Landscript 1: Landscape Vision Motion

L a n d s c r i p t is a publication on 

landscape aesthetics inviting authors 

from different disciplines to invest 

some thought on established modes of 

perceiving, representing, and conceiving 

nature. Steered by an editorial board 

comprised of international experts 

from various fields of visual studies, 

landscape design research, as well as 

sociology and philosophy, its goal is 

to act as a revelator of conventional 

perceptions of landscape and to 

cultivate the debate on landscape 

aesthetics at a scholarly level. This 

discussion platform aims at rekindling 

a theoretical debate, in the hope of 

fostering a better understanding of the 

immanence of landscape architecture 

in our culture, focusing critically on 

the way we think, look, and act upon 

sites and nonsites today. 

Professor Christophe Girot, Albert Kirchengast (Chief Editors) 

Institute of Landscape Architecture ILA, D–A RCH, ETH Zurich

Editori a l Boa rd 

LANDSCRIPT 1 

Annemarie Bucher, ZHdK Zurich 

Elena Cogato Lanza, EPF Lausanne 

Stanislaus Fung, UNSW Sydney 

Dorothée Imbert, Washington University in St. Louis 

Sébastien Marot, Ecole d’Architecture Marne-la-Vallee, Paris 

Volker Pantenburg, Bauhaus-Universität Weimar 

Alessandra Ponte, Université de Montréal 

Christian Schmid, ETH Zurich 

Ralph Ubl, eikones NFS Bildkritik Basel 

Charles Waldheim, Harvard GSD 

Kongjian Yu, Peking University 

Landscape Vision Motion 

SUBMISSION GUIDELINES 

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Please direct submissions to this address: 

Landscript 

Chair of Professor Christophe Girot 

Institute of Landscape Architecture ILA, ETH Zurich 

Wolfgang-Pauli-Strasse 15, HIL H 54.2 

8093 Zurich, Switzerland 

Questions about submissions can be emailed to: 

kirchengast@arch.ethz.ch 

Visit our website for further information: 

www.girot.arch.ethz.ch

Christophe Girot 

Fred Truniger (EDs.) 

Landscape 

Vision 

Motion 

Christophe Girot was born in Paris in 1957. He 

is Professor and Chair of the Institute of Landscape 

Architecture at the Architecture Department of the 

ETH in Zurich. His teaching and research interests 

span new topological methods in landscape design, 

landscape perception, and analysis through new media, 

and contemporary theory and history of landscape 

architecture. He cofounded the Landscape Visualizing 

and Modeling Laboratory (LV ML) at the ETH in 2010. 

His professional practice focuses on large-scale landscape 

projects, using advanced 3D GIS techniques that 

contribute to the design of adaptive and sustainable 

landscape environments. 

Fred Truniger is a lm scholar and curator. 

He studied Film and German Studies at the University 

of Zurich and the Freie Universität in Berlin and 

received his PhD from the ETH Zurich in Landscape 

Architecture. He is the head of the research focus 

“Visual Narrative” at the School of Art and Design of 

the Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts. 

Visual Thinking in 

Landscape Culture

Ta ble of Contents 

Foreword 

C h r i s t o p h e G i r o t 

13 

[A] 

Provisional Notes on Landscape Representation 

and Digital Media 

C h a r l e s Wa l d h e i m 

Another Green World 

E e l c o H o o f t m a n 

Going to Measures—Cultivating and 

Appreciating the Contemporary Landscapes 

J a n i k e K a m p e v o l d L a r s e n 

21 

37 

63 

[B] 

The Return of Proximity 

E l e n a C o g a t o L a n z a Translation: David Mason / Architran 

Urban Cuttings: Sections and Crossings 

F r é d é r i c P o u s i n Translation: Céline Mansanti 

81 

101 

[C] 

Panoramique—Panning over Landscapes 

Vo l k e r P a n t e n b u r g Translation: Ben Letzler 

121

Travelling Warrior and Complete Urbanization 

in Switzerland: Landscape as Lived Space 

C h r i s t i a n S c h m i d Translation: Cecile Brouillaud 

The Environmental Self and its Travels 

Through Imaginary Landscapes 

R o b i n C u r t i s 

Between Topic and Topography: 

The Landscapes of Eric Rohmer 

S é b a s t i e n M a r o t 

Authors 

139 

157 

175 

203 

Appendix

Foreword 

C h r i s t o p h e G i r o t 

This rst issue of Landscript, entitled Landscape 

Vision Motion, brings together knowledge from different 

professions, inuencing the evolution of landscape 

thinking—such as architecture, lm, video, sociology, 

geography, and history. It is a collection of ideas about 

landscape, taking effect not only at the level of planning 

and design, but also of vision and image making. 

The interaction between landscape and image has 

evolved over the course of history, with progress in visual 

thinking in many cases setting a conceptual precedent in 

anticipation of design. Landscape traditions have often 

relied on a combination of word and image to brand landscapes 

with deeper symbolic meaning. But the present 

medial condition does not reect the immense impact of 

digital reality on our collective perception of landscape. 

A deep schism has arisen between established forms of 

pictorial convention in landscape, and the substantive 

dematerialization of our imagination through time-based 

media. Landscript is here just to remind us of the intricacies 

in our way of seeing, thinking, and projecting. 

Landscape Vision Motion is an anthology opened by 

Charles Waldheim. In his text, he asserts that mapping 

and cartography have gradually reached the limits of 

their own success. He proposes that the use of video and 

a new form of landscape representation, which he calls 

13

Provisional Notes on Landscape 

Representation and Digital Media 

C h a r l e s Wa l d h e i m 

© President and Fellows of Harvard College (the legal entity). 

In much of the most interesting practices of contemporary 

landscape representation, the two dominant historic 

paradigms of landscape representation in the West—the 

synoptic model and the scenario-based sequence of 

views—intersect in new hybrid forms. The idea of georeferenced 

data and photography interpolated from crowd 

sourcing is an interesting new development on what has 

been a half-century of digital development in complex 

mimetic models of natural and cultural landscapes. On 

the other hand, there has of course been a very strong 

tradition—some would say origin—of landscape in the 

West based on the painting or view. Both of those models 

of landscape representation, the synoptic that aspires 

to model the world and the scenario-based that seeks 

to construct a narrative in it, predate contemporary 

interests in digital media. Both models have also 

benetted from decades of development through explicitly 

digital computational platforms. Both of these dominant 

representational paradigms are going through their own 

internal transitions, and there is much interest in the 

potential for overlaps and intersections between the two. 

A surface interpolated with SYMAP 3. Source: Red Book 1966, page I3, Harvard 

University Graduate School of Design. 

The synoptic paradigm of modeling is increasingly 

moving from a history of government controlled, highly 

militarized, centralized top-down modeling toward an 

increasingly open sourced promiscuity of reference. At 

Landscript 1 20 

21

Courtesy of the Artist and Donald Young Gallery, Chicago. 

Joshua Mosley: Dread, 2007. Mixed media animation, 6 minutes. Edition of ve. 

Landscript 1 32 33

Another Green World 

E e l c o H o o f t m a n , GROSS. M A X. 

“To think is to speculate with images.” 

Giordano Bruno 

“I have had a dispute lately … on an absurd vulgar 

opinion, which he holds—that we see with our eyes: 

whereas I assert, that our eyes are only mere glass 

windows, and we see with our imagination.” 

William Gilpin 

Landscape can reconcile opposite forces: Apollo and 

Bacchus, classic and romantic, articial and natural, 

growth and decay, beauty and sublime. It may be dened 

as a state of continuous becoming—never quite started 

and never quite nished. Not an object but a process. For 

GROSS. M A X. the very act of landscape architecture 

is not unlike taking off on a reconnaissance ight above 

unknown territory whilst ying, undetected below the 

radar of styles. We are ying—exalted to a kind of 

omniscience—no longer on automatic pilot but navigating 

on our own visual faculty. The world below: a multitude of 

vividly moving lines and gures; calligraphy intertwined 

with cartography. 

The creation of the eighteenth century landscape garden 

occurred as antidote to the absolute garden and emerged 

during a transitional period from rational classicism to 

37

Jacob Isaakszoon van Ruisdael, Meadows near Haarlem, 1674. 


Sense of Vision 

Pandora Box 

18 Hume, David: 

A Treatise of Human 

Nature.Penguin Classics 

London 1985, p. 301, rst 

published 1739. 

19 William Shenstone: 

“Unconnected Thoughts 

on Gardening” (1718), 

published in: The Works in 

Verse and Prose of William 

Shenstone. London 1766, 

Vol. 11, p. 131. 

20 Richard Payne Knight, 

The Landscape: A Didactic 

Poem in Three Books, 

London 1799 p. 19. 

21 Keats John: “Ode to 

Psyche” (1819), published 

in: The Oxford Book of 

English Verse: 1250–1900, 

edited by Arthur Quiller- 

Couch, Oxford 1919. 

22 Tafuri, Manfred: 

Teorie e storia 

dell’architettura. Bari 

1968. 

The Scottish enlightenment philosopher David Hume 

observed, that “the mind is a kind of theatre, where 

several perceptions successively make their appearance; 

pass, re-pass, glide away and mingle in an innite variety 

of postures and situations.” —18 Hume’s description of the 

mind reads as a stroll along the winding English Garden 

path with changing perspectives and a mosaic of views; 

an English garden path which twists and turns and 

doubles back on its tracks. On of the key party tricks in 

the design of the English Garden is, that “the foot should 

never travel by the same path which the eye has travelled 

over before.” —19 Richard Payne Knight, who also dened 

the subjectivist foundations of the picturesque, refers 

to the “spontaneous association of ideas triggered by an 

object or view presented to the eye, not felt by the organic 

sense of vision, but by the intellect and imagination 

through that sense.” —20 Landscape scenes therefore were 

created not only to please the eye, but above all to excite 

the imagination and produce sensations of grandeur, 

melancholy, gaiety and sublimity. John Ruskin who 

identied the picturesque as a genuinely modern aesthetic 

category, in The Seven Lamps of Architecture called it 

however the “pathetic fallacy,” the belief that the landscape 

might be made to mirror the emotional state of the 

person found within it. A new generation of poets spearheaded 

the landscape experience. Coleridge coined the 

word “psycho-analytic” and Keats, in his ‘Ode to Psyche’, 

navigates the garden as a kind of mental map describing 

the garden space as “in some untrodden region of my 

mind” where “branched thoughts” create a picturesque 

landscape, the work of the “gardener Fancy.” —21 Manfred 

Tafuri suggested in his Teorie e storia dell’architettura 

from 1968 to apply the term psychological gardens rather 

than landscape gardens, so obvious is it that they reect 

the innermost soul of a period whose contradictions 

continue to fascinate us. —22 

Landscape as a psychological garden has turned all 

failed attempts of an objective enlightenment landscape 

analysis back into dark the realms of subjective landscape 

psychoanalysis—a wonderful Pandora Box of repressed 

earthly delights. For ‘Architecture International 

Rotterdam 2001’ we were asked to transform an elevated 

railway into a public promenade, with hindsight a kind 

of prototype version of The High-line in New York. The 

project proposals included a large glass house superimposed 

on the remains of the former Hofplein railway 

station. The minimalist architecture of the glass box is 

in strong contrast to the organic orgy of orchid owers 

it contains. At night the glasshouse is transformed 

into a light-box with gigantic shadow projections of 

exotic plants displayed on its outer skin. A dazzling 

kaleidoscopic image of nature perfected in hybrid owers, 

mutant foliage and genetically modied fruits: landscape 

Architecture as skillful, accurate, and magnicent interplay 

of assembled vegetation under light. Our key image 

for the project displays the glasshouse as hedonistic 

pleasure zone not unlike the illustrious public wintergardens 

in Berlin, Paris and Vienna. Only recently 

we encountered a series of orchid paintings by Martin 

Johnson Heade. We were struck with their remarkable 

similarity. —23 The contrast between the close-up ower 

juxtaposed against the wide angled landscape, the use 

of dramatic sky, the colors slightly oversaturated. Not 

to forget the overtly symbolism of the orchid’s sexual 

connotation and the part played by the bird in the ower’s 

reproductive process. Could the missing link between the 

painting and our image been an essay written by George 

Bataille entitled The Language of Flowers? In this essay 

on the symbolic nature of the ower is a revealing text 

wherein he draws parallels between the anatomy of the 

ower and the human body as well as his interpretation 

of the nature of seduction, beauty, love, and death as 

23 The paintings by 

Martin Johnston Hyde 

were only relative recently 

been recovered from old 

garages and car boot sales. 


59

Going to Measures—Cultivating and 

Appreciating the Contemporary Landscapes 

J a n i k e K a m p e v o l d L a r s e n 

“The soul’s engineer measures the universe with a 

teaspoon.” This line in a poem by Norwegian poet Tone 

Hødnebø refers both to T. S. Eliot’s “I have measured out 

my life with coffee spoons,” in The love song of J. Alfred 

Prufrock, and to the rather unknown Russian Zhdanov 

who once called poets the engineers of the soul. —1 

The soul’s engineers are writers and artists, and their 

measurement is tedious, connected to the slow temporal 

structure at the human scale of sipping tea. In Hødnebø’s 

poetic universe, this is one of many individual measuring 

strategies. For her, human orientation involves a desire 

to measure out, order, and plan the surrounding, while 

still suffering the frustration of the imprecision of the 

human consciousness, reected in tilted plans, dislocated 

arches, an architecture distorted by imagery, uncertainty, 

and speculation—not unlike Eisenstein’s “explosion” of 

Piranesi’s Carcere with staircase ascending to the left. —2 

Individual experiences tend to disrupt architectural 

procedure. They also tend to alter landscapes, noticing 

other qualities than those revealed by a representation 

based on preconceived notions of what is a landscape. 

By the mid-nineteenth century, the Grand Canyon was 

still not part of the American geographical and aesthetic 

consciousness. The area had been “discovered,” it had 

been visited by Spanish explorers as early as 1540, 

1 Hødnebø, Tone: 

Et lykkelig øyeblikk (A 

Happy Moment), Selection 

and afterword by Janike 

Kampevold Larsen. Oslo 

2005, p. 19. 

2 Piranesi, Giovanni 

Battista: Carceri, plate 

X I V. 1760. Sergej 

Eisenstein performs a 

transguration of two 

of Piranesi’s etchings. 

Eisenstein, Sergej: “On 

the uidity of forms.” 

In: Oppositions, No. 11. 

Cambridge, Massachusetts 

1977. 

63

we relate to by habit simply by looking at them differently. 

In the ETH videos, landscapes are lmed up close, 

unfolding beneath and before the sightline of the moving 

subject. The ground being so acutely present in most 

of them effectively challenges a tradition of landscape 

representation that has focused on static representation 

of the vertical scenery. Let us look at four videos in some 

detail. 

pulled through, is a commonplace rural landscape, its 

typology familiar. But the gaze that is inaugurated at 

the landing strip meets no resistance in matter; it is a 

gaze that maybe desires to see to the bottom of things, 

to obsolete the distance between mind and object, while 

in fact it moves on and on, indenitely. The view is thus 

deconstructed by movement. 

Short Cut (Janine Koch, Philip Hegnauer, 2006) begins at an 

airport eld and moves towards the horizon or vanishing 

point. It picks up speed as it advances towards the beginning 

of a runway, blasts through some cages and rubble, 

and approaches a wooded area. We realize it is not going 

to stop. It proceeds through the woods, a hedge, and a 

chicken fence, emerges on the other side of fence and hedge 

and runs down an alley, along a row of houses, along the 

middle of the straight road, cars lined on one side, into the 

darkness of some underbrush and shrubs, across a street 

and into community gardens, straight through a small 

hill and a corneld, further on towards a house at the end 

of the eld, then through the house—in which we pick 

up reminiscences of a conversation—and gardens until 

it ends up in a wide eld of pine wood, bare and straight 

trunks. All this happens in less than a minute in an 

experiment that records an impossible gaze at high speed; 

we get the impression of moving with the gaze, its speed of 

light extension along one probing straight line. 

What is the gaze that is being suggested here? The 

landscape looked at, which the spectator is also being 

Nature—Roundabout III (Roman Loretan, Gianni Traxler, 2004) 

features a car, or perhaps two, as one car seems to be 

observed from another car. At least the moving eye circles 

a pond with a view to the car, also circling the same 

site. The cycle becomes repeated but the constellation 

and rhythm of the elements in view change according to 

where the cars are in relation to each other, and elements 

always in the eld separating them: the pond, a weeping 

willow, some shrubs, etc. The scene resembles a merrygo-round 

only with natural elements, and the video does 

nothing but cultivate the pleasure of motion by car, the 

continuous rearrangement of elements always producing 

new views and tableaus. The cultivation is also a measurement, 

indicated by the repeated circumvention of the 

pond, which draws a circle of sorts. 


69

The Return of Proximity 

Elena Cogato Lanza 

With the design and performance of the “Post-Kyoto” 

sustainable city, characterized by the twin imperatives 

of a reduction in the transportation of people and goods 

and a densication of existing built fabric, we are 

witnessing a return to the theme of “proximity.” We refer 

to proximity, at its most basic, in a spatial and metrical 

sense, but also more broadly in the sense of individual 

and social praxis, as a sphere that will increasingly play 

host to an ever greater portion of our everyday lives. In 

our individual and collective choices, as well as in urban 

policy, space matters again. 

Throughout the twentieth century, proximity, in 

theoretical and design terms, essentially developed in two 

directions: rst, as an ordered, balanced arrangement 

of “neighborhood units” within a hierarchical territory; 

second, and in critical opposition to this, in the hypothesis 

by which spatial conguration is seen as totally 

independent of social practices. The latter, being reticular 

in character, include practices that might be described as 

proximal insofar as they are characterized by relations 

of familiarity, but that cannot be tied to a precisely 

measured area or specic articulations linking residential, 

service, and open spaces. As we will see in this article, 

the critique of the neighborhood unit model has also 

occurred by way of an opposition of certain photographic 

representations of the urban landscape and of social 

81

Finn Geipel, Giulia Andi, redesigning the relationships between transit system and 

morphology. Source: LIN + Fabio Casiroli Systematica. 

By means of these social condensers, clusters, or 

supérettes, the city develops a response to society’s aspirations 

and delivers practicable and convenient day-to-day 

solutions, whether in terms of accessibility or visibility, 

that relate effectively to the home-work relay and supply 

setting. The soft metropolis, a mixed, multipolar entity 

that oscillates between denser and looser textures, is 

an accessible city, a city of “short distances.” For the 

optimum organization of human and commercial trafc 

around the major corridors set up by railway infrastructure 

around the region, LIN proposes developing rapid 

tangential links and micro-mobility: a BRT (Bus Rapid 

Transit) system for routes up to a maximum range of 

fteen kilometers and small individual systems of feeders 

and shuttle buses with a range of up to three kilometers. 

The polycentrism put forward by Rogers Stirk Harbour 

and Partners is in perfect continuity with the ideology of 

the equilibrated Garden City. —13 A diagrammatic articulation 

in the form of rays that are pertinent on different 

scales—locality / neighborhood / district / town / city in an 

outwardly developing progression from a radius of 200 

meters to 5 kilometers, read as an assembly of Russian 

dolls—respects the measure established by a tradition 

that extends from Howard and Perry through the New 

Towns to Rogers’ own London master plan. Calmly 

indifferent to the criticisms aimed at the neighborhood 

unit as a segregative model, the Rogers group sees the 

pertinence of technical instruments in strictly pragmatic 

terms. This “urbanism of models” is anchored spatially 

within the Paris agglomeration, fused with it through 

a specic design theme: that of the transformation of 

radial rail routes. These linear elements, which at present 

compartmentalize the region into isolated sectors, are to 

become the new metropolitan “armatures” (Rogers) to 

be constructed over the railway area as multifunctional 

platforms ostensibly serving as energy devices. These 

armatures will enable the permeability rate across 

the metropolis to approach that of Paris intra-muros, 

13 Arup; London 

School of Economics and 

political science: Paris 

Métropole. Le dessin de 

l’agglomération parisienne 

du futur, rapport nal de 

la consultation. London 

2009. 


93

Urban Cuttings: Sections and Crossings 

F r é d é r i c P o u s i n 

With the development of urbanization, and metropolises 

in particular, large-scale urban projects have become 

the rule. Indeed, when intervening on a territory, as 

small as it may be, it is necessary to work within a larger, 

integrating framework, while bringing solutions to the 

local issues the project originates from. Breaking away 

from the idea of boundaries at work in a certain type of 

operational urbanism, and going beyond a mere response 

to a diagnosis, such an inscription requires a dynamic 

conception of the territory based on the notions of routes 

and crossings, and involves several time and space 

scales. Today, these strategies are at the core of a debate 

involving many disciplinary elds such as architecture, 

urbanism, geography and landscaping: they appeal to 

many cartographic, photographic, and videographic 

practices and create new tools. —1 Among these tools, the 

urban transect will be of special interest, because it led to 

many experiments and investigations, some of which are 

presented here. —2 

From the point of view of representation, the urban 

transect cuts across the space presenting its vertical 

dispositions, unlike the map, which is the result of a 

projection on a horizontal surface. Such a shift not only 

implies a change in the representation of space; it also 

requires a different turn of mind and a different relationship 

to space. The map requires a global vision, whereas 

1 See the responses to 

the international consulting 

on the metropolitan 

future of Greater Paris, in 

particular those of Studio 

09, Bernardo Secchi / Paola 

Vigano, A MC Le Moniteur 

Architecture, le Grand 

Pari(s). International consulting 

on the future of the 

Parisian metropolis, 2009. 

2 See Tixier, Nicolas 

(Ed.): L’Ambiance est 

dans l’air. La dimension 

atmosphérique des ambiances 

architecturales et 

urbaines dans les approches 

environnementales, investigation 

led by Pir Ville 

et Environnement, Fall 

2008–Spring 2010. Vol. I, 

p. 67 p., vol. II, p. 49. 

See as well the response of 

Team Bazar urbain / Contrepoint 

/ Groupe chronos / 

Zoom to the 2011 consulting 

Amiens Metropolis, a 

Project for Everyday Life 

on Amiens 2030 Metropolitan 

Project. 

101

Architectural Review, vol. 117, n° 702, June 1955. Architectural Review, vol. 117, n° 702, June 1955. 

The representation device is complex, and cannot be 

summed up by a route map. Through more than sixty 

pages, the route is broken down in a series of sections 

illustrated by photographs and captioned by a journalistic 

text characterizing the places and phenomena and 

commenting when necessary on the photographs. In one 

section, a historical survey allows for the chronological 

visualization of urban sprawl over twenty-ve square 

miles—a ve-mile-long square. A series of maps from 

the 1786 royal maps to 1952 show its evolution from 

isolated farms to twentieth-century military facilities 

and Warrington city’s industrial fringes. 

This is not a route map but a section, since the representation 

gives access to a historical depth. The section is 

organized around two main axes, the longitudinal axis 

and the perpendicular axis of depth. 

Crossing and Traveling 

With the crossing as well as with the section, space is no 

longer a at surface to be understood extensively. The 

section is a cross representation associating spaces in 

several dimensions without producing any territorialization. 

In the nineteen-fties and nineteen-sixties, Pierre 

Chombart de Lawe’s urban sociology and the Situationists’ 

psycho-geography —28 designed an urban cartography 

28 For more information 

on these movements 

see Palma, Riccardo: 

“Détournements. Les 

gures cartographiques 

de la géographie dans le 

projet architectural.” In: 

Pousin, Frédéric: Figures 

de la ville et construction 

des savoirs. Paris 2005, 

pp. 86–94. 


113

4 See Schwarzer, Mitchell: 

Zoomscape. Architecture 

in Motion and Media, 

New York 2004. 

Schwarzer’s term—that connect image, landscape, and 

a mobile recording unit to one another, creating uid 

transitions. —4 In over a hundred years of lm history, an 

immense variety of options has emerged to put spaces and 

landscapes in motion. 

In view of the numerous ways of lming landscapes— 

from land, from water, by air—it may make sense to 

come back to one of the basic operations underlying many 

more complex techniques of the cinematographic depiction 

of the landscape: the horizontal panning motion of a 

camera that is itself stationary, sweeping uniformly over 

a landscape. There is an afnity between the pan and the 

landscape, and I wish to explore certain implications of 

this afnity in what follows. 

5 See Truniger, Fred: 

Filmic Mapping. Documentary 

Film and the Visual 

Culture of Landscape 

Architecture. Berlin 2012. 

II 

For many years, like everyone else interested in the 

cinema, I have seen lms with pans. However, it was 

not until I saw Gerhard Friedl’s lms Knittelfeld and 

Hat Wolff von Amerongen Konkursdelikte begangen? 

(AUT 1997 and 2004), that I really paid attention to this 

specic operation. In these two lms, the pan is revealed 

in its full clarity and mystery. The lms are made 

possible, one can say without exaggeration, in part by the 

simple fact that pans exist; that the slow panning motion 

is one of the tools in the toolbox of cinematographic 

operations. Friedl’s lms are landscape lms; more than 

that, they are pan lms. —5 

My initial question is, what is a pan, or better: what 

makes a pan? To what regime of the gaze is it linked, 

into which historical constellations and genealogies is it 

inscribed? What is it good for, how does it cut parts out 

of the visible world and exclude others, intentionally or 

inadvertently? 

Stills from the lm Hat Wolff von Amerongen Konkursdelikte begangen? 2004. 


Travelling Warrior and Complete Urbanization 

in Switzerland: Landscape as Lived Space 

C h r i s t i a n S c h m i d 

The point of departure for this text is a lm by Christian 

Schocher, produced in 1979 and which had its premiere in 

1981. At the time, the lm was a sensation—at least for 

the few who saw it. The limited audience and showings 

was not surprising for a black and white lm over three 

hours long in which a man drives through the countryside 

and not much else happens. Yet this is a historic lm 

because it captured, for the rst time, an essential trend 

of contemporary Switzerland: the complete urbanization 

of society. 

This expression draws on one of the most famous 

hypotheses in urban studies, the opening line of French 

philosopher and theoretician Henri Lefebvre’s groundbreaking 

1970 book La révolution urbaine (English: 

The Urban Revolution, 2003). This thesis formulates a 

tendency, at the time apparent only on a distant horizon, 

which would soon become a dening reality. Lefebvre 

understands urbanization in a double sense: on the one 

hand, urbanization increasingly encompasses broad 

areas of society; on the other, the urban fabric continues 

to extend itself into new territories, transforming both 

historical cities and previously rural areas. 

All stills from the lm Reisender Krieger, 1981. 

The lm is a particular form of semi-documentary. The 

central character is an actor who takes us on a journey 

139

One aspect of the aesthetic of the lm is strongly characteristic 

of a specic historic representation of urban 

space, and this is one of the reasons the lm’s impact is 

less powerful now than it was at the time it was released. 

Although only thirty years old, the lm presents what 

seems like an entirely different urban world. Reisender 

Krieger was shot on 16mm lm, and while Grauzone 

was produced in 35mm and Züri brännt was shot on 

video, the lms achieve very similar forms of aesthetic 

expression in their use of black and white. The gray that 

dominates these lms serves as a way of expressing a 

certain experience and inducing a specic feeling. This 

is not the clear and contrasting black and white we know 

from movie classics, nor is it the gloom of Film Noir. It 

is a foggy, blurry black and white used to show a kind of 

blurred urban gray zone conquering the whole landscape 

and transforming it. It is more a kind of gray-on-gray, 

an absence of color and thus also of life. “Living,” it 

seems, has fallen prey to urbanization, and it must be 

won back. 

Of course, technology is also partly to blame for this 

aesthetic. Züri brännt was produced with the semiprofessional 

mobile equipment available at the time—relatively 

heavy, but still portable video equipment with black and 

white cameras; affordable color cameras were only just 

arriving on the market. The relatively low resolution 

of the tube cameras, and the technical shortcomings of 

recording techniques and post-production caused the 

ultimately sluggish, blurry images that icker across 

the screen—very typical of the aesthetics of the video 

movement at the time. In Reisender Krieger, the high 

exposure tolerance of black and white lm, in contrast to 

color, undoubtedly also played an important role in the 

choice of this lm stock. The new 16mm black and white 

lm was relatively sensitive to light, and even enabled 

some night lming without additional lighting, but it 

was relatively coarse-grained, contributing further to the 

gray effect. In Grauzone, on the other hand, there was 

no technical reason for the choice of black and white; as 

a 35mm production, it had a full spectrum of technical 

means available to it. Here, the decision was made purely 

on the basis of aesthetic criteria. 

These lms were stylistically inuential, establishing a 

new representation of urban space in which “gray” and 

“concrete” became verbal and visual metaphors for an 

inhospitable urban world. The “urban gray zone” became 

the symbol of the aesthetic, emotional, and practical 

devastation brought about by the process of urbanization 

itself. These images evoke a very specic experience, 

hardly comprehensible today. This offers us an important 

insight: such experiences are not universal but specic, 

and they change over time. 

The Bright Lights of the City 

If one looks at how processes of urbanization within 

Switzerland are represented today, one can identify a 

fundamental and altogether astonishing transformation. 

This change is manifested, for example, in Siedlungen, 

Agglomeration, the photo series produced by Peter Fischli 

and David Weiss (Fischli / Weiss 1993). In contrast to the 

“urban gray zone” aesthetic of the nineteen-eighties lms, 

their suburban landscapes are in color, perfectly sharp, 

often with owers and blue sky—a completely different 

kind of representation of urban space. Yet this does not 

mean that these urban landscapes have become harmless. 

On the contrary, these images express a subtle danger 

lurking behind the blooms of the yellow forsythia and the 

cotoneaster. In the photography of Fischli and Weiss, this 

peril is depicted less in the totalizing and homogenizing 

tendency of urbanization, than in the fact that these 

backward-looking images of a long-lost rurality are 

obscuring the possibilities and potentials of urbanization. 


151

proximity to another self to which the lmic image seems 

to offer privileged access. 

Phenomenology and the Self in Film 

In her study The Address of the Eye: A Phenomenology of 

Film Experience, Vivian Sobchack locates lm’s medial 

specicity in its ability to situate the viewer within its 

temporal and spatial specicity, thereby offering a unique 

perceptual opportunity. She writes: “More than any other 

medium of human communication, the moving picture 

makes itself sensuously and sensibly manifest as the 

expression of experience by experience. A lm is an act of 

seeing that makes itself seen, an act of hearing that makes 

itself heard, an act of physical and reective movement 

that makes itself reexively felt and understood.… Cinema 

thus transposes, without completely transforming, those 

modes of being alive and consciously embodied in the 

world that count for each of us as direct experience: as 

experience ‘centered’ in that particular, situated and solely 

occupied existence sensed rst as ‘Here, where the world 

touches’ and then as ‘Here, where the world is sensible; 

here where I am’” (Sobchack 1995, p. 37). 

Film offers a sensual experience of the world, not only 

a description of it; it offers direct access to the experience 

of the other, not only an account of that experience; it is 

embodied and not only descriptive of corporeal experience; 

nally, it emphasizes the “here” of experience, the manner 

in which one’s situation in the world is of the utmost 

importance to one’s particular identity. And yet, if lm is 

always intersubjective, it is not possible to claim that the 

other of lm, or as Sobchack refers to it, the body of the 

lm, is identical to that of the lmmaker: the notion that 

the lmmaker is herself present in the lm is hindered 

at the same time the intersubjectivity that is generally 

inherent to lm and its connection to a given time and 

place is highlighted. 

But what are the repercussions implicit in an 

understanding of landscape that views it as a product of 

cognitive and societal constructs? To elucidate how these 

issues may become tangible within lms, I’d like to offer 

the example of two lms that use diametrically opposed 

representational strategies to demarcate both cognitive 

and societal aspects of the “situation” made available to 

the viewer by each one of them. The two lms at issue 

here, Oskar Fischinger’s München-Berlin Wanderung, 

and Adolf Winkelmann’s Kassel 9.12.67 11.54 h examine 

the precarious situation of the stranger, even as the 

protagonists align themselves—to varying degrees—both 

with the itinerant and with the local. They imagine situations 

of ostracism, exclusion, and isolation; indeed what is 

remarkable about these lms is that they all demonstrate 

a longing for the status of the stranger, to be an unknown 

wanderer, far from home, utterly distinct from one’s 

surroundings. Key to their musings, which take a variety 

of forms, is however, the attempt to distinguish self from 

other by implicitly asking what sets one apart and what 

binds one to others. All of these works attempt to dene 

the limits of community, even as they locate moments of 

commonality in the strangest places. 

The Stranger 

The relationship between self and other implicit in the 

notion of the stranger is not as simple as one might think. 

Georg Simmel makes a case for a far greater intimacy 

between the stranger and the local than was commonly 

thought to be the case. Rather than simply representing 

the itinerant per se, the stranger, in his account, is both 

known and unknown, familiar and strange. And yet, the 

degree to which this gure is familiar to the local is not 

his most essential feature. Eliminating from consideration 

that which is utterly unknown—and thus cannot be 

classied as strange unless it becomes known at some 


161

those around him, he endeavors to separate himself from 

them, avoiding their gaze, as if to suggest he is distinct 

from them, if not non-corporeal, as suggested above, 

then at very least, perhaps, a Weltbürger rather than a 

German citizen. Yet nally he succumbs, not only to the 

demands of corporeal existence, but also to that most 

quintessentially German snack food, the sausage, submitting 

thus also to the culture around him and abandoning 

his isolation. Furthermore, the protagonist’s movements 

support this interpersonal acquiescence. 

In Kassel 9.12.67 11.54 h, the viewer witnesses the 

protension of the ecological self, as it glides through space, 

getting its bearings by means of that which Neisser terms 

visual kinesthesis, “an optically produced awareness of 

one’s own movement and posture” (Neisser 1988, p. 38). However, 

in the case of this particular lm, which offers a rare 

perspective in which the protagonist both controls the 

camera and is visible in its range, the viewer can only 

imagine such visual kinesthesis; it is not made visible 

to her. Since the camera is trained on the protagonist 

himself, rather than on what lies before him, the lm 

emphasizes the withdrawal of the interpersonal self over 

the experience of the ecological self. Thus the viscerality 

of the protagonist’s movement through space is not made 

available to be shared by the viewer; the visibility of his 

consumption of the sausage, corporeal as that act may be, 

is only a minimal consolation. 

Travel and the traversal of space are key features of 

the lms in question here, in that they seek to facilitate 

the localization of the self within space through the 

distinctions they make between here and there, self and 

other. In essence, although not all of the protagonists 

in these lms leave their home cities. These two lms 

address the notion of tourism as put forth by Georges 

Van den Abbeele, when he writes that, “it is through 

the accumulation of experiences gleaned from cultural 

interaction that the individual is supposed to be able to 

situate himself in society. Not only is the number of one’s 

experiences a sign of one’s social worth (people with 

lots of experience are considered better than those with 

fewer), but one’s very involvement in a cultural experience 

is supposed to authenticate one’s membership in the 

society in which this experience takes place.… Tourism 

is seen to fulll the ideological function of palliating the 

individual’s sense of ‘alienation’” (Van den Abbeele 1980, p. 5). It is 

thus the tourist’s implicit project to situate herself within 

the group that is constituted around her, in an attempt 

to alleviate her own isolation. But in what fashion is the 

activity of tourism related to that of lm reception? If, 

following his argument, the protagonist of a lm may 

be seen to be situating herself in society by means of 

cultural interaction, how may the lm viewer participate 

in this exercise? 

In her Atlas of Emotion: Journeys in Art, Architecture, 

and Film, Giuliana Bruno suggests that the spatial 

effects evoked both by the traversal of urban space and by 

lm viewing are each capable of producing a similar kind 

of experience. She argues that, “The spatial culture that 

lm has developed, offering its own vedute, is a mobile 

architectonics of traveled space. Film’s spectatorship is 

thus a practice of space that is dwelt in, as in the built 

environment. The itinerary of such a practice is similarly 

drawn by the visitor to a city or its resident, who goes 

to the highest point—a hill, a skyscraper, a tower—to 

project herself onto the cityscape, and who also engages 

the anatomy of the streets, the city’s underbelly, as she 

traverses different urban congurations. Such a multiplicity 

of perspectives, a montage of ‘traveling’ shots 

with diverse viewpoints and rhythms, also guides the 

cinema and its way of site-seeing” (Bruno 2002, p. 62). Like 

the tourist who may seek to gain an overview of the realm 

that is open to her, the lm viewer is offered a range 

of perspectives, which are suggestive of a similar kind 

of traversal, and therefore offer a means of situating the 

self both spatially and culturally. This act of getting 

one’s bearings is all the more stirring, according to 


167

eference, both questioning and celebrating the ways 

in which—despite the mutations our landscapes have 

endured—their seasons might still resonate with those 

of their inhabitants and visitors. 

One might insist that the very concept of landscape 

was invented and aesthetically theorized by those classic 

artists and painters, and that landscape art and theory 

are still living on this legacy. Rohmer’s lms both 

conrm and question this statement. If they are obviously 

penetrated by this reference and classical culture—both 

pictorial and literary—which they occasionally revisit as 

in his last opus devoted to L’Astrée (Les amours d’Astrée 

et de Céladon, F 2007), they show at the same time that 

cinema has considerably reexplored and renewed the 

genre, and that contemporary theorists should indeed 

mine the exceptionally rich jurisprudence and intelligence 

accumulated by the moving image throughout the last 

century. In this respect, Rohmer’s trajectory is just an 

example among many others, but a particularly consistent 

one, which is what we now have to demonstrate. 

Posters of the four lms of Eric Rohmers lm series Contes des quatre saisons. 

Frédéric Poussin, Les Quatre Saisons, 1660–1664. 

Slow Motion: The Birth of a Film Director 

Rohmer, a specialist of German literature and a writer—he 

wrote the novel La Maison d’Elisabeth in 1946—made a 

living as a literature teacher for many years in different 

colleges. Very early on, he developed a passion for movies 

and cinema, which led him to write a doctoral thesis on The 

Organization of Space in Murnau’s Faust, later published 

as a book, and to become a very prolic lm critic: rst, in 

La Gazette du Cinéma, a journal he launched; and then 

in the famous Cahiers du Cinéma, where he served as 

chief editor from 1957 to 1963. Together with his younger 

friends Jean-Luc Godard, Jacques Rivette, François 

Truffaut, and Claude Chabrol—with whom he co-authored 

a book on Hitchcock in 1957—he became one of the main 

gures of the Nouvelle Vague. It is important to mention 

that Rohmer was the eldest of the group, a rather discreet 

and reserved person, extremely polite and gentle, absorbed 

in his work, with a touch of shyness—but an extreme 

dose of independence—very far from the image of the 

young wolf of a new generation that was soon attached to 


179

Other Documentaries, other Mutations 

In the following years, Rohmer made several other 

documentaries on specic mutations in townscapes 

and landscapes. In Une étudiante à Paris (F 1964), for 

instance, he described how student life and environment 

were changing at the time, showing the new campuses 

that were then being built in the periphery (Palaiseau, 

Jussieu). The old, famous, and central “Quartier Latin” 

was no longer the great ecological niche of knowledge in 

the city, but just one among several hubs burgeoning in 

a swarming metropolis. Students, likewise, weren’t the 

specic horde they used to be, quartered in dedicated 

haunts or districts, but male and female bachelors 

commuting like other workers between their homes, 

“cités,” and their universities or teaching facilities. 

Here again, the ambition is to observe rather than 

criticize, to bear witness to the ongoing transformations 

of life conditions and habits by describing with a kind 

of willed (though perplexed) sympathy the new spaces, 

architectures, and territories that they produce. Nice 

and empathic views of the streamlined and rather desert 

subscape of Jussieu. As we saw with Métamorphoses du 

Paysage, Rohmer does not conne his testimony to the 

urban condition, but extends it well beyond the limits 

of the city. In Fermière à Montfaucon (F 1967), a short 

documentary where the theme of the four seasons plays a 

structural role, he follows a young farmer in her “works 

and days” along the year, as she collects the eggs on a cold 

early spring morning, drives the harvester through the 

wheat elds in summer, picks apples with her husband on 

a September evening, and makes errands or deliveries— 

either with her light truck on the country roads, or by 

foot through the mud and snows of winter. Short hair, 

rubber-boots, machines, discreet involvement in the parish 

council, meetings at the local chamber of agriculture: 

a sober, populated and local portrait of the evolutions 

taking place in the rural world. 

Investigating the Villes Nouvelles 

Interestingly for us, Rohmer’s concern and empathy for 

landscapes, territories, cities, and their mutations are not 

purely contemplative, but eager to tackle their reasons, to 

understand the ways they are or might be addressed and 

improved by politics and designers. This profound interest 

in the actual making, the studio, and construction site 

of our cities and territories is most apparent in the long 

documentary Villes Nouvelles (F 1975), which in four 

episodes, Rohmer, along with Jean-Paul Pigeat, devoted 

to the design of the French Villes Nouvelles in the early 

nineteen-seventies. The rst part, entitled “Enfance d’une 

ville” (Childhood of a city), documents the development 

of Cergy-Pontoise, one of the ve New Towns that were 

then being built in the greater Paris area. After a short 

introduction by the two authors, the lm begins in the 

ofce of the New Town’s Établissement Public, where its 

director, sitting or standing in front of the plan, exposes 

the main ideas and planning principles. The interview is 

regularly interrupted by shots and sequences showing the 

territory in question: the old villages still surviving with 

the bell tower standing against a cloudy sky; sites under 

construction where massive concrete buildings emerge 

behind the roofs of suburban pavilions, elds of lettuce 

and wheat; conversations on-site with perplexed farmers 

whose lands have been reallocated; and, from a vantage 

point, a long panoramic sequence over the whole territory 

that the Ville Nouvelle—not yet completed but already 

rising everywhere—will eventually cover, ending up on 

a loop of the Seine where all the farmlands should give 

way to Cergy-Pontoise’s Central Park. In this particular 

instance, Rohmer’s empathy for the situation and the 

burgeoning city is clearly palpable, and it almost feels as if 

the documentary was also—unconsciously(?)—a location 

scouting expedition: reality morphing into ction. The 

second episode, “La diversité du paysage urbain” (The 

diversity of the urban landscape), develops as an extensive 


187

are absorbed in the detail of those scenes, which literally 

melt into one another, forming a continuous fabric of 

trees, paths, and clearings that you can populate with 

dreams and memories. Jean-Baptiste has drawn some 

scenes of his childhood memories on a little canvas that 

can be superimposed in specic places onto the wallpaper 

and be made to t exactly in the landscape. 

Sketches for the lm L’anglaise et le duc by Jean-Baptiste Marot. 

Wallpaper designed by Jean-Baptiste Marot. 

Rem Koolhaas once wrote, speaking of architects and 

designers: “We can make things, but not necessarily make 

them real” (Koolhaas 1995). What we learn from Rohmer, 

and from his careful short-circuits between documentary 

and ction, is that there is quite a difference between 

faking reality—a tiring spectacle nowadays—and 

achieving some degree of poetic verisimilitude. In fact, I 

am not sure I have any conclusion to offer, other than my 

faith that this combination of documentary and ction, 

attention, and imagination could be furthered and fruitfully 

emulated in our elds, so as to enlighten the plots 

our landscapes are pregnant with. Instead of attempting 

to wrap it up, I’ll end my text with some images of wallpaper 

that my brother is currently designing. At a certain 

distance, it looks like a new kind of “toile de Jouy,” those 

garments of repeated decorated patterns that generally 

depicted complex pastoral scenes and were very popular 

in the late eighteenth century. Except that the interwoven 

landscapes are here denser, lled with both banal and 

weird industrial constructions, covered by trees, a water 

tower, a metro entrance, concrete sheds, a power line steel 

pylon, an advertising board, etc. As you get closer, you 

Finally, here is an image of his son and one of my daughters 

parading as little Rohmerian gures against this 

landscaped wall. I hope their generation will count a fair 

number of thoughtful Zoes. 

References 

Elliott, Grace: During the Reign of Terror: Journal of My 

Life During the French Revolution, London 1859. 

Koolhaas, Rem: “Singapore Songlines.” In: S, M, L, XL. 

Rotterdam 1995, p. 1,077. 


201

Authors 

Elena Cogato Lanza is an architect and Senior 

Lecturer at the Laboratory for Construction and 

Conservation, Faculty ENAC, EPFL. Her research eld 

is characterized by an ongoing intersection between the 

history of urbanism and the theory of contemporary 

urban and landscape projects. She has been an expert 

for the French Ministry of Culture and Communication 

in the frame of the interdisciplinary research program 

“L’architecture de la grande échelle” and of the 

development and research program “Le Grand Pari(s) 

de l’agglomération parisienne.” Among her publications: 

Maurice Braillard et ses urbanistes, Geneva 2003; 

“Exposer l’architecture,” monographic issue of FACES, 

journal d’architecture, No. 53, Geneva 2003; Les experts 

de la Reconstruction. Figures et stratégies de l’élite 

technique dans l’Europe d’après 1945, Geneva 2009. 

Robin Curtis, born in Toronto, is Professor for 

Theory and Practice of Audiovisual Media at the 

Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf. She is also 

a lmmaker and curator. Her publications include: 

Conscientious Viscerality. The Autobiographical Stance 

in German Film and Video, Berlin 2006; Einfühlung. Zu 

Geschichte und Gegenwart eines ästhetischen Konzepts, 

Munich 2008 (with Gertrud Koch); Synästhesie-Effekte. 

Zur Intermodalität der ästhetischen Wahrnehmung, 

Munich 2011 (with Marc Glöde and Gertrud Koch); 

Synchronisierung der Künste, Munich 2012 (with Gertrud 

Koch and Marc Siegel, forthcoming). 

Eelco Hooftm an was born in 1960 and, together 

with Bridget Baines, is co-founder of GROSS. M A X. 

Landscape Architects. Between 1990 and 2008, he 

taught at the School of Landscape Architecture at 

Edinburgh College of Art and was co-founder of an 

innovative post-graduate program Art, Space, and 

Nature. Hooftman is visiting studio instructor at GSD, 

Harvard and integrates theory and practice of landscape 

architecture in an extensive output of international 

projects and award-winning competition designs. Current 

projects include a Master Plan for Royal Botanic Gardens 

Kew, the transformation of Berlin’s former Tempelhof 

Airport into a public park, and the design of 800-hectare 

park for the city of Chengdu, China. 

Janik e K a mpevold Larsen holds a PhD in 

Comparative Literature. She is Associate Professor at 

the Institute of Urbanism and Design, Oslo School of 

Architecture and Design and has been working extensively 

on post-phenomenological philosophy, aesthetics, 

and in literary texts with productive descriptions of 

reality and particularly landscape. Her PhD is on the 

Norwegian writer Tor Ulven and the dynamics between 

imagination and description in literary texts. 

Sébastien M a rot was born in Paris in 1961. He 

holds a PhD in History. Between 1995 and 2003 he 

founded and edited the journal Le Visiteur. Marot is 

a founding member and a Professor of the Ecole d’architecture 

de la ville & des territoires de Marne-la-Vallée, 

where he is also the editorial director. He has taught in 

various schools of architecture or landscape in Europe and 

North America including the Architectural Association 

School of Architecture in London, ETH Zurich, Harvard 

University, and Cornell University. His writings and 

research on landscape architecture were awarded the 

Médaille de l’analyse architecturale in 2004 and with the 

Prix de la recherche in 2010, both from the Académie 

d’architecture Française. He edited the French issue of 

essays by André Corboz, Le Territoire comme palimpseste, 

Paris 2001; translated the essays of John Brinckerhoff 

Jackson, La Nécessité des Ruines et autres sujets, Paris 

2004; and is the author of L’Art de la mémoire, le territoire 

et l’architecture, Paris 2010 (published in English as 

Sub-Urbanism and the Art of Memory, London 2003). 

Volk er Pantenburg is Assistant Professor of 

Moving Images at the Bauhaus University Weimar 

and Junior Director of the Internationales Kolleg 

für Medienphilosophie und Kulturtechnikforschung 

(IK K M). His book publications include Film als Theorie. 

Bildforschung bei Harun Farocki und Jean-Luc Godard, 

Bielefeld 2006; Ränder des Kinos. Godard–Benning– 

Wiseman–Costa, Köln 2010 and Screen Dynamics. 

Mapping the Boders of Cinema, Vienna 2012 (co-editor). 

Frédéric Pousin is an architect, Director of 

research at CNRS, and Professor at the National 

Superior School of Landscape in Versailles where he is 

director of the school’s research laboratory. His research 

focuses on urban landscapes and the epistemological 

value of visuality in architecture and urbanism. His 

writings have appeared in Annales de la recherche urbaine, 

Carnets du paysage, Cahiers de la recherche architecturale 

et urbaine, Rassegna and Werk, Bauen + Wohnen. His 

books include Signes, Histoire, Fictions. Autour de Louis 

Marin, Paris 2003 (with Sylvie Robic); Figures de la 

ville et construction des savoirs, architecture, urbanisme, 

géographie, Paris 2005; and Paysage urbain: genèse, 

représentations, enjeux contemporains, Paris 2007 (with 

Helena Jannière). 

Christi an Schmid is Professor of Sociology at 

the Department of Architecture of ETH Zurich and 

researcher at ETH Studio Basel, Switzerland. He is 

the author of Stadt, Raum und Gesellschaft: Henri 

Lefebvre und die Produktion des Raumes, Stuttgart 

2005, and co-author of Switzerland—An Urban Portrait, 

Basel-Boston-Berlin 2007 (with Roger Diener, Jacques 

Herzog, Marcel Meili, Pierre de Meuron). His writing 

and teaching focus on theories of space and urbanization, 

comparative urban studies, and urban social movements. 

203

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