Destination Competitiveness Measurement: Analysis of ... - Wu-wien
Destination Competitiveness Measurement: Analysis of ... - Wu-wien
Destination Competitiveness Measurement: Analysis of ... - Wu-wien
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<strong>Destination</strong> <strong>Competitiveness</strong> <strong>Measurement</strong>:<br />
<strong>Analysis</strong> <strong>of</strong> Effective Factors and Indicators<br />
Metin Kozak<br />
School <strong>of</strong> Leisure and Food Management<br />
Sheffield Hallam University<br />
Sheffield / UK<br />
Tel: + 44 114 225 44 94<br />
Fax: + 44 114 225 44 88<br />
E-mail: M.Kozak@shu.ac.uk<br />
1. Overview <strong>of</strong> <strong>Destination</strong> Comparison / <strong>Competitiveness</strong> Research<br />
Even though competition will become increasingly fierce in the 21st century<br />
(Ireland and Hitt 1999), little research has been carried out dealing with the topic<br />
<strong>of</strong> competitiveness <strong>of</strong> different tourist destinations either at the regional/national or<br />
international level (e.g. Briguglio and Vella 1995; Edwards 1993). It is claimed<br />
that a full competitive destination analysis has not received widespread recognition<br />
in the tourism literature (Pearce 1997).<br />
As Table 1 shows, both primary and secondary types <strong>of</strong> data collection methods<br />
have been employed to carry out destination comparison / competitiveness<br />
research. Secondary data collection methods have primarily focused upon the<br />
analysis <strong>of</strong> figures, whereas primary research methods focus solely on investigating<br />
customer attitudes towards or perceptions <strong>of</strong> the attractiveness <strong>of</strong> several<br />
individual destinations.<br />
Much <strong>of</strong> the research conducted using primary methods has been conducted<br />
without evidence about whether respondents have been to sample destinations, and<br />
research to date does not provide a full account <strong>of</strong> destination competitiveness<br />
(e.g. Javalgi, Thomas and Rao 1992; Driscoll, Lawson and Niven 1994). It is<br />
expected that sample populations should have direct experience in order to<br />
respond accurately to all questions regarding their actual holiday experiences with<br />
each <strong>of</strong> these destinations. Otherwise, findings do not reflect the accurate<br />
performance <strong>of</strong> destinations.<br />
In recent years, tourism has become a highly competitive market. For this reason it<br />
is important that destinations are able to measure their competitiveness in order to<br />
identify their strengths and weaknesses and thereby develop their future strategies.<br />
Some <strong>of</strong> the reasons for measuring and assessing the factors which influence<br />
destination competitiveness can be listed as follows (Keller and Smeral 1997):<br />
• New destinations have emerged in the market (e.g. Caribbean and eastern<br />
Mediterranean).<br />
• Tour operators and media are having an increasing impact on the market.<br />
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Table 1: Overview <strong>of</strong> previous destination comparison / competitiveness research<br />
Author Method Type Criteria<br />
Pearce 1997 Secondary data <strong>Destination</strong> competitiveness market, access, attractions, accommodation supply, prices, development processes<br />
Grabler 1997 Primary data <strong>Destination</strong> positioning <strong>of</strong> Accommodation, entertainment, ambience, cultural resources, level <strong>of</strong> prices, accessibility <strong>of</strong> amenities and destinations,<br />
urban destinations<br />
location, originality, attitude, shopping facilities, food and beverage quality<br />
Seaton 1996 Secondary data <strong>Destination</strong> competitiveness tourist arrivals, number <strong>of</strong> bednights, tourism receipts, occupancy trends, seasonality trends, balance <strong>of</strong> tourism payment<br />
trends, portion <strong>of</strong> tourism in GDP, market dependence trends, tourism employment trends and marketing expenditure trends<br />
Briguglios and Vella 1995 Secondary data <strong>Destination</strong> competitiveness political factors, exchange rates, marketing, development <strong>of</strong> new products, human resources, hygiene and environmental<br />
factors, tourist services<br />
Bray 1996 Secondary data <strong>Destination</strong> competitiveness prices, exchange rates, market, access<br />
Edwards 1993 Secondary data destination competitiveness exchange rates, prices<br />
Dieke 1993 Secondary data destination comparison number <strong>of</strong> arrivals, purpose <strong>of</strong> visits, bednights, accommodation supply, seasonality, tourism receipts, employment, tourism<br />
policies, market and tourist expenditures<br />
Soanne 1993 Secondary data destination comparison structural changes in demography, infrastructure and urban geography<br />
Javalgi, Thomas and Rao 1992 Primary data destination competitiveness tourist perceptions <strong>of</strong> several destination attributes<br />
Calantone, Benedetto, Hakem and Primary data destination competitiveness tourist perceptions <strong>of</strong> several destination attributes (shopping facilities, hospitality, safety, food, culture, tourist attractions,<br />
Bojanic 1989<br />
tourist facilities, nightlife and entertainment, scenery, beaches and water sports<br />
Goodrich 1977 Primary data destination comparison tourist perceptions <strong>of</strong> similarities and differences between nine regions on water sports and sports, historical and cultural<br />
interests, scenic beauty, hospitality, rest and relaxation, shopping facilities, cuisine, entertainment and accommodations<br />
Goodrich 1978 Primary data destination comparison tourist perceptions <strong>of</strong> nine regions and their intention to choose them. Attributes were same as above.<br />
Haahti and Yavas 1983; Haahti Primary data destination competitiveness tourist perceptions <strong>of</strong> 12 European countries on value for money, accessibility, sport facilities and other activities, nightlife<br />
1986<br />
and entertainment, peaceful and quietness, hospitality, wilderness, tracking and camping, cultural experience, scenery,<br />
change from the usual destinations<br />
Driscoll, Lawson and Niven 1994 Primary data destination comparison tourist perceptions <strong>of</strong> 12 destinations on 18 attributes such as facilities, landscape, safety, climate, culture, modern society,<br />
different experience, value for money, accessibility, shopping facilities, organised activities, cleanliness, family-oriented,<br />
exotic place, outdoor activities, religious values, hospitality, nightlife and entertainment<br />
Javalgi, Thomas and Rao 1992 Primary data destination comparison traveller perceptions <strong>of</strong> European destinations (as 4 major regions) about 27 attributes<br />
Woodside and Lysonski 1989 Primary data destination competitiveness developing a destination set where any destination is chosen among alternatives<br />
Faulkner, Oppermann and Fredline<br />
1999<br />
Primary data destination competitiveness analysis <strong>of</strong> travel agents' perceptions <strong>of</strong> core tourist attractions<br />
Botho, Crompton and Kim 1999 Primary data destination competitiveness tourist motivations and tourist perceptions <strong>of</strong> entertainment, infrastructure, physical environment and wildlife.<br />
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• Tourists are more experienced and knowledgeable, e.g. language, use <strong>of</strong><br />
transportation, booking travel and having experiences with the same<br />
destination more than once.<br />
• Tourists and tour operators are now becoming more concerned about the<br />
environmental quality <strong>of</strong> facilities and destinations.<br />
These appear to be pressures on tourist destinations which are increasing the<br />
competition. The following statement refers to the importance <strong>of</strong> individual<br />
establishments in maintaining competitiveness in international tourism (Murphy<br />
1997: 3):<br />
“Many tourism businesses believe they need to sell their<br />
destination before they can sell their individual <strong>of</strong>ferings. This<br />
can be achieved by increasing the competitive advantage <strong>of</strong> the<br />
whole product mix, so that individual businesses benefit from<br />
the increased pr<strong>of</strong>ile and trade.”<br />
Among the most significant activities that destination management should consider<br />
are the planning, organisation, leading and/or motivating staff, and controlling<br />
standards and information. When a benchmarking study is conducted amongst the<br />
similar types <strong>of</strong> tourist destinations, this allows any <strong>of</strong> the destinations not only to<br />
evaluate the nature <strong>of</strong> its competition, but also to identify new market<br />
opportunities (Goodall 1990) both by analysing intermediaries who bring more<br />
tourists from either traditional or potential markets, and the consumers themselves.<br />
A number <strong>of</strong> factors may influence a clear analysis <strong>of</strong> a destination competitiveness<br />
study including the type <strong>of</strong> holidays taken either as a part <strong>of</strong> inclusive tours or<br />
individually, the type <strong>of</strong> tour operators, differences between seasons and between<br />
climate conditions. <strong>Destination</strong> competitiveness analysis may be further inhibited by<br />
consumer expectations, motivations, past experiences and the location, which<br />
could have an impact on directing the competitiveness <strong>of</strong> destinations in each<br />
market. Indirect competition becomes clear when it is uncertain to identify how<br />
consumers perceive similarities and differences between long and short-haul<br />
destinations<br />
2. <strong>Destination</strong> choice and competitiveness<br />
As with every industry and business, many tourist destinations are in competition<br />
with each other (Heath and Wall 1992). It is emphasised that the competitiveness is<br />
established between destinations and tourism organisations rather than countries<br />
because <strong>of</strong> the different aspects and features <strong>of</strong> the destinations in a country<br />
(Bordas 1992). This totally depends on how much a destination is more popular<br />
than its country, e.g. Edinburgh, Paris and Bali.<br />
Nevertheless, according to this approach, each geographical part <strong>of</strong> a country can<br />
be in competition individually with other similar foreign regions on the basis <strong>of</strong><br />
facilities, cultural heritage assets and natural history. For example, Istanbul, as a<br />
culture, business and congress tourism centre may be in competition with its<br />
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European counterparts; central Anatolia, as a culture tourism centre, with mainland<br />
Greece region and eastern European countries. In this sense, for summer vacation<br />
tourism Spain is not expected to be in direct competition with Turkey, but the<br />
Balearic Islands may be with the Aegean and Mediterranean coasts <strong>of</strong> Turkey.<br />
It is clear that competitiveness between tourism organisations remains weak when<br />
mass tourism is the subject <strong>of</strong> the discussion. The majority <strong>of</strong> consumers may have<br />
experience <strong>of</strong> other destinations. It is also expected that consumers are likely to<br />
make comparisons between facilities, attractions and service standards <strong>of</strong> other<br />
destinations (Laws 1995). In general, “the choice <strong>of</strong> a particular good or service is<br />
the result <strong>of</strong> a comparison <strong>of</strong> its perceived attributes with the person’s set <strong>of</strong><br />
preferences” (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975 in Laws 1995: 113). Accordingly, it is<br />
argued that a consumer selects a destination amongst alternatives and evaluates<br />
each alternative considering its potential to serve the benefits he looks for (Mayo<br />
and Jarvis 1981).<br />
Tourist destinations are accepted to be a key component <strong>of</strong> the tourism system.<br />
Each destinations <strong>of</strong>fers a variety <strong>of</strong> products and services to attract tourists.<br />
However, each tourist also has the opportunity and freedom to choose amongst a<br />
set <strong>of</strong> destinations (Laws 1991). Different factors may have an influence on<br />
destination choice. For instance, each tourist may have different motivations and<br />
preferences for different destinations. It is further suggested that attitude is a<br />
predictor <strong>of</strong> determining a destination to be selected amongst alternatives in the<br />
awareness set (Goodrich 1977; 1978; Mayo and Jarvis 1981; Um and Crompton<br />
1990). Each destination therefore needs to know its performance levels through<br />
considering those strengths and weaknesses, which will affect both repeat visits<br />
and the nature <strong>of</strong> word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth communication to others considering a first time<br />
visit.<br />
It is reported that tourists mentally categorise destinations. One proposed<br />
categorisation is into 'consideration' (evoked), 'inert' and 'inept' sets (Woodside and<br />
Lysonski 1989). The 'consideration' set includes all destinations that a customer is<br />
aware <strong>of</strong> and likely to visit to some extent. The 'inert' set represents all destinations<br />
that the customer is aware <strong>of</strong> but no decision is made to visit in a specific time<br />
period. Finally, the 'inept' set refers to destination (s) that the customer is aware <strong>of</strong>,<br />
but has no intention to visit in a specific time period. According to Um and<br />
Crompton (1990), tourists are expected to select a destination from a set <strong>of</strong><br />
alternatives in the 'consideration' (evoked) set. <strong>Destination</strong>s effectively compete<br />
with each other for a place in the consideration set <strong>of</strong> their target consumers;<br />
findings empirically proved that any destination ranked as the first in the<br />
consideration set comes the first to be chosen for travel (Woodside and Lysonski<br />
1989).<br />
Despite the fact that there are thousands <strong>of</strong> destinations around the world, tourist<br />
destinations are subject to immense competition as potential tourists' ability to<br />
choose any <strong>of</strong> those from the set is limited (Woodside and Sherrell 1977). When a<br />
tourist selects a destination for their holiday in a given time, the competing<br />
destinations will lose their opportunity, as it is practically impossible for anyone to<br />
fulfil a desire to visit places all over the world. This refers to the importance <strong>of</strong><br />
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consumers’ awareness and familiarity with the destination and the marketing<br />
potential <strong>of</strong> the destination management for taking a place in the consideration set.<br />
Some empirical papers have focused on the influences <strong>of</strong> tourist satisfaction and<br />
the level <strong>of</strong> previous experiences over the probability <strong>of</strong> return to the same<br />
destination. Future behavioural intentions are suggested to be not only an outcome<br />
<strong>of</strong> satisfaction and attitude towards destinations, but also experience-based<br />
measures such as previous experiences with the subject (Mazursky 1989). In<br />
addition to satisfaction variables, the level <strong>of</strong> previous experiences has also been<br />
found to be a determinant <strong>of</strong> the intention to revisit the destination (Court and<br />
Lupton 1997; Kozak and Rimmington 1999). On the basis <strong>of</strong> age groups, elderly<br />
people consider past holiday experiences more important than other age groups<br />
when choosing a destination (Gitelson and Crompton 1984; Ryan 1995). Research<br />
findings have confirmed that familiarity has a positive impact on the likelihood <strong>of</strong><br />
revisiting a destination (Gitelson and Crompton 1984; Milman and Pizam 1995).<br />
Therefore, destinations in the 'inept' set need action to bring them into the<br />
'consideration' set. <strong>Destination</strong> management should always be aware <strong>of</strong> what they<br />
and their competitors provide and how they perform, due to the possibility <strong>of</strong> tour<br />
operators and consumers exploring new destinations. They should also pay<br />
attention to developments in consumer needs, wants and perceptions. For example,<br />
Greece monitors the changes over socio-economic, socio-demographic and holiday<br />
taking patterns <strong>of</strong> its international consumers (Kotler, Haider and Rein 1994).<br />
When tourist destinations are considered as an element <strong>of</strong> marketing mix (place),<br />
the importance <strong>of</strong> their performance levels seems clear.<br />
3. Factors affecting <strong>Destination</strong> <strong>Competitiveness</strong><br />
In general, the competitive performance <strong>of</strong> organisations is defined from the input<br />
and output side. The input measure is based on physical and human capital<br />
endowment and research and development expenses. The output side covers<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>itability, market share, productivity, growth and so on (Jacopson and<br />
O'Callaghan 1996). Based on this grouping, the input side <strong>of</strong> destination<br />
competitiveness could be physical sources (tourist facilities, infrastructure and<br />
environment), human capital endowment (services), and marketing and promotion<br />
expenses. The output side is market share both in the number <strong>of</strong> arrivals and the<br />
amount <strong>of</strong> tourism receipts, productivity and so on.<br />
As Pearce (1997) implies, a competitive analysis refers to comparative studies.<br />
Therefore, destination competitiveness can be evaluated both quantitatively and<br />
qualitatively. Quantitative performance <strong>of</strong> a destination can be measured by<br />
looking at numbers such as annual numbers <strong>of</strong> tourist arrivals, amount <strong>of</strong> annual<br />
tourism receipts, level <strong>of</strong> expenditure per tourist, length <strong>of</strong> overnight stays.<br />
However, there is also a need to take into account the qualitative patterns <strong>of</strong><br />
destination competitiveness, as these ultimately drive quantitative performance,<br />
e.g. socio-economic and socio-demographic pr<strong>of</strong>iles <strong>of</strong> tourists, level <strong>of</strong> tourist<br />
satisfaction, dissatisfaction or complaints, comments <strong>of</strong> tour operators or other<br />
intermediaries, quality <strong>of</strong> staff working in tourism, quality <strong>of</strong> facilities and services<br />
3
in tourism. Dimensions contributing to qualitative competitiveness include those<br />
attributes or items which holidaymakers best liked during their vacation in the<br />
destination. The assumption here is that in arriving at a positive or negative view<br />
tourists will compare these attributes in terms <strong>of</strong> their experience in other<br />
destinations.<br />
A Chinese proverb attributed to Sun Tzu, a Chinese General, in 500 BC has gained<br />
a respectful response from benchmarking researchers: “If you know your enemy<br />
and know yourself, you need not to fear the results <strong>of</strong> a hundred battles”. (Camp<br />
1989: 253). This means that if the destination knows itself and its competitors, it<br />
should not be worried about the competition in the market. On the other hand, if<br />
the competitor is believed to be strongly competitive, it is important to consider.<br />
Battles could be both internal and external barriers affecting the success <strong>of</strong> the<br />
organisation or the destination and its competitiveness in the marketplace. These<br />
factors are explained in detail in the following section.<br />
3.1 Socio-economic Pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>of</strong> Tourism Demand and Changes in Markets<br />
The socio-economic and socio-demographic pr<strong>of</strong>iles <strong>of</strong> tourism demand in<br />
potential markets are a determinant for affecting the choice to vacation and its<br />
direction towards particular destinations. The level <strong>of</strong> age, income, occupation,<br />
time, whom to travel with and personality play a significant role in determining<br />
destination choice process (Um and Crompton 1990). Consumers will be likely to<br />
choose destinations where any or all <strong>of</strong> these variables are better matched with<br />
what the destination <strong>of</strong>fers.<br />
Since every destination has a different product to attract consumers from different<br />
markets, it unlikely to say that all destinations are able to compete for all market<br />
segments. For example, Spain is a strong player on beach tourism whereas<br />
Switzerland thrives on winter tourism. If a destination relies heavily on summer<br />
vacations and <strong>of</strong>fers cheaper holidays with longer duration, it can attract tourists<br />
with low levels <strong>of</strong> income who intend to take vacations in summer time. To be<br />
competitive, a specific type <strong>of</strong> market segment can be attracted, e.g. youth, elderly<br />
people, explorers, fun-seekers, family groups and so on. This will reduce costs and<br />
increase benefits sought in favour <strong>of</strong> consumers (value for money).<br />
3.2. Access to Tourist Markets (Distance)<br />
How close a destination is to the tourist markets is another determination <strong>of</strong><br />
destination competitiveness (Mill and Morrison 1992). Research findings revealed<br />
that there is a reverse relationship between perceived distance and intention to visit<br />
(Court and Lupton 1997) and revisit a destination (Mountinho and Trimble 1991).<br />
The competitiveness <strong>of</strong> short and long-haul tourist destinations was examined on<br />
the basis <strong>of</strong> comparison <strong>of</strong> prices levels, accommodation grading levels and<br />
distance levels between the British tourist market and the destination by Edwards<br />
(1993). Findings indicated that the level <strong>of</strong> prices were the strongest indicators <strong>of</strong><br />
competitiveness between long- and short-haul destinations since the former<br />
destinations cost the consumer about double that <strong>of</strong> the latter destinations.<br />
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However, the distance sometimes may not always be important in affecting the<br />
flow <strong>of</strong> tourism demand to any destination. Some destinations such as the<br />
Caribbean and Mauritius could be less competitive when grade rises, which means<br />
that accommodation fares are likely to increase. Surprisingly, some other<br />
destinations such as the South-Asian destinations, Goa (India), Kenya and Sri<br />
Lanka become more competitive when accommodation grade rises. Therefore, it<br />
can be suggested that short and long-haul destinations not be regarded as direct<br />
competitors against each other. Moreover, any destination in the short-haul<br />
destination can compete with the other. This means that most <strong>of</strong> the Mediterranean<br />
destinations, for example, could be in a direct competition on beach holidays, e.g.<br />
Turkey, Spain and Greece. This may be the same for long-haul destinations.<br />
3.3. Mature Tourist <strong>Destination</strong>s and Consumer Psychology<br />
By classifying the psychology <strong>of</strong> consumers in tourism under two headings such as<br />
'allocentric' (those who have active personality) and 'psychocentric' (those who<br />
have passive personality), Plog (1974) suggested that such typology could be<br />
effective in understanding why destinations fall or rise in popularity. According to<br />
his approach, destinations move from 'allocentrics' to 'psychocentrics' because the<br />
latter attracts those who discover a new place to vacation and enjoy. But as long as<br />
word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth communication is concerned and more others are informed, the<br />
destination begins to leave 'allocentrics' and move towards 'psychocentric' travellers<br />
on the pscyhographic scale. The degree <strong>of</strong> movement largely depends upon the<br />
extent to which a destination becomes popular. When it increasingly becomes<br />
popular, it means that natural resources may become deteriorated. As the<br />
destination is likely to become an 'ordinary' place, then 'allocentrics' will be<br />
substituted by 'psychocentrics'.<br />
As a consequence, the destination faces several management and marketing<br />
problems since 'pschocentrics' are believed not to travel as <strong>of</strong>ten as 'allocentrics' do<br />
and stay and spend less. Moreover, it becomes more commercialised by losing its<br />
features which attract tourists and its competitiveness in the market. In such a<br />
situation, Plog (1974) suggests that destinations attracting more 'mid-centric' to<br />
'psychocentric' tourists need to release new strategies in order to reach those who<br />
travel more <strong>of</strong>ten and spend more.<br />
In the ‘consolidation’ and ‘stagnation’ stages <strong>of</strong> the resort life cycle model (Butler<br />
1980), destinations are more dependent on inclusive tours. As a result, the rate <strong>of</strong><br />
increase <strong>of</strong> tourists slows, whereas total numbers are still increasing and the<br />
demand pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>of</strong> the destination is dominated by repeat visits (Laws and Cooper<br />
1998). The yield gained from tourists using inclusive tour holidays is lower than<br />
that <strong>of</strong> others because the destinations dealing with inclusive tours are largely<br />
dependent on marketing channels via intermediaries, tour operators or travel<br />
agents. The destination will be at a disadvantage if intermediaries have more<br />
powerful bargaining power.<br />
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3.4. Influences <strong>of</strong> Tourist Satisfaction<br />
Understanding what a satisfied customer needs and wants is the basic ingredient <strong>of</strong><br />
a recipe in arriving at successful marketing and improving competitive advantage<br />
(Czepiel, Rosenberg and Akerele 1974). Attention is drawn to the importance <strong>of</strong><br />
tourist perceptions in successful destination marketing since they influence the<br />
choice <strong>of</strong> a destination (Ahmed 1991), the consumption <strong>of</strong> goods and services<br />
while on holiday and the decision to return (Stevens 1992). The reason for this is<br />
that the majority <strong>of</strong> tourists have experience <strong>of</strong> other destinations with which they<br />
make comparisons for example between facilities, attractions and service standards<br />
(Laws 1995). As a consequence, customer-centred organisation or destinations will<br />
have greater opportunity to win over the competition (Kotler 1994).<br />
<strong>Competitiveness</strong> is the key element <strong>of</strong> management and marketing strategy,<br />
therefore long-range planning and customer satisfaction should be the two major<br />
objectives <strong>of</strong> either tourism businesses or tourist destinations. Thus, maintaining a<br />
long-term relationship with customers is a part <strong>of</strong> competitive advantage. Among<br />
the long-term benefits <strong>of</strong> customer satisfaction are a shift upwards in the demand<br />
curve, reduction in marketing costs, increase in marketing costs <strong>of</strong> competitors to<br />
attract other’s customers, reduction in customer and employee turnover and<br />
enhancement <strong>of</strong> positive word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth communication (Fornell 1992). The<br />
measurement <strong>of</strong> customer satisfaction provides benefits for both customers and<br />
organisations. The feedback from customers can be used to increase the level <strong>of</strong><br />
service quality and employee motivations which in turn lead to more satisfied<br />
customers and employees.<br />
Consumers are an important source <strong>of</strong> identifying external ideas for many products<br />
and services; surveys enable them to reflect on their opinions about and<br />
experiences with the destination and can be used to benchmark many aspects <strong>of</strong><br />
performance against competitors.<br />
3.5. Marketing by Tour Operators and their Perceptions <strong>of</strong> <strong>Destination</strong>s<br />
Where package tours are concerned, the extent to which a destination can attract<br />
the interest <strong>of</strong> tour operators and how it can be included in their brochures will be<br />
effective in reaching the market. Tour operators feel themselves to be ahead <strong>of</strong><br />
tourist destinations as they, as international suppliers and / or retailers, have to<br />
search for better products, applications or destinations for meeting consumer<br />
requirements and following changes in their wants and needs.<br />
The image <strong>of</strong> the product (destination) is primarily influenced by tour operators’<br />
promotional activities in the tourist generating country. Depending on the volume<br />
<strong>of</strong> income or the appearance <strong>of</strong> any problem, tour operators are likely to switch<br />
their customers to alternative resorts / destinations (Carey, Gountas and Gilbert<br />
1997). Tour operators consider themselves to be responsible for monitoring the<br />
situation in a destination; they <strong>of</strong>fer holidays to alternative destinations if any threat<br />
is posed to their customers. If a destination is considered unsuccessful, tour<br />
operators are likely to exclude such destinations from their portfolios for the<br />
following season (Goodall and Bergsma 1990). In this regard, it can be claimed<br />
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that any competition between tour operators plays a critical role in increasing the<br />
competition among international tourist destinations (Buck 1988).<br />
In short, marketing via tour operators presents benefits as well as threats for the<br />
competitive position <strong>of</strong> any destination in the international arena. A good example<br />
can be given from Turkey. Most tourists visiting Turkey have booked via a tour<br />
operator. Turkey takes a higher place on the league table <strong>of</strong> international<br />
destinations when internal or external economic, social or political crisis disappear<br />
and tour operators are promoting and selling it. On the other hand, it has a lower<br />
ranking when any <strong>of</strong> these crisis is in upward trend and tour operators stop selling<br />
it.<br />
3.6. Prices and Costs<br />
The price elasticity <strong>of</strong> tourism demand is assumed to be high (e.g. Icoz and Kozak<br />
1998). Thus, any percentage change in prices is expected directly to encourage or<br />
discourage a travel to a certain place. Cost leadership is one <strong>of</strong> the two primary<br />
objectives for gaining competitiveness (Porter 1985). The relative prices <strong>of</strong> a<br />
destination in comparison to some other places are the main destination attribute<br />
for motivation to travel. Smeral (1997) contends that some mature destinations are<br />
forced to compete with others at price levels, but are less competitive in prices or<br />
costs. For instance, destinations such as Turkey, Cyprus and Greece have appeared<br />
with their cheaper labour and production costs against Spain, Italy and France.<br />
Given the results <strong>of</strong> a brochure-based price competitive analysis, some researchers<br />
attempted to measure the competitiveness <strong>of</strong> destinations (Edwards 1993;<br />
Briguglio and Vella 1995). For instance, Turkey was found to be cheaper than<br />
Malta for the German market and Mallorca for the British and German market<br />
(Briguglio and Vella 1995). Nevertheless, it was highlighted that ‘the price<br />
becomes less significant factor in holiday decision-making due to the decrease <strong>of</strong><br />
elasticity in tourism demand. Instead value for money is what guides the choice <strong>of</strong><br />
most tourists.’ (Buhalis and Cooper 1998, p.86). Therefore, value for money and<br />
product quality are the main objectives for enhancing competitiveness (Carey,<br />
Gountas and Gilbert 1997).<br />
3.7. Exchange rates<br />
In the theory <strong>of</strong> tourism economics, a tourist is expected to prefer travelling to a<br />
destination where the value <strong>of</strong> his own currency is higher than others (Witt and<br />
Martin 1987). Findings <strong>of</strong> an empirical research with respect to major economic<br />
variables influencing foreign tourism demand through Turkey indicated that the<br />
foreign currency exchange rates had a significant impact over tourism demand<br />
(Icoz, Var and Kozak 1998). Turkey was seen as a cheaper country by British and<br />
German holidaymakers since the value <strong>of</strong> Turkish Lira (TL) against British Sterling<br />
(£) and German Mark (DM) has decreased considerably in the recent years. As a<br />
result, the room rates <strong>of</strong> accommodation facilities remained at a low level,<br />
stimulating the interests <strong>of</strong> foreign tourism demand and tour operators.<br />
7
In international tourism competitiveness, there is a close relationship between<br />
changes in exchange rates and changes in the level <strong>of</strong> prices. In other words,<br />
positive or negative changes in exchange rate <strong>of</strong> a sample country against those <strong>of</strong><br />
tourist generating countries may lead to an increase or decrease in the level <strong>of</strong><br />
tourist product and service prices (Icoz and Kozak 1998). For instance,<br />
Switzerland and Japan have become more expensive countries while Israel and<br />
Greece are relatively cheaper in the eyes <strong>of</strong> potential tourists as a result <strong>of</strong><br />
fluctuations in exchange rates.<br />
3.8. Use <strong>of</strong> Information Technologies<br />
It is believed that the future competitiveness <strong>of</strong> tourist destinations will largely<br />
depend on the range <strong>of</strong> new telecommunication technologies being used and the<br />
extent to which destinations have access to the marketing and promotion<br />
opportunity via such technologies (Buhalis and Cooper 1998). Inequality in gaining<br />
access to information technology (IT) may possibly create first and second class<br />
tourist destinations, organisations and consumer groups (Rimmington and Kozak<br />
1997). Such imbalance between developed and developing countries or tourist<br />
destinations could be the direct consequence <strong>of</strong> IT for the international tourism and<br />
travel marketing. Tourist destinations and organisations with undeveloped<br />
telecommunication structures could be less suitable for the internet marketing as<br />
being slower, weaker and more expensive. Despite the benefits <strong>of</strong> the internet,<br />
small tourism organisations may not be able to afford it. Thus, large organisations<br />
will be able to preserve their leadership by dominating internet marketing activities.<br />
Distribution channels in tourism and travel are undergoing a dramatic change.<br />
While large or international businesses have welcomed new developments in IT<br />
seeing them as opportunities to be more competitive in the market, small and<br />
medium-sized businesses are forced to adapt themselves into the new business<br />
environment.<br />
However, the question as to how to investigate the extent to which the competition<br />
(or balance) between developed and developing countries, or destinations, will be<br />
affected by such developments in IT remains unanswered. Does this mean that<br />
businesses in developing countries cannot sell their tourism products on the<br />
internet since they do not have ready access to IT as in many developed countries?<br />
Or do intermediaries still have a catalyst role in keeping both types <strong>of</strong> countries on<br />
the balance? Current trends demonstrate that developing countries such as the<br />
eastern Mediterranean, eastern Europe and the Far-east are becoming increasingly<br />
popular both for individual and mass tourism activities. They are considered<br />
culturally and naturally attractive, exotic and up-market destinations. It is difficult<br />
to predict if this will continue when the use <strong>of</strong> IT spreads.<br />
3.9. Safety, Security and Risk<br />
The view that image is a critical factor while choosing destinations to vacation is<br />
widely supported (e.g. Court and Lupton 1997; Goodall 1988). Making tourists<br />
feel secure and safe before and during the vacation is essential to the international<br />
competitiveness <strong>of</strong> destinations. Additional destinations can take place in the<br />
8
consideration set <strong>of</strong> the destination choice model if a new destination is suggested<br />
and new information (e.g. recent violence or political or social unrest) is supplied<br />
either by friends or media (Sonmez and Graefe 1998). In his analysis <strong>of</strong> the Florida<br />
tourism industry, Brayshaw (1995) states that negative image created by being<br />
unsecured may damage the tourism industry because the negative word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth<br />
communication which results from negative images cannot be avoided, even if a<br />
destination has high quality tourist attractions.<br />
During the vacation, there is a possible risk <strong>of</strong> violence against tourists, or petty<br />
crime in tourist destinations. Safety and security problems are higher in particular<br />
destinations which are experiencing rapid development in their tourism industry<br />
(Tarlow, Pizam and Bloom 1996). Survey results revealed that perceived risk and<br />
safety concerns were found to be stronger predictors <strong>of</strong> not choosing regions (or<br />
some destinations) for vacation in the future (Sonmez and Graefe 1998). Those<br />
who perceived certain destinations 'at risk' are likely to avoid them in their future<br />
travel plans, e.g. the Middle East and Africa.<br />
Internal social and political turmoil are other issues which need to be considered<br />
within the perceived risk <strong>of</strong> tourist destinations. The existence <strong>of</strong> unrest in some<br />
countries such as Romania, the former Yugoslavia, Tunisia and Egypt in recent<br />
years has affected their previous positive trends in the development <strong>of</strong> tourism<br />
activities.<br />
3.10. Product Differentiation (Positioning)<br />
The differentiation <strong>of</strong> products is another factor in maintaining competitive<br />
advantage (Porter 1985). There is a close relationship between competition and<br />
innovation; new product development therefore will be the cornerstone <strong>of</strong><br />
destination competitiveness. Differentiation can be dependent either on product or<br />
market. Different approaches to the definition <strong>of</strong> destination positioning exist in the<br />
literature. For instance, Heath and Wall (1992: 114-5) state that positioning is “the<br />
art <strong>of</strong> developing and communicating meaningful differences between a region’s<br />
tourism <strong>of</strong>ferings and those <strong>of</strong> competitors serving the same target market”.<br />
Similarly, Crompton, Fakeye and Lue (1992: 20) refer to “the process <strong>of</strong><br />
establishing and maintaining a distinctive place for a destination in the minds <strong>of</strong><br />
potential travellers within target markets”. Therefore, customer perceptions could<br />
be regarded as a correct destination positioning strategy (Javalgi, Thomas and Rao<br />
1992). Ahmed (1991) emphasises that:<br />
“the comparison <strong>of</strong> destinations’ strengths and weaknesses<br />
with those <strong>of</strong> competitors is an element <strong>of</strong> a correct product<br />
positioning strategy. A destination should select a position in<br />
which it can attain a strong competitive advantage and link it<br />
to target markets”.<br />
Similarly, Grabler (1997) claims that an accurate positioning strategy requires the<br />
comparison <strong>of</strong> a product with its competitors. The position where the host<br />
destination has a great difference from its competitor (s) will represent its<br />
uniqueness. Given this, the competitive advantage <strong>of</strong> a destination could be gained<br />
9
y improving and innovating different aspects <strong>of</strong> its characteristics, such as<br />
increasing the quality <strong>of</strong> the existing tourist resources and services and adding new<br />
and attractive features (Choy 1992), improving technology and the productivity <strong>of</strong><br />
the standardised production <strong>of</strong> services and improving the effective use <strong>of</strong> capital<br />
(Bordas 1994). Goodall (1990) mentions the importance <strong>of</strong> innovation,<br />
improvement and extension <strong>of</strong> transport networks and new and revised legislation<br />
for the comparative advantage <strong>of</strong> destinations. He also adds that destinations need<br />
to be very sensitive to such changes in order to maintain their market shares and<br />
introduce new products to increase the homogeneity <strong>of</strong> demand for the destination.<br />
To give an example, Poetschke (1995) states that island destinations have several<br />
disadvantages in securing a proper place in destination competitiveness. Factors<br />
which inhibit their destination competitiveness include limited access (by air or sea<br />
only), fragile ecosystems and dependency on tourism. They are also limited in the<br />
variety <strong>of</strong> products on <strong>of</strong>fer. Moreover, Sandbach (1997) states that long-haul and<br />
exotic destinations are becoming competitors against European destinations for the<br />
European tourists. Europe has become a mature tourist destination and has<br />
experienced difficulties adapting itself to meet changing consumer needs and<br />
wants.<br />
3.11. Adequacy and Quality <strong>of</strong> Tourist Facilities and Services<br />
An efficient service is expected for check-in and check-out procedures at the<br />
destination airport along with accommodation facilities, food and beverage<br />
facilities. Since time is limited, tourists intend to have more experience in a shorter<br />
time rather than wasting time in queuing or complaining. As far as mass tourism<br />
and package tour holidays are concerned, tourists are becoming more sensitive<br />
towards services, particularly at the resort airport and accommodation facilities.<br />
Keller and Smeral (1997) claim that destination-based factor endowments such as<br />
natural and cultural resources, capital and infrastructure resources, and human<br />
resources affect the competitiveness level <strong>of</strong> a destination. The authors further<br />
state that quality in tourism encompasses three main components:<br />
• natural quality (environmental matters)<br />
• material quality (facilities such as accommodation, restaurants, shopping, sport<br />
and cultural etc.)<br />
• non-material quality (services such as information guidance, housekeeping,<br />
speed <strong>of</strong> check-in and check-out procedures etc.)<br />
A destination competitiveness is sensitive to these components. The<br />
implementation <strong>of</strong> factor-creating mechanisms such as education, research and<br />
development and investment programmes are some <strong>of</strong> the most significant tools for<br />
creating a sustainable competitive advantage for international tourist destinations.<br />
Eliminating bureaucratic barriers could further improve tourist services and quality,<br />
and reinforce the competitiveness <strong>of</strong> a destination (Keller and Smeral 1997).<br />
10
3.12. Quality <strong>of</strong> Environmental Resources<br />
In an increasingly competitive business environment, the environmental quality <strong>of</strong><br />
the tourist destinations represents a vital ingredient in the recipe for success.<br />
Therefore, it is proposed that to remain competitive in the future marketplace, both<br />
destinations and organisations must adopt environmentally-friendly policies (Zahra<br />
1999). Policies and programmes which are designed to protect natural resources<br />
whilst simultaneously making use <strong>of</strong> them have already been established by most<br />
tourist destinations and tourist organisations.<br />
Even though environmental quality is considered to be a key element <strong>of</strong> the<br />
determination <strong>of</strong> competitiveness in tourism, the most distinctive part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
tourism industry (or tourism economics) is that it does not yet take into account<br />
the opportunity cost <strong>of</strong> environmental resources when producing a tourism<br />
product. Hence, it is believed that tourism services (or products) are cheaper<br />
because tourism suppliers think that such tourism resources do not need any cost<br />
to complete the whole product. Moreover, tourism suppliers are currently<br />
unwilling to accept their responsibility for the negative consequences <strong>of</strong> tourism<br />
development such as deregulation, overcrowding, traffic congestion, garbage and<br />
so on.<br />
It is evident that environmental considerations are a significant element affecting a<br />
travellers' destination choice. Research findings revealed that about half <strong>of</strong> German<br />
tourists have considerable awareness <strong>of</strong> environmental quality issues when<br />
choosing a destination to vacation (Ayala 1996). It is believed that the future<br />
competitiveness <strong>of</strong> destinations will be based on the extent to which they are<br />
concerned with their sustainability. Therefore, existing tourist destinations are<br />
keen on developing new strategies and releasing policies on how to protect the<br />
natural environment and present themselves effectively to the market. The<br />
importance <strong>of</strong> environmental quality becomes clear when the degradation <strong>of</strong> beach<br />
quality at ‘sea, sun and sand’ holiday destinations leads to a negative impact on the<br />
number <strong>of</strong> tourist arrivals, length <strong>of</strong> bednights and the number <strong>of</strong> repeat visits. As a<br />
consequence, a low level <strong>of</strong> tourism income is generated (Dharmaratne and<br />
Brathwaite 1998).<br />
3.13. Human Resources<br />
Human resources are deemed to be one <strong>of</strong> the most significant inputs within the<br />
organisation to gain full competitive advantage (Ireland and Hitt 1999). As a part<br />
<strong>of</strong> the service industry, tourism will continue to require a great number <strong>of</strong> skilled<br />
human resources to decrease labour shortages in the near future. It is widely<br />
known and accepted that tourism is an industry which requires an intense face-t<strong>of</strong>ace<br />
contact between hosts (or staff) and tourists. Attitudes <strong>of</strong> local people<br />
towards tourists, approaches to tourism development and the development <strong>of</strong><br />
programmes to train both personnel and local people will indicate the position <strong>of</strong> a<br />
destination in the competitiveness set.<br />
11
3.14. Government Policies (Entry barriers)<br />
The development <strong>of</strong> tourism can make a considerable contribution to regional<br />
economic development. This has led the governments <strong>of</strong> some countries to take<br />
responsibility for investment, control, planning, co-ordination and financial issues<br />
within their nation's tourism industry. By using these responsibilities, governments<br />
can control the flow <strong>of</strong> tourists to the country. Therefore, where tourism is<br />
considered to have a negative impact on social and natural structure, restrictions to<br />
entry can be established. Where tourism is considered, governments strongly<br />
encourage the development <strong>of</strong> the tourism industry to attract more tourists and<br />
higher income. For example, in an attempt to increase the number <strong>of</strong> tourist<br />
arrivals, the Kenyan government has recently decided to drop the visa charge for<br />
those from some European countries (The Times 1999). The growth <strong>of</strong> publicprivate<br />
partnerships in tourism management and promotion <strong>of</strong> countries such as<br />
Germany, Romania, Tunisia and India have also been observed (http:www.worldtourism.org).<br />
Those who release comprehensive contemporary tourism programmes and open<br />
their national resources to the experience <strong>of</strong> the foreign public will gain the<br />
advantage <strong>of</strong> being a leader in the international tourism industry.<br />
4. Indicators <strong>of</strong> <strong>Destination</strong> <strong>Competitiveness</strong><br />
There are a number <strong>of</strong> criteria to assess the performance <strong>of</strong> tourist destinations on<br />
the table <strong>of</strong> competitiveness; however, this study will explore only four <strong>of</strong> these.<br />
These are the volume <strong>of</strong> tourist arrivals, the volume <strong>of</strong> repeat tourists, the volume<br />
<strong>of</strong> tourism receipts and the share <strong>of</strong> tourism receipts in Gross National Product<br />
(GNP) which are explained in detail below.<br />
4.1. The volume <strong>of</strong> tourist arrivals<br />
As a traditional approach, the number <strong>of</strong> foreign arrivals has been used to rank all<br />
destinations (or countries) on the list. The higher the number <strong>of</strong> annual tourist<br />
arrivals, the stronger the destination in competitiveness. The performance <strong>of</strong> a<br />
particular destination or region is also examined by evaluating the percentage<br />
changes over the total number comparing to the preceding years. For instance,<br />
China was ranked as the fifth most tourist receiving destination in 1996, while it<br />
was 12th in 1990. Though this method has been used by leading tourism<br />
organisations, primarily World Tourism Organisation (WTO), over many years, it<br />
has several weaknesses, including the difficulty <strong>of</strong> collecting reliable data and <strong>of</strong><br />
anticipating the future.<br />
4.2. The volume <strong>of</strong> repeat tourists<br />
The basic idea <strong>of</strong> this approach is that the higher the number <strong>of</strong> repeat tourists to<br />
the same destination and the higher the frequency, the more it is attractive and<br />
competitive in the market. However, the high level <strong>of</strong> repeat visits is not a panacea<br />
since it will not necessarily <strong>of</strong>fer the destination a competitive advantage over<br />
similar destinations. In other words, repeat visits can be a problem as well as a<br />
12
strength. For instance, some mass tourist destinations such as the Spanish islands<br />
(the Balearic and Canary Islands) attach themselves to Plog’s (1974) pyschocentric<br />
tourist typology by attracting high density repeat tourists from Europe with their<br />
low level <strong>of</strong> income and the tendency to prefer largely package tours.<br />
Oppermann (1998: 135), however, claims that “in fact, destination marketers do<br />
not really have to worry too much about the repeat visit ratio until it exceeds the<br />
70 % and 80 % mark. By that time, however, the destination really needs to<br />
reposition itself to attract new and different segments and to maintain its long-term<br />
viability”. He further suggests that although the repeat business ranging between<br />
50 % and 80 % from the same market is accepted to be in the critical boundary,<br />
destination management should take this into account in their future planning. In<br />
his most recent paper, Oppermann (1999) emphasised that destination management<br />
does not have to focus on raising the percentage <strong>of</strong> repeat customers, but could<br />
release a strategy to serve a mixture <strong>of</strong> both first-time and repeat customers.<br />
Therefore, authorities should establish different marketing strategies appropriate to<br />
each market segment (Mountinho and Trimble 1991). For example, in response to<br />
Mallorca's difficulties balancing its first-time and high propensity repeat customers<br />
amongst both British and German markets, destination management has focused<br />
upon attracting tourism demand from Poland and Russia as emerging potential<br />
tourist markets.<br />
4.3. The volume <strong>of</strong> tourism receipts<br />
The quality <strong>of</strong> tourists could be more important than their quantity to the success<br />
<strong>of</strong> any destination. For example, considering the expenditure level <strong>of</strong> each tourist<br />
could be more rational than the number <strong>of</strong> tourists in determining how tourism can<br />
provide benefits to the destination. Thus, the notion that the greater the number <strong>of</strong><br />
tourists, the greater the net income generated to the local economy sometimes<br />
cannot be supported. In that case, the volume <strong>of</strong> total tourism receipts yielded from<br />
international tourism could be an indicator <strong>of</strong> the measurement <strong>of</strong> destination<br />
competitiveness, since the more the amount <strong>of</strong> tourist spending the higher the<br />
multiplier effect.<br />
4.4. The share <strong>of</strong> tourism receipts in GNP<br />
Any development in a particular tourism industry is recorded as a direct<br />
contribution to GNP. The comparison analysis on the basis <strong>of</strong> the proportion <strong>of</strong><br />
tourism incomes within GNP between more than two destinations will display<br />
which destination is yielding more benefits from international tourism. However, a<br />
destination with a high proportion <strong>of</strong> GNP raised from tourism is at risk from<br />
becoming over-dependent on the tourism industry.<br />
Conclusion<br />
As a result <strong>of</strong> the sensitive structure <strong>of</strong> the tourism industry towards political,<br />
economic, social and environmental changes, including the risk <strong>of</strong> natural disasters,<br />
it is difficult to recommend a single model or a single way to measure international<br />
13
tourist destination competitiveness and justify its reliability. It is obvious that few<br />
destinations compete with one another for all market segments. In other words, it<br />
is not reasonable to pair a summer and a winter destination or a summer and an<br />
urban destination. The diversity <strong>of</strong> tourist destinations will also make it more<br />
difficult to put all destinations in a single basket and rank them from the highest (or<br />
the best) through to the lowest (or the least competitive). This study has presented<br />
not only common factors thought to be influential over the competitive position <strong>of</strong><br />
any type <strong>of</strong> destination, but has also identified strengths and weaknesses <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong><br />
the common measures which can be used for ranking destinations and evaluating<br />
their performance levels. Competitors should be monitored on a regular basis in<br />
line with the effective factors presented in this study. This will enable the<br />
destination to reinforce the analysis <strong>of</strong> the market and identify its own as well as<br />
others' strengths and weaknesses. The findings may help the destination to develop<br />
the correct positioning strategy.<br />
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