Metaphors in Conceptual Design - Berkeley Expert Systems ...

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Exploration, Design Methods Are Maps, Guides, Signposts or aCompass. When Design is viewed as Problem Solving,Problems Are more often seen as Puzzles to be solved; ratherthan searching in the wrong area, it becomes possible to solvethe wrong problem.In this way, our understanding of design is hierarchical andis reflected in the metaphors we use. At the highest level is ourview of design itself. Beneath that, our understanding ofdesign’s core concepts changes according to the designmetaphor currently in use.This use of metaphor in our understanding of designcontrasts with the use of analogy in design which is usedprimarily as a design tool, in particular during the conceptgeneration phase [42] by making a connection with an existingproduct or system.Some metaphors are largely universalWhile we observed that many metaphors are largelyspecific to an author's philosophical, and even personal,approach to design, such as Design Methods Are Maps, othermetaphors appear largely universal and were shared by allauthors. These include metaphors such as Ideas Are Food, andIdeas Are Plants as in “I need time to digest your ideas,” and “Ihave the seeds of an idea.” These metaphors appear largelyfamiliar as they are reflected in common language. Comparedto everyday language, however, design discourse has a morediverse range of metaphors for the same concepts, for example,Problems Are Gaps In A Solution Space. We believe thisreflects a more nuanced understanding of these conceptsderiving from greater use and discussion.Specific implicationsLastly we examine some of the implications from specificmetaphors identified in the study, as well as limitations of thestudy.Ideas Are Tangible, Physical ObjectsMany metaphors for ideas refer to Ideas As Tangible,Physical Objects. Physical Objects have certain commonaffordances such as occupying a location, being possessions,originating somewhere, being modifiable and so on. Thismetaphor is reinforced by our experience of ‘capturing’ an ideaon a Post-It or with a sketch. An interesting conflict, however,is that the nature of ideas is often very different from the natureof physical objects. We believe this mismatch is the cause ofmany difficulties and conflicts during the design process.To see that ideas don’t always behave as physical objectswe need only consider that when you give an idea to someoneelse you still ‘have’ it. Ideas do not add up in the same way asobjects. Michael Reddy’s Conduit Metaphor discusses howwords, in effect, act as containers for ideas. Following thismetaphor when we capture an idea in writing, on a Post-It say,the idea is contained within those words; it is captured. Yetdesign team members can, and regularly do, interpret thosewords in different ways than intended. After handing someonean idea it can be dangerous to assume that they then also havethe same idea. We construct an idea from the words, it is nottransferred in the words. It can therefore be very misleading totreat Ideas As Tangible, Physical Objects, as in many ways theydo not behave like them at all. The notion that Ideas AreTangible, Physical Objects also underlies the system ofIntellectual Property. If Ideas Are Objects then they can bepossessed, protected, and even stolen.Ideas Are ChildrenIdeas are also conceptualized As Living Entities, in somecases Children, as when we talk about an idea being born,growing, being nurtured or being your brainchild. Inventors areoften known to refer to their invention as their ‘baby.’ Nowonder the threat of an idea being stolen is a serious one, aswhen a team member attacks your idea. This commonmetaphor may also explain the tendency for designers to fixateon a single or small number of initial designs [43]. The Ideasare Children metaphor could also be viewed as a specializedform of Ideas are Living Entities, which can evolve, grow, benurtured, be killed, be dangerous, etc.Finding solutionsWithin the Design Is Search paradigm, Solutions aretypically seen as both Objects and Locations. It is thesemetaphors that enable us to find, discover and search forsolutions. These metaphors hide the assumptions that solutionsalready exist and simply need to be found; with enoughsearching in the right place you will find them. An alternativeview is “The good idea is not discovered or undiscovered; itcomes, it happens,” [32] p.75. Yet, it is rarely the case thatsolutions are found ready-made. These metaphors lead us awayfrom the more collaborative notions that Solutions can beconstructed and evolve as you build an understanding of thedesign situation.Incoherent metaphorsOur analysis also highlights the remarkable range ofconceptualizations we hold for such a universal design conceptas a Problem. When Problems can be seen as Puzzles,Formulas, Gaps, Barriers, Objects, and Locations not surprisingthat there is continued debate and disagreement as to the natureof design problems. Our analysis shows that our views ofdesign problems stem not only from the circumstances of thedesign situation but also the overall philosophy for design ofthe designer. When these philosophies diverge, debate can bedifficult at a more specific level as we find ourselves literallytalking about different things.Creative designWe observed that references to creative design typicallytook several forms. For example, Ideas appear involuntarily orspontaneously, they are triggered or they emerge uncalled for.Our metaphorical understanding of this process sees the Ideasthemselves as out of our control and moving of their own8 Copyright © 2007 by ASME
volition. Creative inspiration employs the metaphor KnowingIs Seeing with Ideas Are Light Sources [2]. In this way, Ideasare the illumination, the creative spark or the flash that light upa portion of the design space or illuminate a solution directly.Finally, the metaphor Problems Are Gaps or Obstacles leadsunderstandably to the common notion of the ‘creative leap.” Inthe creative leap we move locations, and therefore states, viathe common metaphor States Are Locations [6].The ‘out of our control’ nature of metaphors for creativeideas, together with the spontaneity implied takes the emphasisoff the hard work that is needed for creative design. ConsiderEdison’s mantra “Genius is 1% inspiration and 99%perspiration,” or the advice of Bernie Roth at StanfordUniversity that “Hard work is the best creativity method Iknow” [44]. The metaphors also highlight the individualcontribution of creative activity perpetuating the myth of thelone inventor and down playing the role of constructivecollaboration in teams.Summary and future workMetaphors are frequently used in the design process. Thisresearch qualitatively describes their use in a representativesample of textbooks in engineering design. This research laysthe foundation for future work in identifying how metaphorscan enrich and expand the design process and where they mayinhibit or restrict creative design.Following an analysis of the language used in the conceptgeneration chapters of nine widely used engineering designtextbooks we presented both the metaphors in use for the coredesign concepts of Ideas, Problems and Solutions, as well asthe overall metaphor for design itself. We found that differentoverall perspectives on design leads to different metaphors forthe core design concepts. For example, a view of Design IsSearch is likely to employ the metaphor Problems AreLocations, whereas a view of Design Is Decomposition is likelyto employ the metaphor Problems Are Objects.We are following several avenues for further research. Weintend to develop this study by comparing the metaphors in useby design authors and the impact on the more concrete designmethods they recommend. By extending the analysis beyondthe conceptual design chapters we also hope to evaluate ifpatterns are present throughout the entire approach of anauthor. Also, while this study draws on the metaphors in use indesign education as ‘transmitted’ through design textbooks, weintend to verify whether the same metaphors are in use bydesign students after studying product development. To this endwe are currently repeating the analysis using verbal protocolanalysis of design discourse from design students. As our goalis to better understand how metaphors affect creative design wefurther hope to test the effect of different metaphor models fordesign through experiment.ACKNOWLEGDEMENTSWe thank Alan Shih for his assistance in data gathering andanalysis for this study. This research was partially funded byNSF grant DUE-0428935REFERENCES[1] Boroditsky, L. Metaphoric Structuring: Understandingtime through spatial metaphors. Cognition, 2000, 75(1),1-28.[2] Lakoff G. and Johnson M. Metaphors we live by, 1980(University of Chicago, Chicago)[3] Kövecses Z. Metaphor: A Practical Introduction. 2002(Oxford University Press, New York).[4] Kelley T. and Littman J. The Art of Innovation, 2001(Doubleday, New York).[5] Gabora L. Cognitive mechanisms underlying thecreative process. In Proceedings Creativity andCognition IV, Loughborough, 2002, pp.126-133.[6] Lakoff G. and Johnson M. Philosophy in the Flesh: TheEmbodied Mind and its Challenge to Western Thought,1999 (Basic Books, New York).[7] Gentner D. and Gentner D.R. Flowing waters orteeming crowds: Mental models of electricity. InGentner D. and Stevens A.L. (Eds) Mental Models,1982, pp. 99-129 (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,Hillsdale, NJ).[8] Carroll J.M. Mack R.L. and Kellogg W.A. InterfaceMetaphors and User Interface Design. In Helander M.(Ed.), Handbook of Human-Computer Interaction,1988, pp.67-85 (Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.,North- Holland).[9] Maglio P.P. and Matlock T. The conceptual structure ofinformation space. In Munro A. Benyon D. and Hook K.(Eds.), Social navigation of information space, 1999,pp.155-173 (Springer Verlag, London).[10] Cooper A. The Myth of Metaphor. Visual BasicProgrammers Journal, 1995.[11] Lawler J.M. Metaphors We Compute By. In Hickey D.(Ed) Figures of Thought: For College Writers, 1999,pp.411-422 (Mayfield Publishing, Mountain View).[12] Mohnkern K. Beyond the interface metaphor. SIGCHIBulletin, 1997, 29(2), pp.11-15.[13] Stubblefield W.A. Patterns of Change in DesignMetaphor: A Case Study, Proceedings of the SIGCHIconference on Human factors in computing systems, LosAngeles, California, April 1998, pp.73-80.[14] Nonaka I. The Knowledge-Creating Company. HarvardBusiness Review, 69, 1991, pp.96-104.[15] Hertzfeld A. Bicycle. Retrieved January 2007, fromhttp://www.folklore.org/StoryView.py?project=Macintosh&story=Bicycle.txt[16] Schon D.A. Generative metaphor: a perspective onproblem setting in social policy. In Ortony A. (Ed)Metaphor and Thought, 1979, pp 254-283 (CambridgeUniversity Press).9 Copyright © 2007 by ASME
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