. WARREN,
L. WEISKRANTZ
Past Presidents:
1967 - 1970 J.R. NAPIER 1986 - 1969 B. WOOD
1970 - 1973 R.P. MICHAEL 1989 - 1993 R.I.M. DUNBAR
1973 - 1976 R.N. T-W-FIENNES 1993 - 1998 H.O. BOX
1976 - 1979 M.H. DAY 1998 - 2001 P.C. LEE
1979 - 1982 R.D. MARTIN 2001 - 2005 R. BARTON
1982 - 1986 D.J. CHIVERS 2005 - 2010 A. MACLARNON
Past Secretaries:
1967 - 1970 R.P. MICHAEL 1987 - 1990 R.C. HUBRECHT
1970 - 1974 K.R. HOBBS 1990 - 1993 P.C. LEE
1974 - 1975 V. REYNOLDS 1993 - 1996 C. ROSS
1975 - 1978 R.D. MARTIN 1996 - 1999 H. BUCHANAN-SMITH
1978 - 1981 A.F. DIXSON 1999 - 2005 J. LYCETT
1981 - 1985 S.K. BEARDER 2005 - 2010 C. SCHAFFNER
1985 - 1987 H.O. BOX
Past Treasurers:
1967 - 1970 R.J. ANDREW 1987 - 1990 S. KINGSLEY
1970 - 1974 A. JOLLY 1990 - 1994 R. CROMPTON
1974 - 1977 D.J. CHIVERS 1994 - 1998 G. R. HOSEY
1977 - 1980 E.B. KEVERNE 1998 - 2002 C. EVANS
1980 - 1984 L. AIELLO 2002 - 2009 R. HILL
1984 - 1987 A. MACLARNON
Past Editors:
1974 - 1977 N.R. CHALMERS 1993 - 1996 D. BRANDON-JONES
1977 - 1993 J.C. INGRAM 1996 - 2006 W. SELLERS
Osman Hill Memorial Lecturers (established 1977):
1978 M.H. DAY 1994 R.I.M. DUNBAR
1980 R.A. HINDE 1996 T. ROWELL
1982 F. BOURLIERE 1998 C.B. STRINGER
1984 P.M. BUTLER 2000 A.F. DIXSON
1986 J.P. HEARN 2002 I. TATTERSALL
1988 H. KUMMER 2004 C. VAN SCHAIK
1990 R.D. MARTIN 2006 A. JOLLY
1992 J.H. CROOK 2008 W. MCGREW
Napier Memorial Medal Winners (established 1991):
1991 CHRISTOPHER PRYCE 2001 RUSSELL HILL
1993 MARTA LAHR 2003 SUSANNE SHULTZ
1995 CARLOS DREWS 2005 CORRI WAITT
1997 NICOLA KOYAMA 2007 ANNIKA PAUKNER
1999 MARK COLLARD 2009 ERIK WILLEMS
Occasional Medal Winners (established 1996):
1997 JANE GOODALL CBE: Conservation
2007 CYRIL ROSEN MBE: Conservation
2008 STEPHEN NASH: Special Contributions to Primatology
Charles A. Lockwood Medal Winners (established 2009):
2009 CLAIRE SANTORELLI
The content of Primate Eye is printed on recycled paper by Top Copy, Bristol, BS16 6JE

Primate Society of Great Britain
PRIMATE EYE No 101 JUNE 2010
• CONTENTS •
Page
Editorial … … … … … … … 1
Report: PSGB Spring Meeting 2010 – Social Cognition and
Human Evolution … … … … … 3
Report: Pre-PSGB Spring Meeting Workshop – Training
Primates for Cognitive Research … … … 5
PSGB Spring Meeting 2010 – Social Cognition and Human
Evolution
Paper Abstracts … … … … … 7
Poster Abstracts … … … … … 20
Future Meetings:
Winter Meeting 2010 – Gombe 50 … … … 29
Announcement: International Symposium – Compassionate
Conservation … … … … … 31
Announcement: Charles A. Lockwood Memorial PSGB Grants 32
Conservation Grant Reports:
Ecology and Status of the Drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus) in
Korup National Park, Southwest Cameroon: Implications
for their Conservation … … … … 33
Population Density Surveys and Taxonomic Asssessment
of the Western Tarsier (Tarsius bancanus borneanus) and
Bornean slow loris (Nycitecebus menagensis) in the
Lower Kinabatangan Floodplain, Sabah, Malaysia … 35
Primates for Posterity: Assessment of a Primate
Conservation Education Programme on 15-17 year old
Students in Schools in Tamil Nadu, India … … 37
Conservation Assessment of Taï Monkey Fauna from
Two Survey Methods and a Bushmeat Market Study:
How Hunting Impacts Taï National Park … … 39
Identifying the CITES Appendix 1-listed Asian Slow Loris
Nycticebus spp: A Training Programme for Enforcement
Officials and Rescue Centres in Southeast Asia … 42
Book Reviews:
Mountain Gorillas: Biology, Conservation, and Coexistence 44
Endocrinology of Social Relationships … … 45
Conservation in the 21st Century Gorillas as a Case Study 48
The Gibbons: New Perspectives on Small Ape Socioecology
and Population Biology … … … … 49
The Infanticide Controversy: Primatology and the Art of
Field Science … … … … … 52
ISSN 0305-8417