Rangelands and Pasturelands - Manitoba Forestry Association

MANITOBA ENVIROTHONRangelands andPasturelandsTheme Document 2013Lindsey Andronak, Barbara Fuller and Mae Elsinger

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationPrefaceThis document was written by Lindsey Andronak (University of Manitoba), Mae Elsinger (Agriculture andAgri-Food Canada), and Barbara Fuller (Education Committee, Manitoba Envirothon) for the ManitobaEnvirothon, a core program of THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Association. The objective of thedocument is to provide Manitoba Envirothon participants with information on the 2013 topic:Sustainable Rangeland Management. Case studies are highlighted throughout the document in order topresent the concepts learned within a Manitoba context.AcknowledgementsThe authors would like to thank Ellen Cobb-Friesen, Elaine Gauer, Glenn Peterson and Jane Thornton fortheir expertise, guidance and support while preparing this document.Manitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document1

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationExecutive SummaryRangeland contributes immensely to a sustainable agricultural economy. Rangeland provides forage andhabitat for domestic livestock and wildlife. Recently there has been increasing demands on therangeland for a multi-use concept. Multi use includes hunting, precious metals, fuel (gas, coal)exploration and recreational uses such as; access to fishing, bird-watching, hiking, snowmobiling, crosscountryskiing, trail bike/ATV riding. Today, management methodologies vary greatly while attemptingto balance rangeland uses that result in maximized benefits to all.Rangeland has seen major changes from the large bison herds on the prairies during the 1800s, to thehomesteading days during the early 1900s, to the multi-uses and management of today’s rangeland. Itis estimated that before settlement, there were 61.5 million hectares of native grassland in theCanadian prairies, providing a home for specially adapted, diverse plant and animal life. Currently, thereare 20.0 million hectares of rangeland and pastureland grazed by livestock, with 10% of that total inManitoba. Prairie ecosystems thrive on the intermittent disturbance brought by frequent fire and theirregular mosaic of vegetation carved out by the periodic passage of native grazers (bison, elk, muledeer, white-tailed deer, and antelope). These disturbances and subsequent renewals have shaped thelife cycle of every native prairie organism.As our knowledge of rangeland has increased, it became evident that what helps the rancher is oftengood for wildlife. In this grazing-dependent ecosystem, many species of both plants and animals rely onthe presence of large grazing animals. Properly managed rangeland can provide a sustainable agricultureeconomy and healthy rangelands for future generations.Manitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document2

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationTable of ContentsExecutive Summary .................................................................................................................................................................................. 22013 Learning Outcomes: Rangelands and Pasturelands .................................................................................................. 5What is Rangeland and Pastureland? ............................................................................................................................................... 7Importance of Rangelands and Pasturelands: Goods and Services ..................................................................................... 8Who uses rangelands and for what purpose? ............................................................................................................................... 9Settlement and Cultivation of Rangelands.................................................................................................................................... 10Rangeland and Pastureland Ownership, Management and Rights .................................................................................... 12Rangeland and Pastureland on the Canadian Prairies ............................................................................................................ 15Ecological Communities ........................................................................................................................................................................ 15Wetlands and Riparian Areas ....................................................................................................................................................... 16Uplands ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17Forested Rangeland ........................................................................................................................................................................... 18Interactions among ecological communities .......................................................................................................................... 19Grasslands of Manitoba ......................................................................................................................................................................... 20Tall Grass Prairie ................................................................................................................................................................................ 20Northern Mixed Grass Prairie ....................................................................................................................................................... 22Parkland/Northern Fescue ............................................................................................................................................................ 23Ecoregions ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 24Aspen Parkland ................................................................................................................................................................................... 24Boreal Transition ................................................................................................................................................................................ 25Lake Manitoba Plain .......................................................................................................................................................................... 26Interlake Plain ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 26Mid Boreal Upland ............................................................................................................................................................................. 27Ecological Processes of Rangeland and Pastureland ............................................................................................................... 281. Energy flow ................................................................................................................................................................................ 282. Nutrient cycling ........................................................................................................................................................................ 283. Water Cycling ............................................................................................................................................................................ 294. Carbon Sequestration ............................................................................................................................................................ 305. Plant Succession ....................................................................................................................................................................... 316. Disturbance ................................................................................................................................................................................ 31Rangeland and Pastureland Plant Identification ....................................................................................................................... 32Growth Forms ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 34Parts of Plants ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 34Basic Glossary of Plant Parts .............................................................................................................................................................. 37Manitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document3

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationInvasive Plant Species ............................................................................................................................................................................ 39Negative Plant Impacts on Animal Productivity ........................................................................................................................ 40Sustainable Rangeland and Pastureland Management ........................................................................................................... 41What is Sustainable Management? ............................................................................................................................................. 41Risks and Challenges for Sustainability .................................................................................................................................... 42Basic Rangeland and Pastureland Management Concepts .................................................................................................... 43Types and Classes of Livestock .................................................................................................................................................... 43Interactions between Wildlife and Livestock ........................................................................................................................ 44Competition between Wildlife and Livestock for Food ..................................................................................................... 45Pathogen Transmission between Wildlife and Livestock ................................................................................................ 45Grazing Management Principles and Practices ..................................................................................................................... 46Beneficial Management Practices (BMPs) .................................................................................................................................... 48Grazing Management Plans ............................................................................................................................................................ 48Selected Types of Grazing Systems ............................................................................................................................................. 49Strategies for Wetland and Riparian Area Management .................................................................................................. 50Sustainable Pastureland Mixes ..................................................................................................................................................... 50Other Beneficial Management Practices .................................................................................................................................. 51Calculations related to Grazing Management Planning .......................................................................................................... 52Forage Production – How much forage does the land produce? ................................................................................... 52Available Forage Supply: How much feed do I have? ......................................................................................................... 53How many animals can I feed? ..................................................................................................................................................... 53What if I don’t have cows? What if I also have calves and yearlings? ......................................................................... 54Stocking Rate, Carrying Capacity and Stocking Density .................................................................................................... 55Sample Grazing Calculations ......................................................................................................................................................... 56Riparian, Rangeland and Pastureland Assessment .................................................................................................................. 59Riparian Health Assessment ............................................................................................................................................................... 59What is Range Condition? ............................................................................................................................................................... 60What is Rangeland Health? How is it different from Range Condition? ..................................................................... 62Glossary……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....65Appendix A…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…..80Appendix B……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………..93Appendix C…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………..97Manitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document4

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Association2013 Learning Outcomes: Rangelands and PasturelandsAs a result of studying Rangelands and Pasturelands: Theme Document 2013, students will be able to:What is Rangeland and Pastureland1. Define rangeland and pastureland2. Describe the economic, social and environmental importance of rangeland and pastureland3. List the ecological services and products provided by rangeland and pastureland4. List the multiple users of rangelands and pastureland and describe their needs and wants5. Describe the historical uses and development of Manitoba’s rangeland and pastureland byhumans, domestic livestock and wildlife6. Describe the effect of historical uses and development on rangeland and pastureland plantcommunities7. Define public and private land as it relates to rangeland and pastureland and list some examples8. Describe the rights of the private landowner of rangeland and pastureland9. Describe the rights of the public on public rangeland and pastureland10. Describe the amount and proportion of agricultural land in Manitoba and the other prairieprovinces that is rangeland and pasturelandRangeland and Pastureland Ecology11. Define ecological site with respect to rangeland and pastureland12. Describe different rangeland and pastureland ecological communities13. Describe three types of grasslands found in Manitoba14. Describe ways these different ecological communities interact on rangeland and pastureland15. Describe the five ecoregions in Manitoba in which Manitoba’s rangelands and pasturelands canbe found16. Describe ecological processes on rangeland and pasturelandRangeland and Pastureland Plants17. Identify some common native herbaceous and woody forage plants of Manitoba18. Identify some common non-native forage species used in Manitoba pastureland19. Identify some common invasive plant species encountered in Manitoba rangeland andpastureland20. Differentiate among plant growth forms21. Identify parts of grass, grass-like plants, forbs, and woody species22. Describe the effects of invasive plant species on rangeland and pastureland23. Describe some possible negative effects of plants on animal productivityRangeland and Pastureland ManagementManitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document5

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Association24. Define sustainable management of rangeland and pastureland25. Describe some risks to the sustainability of rangeland and pastureland26. Name different classes and types of livestock27. Describe how different types and classes of livestock use rangelands and pasturelands.28. Describe how livestock may interact with wildlife species29. Describe basic rangeland and pastureland management concepts30. Describe some Beneficial Management Practices (BMPs) for improving and sustaining rangelandand pastureland31. Perform calculations and conversions related to rangeland and pastureland managementconceptsRangeland and Pastureland Assessment32. Describe how a Riparian Health Assessment is conducted on rangeland and pastureland withinthe Canadian Prairies33. Describe the fundamental difference between Rangeland Health Assessment and RangeCondition Assessment34. Describe how a Range Condition Assessment is conducted on rangeland and pastureland withinthe Canadian Prairies35. Describe how a Rangeland Health Assessment is conducted on rangeland and pastureland withinthe Canadian Prairies, including how each component indicates the function of the rangeland orpastureland.36. Describe how the different Rangeland Health and Range Condition rating categories relate tothe sustainability of rangeland and pastureland.37. Describe the appropriate management responses to the different Rangeland Health or RangeCondition rating categories for rangeland and pastureland.Manitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document6

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationWhat is Rangeland and Pastureland?The definitions of rangeland and pastureland are complex. The Montana Envirothon Committee (thisyear’s host) defines rangeland as “land on which the plant community is comprised of predominatelynative or indigenous grasses, grass-like plants (e.g. sedges), forbs and/or shrubs. Rangeland includesnatural grasslands, savannas, shrublands, most deserts, tundra, alpine communities, coastal marshesand wet meadows”. Montana defines pastureland as “grazing lands comprised of introduced ordomesticated native forage species that are used primarily for the production of livestock. They receiveperiodic renovation and/or cultural treatments such as tillage, fertilization, mowing, weed control andmay be irrigated. They are not in rotation with crops”.In Manitoba, three factors require adjustments to these definitions: 1) widespread introduction of nonnativespecies, 2) greater overlap of wild herbivores or livestock with tree-dominated plantcommunities, and 3) the need for using certain cultural practices where historical practices areinappropriate (i.e. replacing fire and bison grazing with herbicide application, mowing, timber harvest,Figure 1 - Example of a Northern Mixed GrassPrairie Rangeland in Southwestern Manitobaand targeted grazing to control weeds and brushexpansion). Thus, we will consider rangeland to beany land which is not cultivated or irrigated andprovides food for animals who graze (eatherbaceous, non-woody forages) or browse (eatparts of woody plant species). This means thatManitoba’s rangelands include forested andgrassland communities that are grazable as well ascommunities that are invaded by exotic plants suchas Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, creepingbentgrass, white clover, Canada thistle and leafyspurge (Figure 1). This would even include lands innorthern Manitoba that provide grazing, browsing, and habitat for wild ungulates such as caribou andmoose. As in Montana’s definition, Manitoba’s pasturelands include those grazing lands seeded withtame or native forages that are regularly renovated and/or managed with fertilization, mowing andherbicide application. Irrigation is an unlikely pastureland management tool in Manitoba.Manitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document7

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationWhat are Ecosystem Services and Products?Ecosystem services and products are the transformation ofa set of natural assets (soil, plants and animals, air andwater) into things that we value. To learn how rangelandsand pasturelands do this, see the Ecological ProcessesSection.Examples of Rangeland Ecosystem Services and Productsadapted from Holechek et al, 2011ServicesClimatic stabilityWater and air purificationNutrient cyclingBiodiversityHuman waste decomposition and detoxificationOrganic matter decompositionOzone maintenancePest and disease controlAesthetic value Outdoor recreationProductsWaterFood (meat, fruit, vegetables, nuts)Fiber (leather, wool)MedicineEnergy (fossil fuels, bio-fuels, hydro, solar, wind andthermal power)Minerals (gold, iron, silver, lead)WildlifeFishTimber, pulp and paperImportance ofRangelands andPasturelands: Goods andServicesRangelands provide an importantsource of feed for ruminants(cows, goats, sheep, deer,moose, elk), which in turn are asource of protein from meat andmilk for human populations.Rangelands that still exist todaymainly occur on marginal landthat is not suitable for cultivatedagriculture, allowing rangelandsto assist in world foodproduction. Grazing animalsprovide products such as wooland leather which are used tomake textile products.Rangelands provide habitat forwildlife which provideopportunities for hunting andaesthetic viewing.Rangelands with a forestcomponent may be used for timber or pulp and paper production.Water is also an important rangeland product. From surface water in wetlands, streams and lakes togroundwater, water in rangelands is used agriculturally, industrially and domestically.Outdoor recreational activities abound in rangeland regions. They provide some of the last easilyaccessible tracts of open spaces. Hiking, camping, picnicking, geocaching, horseback riding, hunting andfishing are just a few of the many activities one may pursue. Many of the aforementioned activities alsoManitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document8

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationhave an economic value associated with them. For example, vacationing at a dude ranch where visitorsexperience the life of a cowboy is a popular tourist activity in the mid-western United States and awelcome source of “eco-tourism” income.Who uses rangelands and for what purpose?Presently, there are many users of rangelands, which frequently results in conflicts regarding howrangelands should be managed. The primary users of rangelands are livestock producers who arelooking for an economic gain from land areas that are unsuitable for agricultural cultivation (Figure 2).Many times, raising livestock is part of a family business thatallows producers to be their own boss while providing forthemselves and/or their family. Producers want versatility tomake choices on how to manage land and livestock. Theyappreciate having wildlife on their land, provided theirnegative interactions are minimal or absent (depredation ofhay supplies, diseases, predation by wolves, coyotes andFigure 2 Cattle on a rangelandcougars). To accomplish their goals, producers needinfrastructure (water sources, fencing options, wintering options), inputs (fertilizer, chemical, seed, fuel),equipment (balers, seeders, windbreaks, tractors) and tools (budget planners, record books, pasturelandassessments, stocking rate calculators, information on various grazing systems and practices) availableto them so they can make choices on how to manage the landscape and their livestock. Producers alsowant a good public reputation for healthy, environmentally sustainable, safe and ethical foodproduction.Consumers want rangelands to provide them with safe and affordable food that is produced in anethical manner. They are concerned with safe and secure water supplies.Conservationists want secure habitat for wildlife while sustaining or increasing their populations,maintaining or increasing biodiversity of all animal and plant types, safeguarding genetic diversity andretaining ecological integrity. They want to limit irreversible damage by industrial activity, recreationaltraffic, overgrazing, or exotic species invasion.Local residents, land users and visitors want an aesthetically pleasing, odour free landscape to look at orlive close to and local food sources that are safe and affordable and ethically produced. They also wantManitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document9

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationsafe and secure water supplies and surface water control (drainage, water storage areas, floodprevention).Hunters want a variety and abundance and quality of game, aesthetically pleasing landscapes and legaland physical accessibility.Recreational users (hikers, ATV riders) want legal andphysical accessibility to aesthetically pleasing andchallenging landscapes with points of interest andwildlife (Figure 3).People with resource interests, such as forestry andFigure 3 Recreational users enjoyingrangelandsurface and subsurface mineral extraction, want legaland physical accessibility and minimal inhibition byzoning and environmental regulations.Canadian citizens and Indigenous peoples want to ensure environmental and historical heritage ofwestern grasslands and forest, harvesting of medicinally and culturally significant plants and animals,protection and acknowledgement of historical locations (forts, cemeteries, buffalo jumps, teepee rings,medicine wheels) and the ability the use the land for ceremonial practices and traditional uses.Aboriginals want decision-making power and fair economic and environmental rewards for their treatylands.Settlement and Cultivation of RangelandsBefore European settlement, both aboriginals and fur traders used western Canada’s rangelands forfood and animal products such as furs, hides and tools. Both users were nomadic and followedpopulations of game. Aboriginals are believed to have used fire to manipulate vegetation both forattracting herbivores for safety (by burning perimeters around their camps). Aboriginal needs wereentirely supplied by their surroundings. Although fur traders could manage in the same way, they werebetter off with supplies and trade items from their company headquarters.Although fur traders attempted to grow small gardens with hardy vegetables at some of their forts, thefirst concerted effort to settle and cultivate rangeland in Manitoba was with the Red River Colony (alsoknown as the Selkirk Settlement) in the early 1800s. Since then economic pressures and settlementManitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document10

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationpolicies have led to landscape-wide change of rangelands on the Prairies. Policies implemented from1872 to 1930 such as the Dominion Lands Act (1872), have encouraged homesteaders to change over 50million hectares of perennial native grassland to annual cultivation for crops. As a result, nativerangelands are among the most endangered landscapes inthe world.Figure 4 Marginal land along theAssiniboine River in Western Manitobacultivation throughout the 20 th century,despite the mistakes realized after the droughtyears of the “Dirty Thirties” where topsoileroded and food production diminished (Figure5). Farming practices did improve withconservation tillage, reduction of summerfallow, and tree shelterbelt plantings, but toomany marginal lands, which are better suitedto perennial grasses and grazing, continued tobe developed.While much of the converted land was suitable for annualcropping because of its fertility and ease of tillage, too muchwas marginal land (unsuitable for cultivation but moresuitable for grazing due to environmental limitations such assteep topography, stoniness, salinity or low moisture holdingcapacity) (Figure 4). As Canada’s population grew andtechnology improved, more rangelands were put intoFigure 5 - Farmstead during the Dirty ThirtiesKnowledge about limitations and best practices for marginal land has improved since the tragedy of the1930s. Conservation and rehabilitation programs by governments and external organizations such asAgriculture and Agri-Food Canada (the federal Community Pastures Program and the Permanent CoverProgram), Ducks Unlimited, Nature Conservancy, Manitoba Habitat Heritage Corporation, and ManitobaCrown Lands prevented cultivation on, and even remediated some marginal lands. However, whereprivate land use decisions are concerned, economic pressures exert a strong influence. The ongoingchange in responsibility for Community Pastures from federal government to provincial government(Appendix A) poses some risk of marginal lands coming under private ownership. However, provincialManitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document11

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationgovernment and the cattle industry are working to ensure that this land remains in cattle productionand, thus, under perennial vegetation cover.Although attitudes about marginal land and native rangelands are changing, there is still need forimprovement. Lands thought to be “wasteland” because they could not be put into crop production arebeing recognized more for their meat production and provision of ecological goods and services. Nativerangeland species are known for having deeper roots which give them better ability to weather droughtor low nutrient conditions, and to improve soil conditions at greater depths. Recent research recognizesthat the productivity of native grasslands is at least comparable to seeded tame pasturelands.Unfortunately, assumptions remain about the low forage production of native rangelands. With lowermargins of profitability in the grazing industry as compared to greater profits to be made in crops orresidential and urban development, it is understandable that the remaining rangelands andpasturelands on the Prairies are at risk.Rangeland and Pastureland Ownership, Management and RightsPublic rangelands are owned by the federal, provincial, or municipal government. Governmentownership is based on the desire to protect these lands from inappropriate land use or developmentwhich may negatively impact environmental value. The overall management of these lands is based ongrazing management with livestock, and must also take into consideration factors such as soil health,forestry, biodiversity, and water quality.One example of public rangelands includes the Crown Lands administered by the Crown Lands Act ofManitoba. These parcels of land are leased to farm owners, to be managed as part of their farm.Because of this, preference is given to farms having livestock in close proximity to a particular Crownparcel. There are approximately 607,028 hectares available for lease to livestock owners in the province.They may be provincially or municipally owned. Crown land is scattered across the agricultural region ofManitoba, with a significant amount of it being located in the Interlake, Southeast, and Northwestregions of the province.The largest risk to provincial Crown rangelands is that the leaseholder often places less emphasis onmanagement of these lands, despite the fact that they consider them as part of their farm. They may beManitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document12

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationviewed as poorer lands, or lands not worth improving, as the title of ownership is with the Crown, andnot the individual.Community Pastures are public rangelands, as well. They are managed as large rangeland units by afederal pasture manager, for the benefit of many livestock producers. This differs from the ProvincialCrown Land system, where management is the responsibility of the individual, as part of a farmingoperation. Community Pastures are administered under a federal-provincial agreement, with municipalprovincialagreements where municipal land is included in the pasture. Most of the land is provinciallyowned, but there are some pastures where much of the land is owned by the municipality. As well,there are some federally owned parcels in the pastures. There are approximately 182,100 hectares in 21Community Pastures in Manitoba, including the Turtle Mountain Pasture, close to the Peace Gardens,the Pasquia Pasture, in the Carrot River area of The Pas, and the Langford Pasture, southeast ofNeepawa. The smallest Community Pasture in Manitoba is Libau, near Selkirk, at 1413 hectares, whilethe largest tract of Community Pasture land is almost 30,000 hectares with McCreary and AlonsaPastures side-by-side near the town of McCreary just east of Riding Mountain National Park.The current federal government’s position on the Community Pastures is that it is no longer appropriatefor them to continue managing these lands as the original goals of the Community Pastures Program (toreturn more than 145,000 hectares of poor-quality cultivated lands across the Prairies to grass cover,significantly improving the ecological value of these lands and helping to increase the productivity of thearea) have already been achieved.Private rangelands are owned by individuals; usually farmers, and are utilized for pastureland and hayproduction. They are similar to public lands, in that they are usually located on Class 4, 5, and 6 soils,and are capable of delivering many other environmental benefits besides grazing such as protectingwater quality or protecting soil health. They are different, however, in that management for the publicgood is not the priority, but a bonus, as the profitability of the farm is usually the number one concern.Public rangelands are protected from residential or urban development, whereas private rangelandparcels are often perceived as being desirable pieces of land for residential development, being lowervalue for crop production, but often having trees. Where development pressures are great; such asaround cities or recreational areas; private rangelands are often subdivided. Land use policies which donot protect rangelands as strongly as cultivated lands from inappropriate residential development andfragmentation create the single highest risk in Manitoba for rangelands.13Manitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationThe private landowner has many options. Most of the land is located in areas zoned for agricultural use,and rangelands are quite capable of being profitable for pastureland and hay production, with propermanagement. Most of the rangelands are managed accordingly. Of course, these lands provide otherbenefits, such as environmental and recreational value for the farm family.The right of the individual also covers development for intensive irrigation use if located in proximity toavailable water rights.Private rights also extend to selling or developing the land for recreational or residential use, accordingto local planning policies, or idling the land (not using it), allowing bush cover to re-grow or invasiveplants to take over.The rights of leaseholders on provincial Crown parcels include managing the land for livestockproduction, much like on private lands, except that cultivation is usually not used, and the land cannotbe sold or exchanged. Any land use change needs to be approved by the Province (MAFRI). InCommunity Pastures, the management is done by the federal government agency. Cattle producerswishing to graze Community Pastures must apply to the program. Mineral extractors, timber harvesters,and researchers need to possess a right of entrypermit to do their work on a Community Pasture.The rights of the public on Crown parcels inManitoba include access for hunting or walking,and with permission from the leaseholder, mayinclude access for ATV use. ATV use must followexisting trails, and not destroy or alter any existingfences or gates. Aboriginal communities haveaccess for traditional purposes of food andmedicinal collection on all Crown lands.Figure 4 Concerns about biosecurity on CommunityPastures can restrict accessIt is recommended that public ask permission ofthe leaseholder or Community Pasture Managerbefore going onto Crown rangelands or Community Pastures, as bio-security is an important issue withthe livestock industry, so there is a need to minimize the possible accidental introduction of animaldiseases or invasive weeds (Figure 6).Manitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document14

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationTo learn more about the federal Community Pastures Program and how it is represented in Manitoba,see Appendix A – Case Study: Community Pastures across the PrairiesRangeland and Pastureland on the Canadian PrairiesIt is estimated that before settlement, there were 61.5 million hectares of native grassland in theCanadian prairies. Currently, there are 20.0 million hectares of rangeland and pastureland grazed bylivestock, some of which is forested. 51% of that area is in Alberta, 39% is in Saskatchewan, with theremaining 10% in Manitoba (Table 1).When compared to the area of agricultural land in each province, all rangelands (privately and publicmanaged) grazed by livestock represent 22%, 22% and 36% of total farm area in Manitoba,Saskatchewan and Alberta, respectively. Tame pasturelands grazed by livestock account for 6%, 8% and11% of total agricultural land in Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta, respectively.Table 1 Distribution of Rangeland and Pastureland in the Prairie ProvincesMB SK ABhectaresAll Land (Grassland and Forest) Used for Agriculture* 7,505,492 25,766,998 21,777,521All Rangeland and Pastureland Grazed by Livestock* 2,093,943 7,701,714 10,173,140All Privately Managed Rangelands Grazed by Livestock** 1,466,968 4,816,782 6,435,825All Privately Managed Tame Pastureland Grazed byLivestock**415,322 2,057,957 2,395,944All Publicly Managed Rangelands Grazed by Livestock*** 211,653 826,975 1,341,371* Census 2011, Horton 1994, McCartney and Horton 1999, Bailey et al. 2010** Census 2011*** Horton 1994, McCartney and Horton 1999, Bailey et al. 2010As mentioned in the rangelands definition, grassland and forest can be grazed and browsed by wildlifeand still be considered rangeland (for example, federal and provincial parks). Therefore, the above tabledoes not show all rangeland area across the prairies.Ecological CommunitiesAn ecological site is a kind of land with specific physical characteristics that differ from other sites in itsability to produce distinctive kinds and amounts of vegetation and its response to management. Soilchemistry and physical characteristics, topography, tree cover, and groundwater influences are the mainManitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document15

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationexamples of how ecological sites can be distinguished from one another. For example, a plantcommunity on the south-facing slope of a river bank may have a certain species composition that isdifferent from the plant community on the north-facing slope. The south facing slope is drier (and mostlikely warmer) because it faces the sun and therefore has grasses that tolerate that environmentalcondition; the north facing slope is moister because it faces away from the sun and has grasses andpossibly shrubs and trees that prefer more moisture. A clayey soil will have different plant communitycomposition compared to a sandy soil even if the sandy soil is right next to it. Rangelands andpasturelands contain different ecological communities that interact with each other. Key examples ofsuch communities include wetlands, riparian zones, upland grasslands, and forests.Wetlands and Riparian AreasMost of Manitoba’s prairie region is dotted with numerous shallow depressions, or sloughs. Sloughs arerecharged each spring from adjacent uplands and overflowing streams. Wetland drainage has a largeeffect on existing vegetation. Wetlands that do not overflow, or closed drainage basins, tend toaccumulate salts and are associated with salt-tolerant vegetation. Overflowing depressions regularlysupport freshwater vegetation. Both freshwater and saline wetlands display distinct vegetation zones asthe moisture gradient changes.Variable water depth, grazing, mowing, and fire are amongseveral factors that can alter vegetation of wetlands.Although wetlands can produce much forage, carefulmanagement is necessary to sustain yield. Because soils areoften marginally saline, continuous and heavy grazing canFigure 5 Healthy Riparian Area in theParkland Ecoregionchange the community composition to domination by foxtailbarley. Soils near and within wetlands are at risk ofcompaction when they are wet, which will affect forageproduction and composition, and upset water flow patterns.Riparian areas or zones are strips of land adjacent to water bodies (Figure 7). They are green zones withabundant moisture and productive soils characterized by water-loving or water-tolerant plants such aswillows and sedges. Modified landscapes, which can include rangelands with non-native species and/orthose that are poorly managed, tend to shed water more quickly than their unmodified counterparts.Because of this, these may be more prone to erosion by water. For example, water that moves only two16Manitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationtimes faster erodes land four times faster and carries 64 times more sediment. This means that riparianareas are often the last defense between runoff (and whatever substances that runoff contains) and oursurface water.Riparian areas perform eight major functions:1. Sediment trapping by physically slowing the water2. Water filtering (vegetation uses nutrients)3. Aquatic and terrestrial wildlife habitat (ex. gravel spawning beds) – Riparian areas are importantfor biodiversity. Although they occupy only 2-5% of the landscape over 80% of Manitoba wildlifespecies use them for some part of their life cycle (even just for water or shade). They also helpto link natural areas and are an important aspect of primary production.4. Food source for both wild and domestic herbivores5. Soil creation – Flooding and deposition events reset the development of soils; root growth andplant residue accumulation enhance soil-forming processes such as carbon sequestration,oxidation and reduction, structural formation, and leaching of salts, carbonates, clays andorganic materials.6. Floodwater and energy storage – Flooding is important as it recharges riparian areas, however itcan have negative effects on modified landscapes. If flooding is not permitted to occur naturally,the energy of water tends to undercut the banks or down cut the streambed.7. Erosion prevention – Vegetation stabilizes and protects the banks. Introduced species usuallyhave shallower root systems and are less effective at preventing erosion. Even when vegetationis dead, it still acts like armour, which stabilizes the banks and protects them from ice scour.8. Local groundwater recharge – Roots bring up moisture and keep water tables high. This isparticularly useful during times of drought. Roots also contribute to maintaining a spongy soilstructure, so that the soil can hold more water.UplandsWhen most people picture rangelands orpasturelands, they think of the upland grasslandecological community (Figure 8). Uplandpasturelands are relatively dry compared withFigure 6 Tall Grass prairie uplandManitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document17wetlands and riparian areas, and seeded to the

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationowner’s choice of forages. Forage species mixtures depend on livestock nutrition requirements, standlife expectancy, availability and cost of seed, and adaptation of forage species to local climate and soils.Upland native rangelands are composed of species that have adapted to survive with minimal water inline with the average precipitation of the region. Moisture levels can vary greatly from year to year andeven throughout the growing season. Many rangeland plants have evolved strategies to maximizeextraction of available soil water such as the very deep root systems found in some shrubs or theabundance of small roots of grasses found near the surface to capture rainfall as it soaks into the soil.Some upland plants also have strategies to conserve moisture once it is absorbed such as waxy layers onthe stems and leaves, narrow leaves, and the ability to go dormant during the hottest and driest seasonof the year. During wetter years, uplands capture and store water during precipitation events. Live plantmaterial and litter on the soil surface are important for infiltration (by slowing runoff), reducingevaporative losses and reducing soil erosion due to wind and rain drop impact.Forested RangelandForests are not always considered rangeland even though they fit the definition of rangeland: in mostcases, they provide forage and shelter for livestock and wild herbivores. These herbivores aredependent mainly on understory vegetation for sustenance and cover. Forested rangelands are commonthroughout the agricultural extent of Manitoba. Although lower in forage productivity than grasslands,forested rangelands provide substantial livestock grazing in addition to wildlife habitat and otherecological goods and services. They have a wide range of appearances that range from scrubby aspen oroak at the most southerly and westerly extents of their range, to tall and straight, large diameter aspen,balsam poplar or conifer forests of the north and east. Open canopies provide the most forage forlivestock out of the forested types. Livestock graze the grasses, grass-likes and forbs in the herbaceousunderstory, and browse the shrubs and shorter trees. Although cattle did not evolve in forestedenvironments, they can become well adapted to using them, despite their prey instincts causing them toprefer open grassland where they can spot predators. Because of their shade and cool temperatures,forested areas are very handy for shelter from sun and for sustained mid-summer grazing. In droughtyears, forests are a saving grace because they often continue to provide a forage supply despite the dryconditions on grasslands and in pasturelands.Manitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document18

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationInteractions among ecological communitiesOn a landscape level, there is a mixture of ecological communities and they interact with one anothervia the movement of resources (water, air, energy, nutrients) and resource-users (livestock, wildlife,humans). Here are a few examples:1. With few exceptions, riparian areas are linked to wetlands in a two-way relationship. As thevegetation strip between uplands and open water, they are the last stop for water, soil particles andnutrients that are washed from the uplands. The ability of riparian buffers to store and assimilatethese materials affects water quality and quantity in the water body. Conversely, the water qualityand quantity of the water body affects the amount and health of vegetation in the riparian buffer.2. Uplands in healthy condition, with lots of vegetative and residue cover, reduce the flow of materialsinto riparian areas and wetlands. Water carries nutrients and soil particles from uplands to riparianand wetland areas. Wetlands and riparian areas have certain capacities to uptake and assimilate thismaterial. If too much is coming from the uplands at one time, like during spring melt or heavyrainfall events, the riparian area may not be able to assimilate all these materials, and they willescape into the wetland. This could cause water levels to rise, nutrient levels to increase whichcould result in eutrophication, and water to become cloudy with soil or sediment which can impactfish and invertebrates. Imagine two equal-sized buckets filled with the same amount of water. If onewas dumped down an upland hillside that had very short grass, bare soil, and no plant residue tostop the flow, most of the water from the bucket will reach the bottom very quickly and will havemoved fast enough to pick up soil particles and nutrients. The water from the second bucket,thrown down a hill that has lots of vegetation and residue cover will move slower because it has togo around and filter through the plant stems and leaves. Some of the water will even infiltrate thesoil. The water that makes it to the bottom will have fewer soil particles and less nutrients .3. Wild and domestic animals move among different ecological communities. If some communities arepreferred over others by a certain species, they could have greater impacts from use. Later in thisdocument you will learn how to prevent certain areas of the landscape from being over-used bylivestock while other areas are not being used effectively.4. Forested rangeland and riparian areas often have more moisture than uplands during dry spells andthus can be a last resort for forage supply. As an example, in the United States during the drought of2012, some wetland preserves, normally closed to grazing, were allowed to be opened for hay and19Manitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationforage, hopefully reducing overuse of uplands. This infrequent disturbance of the wetlands during atime when soils are drier and less susceptible to damage is unlikely to produce lasting negativeimpacts, and may even be beneficial for the ecosystem (as you will find out in the EcologicalProcesses section).5. Weather affects rangeland and pastureland water dynamics in a few ways. Wind redistributes snowon rangelands during the winter. Wetlands and riparian areas, which are very often at a lowerelevation than uplands, can catch snow from uplands. Forest, tree lines, and taller upland vegetationslow the speed of wind so that it isn’t as likely to pick up snow, while catching snow that is beingblown in from elsewhere. In summer, tree lines and forest may shade parts of adjacent uplandsfrom the sun and protect them from wind, which will prevent them from drying too quickly.6. Healthy riparian, upland and forest vegetation and residue catch snow and slow the movement ofwater across the landscape. When overland water flow during snowmelt or rainfall is slowed byvegetation, it provides a chance for it to infiltrate into the soil. In addition to increasing forageproductivity, any extra water is stored in the soil, flows laterally through the top layers of the soiltowards wetlands, or percolates very deep into the water table. Ultimately, less water will go intowetlands when a large proportion of the water is stored in upland soils and then released byevaporation and transpiration of plants.Grasslands of ManitobaIn Manitoba, there are three major types of grassland: Tall Grass prairie, Northern Mixed Grass prairieand Parkland/Northern Fescue prairie.Tall Grass PrairieThe Tall Grass prairie (Figure 9) once occupied a large region of the Great Plains, ranging from Texas, upthrough central USA and the Red River Valley to the south end ofthe Interlake area of Manitoba. It is a transition betweenFigure 7- Tall Grass prairiedeciduous forest to the east where there is a lot of rainfall, andMixed Grass prairie and Short Grass prairie to the west where it isvery dry. The Tall Grass prairie has a warmer and moister climatethan the Northern/Parkland Fescue and Mixed Grass prairies. TallManitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document20

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationGrass prairie has enough moisture for tree growth, whichpresents problems with aspen invasion. This rangelandevolved under grazing pressure; thus it is highly resistant tograzing. Both grazing and fire historically played a role ofmaintaining the tall grass prairie and limiting treeencroachment. Less than one percent of this historicalrangeland remains; the rest has been converted to cultivatedannual crop land or is urban or rural development. Mostremaining Tall Grass prairie in North America is on sandy soilsor shallow high lime soil which is not suitable for cultivation.The Tall Grass prairie has deep, fertile soil (Chernozemic) andthe majority of grasses are warm season grasses (C4) such asbig bluestem and little bluestem (Figure 10). Cool seasonC3 and C4 PlantsC3 plant: A cool-season plant whichuses the pentose phosphatepathway to break down carbondioxide during photosynthesis; sonamed because its photosynthesisinvolves 3-carbon compounds.C4 plant: A warm-season plantwhich uses the dicarboxylic acidpathway to break down carbondioxide during photosynthesis; sonamed because its photosynthesisinvolves 4-carbon compounds.Cool-Season vs. Warm-Seasona) b) c)Figure 10 a) & b) Big bluestem c) Little bluestemgrasses (C3) on the Tall Grass prairie include June grass, awnedwheatgrass and porcupine grass. Forage quality declines frommid-summer to the fall with the greatest quality early duringthe growing season. Production ranges from 1500-3500 kg/ha,yielding 2.0 – 4.8 animal unit months per hectare (AUM/ha) ofgrazing potential. In Manitoba, Tall Grass prairie historicallyoccurred throughout the south central area of the province inthe Red and Assiniboine River Valleys and up to the southern Interlake region. Now it is confined tosmall uncultivated parcels within that zone, with the largest tracts being the Manitoba Tall Grass PrairiePreserve near Tolstoi.The underside of a plant's leaf isstudded with microscopic porescalled stomata; the plant usesthese tiny holes to "breathe." Onhot, dry days, however, plants needto close their stomata partially oreven completely to avoid losing toomuch water. In a C3 plant, asoxygen concentration builds upinside the leaf, the rate ofphotorespiration increases. C4plants, by contrast, are better ableto minimize photorespiration, sothey're better-suited to survival inhot, sun-baked conditions.Manitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document21

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationNorthern Mixed Grass PrairieThe Northern Mixed Grass prairie (Figure 11) is located in the Black to Dark Grey Chernozemictransitional soil zone of the Northern Great Plains. Plants are primarily cool season (C3) varieties withsome warm season (C4) grasses, and production ranges from 1000-2000 kg/ha or 1.3-2.7 AUM/ha ofgrazing capacity. On dry, sandy soils, production can be as low as 650 kg/ha (0.9 AUM/ha). Examples ofcommon plants include western wheatgrass, blue grama and needle and thread grass (Figure 12). Plantgrowth, particularly for the C3 plants, slows down mid-summer. 65% of precipitation occurs in summer,peaking in June. The Mixed Grass prairie is characterized by long, cold winters with short summers.Wind is a significant factor on these open grasslands, with exposure effects and redistribution of snow inwinter. Major effects on vegetation are grazing, fire, drought, cultivation, and invasion of smooth bromeor Kentucky bluegrass. In Manitoba, Northern Mixed Grass prairie historically occupied southwesternManitoba with pockets throughout central Manitoba, but now less than 20 percent of its original extentremains. Now it occurs in small to large areas throughout this region. Examples of the larger tractsinclude Lauder Sandhills; slopes along the Souris, Assiniboine and Pembina Rivers; sandhills through theCarberry and Neepawa area; and the grasslands near St. Lazare at the confluence of the Qu’Appelle andAssiniboine Rivers.Figure 8 Examples of Mixed Grass prairiea) b) c) d)Figure 9 a) Western Wheatgrass b) & c) Blue Grama d) Needle and Thread GrassManitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document22

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationParkland/Northern FescueThe Parkland/Northern Fescue grassland (Figure 13) is located on Black and Dark Grey Chernozemic orFigure 13 Northern Fescuegrassland traditionally knownas prairie wool due to itsappearanceDark Grey and Grey Luvisolic soils of the Canadian Prairies. Dominantspecies include open stands of tremblingaspen and/or bur oak (Figure 14) andshrubs on moister, more northerly siteswith grassland communities becomingmore frequent on drier sites towards thesouth. Grassland plants are primarily coolseason (C3) varieties with their growthslowing down in hot summer months.Examples of grassland plants includeplains rough fescue and awned wheatgrass(Figure 15). The climate is characterized by long, cold winters withshort summers. Wind is a significant factor in the southern part of thisgrassland, as in the Mixed Grass prairie, but the importancediminishes towards the north where there is greater tree cover. In Manitoba the Parkland/NorthernFescue grasslands occur in a transition zone between Mixed Grass Prairie (to the south and west) andaspen forest (to the north and east). As with the Tall Grass prairie, historical bison grazing and firesFigure 10 Plains Rough Fescue and Awnedwheatgrass(either caused by lightning or by Aboriginals) havefavoured grassland growth. After the settlement ofEuropeans, fire was suppressed and bison exterminated,which allowed for recent aspen forest encroachment.The majority of this grassland type has been convertedinto annual crops or introduced perennial forages asthese Black Chernozemic soils are fertile and highlyproductive. The remaining 5 percent is on lands that areless desirable for cultivation due to slope, salinity, sandiness or stoniness. In Manitoba,Figure 14 Bur OakParkland/Northern Fescue grassland existed throughout west central Manitoba, but now it exists only insmall parcels. A pristine Fescue Prairie is hard to find in Manitoba, especially with the invasion ofKentucky bluegrass, but some acceptable examples can be found along south-facing slopes of the upperManitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document23

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationAssiniboine, Birdtail, and Little Saskatchewan Rivers, and in some remote grassland meadows of RidingMountain National Park.EcoregionsAlthough rangelands can occur in all ecoregions of Manitoba (Figure 16), the focus of this document ison the rangelands and pasturelands occurring throughout the agricultural extent of the province (Figure17). This extent mainly intersects the following five ecoregions: Aspen Parkland, Boreal Transition, LakeFigure 11 Ecoregions of ManitobaFigure 12 Agricultural extent of ManitobaManitoba Plain, Interlake Plain, and Mid BorealUpland. Each of the three grasslands of Manitoba is found within one or more of these ecoregions.Tame pastures, wetlands, riparian zones, and forested rangelands are scattered throughout agriculturalManitoba and not exclusive to any of the five ecoregions described below.Aspen ParklandThis ecoregion extends in a broad arc from southwestern Manitoba, northwestward through the middleof Saskatchewan to its northern apex in central Alberta. The parkland is considered transitional betweenthe boreal forest to the north and the grasslands to the south. The climate is marked by short, warm24Manitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationsummers and long, cold winters with continuous snow cover. The mean annual temperature isapproximately 1.5°C. The mean summer temperature is 15°C and the mean winter temperature is -12.5°C. The mean annual precipitation ranges 400-500 mm. The ecoregion is classified as having atransitional grassland ecoclimate. Most of the ecoregion is now farmland but in its native state, thelandscape was characterized by trembling aspen, oak groves, mixed tall shrubs, and intermittent fescuegrasslands. Open stands of trembling aspen and shrubs occur on most sites, and, bur oak and grasslandcommunities occupy increasingly drier sites on loamy Black Chernozemic soils. Poorly drained, Gleysolicsoils support willow and sedge species. The ecoregion also provides a major breeding habitat forwaterfowl and includes habitat for white-tailed deer, coyote, snowshoe hare, cottontail, red fox,northern pocket gopher, Richardson's ground squirrel, elk, wolf and bird species like sharp-tailed grouseand black-billed magpie. Major communities in Manitoba include Brandon, Virden, Dauphin, Russell andCarberry. In Manitoba, Mixed Grass and Parkland/Northern Fescue grasslands can be found within theAspen Parkland ecoregion.Boreal TransitionThis ecoregion extends from southern Manitoba to central Alberta. In Manitoba it is represented by theTurtle Mountains, the Pembina Hills, and the southern fringe of Riding Mountain National Park. Theecoregion is characterized by warm summers and cold winters. The mean annual temperature isapproximately 1°C. The mean summer temperature is 14°C and the mean winter temperature is -13.5°C.The mean annual precipitation ranges from 450 mm in the west to 550 mm in the east. The ecoregion isclassified as having a subhumid low boreal ecoclimate. As part of the dominantly deciduous borealforest, it is characterized by a mix of forest and farmland. It marks the southern limit of closed borealforest and northern advance of arable agriculture. A closed cover of tall, trembling aspen with secondaryquantities of balsam poplar and white birch, a thick understory of mixed herbs, and tall shrubs is thepredominant vegetation. White spruce and balsam fir are the climax species, but are not wellrepresented because of fires. However, with the reduction of fires these are becoming more commonacross this forest type. Poorly drained sites are usually covered with sedges, willow, some black spruce,and tamarack. Well- to imperfectly drained Gray Luvisols and Dark Gray Chernozemic soils arepredominant. Local areas of Black Chernozemic and peaty Gleysolic soils also occur. The region alsoprovides habitat for white-tailed deer, black bear, moose, beaver, coyote, wolf, elk, snowshoe hare, andcottontail. It also provides critical habitat for large numbers of Neotropical migrant bird species, as wellManitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document25

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationas ruffed grouse and waterfowl. In Manitoba, Mixed Grass and Parkland/Northern Fescue grasslands canbe found within this ecoregion.Lake Manitoba PlainThis ecoregion stretches northwestward from the International Boundary with the United States toDauphin Lake. It is one of the warmest and most humid regions in the Canadian prairies. The meanannual temperature ranges from 2°C in the north to over 3°C along the Canada-United States border.The mean summer temperature is 16°C and the mean winter temperature is -12.5°C. The mean annualprecipitation ranges from 450-700 mm. The ecoregion is transitional between areas of boreal forest tothe north and the aspen parkland to the southwest. It is a mosaic of trembling aspen/oak groves andrough fescue grasslands. Trembling aspen and shrubs occur on moist sites, and bur oak and grass speciesoccupy increasingly drier sites on loamy to clayey, Black Chernozemic soils. Poorly drained, Gleysolicsoils support willow and sedge communities. Wildlife includes significant waterfowl, as well as whitetaileddeer, coyote, rabbit, elk and ground squirrel. The major communities include Winnipeg, Portage laPrairie, Emerson, and Dauphin. In Manitoba, this region contains grasslands that have a mixture of bothTall Grass and Parkland/Northern Fescue species.Figure 13 Understory ofopen oak forest (InterlakePlain ecoregion)Interlake PlainThis ecoregion (Figure 18) extends northwestward from the southeasterncorner of Manitoba to the Saskatchewan boundary north of the PorcupineHills. The climate is marked by warm summers and cold winters. The meanannual temperature is approximately 1°C. The mean summer temperatureis 15.5°C and the mean winter temperature is -14.5C. The mean annualprecipitation ranges from 425 mm in the northwest to 575 mm in thesoutheast. It is part of the dominantly deciduous boreal forest that extendsfrom southeastern Manitoba to the Peace River in north-central Alberta. Itsnative vegetative cover consists of a closed cover of tall to low tremblingaspen with secondary quantities of balsam poplar and white birch, anunderstory of tall shrubs, and a ground cover of mixed herbs. White spruce and balsam fir are the climaxspecies but are not well represented. Open stands of tall jack pine occur on dry, sandy sites. Depressionsare water-filled or are covered with sedges, willow, some black spruce, and tamarack. Predominant soilsare Dark Gray Chernozems and Peaty Gleysols are usually associated with poorly drained depressions.Manitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document26

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationThe ecoregion includes habitat for white-tailed deer, black bear, moose, beaver, coyote, snowshoe hare,caribou, wolf and eastern cottontail, as well as for waterfowl and colonial water birds like cormorant,gull, tern, heron, American white pelican, and grebe. The major communities include Swan River,Gypsumville, Winnipegosis, Riverton, Steinbach, and Selkirk. In Manitoba, we can find grasslandscontaining a mixture of both Tall Grass and Parkland/Northern Fescue species. In addition, the ManitobaTall Grass prairie occurs at the far south end of this region.Mid Boreal UplandThis mid-boreal ecoregion (Figure 19) occurs from north-central Alberta to southwestern Manitoba. ItFigure 14 Mid BorealUpland Ecoregionincludes the Duck and Riding Mountains in Manitoba. The climate haspredominantly short, cool summers and cold winters. The mean annualtemperature is 0°C. The mean summer temperature is 14°C and the mean wintertemperature is -15°C. The mean annual precipitation ranges from 400-550 mm.These uplands form part of the continuous mid-boreal mixed coniferous anddeciduous forest extending from northwestern Ontario to the foothills of theRocky Mountains. Medium to tall, closed stands of trembling aspen, balsampoplar and white birch with white and black spruce, and balsam fir occurring inlate successional stages, are most abundant. Deciduous stands have a diverseunderstory of shrubs and herbs; coniferous stands tend to promote feathermoss. Cold and poorlydrained fens and bogs are covered with tamarack and black spruce. Well-drained Gray Luvisolic soils aredominant in the region. Significant inclusions are peaty-phase Gleysols that occupy poorly draineddepressions. Dystric Brunisols occur on droughty, sandy sites. Characteristic wildlife includes moose,white-tailed deer, elk, black bear, wolf, lynx, snowshoe hare, beaver, and muskrat. Bird species includecommon loon and red-tailed hawk. In Manitoba we find very small remnants of Parkland/NorthernFescue grassland in this region, mainly on south facing slopes of hills and river valleys.Manitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document27

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationEcological Processes of Rangeland and Pastureland1. Energy flow in rangelands and pasturelands is directly linked to the carbon cycle. It begins whenplants uptake solar energy and transform it, along withcarbon dioxide from the atmosphere, into chemicalenergy (a carbon-based molecule) throughphotosynthesis. Herbivores consume these plants(herbivory) and they are in turn, consumed bycarnivores (including humans), thus sending the carbonbased molecule with its stored energy up the foodchain (Figure 20). When any of these organisms die thechemical energy continues to flow through thedecomposition chain. At each level, starting with theplant, the carbon molecule’s energy is released throughthe process of respiration, creating heat and physical ormetabolic activity. Eventually all of the energy isdissipated. Respiration changes the carbon-basedenergy storage molecule back into carbon dioxide which goes back into the atmosphere where it isavailable to be captured by a new energy flow. Sustainable rangeland and pastureland managementpractices increase plant leaf area (where photosynthesis takes place) and accelerate plant growth sothat more energy can be captured for the food chain. This has the potential to sustain or improvefood production for herbivores, carnivores and humans.Figure 21 An example of chemical cycling in arangelandFigure 15 Energy flow in rangeland andpasturelands2. Nutrient cycling –The source ofmany chemicals, with the exception ofnitrogen, is the soil, where they cycle amongdifferent molecular forms. Some of the formsare more available to plants and otherorganisms than other forms (Figure 21).Nitrogen is found in the atmosphere, but itmust be fixed into a different form byfree-living soil microorganisms or plant-Manitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document28

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationmicroorganism symbiotic relationships before it can be used by plants. Legumes are the mostcommon rangeland and pastureland plant with a symbiont that can fix nitrogen from theatmosphere. A rangeland or pastureland that is sustainably managed will allow nitrogen fixers towork efficiently to benefit plant growth. Alternatively, nitrogen and other nutrients can be addedinto the system in the form of urine, feces or fertilizer. Plants uptake these nutrients and they aretransferred from trophic level to trophic level. Unlike energy, however, any nutrients lost throughfeces, urine, mortality and decomposition are recycled back into the ecosystem. Nitrogen cycling ismore complex than phosphorus, as it may be lost to the atmosphere as nitrous oxide, a gas. Thismay occur when the soil is saturated, or nitrogen fertilizer is applied to the soil surface, and notfixed to the soil organic or clay particles.3. Water Cycling (Figure 22) – see Aquatics resource for technical details. Sustainably managedrangelands and pasturelands facilitate capture ofwater, minimize surface runoff, and improvedownstream water quality. This is becauseabundant vegetative biomass interrupts the flow ofwater over the soil surface. If flow is interrupted,then the alternative pathways for the water areinto the soil or into the air (Figure 23). It has beenshown that water is strongly linked to forageproductivity. Generally, the more water that isFigure 22 Simplified water cycleavailable to plants during the growing season, themore growth they will have, and that growth isconnected to other ecological functions of rangelands and pasturelands.Manitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document29

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationFigure 16 In one study, grassland cover prevented significant amounts of rainfall and soil fromleaving the ecosystem compared to bare soil. (Knight 1993)4. Carbon Sequestration is strongly linked to the carbon cycle and energy flow mentioned above.After plants and soil organisms die, their leaves, stems, roots and bodies release nutrients andcarbon into the soil through the process of decomposition. Forages on rangelands and pasturelandshave greater than 45% of plant weight below ground, so they have the potential to allocate moreenergy to their root systems than annual crops. Some of the root-based carbon is lost to theatmosphere as carbon dioxide through decomposition, but on an annual basis, 12-20% of rootbasedcarbon is decomposed into stable soil organic matter (SOM). This process is known as carbonsequestration. Grass growth is greater and faster under sustainable management. This results inmore organic matter to be incorporated into the soil. Healthy plants have deeper roots so carboncan be found deeper into soil where it is more secure. Trampling by livestock is needed toincorporate above-ground plant material into the soil, but too much trampling can cause the releaseof carbon already in the soil, and negatively affect other ecological functions by removing soil coverand reducing live plant biomass. A grassland ecosystem has higher diversity than an annual croppingsystem as there are more species of plants in one area and there is less bare soil during the springand fall seasons. Rangelands contain 10-30% of the world’s soil organic carbon and their potential tosequester carbon may help to mitigate the greenhouse effect. However, this sequestration processmay not be permanent. If a rangeland or pastureland is tilled to reduce compaction (either to reseed30Manitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationforage species or to convert the field into an annual cropping system) the SOM is moved aroundbecoming more available for decomposition by microbes and aerating it to acceleratedecomposition.5. Plant Succession - Succession is the natural process of change that occurs in an area over time asone community of living organisms replaces another one. Following disturbance, or whencontinuous disturbance is stopped, an ecosystem generally progresses from a simpler level oforganization with a few dominant species to a more complex community or “climax” community.Plant succession requires the introduction and establishment of new plant species into thecommunity. New species come as seed or reproductive propagules from outside of the site, or theymay already be waiting in the topsoil or sod layers of the ecosystem from before or during thedisturbance. Unfortunately these introductions can include invasive species which can take hold,dominate the community, and drive the succession towards a different potential climax community.Plant competition is another critical component of succession. This represents the battle within andamong plant populations for resources at the site. As the ecosystem becomes more complex,nutrients, water and sunlight become more challenging to take up. If a plant species can no longerhandle the challenge, then another that can handle it will increase in population size. Everyecological site has the potential to support a different climax plant community. Most rangelands inManitoba have the ability to recover following mild or moderate natural disturbances. An ecologicalsite that has experienced more severe disturbance, such as soil stripping for an oil well, requiresmore extensive efforts to promote natural succession, and more time (perhaps a hundred or moreyears) to return to the pre-disturbance state. The natural tendency in any plant community is tomove towards a higher successional stage. For example, if tame forages are planted on apastureland, nature attempts to add native species adapted to the site, in an effort to change it intoa more complex native rangeland.6. Disturbance– Disturbance can be both natural and anthropogenic and have different levels ofseverity that dictate how much change will occur. Past disturbance determines the present health,condition and composition of rangeland ecosystems. Present disturbance shapes the futurecomposition and productivity of the community. Disturbance of plant communities includes grazing,use of fertilizers or herbicides, mechanical treatment, prescribed burning (Figure 24), natural fire,grasshoppers, drought and flood. Plants vary in their sensitivity to disturbance, depending on theirspecies as well as growth stage. Disturbance is not a bad thing because it refreshes ecosystems.Without disturbance, all ecosystems will succeed towards a climax plant community, leaving manyManitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document31

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationplant communities unrepresented on thelandscape. The plant communities ‘left behind’contain plant and animal species, and specificecological functions that will never exist again ifthere is no disturbance. Using the Tolstoi TallGrass prairie, from Appendix C, as an example, ifthe prairie were allowed to succeed withoutdisturbance, it would become a tree-dominatedlandscape.Figure 17 – Prescribed burn in Aspen ParklandSustainable rangeland and pasturelandmanagement is about managing three aspects of disturbance: severity, frequency and timing. Usinggrazing as an example, severity would be the amount of forage grazed at one time, frequency wouldbe how often the forage is grazed, and timing would be avoiding grazing when the forage speciesare most sensitive and will have most damage.Rangeland and Pastureland Plant IdentificationPlant identification is a very specialized skill, but is important for knowing what species grow on arangeland or pastureland, what environmental and management conditions those species indicate, andhow those species respond to management pressures. Knowing these things allows people to makechanges that will help to optimize the ecological functions of rangelands and pasturelands.Quite often certain species of forbs, shrubs and trees need to be studied very closely, sometimes evenunder a microscope, to verify their identity from others. This is more so for grasses and grass-like plants,which are among the most difficult vascular plants to learn because their flowers are very specializedand diminutive. Fortunately there are numerous field guides and keys to assist with narrowing downplant identity to the most common rangeland and pastureland plants.People learn how to identify plants in several ways. One common method is to follow a dichotomouskey, which involves several steps where a person makes a choice between two pathways based oncharacteristics of the plant they have in hand. The following is part of one grass identification key:Manitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document32

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationUsually a key is accompanied by a guide that provides a full description of the plant once you haveworked out its species name. This is very handy for using the plant’s additional characteristics to verifythat you made the correct choice. It is not unusual for people to end up with the wrong speciesidentification because sometimes it is not obvious what the correct choice is between two limiteddescriptions in one step of the key.People also learn plants by memorizing pressed specimens, or photographs from an internet search, orimages and descriptions from a plant identification guide that specializes in the geographical location ofinterest. They combine this study with real life encounters with these plants in order to build familiaritywith common rangeland and pastureland plants.To start your rangeland and pastureland plant ID learning experience, a list of common rangeland plantsof different growth forms, on different landscapes, indicating certain management styles, and a list ofuseful guides and keys to help you learn to identify these plants are provided in Appendix B. You will notbe required to memorize the identity of the plants listed in Appendix B, but will need to know how touse a dichotomous key adapted from those used in the resources of the Appendix to identify them. Youwill be required to memorize the general appearance of the representative plants listed in theGrasslands of Manitoba section of this document, and be able to use a key to identify them.Manitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document33

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationGrowth FormsGrasses, grass-like plants, forbs, shrubs and trees are different plant growth forms, each withdistinguishing characteristics. Grasses have hollow, jointed stems; fine, narrow leaves with parallel veinsand fibrous root systems. Grass-like plants are similar to grasses but their stems are non-jointed andsolid. Two subgroups of grass-like plants are sedges and rushes. Sedges have triangular stems (recall theold adage “Sedges have edges.”) and have leaves on three sides of the stem. Rushes have cylindricalstems with leaves on two sides (“Rushes are round.”). Forbs are non-woody plants with solid, nonjointedstems, broad leaves with either parallel ornetted veins, and commonly have tap rootsystems. Shrubs have woody stems with somebranches emerging near the base and long, coarseroots. Trees are similar to shrubs; however theyhave a definite trunk that rises above the ground.The above ground portion of grasses, grass-likes,and forbs dies back during the winter season,whereas both shrubs and trees have stems thatremain alive over the winter period.Parts of PlantsGrasses, grass-like plants, forbs, shrubs and treesFigure 18 Parts of a grassall have two basic parts: the root and the shoot(Figure 25). The shoot is made of the stem, leaves and flowers. The components of the shoot arecommonly used to identify these types of plants. This section and the glossary that follows it are a basicintroduction to the terms that name and describe plant parts. Field guides generally provide moreextensive glossaries.The RootThe root anchors the plant to the ground, stores photosynthesized compounds, and takes up the waterand minerals that plants need to grow. There are two basic types of root systems: tap and fibrous.The StemThe stem supports the leaves, keeping them exposed to sunlight and air for photosynthesis. Most stemsare elongated, but some stems are very short, as in the dandelion. The stem consists of nodes andManitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document34

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationinternodes. The nodes are often bigger than the internodes. In grasses the nodes are solid even thoughthe internodes are hollow. The stem of a grass is a culm; and the stem of a tree is a trunk.Leaves, branches and buds all form at the nodes. The arrangement of leaves and branches on the stemmay be opposite, alternate or whorled. Some plants branch only at or near the base of the stem whileothers branch and rebranch from buds produced at upper nodes.Branching at the base of the main stem may produce stolons or rhizomes. Both rhizomes and stolonsbear roots at the underside of the nodes. They (Figure 26 and 27) have nodes, internodes and scales.Only stolons may have well-developed leaves. Roots borne at the nodes help to establish and spread theplant and to produce new plants if stolons or rhizomes are broken.Figure 26 Stolons grow above groundFigure 27 Rhizomes grow below groundThe LeafThe grass leaf consists of three principal parts: blade, sheath, and ligule. Other parts are collar andauricle. The blade may be flat, V-shaped or folded, involute, filiform, or keeled. In some grasses, theFigure 28 Types of sheathssheath is open — the margins do not cometogether; in others, it is closed – the marginsoverlap or are joined physically. Somesheaths are flattened; others are rounded(Figure 28). Because of their differentappearances, sheaths, leaves, and ligules areimportant in identifying a grass. The liguleprevents dirt and water from getting under the sheath. Some ligules are membranous or papery; someare only a ring of hair. Some are so small as to seem absent. The collar is on the underside of the leaf atthe junction of sheath and blade. Some grasses have ear-like projections called auricles which areattached, one on either side, at the base of the blade.Manitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document35

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationIn grass-like plants, the leaf has a sheath, but may not have a blade. The sheath is usually closed. Thecollar is indistinct and there are no auricles or ligule.In forbs, shrubs and trees, the leaf generally consists of a blade and a petiole, though some are sessile.Some leaves also have stipules, and some leaves have no petiole. The leaf may be simple or compound.If it is compound, the divisions may be in a pinnate or palmate arrangement. The margin of the leaf maybe entire, toothed or lobed. Veins and lobes may also have a pinnate or palmate arrangement.The FlowerThe flower is the reproductive organ of plants. A fertile flower always contains pistils and/or stamens. Ingrasses, the flower is in a spikelet which consists of a rachilla, one to several florets, and two glumes(Figure 29). Each floret is composed of two specialized bracts which enclose the fertile organs of thefloret. In sedges, the flower is reduced to bristles and scales. In rushes and forbs and in many shrubs andtrees, the flower has sepals and/or petals, which may be showy.Figure 29 Spikelet of a grassFigure 30 Inflorescences of grassA cluster of flowers is called an inflorescence (Figure 30). In grasses and grass-like plants, theinflorescence has no leaves though it may have bracts or a spathe. There are three basic forms of grassand grass-like inflorescences including spike, raceme, and panicle, and numerous forms ofinflorescences in forbs, shrubs and trees. They may grade from one form to another and may havespecialized forms.Manitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document36

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationBasic Glossary of Plant Partsalternate: having leaves or branches individually internode: section of stem between nodesstaggered along steminvolute: rolled inwardauricle: small earlike lobe or appendages at thejoint: easily visible bulge at node of grass culmbase of a grass leafkeeled: boat shapedawn: a bristle from the top or outer end of aglume or floretleaflet: individual part of a compound leafbipinnate: being divided pinnately twiceblade: broad part of the leafbract: a reduced or specialized leafbristle: stiff hairbud: compact structure containing undevelopedleaf, flower or branchclosed sheath: sheath with overlapping orjoined margins, found in grass or grass-likeplantscollar: the line joining the base of grass leaf withthe top of its sheath; found on theunderside of the leafcompound: being divided into two or morepartscrown: the base of a perennial plant, fromwhich new growth occurs in spring orthroughout the growing seasonculm: stem of a grass plantentire: without indentation or divisionligule: membrane or ring of hairs that clasps thegrass stem on the inside of the leaf at thejunction of the sheath and bladelobed: having moderate or deep indentationsnetted veined: having veins that cross to form anetworknode: the point where the leaf joins the stem;see also jointopen sheath: sheath with margins that do notcome together, found in grass or grass-likeplantopposite: having leaves or branches in pairsacross from each other on stempalmate: having leaflets, lobes or veins whichradiate from one central pointpanicle: a grass inflorescence with a branchedrachis; may be compact and spike-like oropen.parallel-veined: having veins that run parallel toeach other from base to tip of leaffibrous root system: root system with several tonumerous roots of about equal sizefiliform: threadlikefloret: tiny flower, usually part of a cluster as inthe spikelets of grassesglume: bract at base of a spikelet, usually inpairspedicel: stalk of a spikeletpetal: one of the inside ring of modified leavesin a flower, often white or coloredpetiole: leaf stalkpinnate: having leaflets; lobes or veins come offof both sides of a common rachis, like afeatherinflorescence: cluster of flowersManitoba Envirothon, 2013 Theme Document37

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationpistil: the female reproductive structure of aflowerraceme: an inflorescence with flowers onindividual pedicels on the rachis.rachilla: a secondary branch from the main axisof a bipinnately compound leaf or aninflorescence; the main axis of a spikelettoothed: having small indentationstrunk: woody stem of a treewhorled: having leaves in a ring around thestemrachis: the main axis of a compound leaf or aninflorescencerhizome: stem that originates at the base of themain stem and grow horizontally below theground surfacescale: any small, thin or flat structuresepal: one of the outer rings of modified leavesin a flower, usually greensessile: without a petiole or pedicelsheath: the part of a leaf that is attached at thenode and surrounds the stem like a tubesimple: not divided into partsspathe: a sheath like bract surrounding a flowerspike: an inflorescence with sessile flowers onthe rachisspikelet: the basic unit of a grass inflorescence,containing one or more florets, and oftendistinguished by a pair of glumes at its basestipule: leaf-like appendage or spine at the baseof a petiolestamen: the male reproductive structure in aflowerstolon: stems that originate at the base of themain stem and grow along the surface ofthe groundtaproot system: root system with one largemajor vertical root that branches intosmaller roots38

Invasive Plant SpeciesInvasive plants are of particular concern on rangelands and pasturelands because they come into a plant community, dominate the composition,and thereby alter the plant community’s ability to provide ecological benefits. They have 3 qualities, any of which may allow them to accomplisha successful invasion:1. Greater access to limited resources by competitive advantages such as massive seed production, creeping roots, large size, and capacity toinduce sickness or injury with spines, hairs, or poison2. Superior defense mechanisms to withstand fire, flooding, drought, and herbivory3. Absence of natural enemies (in the case of exotic invaders) such insects or diseases.Those invaders of greatest concern are exotic species (those that come from a different part of theworld), such as leafy spurge, common tansy, Kentucky bluegrass, and downy brome. However, somenative plants can be just as invasive, such as wild licorice, trembling aspen, western snowberry, andsilverberry. Invasive plants often come in after a disturbance (such as where soil is exposed) or ifthere is an imbalance in the ecosystem (such as fire suppression, overgrazing or undergrazing)(Figure 31). For example, construction of a road through a grassland results in bare soil; liberatednutrients, water and sunlight; and possibly introduction of exotic weed seeds on machinery. Ifexotic invaders are not eradicated at early stages of establishment, they become difficult to removefrom the community, and are then considered “naturalized”. If this happens, the best course ofaction is to maintain the population of the invader at low levels so that the plant community canstill provide its original products and services. The case study of the Tall Grass prairie at Tolstoi insouthern Manitoba (Appendix C) illustrates the struggle against both exotic and native invaders.Figure 31 Invasive grasses Kentuckybluegrass and foxtail barley take over adisturbed area near a watering site

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationNegative Plant Impacts on Animal ProductivityHave you ever eaten a food that has made you sick and now even the sight or the smell of that same food turns your stomach? Livestock canexperience the same problem, known as taste aversion, which can lead to selective grazing. In more extreme cases, consumption of certainplants that are poisonous can result in death, abortion or reduced fertility.Just as different kinds of forage can meet the nutritional requirements of specific kinds and classes of animal (forage quality), forage can alsocontain anti-quality components. These components are generally one of three types; foreign materials (dust, mould), biophysical factors (plantdefense mechanisms used to reduce grazing pressure – spines, awns) and biochemical factors (fibre components such as lignin and silica,alkaloids, glycosides, nitrates). Anti-quality components can reduce dry matter intake, limit dry matter digestibility and cause nutritionalimbalances and toxicity. They can also have a direct effect on animal performance by lowering production (weight gain, milk yield), loweringreproductive efficiency and even causing mortalities.Forage related animal disorders (usually associated with biochemical factors) fall into two categories; poisonous plant disorders and seasonal orconditional disorders. Poisonous plant disorders are caused by plants that are poisonous to the animals that consume them. This is a morecommon issue in rangelands as most poisonous plants can be found naturally, compared to seeded pasturelands, which would not be seededintentionally to poisonous species. However poisonous plants can still invade pasturelands. Mineral uptake patterns of forage plants are affectedby environmental factors, such as temperature and animals can be more sensitive to certain disorders at some stages than others. These twofactors can lead to seasonal or conditional disorders. One example is nitrate toxicity. Nitrates occur normally in forage plants. Drought, frost,level of fertilization, forage type and maturity (younger plants) can increase nitrate levels in plants. Excess nitrates in ruminants can cross therumen wall and enter the blood, changing hemoglobin into methemoglobin, which cannot transport oxygen effectively. Symptoms include darkbrown blood, decreased production, difficulty breathing, convulsions and death.Digestive consequences of forage consumption can lead to adaptive behaviours of grazing animals. If an animal eats a plant and has positivedigestive feedback, the animal will display a preference for that plant. If an animal eats a plant and has negative digestive feedback, the animal40

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationwill display an aversion to that plant. This is learning through consequences but herd animals can also learn from their peers and parents. Thesebehaviours can change the plant community.The most commonly recommended management practices to reduce losses caused by anti-quality factors are:change the animal typeselect plant species for seeded pastureland that pose lower risk of conditional or antiquality factorsremove patches of toxic plants with mowing or hand pullingavoid grazing areas with toxic plants during peak toxicityavoid grazing areas with toxic plants when they are easy to pull out because soils are wetmake sure there is enough forage supply so that animals are not forced to eat toxic plantsadminister nutritional or pharmaceutical products (can work for grass tetany or bloat)fertilization/manure managementrecognition of plants that contain toxins and symptoms of livestock poisoning or aversionSustainable Rangeland and Pastureland ManagementWhat is Sustainable Management?Sustainable management is managing pastureland and rangeland in a way that provides for current needs while ensuring the needs of futureusers can also be met. These needs have economic, environmental, and sociocultural aspects. On rangelands used for timber and pulp and paperproduction, uncontrolled or poorly planned animal grazing can have significant negative impact on forest renewal and long term growth.41

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationRisks and Challenges for SustainabilityWhen looking at the efforts of sustainable rangeland and pastureland management in the complex world, we encounter a number of risks andchallenges. Due to some of the challenges, rangeland management practices may be limited to less costly or less sustainable strategies. Inextreme cases, challenges may cause a landowner to choose to convert the land to other uses, such as residential land or cropland.1. As the world’s population experiences an overall increase in income, there is an increase in the consumption of meat and meat products. Forexample, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations predicts a 130% increase in meat and milk consumption from 2000 to2030. Similar trends are expected in other Asian countries, Africa and Eastern Europe. This will create more pressure on the same (orsmaller) areas of land to produce more livestock. Unfortunately, rangeland is (and was) being converted into urban and agricultural land. Theflat landscape, minimal tree coverage and high soil fertility of Canadian prairie rangelands led Europeans to cultivate historical rangeland andFigure 32 Brush invading a cutlinethrough forested rangelandroots.this practice is being continued today.2. Natural fires are being suppressed, leading to an increase of brush (Figure 32) or invasivespecies. For example, there are 485,623 hectares of leafy spurge in Manitoba (RuralDevelopment Institute, 2010) resulting in a 40 million dollar economic loss. Invasive speciesmeans a loss of habitat for native grassland species, which reduces biodiversity and leads to soildegradation. Native grassland plants tend to have deep root systems that maintain soil moistureand prevent erosion, whereas invasive species cannot perform these functions with their shallow3. Rangeland is being lost due to increased competition with the biofuel industry for feed and land, especially marginal land, and directcompetition between livestock operations and food production.4. Pressure from the public concerning human health, air and water quality, and animal welfare issues is yet another burden upon rangelands.These issues create public stigma against red meat production and put added costs onto the producer. For example, food safety issues suchas bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), and E. coli outbreaks limit the sale of beef and thereby reduce income for the producer. On top42

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationof that, legislation requires producers to spend money either directly (ear tags) or indirectly (market checkoffs) to improve the traceability ofa sick animal back to its original farm. Because of the additional costs, improvements in rangeland management may be limited to less costlyand less effective strategies.5. Rangeland and pastureland livestock producers have to deal with increasing or fluctuating costs of inputs (such as fertilizer, fuel, and landcosts), which create economic uncertainty.Basic Rangeland and Pastureland Management ConceptsTypes and Classes of LivestockThe type of animal refers to its species (cattle, sheep, deer, etc.) while the class of the animal refers to its sex, age, and intactness of genitalia.Table 2 lists several commonly encountered types and classes of domestic animals.Table 2. Types, Classes, Age and Condition of LivestockType Sex Age or ConditionCattleCalf male or female birth to weaningHeifer female before first calfCow female after first calfSteer male adult, castratedBull male adult, intactSheepLamb male or female less than one year (or when thefirst 2 permanent teeth erupt)Weanling male or female weaned (usually 6 to 9 months)Ewe female adultWether male adult, castratedRam male adult, intact43

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationGoatKid male or female less than one yearWeanling male or female weaned (usually 6 to 9 months)Doeling female one to two yearsBuckling male one to two yearsDoe or Nanny female adultWether male adult, castratedBuck or Billy male adult, intactDifferent types and classes of livestock use pastureland and rangeland differently. Due to the anatomy of a cow’s mouth, it cannot reach closerthan 5 cm from the soil. Their preferred grass height is 15 cm., higher or lower than that will consume more time and energy for the cow. If cowshave calves, they are less likely to graze in areas with forest or rough topography as they are looking after their calves. Yearlings and dry cows(cows without calves) are less attached to the herd and will graze in the forested or rough areas. Cows also prefer not to eat around their ownpaddies (feces) but are willing to graze near where a different type of animal has defecated. Sheep can bite closer to the ground. They are fairlyselective and prefer forbs, followed by grass, then woodier browse. Sheep tend to graze/browse from the bottom upward. Goats can selectivelygrab plants and are able to avoid thorns and spines. They are very selective and prefer forbs, followed by browse, then grass. They find young,tender leaves and twigs to be their favorite. Goats will also eat young trees. Goats tend to graze/browse from the top downward. Due to theirgrazing and browsing habits, both sheep and goats are great for weed management.Interactions between Wildlife and LivestockLivestock and wildlife interactions are an important concern to private and public landowners. These interactions can be positive, negative orneutral (livestock and wildlife simply coexist and share resources) or a combination. An example of a positive interaction is that in the ManitobaMixed Grass prairie, grassland birds such as Sprague’s pipit and three species of sparrow selected grazed pasturelands over ungrazed fields andthe grazed fields had more species for birds. An example of an interaction with both positive and negative components is that whitetail deer andelk can use stored hay or stockpiled forage as an additional food resource to survive winters. This is a positive interaction for the deer, which willlikely have a higher survival rate, but it can be a negative interaction for the livestock and their producers if they no longer have an adequatesupply of feed for the winter period. Interactions become a concern to landowners when livestock and wildlife compete for forages, water, and44

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationcover, when livestock damage the habitats of wild animals, or when predators injure or kill livestock. Interactions often occur when livestocksuch as cattle, sheep and horses share diets and/or habitat with deer, elk, fish, migratory birds, rodents, and threatened or endangered species.Wildlife and livestock can also transmit pathogens to each other and predation can lead to a serious loss for animals for a producer. Examples ofdifficult interactions of wildlife and livestock in Manitoba are sheep and goats competing with deer, and wolves killing cattle.Competition between Wildlife and Livestock for FoodIf the food source is limited, wild ungulates and livestock will compete for the available grasses, forbs and shrubs. Grass availability is notnormally a problem in the spring and summer unless the number of acres of pastureland/meadow is not great enough, or if the grazing on thoseareas is too heavy, as most wildlife species browse on forbs and shrubs and eat very little grass. Competition for available forbs may become aproblem in the fall and winter. This problem will occur if cattle move into shrubby areas when there is a lack of grass. There may also be aproblem if livestock move into shrub habitat to seek shelter or to escape from pests and begin browsing. However, in some cases wildlife canseem to be competing for food with livestock when they are actually benefitting from livestock using that resource. A study in the United Statesexcluded cattle from elk habitat because wildlife scientists thought that cattle might be outcompeting the elk for the available food resources.After a number of years, the elk started to jump the fence which separated the cattle from the elk and follow the cattle around their pasturelandsystem. The elk actually preferred grazing alongside the cattle. Further studies found that controlled livestock grazing does increase the qualityof forage available for the elk, especially during the winter. Basically, cattle graze with a higher intensity and at a different timing than elk, whichimproves the vegetation in a way that it is better for the elk, compared to if the elk were grazing without cattle.Pathogen Transmission between Wildlife and LivestockWhen livestock and wildlife interact they can transmit pathogens which can lead to economic losses for livestock producers as well as decreasesin wildlife populations. One example is bovine tuberculosis (TB), a contagious bacterial infection. In Manitoba, bovine TB was common in theRiding Mountain Area but improved management reduced its occurrence. Since 1991, 45 elk, 11 white-tailed deer and 7 herds of cattle havetested positive for bovine TB.45

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationGrazing Management Principles and PracticesThe following 4 principles can be used to select beneficial management practices (BMPs) for improving grazing management of rangelands andpasturelands. They apply to all forest, grassland, riparian and wetland components of a grazing operation.1. Balance animal forage demand with available forage supply (avoid taking too much vegetation by grazing) Follow appropriate stocking rates to ensure that the amount of forage in a field will support the number of animals for the length oftime they are grazing. Observe as the animals are grazing how much they are using. Leave enough vegetation to ensure sustainability of the forageresource and to ensure that the ecosystem continues to allow ecological functions2. Manage livestock distribution across the landscape Use cross-fencing Create trails through forested areas Place salt, minerals and water sources away from riparian areas or favourite areas where cattle spend a disproportionateamount of time Use herding techniques to move animals into more remote areas of a field, even for short periods3. Avoid grazing during vulnerable periods Plants are weakened in spring because they have respired all winter and are using the last of their energy stores to grow stems,leaves, and flowers. When stored energy levels are highest in summer to fall, a plant is better able to withstand and recoverfrom grazing. It is also dependent on goals of the producer. If the goal is to have some wildlife on the land, then the life cycle ofthose animals needs to be considered. In spring the birds are nesting, so avoiding known nesting areas at those times wouldminimize impacts. As another example, if the producer wishes to manage sustain or improve riparian health, then riparian areasshould be avoided when most vulnerable. If livestock graze a riparian area in early spring, soil is wetter and more susceptible tocompaction and plants are lush and more susceptible to damage. Late summer and fall grazing will minimize impacts.46

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Association4. Provide effective rest to forages before and after grazing for readiness and recovery Rest (absence of grazing) allows vegetation to photosynthesize and recover from winter stress or from damage of grazing.Longer rest means better recovery. The ideal rest period for rangeland and pastureland plants depends on weather, amount ofleaf area remaining after grazing, and limitations of the ecological site and plant community. For some native plant communities,the ideal rest period is a few months long. A planned rotational grazing system along with appropriate stocking rates, allows cattle to be in one field while other fieldsremain empty. Eventually the cattle herd moves among the empty fields, but each field gets a chance to rest before and aftergrazing. In a system with more and smaller fields, the rate at which the animals enter and exit the field is quicker, reducing thetime spent in that field.A rotational grazing system with multiple fields and carefully measured stocking rates (numbers of animals) allows a producer the flexibility toapply the Four Grazing Management Principles. For example, to avoid certain areas during sensitive periods, a producer could keep the livestockin a different field until that period has passed. To manage livestock distribution so that a riparian area is not over-used a producer could fenceout that area and use it for a set period of time before removing the animals. By this same process, he or she would be addressing the principleof effective rest by allowing that riparian area to have some ungrazed recovery time before and after the grazing period. As well, the principle ofsupply and demand is addressed when the producer can move the livestock out of a field and into another when he or she sees that enoughvegetation has been grazed.47

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationBeneficial Management Practices (BMPs)A beneficial management practice (BMP) is any method of managing production that has positive outcomes for the three aspects ofsustainability: economic, environmental, and sociocultural. For rangeland and pastureland, such BMPs include grazing management planning,off-site watering, planned or managed grazing systems, brush control, various strategies for grazing riparian areas, using diverse speciesmixtures for pastures, and grazing strategies to manage invasive species populations.Grazing Management PlansNeed to ensure:Stocking rates match carrying capacity – most important with regards to sustainabilityProper vegetation utilization levelsEven livestock distribution Secure sources of water for livestock (Figure 33) Sufficient carry-over to sustain the forage stand and to continue providingecological functions (rememberfall is all that will be available at the startwhatever vegetation is left at the end ofof spring) Adequate rest periods for the vegetation during the growing season Considerations for livestock husbandryFigure 19 An example of offsite watering in Mixedand handling, such as calving,mothering, shared fence lines with bulls, Grass Prairievaccination periods, peak risk of toxicplantsConsiderations related to readiness of forage to be grazed, or the need to avoid areas where wildlife, soils and vegetation could be atrisk of negative effects48

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationSelected Types of Grazing Systems (Figure 34)Season-long grazingSimple rotational grazing(once-over)Rest for1 yearFigure 34 Four types of grazing systems2. RotationalDeferred rotational grazingIntensive rotational grazing(two or more times over)choose the most nutritious forages1. Continuous or Season-longThis is a very common system used in Manitoba, especially on mixed farms and onCrown leases. In this type of grazing system, only one field is used for grazing duringthe whole season Lower infrastructure cost Less control of where livestock graze Less interaction of producer and livestock, which can result in less attentionto health problems, stress on livestock during handling, and risk of injury whentrying to move or handle frightened animals To be beneficial it needs effective use of distribution tools (off-site water,salt, minerals, herding) to prevent over-use of favoured areas. Increased biodiversity on a landscape scale, provided stocking rates areappropriate, because of uneven grazing distribution Good individual animal weight gains because they have the opportunity toRotational grazing uses field divisions of similar types (‘like with like’) and allows for adequate rest/recovery periods. The length of the grazingperiod in each field depends on its forage supply. Rotational grazing involves added costs to divide the fields and provide water for each field.Tools for improving distribution (salt blocks, water, fencing) are still needed in some cases. There are many subcategories of rotational grazing.Once-over – 3 to 6 fields, grazed only once during the season49

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationTwice-over – 3 to 5 fields where the objective is to graze quickly over all fields (average of 15 days each) to stimulate vegetationgrowth, followed by a longer grazing period of 30-45 days each. With fields of uneven size, the proper technique is to use 1/3 ofavailable forage the first time and 2/3 of available forage the second time. Calculations for this will yield varying lengths of time foreach grazing period in each field.Switchback – 2 fields, where the objective is to graze field A for 1 month, graze field B for 2 months, graze field A for 1 month andswitch the order next year.Deferred – 3 to 6 fields where one field is rested for the entire year while the others are grazed; a different field is rested each year.Rapid or high intensity low frequency – numerous small fields that the livestock graze for periods as small as half a day; fields areusually used twice during the season and the rest periods between uses are very long.In comparison to continuous grazing, rotational grazing has higher infrastructure cost, more control over where livestock graze, more familiaritybetween animals and people, and potential to accommodate more livestock as forage production improves with rest and proper stocking rates.Strategies for Wetland and Riparian Area ManagementHealthy riparian and wetland areas are particularly susceptible to grazing damage because of lush vegetation, sloped land, and moist soil. If leftto their own devices, livestock will tend to linger in them because they are near a water source, provide shade, and provide nutritious andpalatable forages. Riparian and wetland areas can be grazed sustainably, keeping in mind the 4 principles of grazing management that arepresented previously in this document. These four principles will enable livestock producers to maintain vegetation on a healthy condition, tominimize bank and shoreline impacts, and to manage time spent by livestock in the zone. Beneficial practices and tools to aid in applying the 4principles of grazing management have also been presented earlier in this document and some specific to riparian area grazing can be found inthe factsheet on Riparian Grazing BMPs found in the Envirothon Resources.Sustainable Pastureland MixesNative rangelands come with their own diverse mixtures of plant species adapted to climate and grazing impacts, but pasturelands arecomposed of seeded species. They can be seeded to one (monoculture) or two key forage species (simple mixtures), but multispecies mixtures50

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Association(diverse mixtures) are better from a sustainability perspective. Compared to monocultures or simple mixtures, diverse species mixtures are moresustainable. These mixtures are closer in similarity to natural rangelands. Because of the diversity in physical structures, functions and speciescharacteristics, multi-species forage, diverse species mixtures have increased biomass production, better forage quality, higher nutrient cyclingefficiency, higher drought tolerance and can better withstand invasive species and diseases. Using a mixture of warm season (C3) and coolseason (C4) grasses may ensure availability of high quality forage throughout the growing season, therefore increasing the number of potentialgrazing days. It is very common in Manitoba for tame pasturelands to “shut down” growth in the hot months of July and August, because theyare dominated by cool season grasses, which cannot cope well with hot and dry weather (see figure 35 and the inset about C3 and C4 plants inthe Grassland Types section). Mixtures should also contain one or more legume species to reduce the need for fertilizer application and toenable the nitrogen cycling function to work more efficiently. Diverse species mixtures are likely to increase the biodiversity of other co-existingbiological communities, such as wildlife and soil microorganisms, and thereby enhance the sustainability of the pastureland system.Figure 35 Potential forage availability throughout the growing seasonOther Beneficial Management PracticesIn addition to those practices already presented, there are BMPs that address specific issues such as invasive species, brush management, andgrazing in riparian areas. Some examples are posted in the Envirothon Resources.• Riparian BMPs for Invasive Species51

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Association• Grazing BMPs for Invasive Species• Aspen Management BMPsCalculations related to Grazing Management PlanningForage Production – How much forage does the land produce?Published information about forage supply or livestock carrying capacity for the land to be grazed (soil, vegetation type, region) is often notavailable. In Manitoba, appropriate stocking rates are most commonly determined by trial and error or by referring to the experience of farmproduction advisors or neighboring producers. However, the surest way to determine the forage supply fora specific rangeland or pastureland is to measure annual forage production by preventing the forage frombeing grazed by using a range cage (Figure 36). At a predetermined time of year, either at peak biomassproduction or at the end of the growing season, forage that has grown inside the cage is clipped andweighed after drying in an oven or in a well-ventilated, warm location. Forage should be clipped in theFigure 36 A range cagemiddle of the cage, from a wire frame of fixed size (0.25 m 2 or 1 m 2 ) to avoid the edge effect. The generalrule is to use a minimum of one range cage per field and clip once per year, however more cages providean average and high-low range for potential forage production. Cages should be moved to a new spot every year. It should be noted that annualforage production varies from year to year, based mainly on precipitation and temperature, so this needs to be taken into consideration whendetermining forage supply and carrying capacity. Forage production may also vary from field to field because of different plant communities anddifferent ecological site potentials.The units for useable forage production will be a dry mass (weight of clippings) over an area (area from which those clippings were cut),commonly grams per square metre (remember if the forage came from a 0.25 m 2 frame then it needs to be multiplied by 4 to get g/m 2 ). Thisunit is then converted into kilograms per hectare as the total area of rangelands is most commonly measured in hectares.How to convert g/m 2 to kg/ha52

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationor multiply g/m 2 by 10 to get kg/haEach distinct field or ecological site will have its own value for total forage production.Available Forage Supply: How much feed do I have?If 100% of the useable forage production was grazed, the health of the rangeland and long term productivity would decline because there wouldnot be enough vegetation to sustain ecological functions (nutrient and water cycling and energy capture and flow). Total production includesbiomass that is needed for the plant to regrow, reproduce and overwinter. Therefore, a Safe Use Factor is used to calculate the amount ofuseable forage production which can be without diminishing the overall health of the ecosystem.Available Forage Supply = Useable Forage Production X Safe Use FactorThe Safe Use Factor for native plant communities is generally 50 percent (otherwise known as “take half – leave half”). However, on fragile landsor lands that need significant improvement in health, range management practitioners suggest a more restrictive, smaller Safe Use Factor, suchas 25 to 35%. The Safe Use Factor for tame pastureland is generally higher at 70 percent because tame pastureland can generally withstandgreater grazing pressure.How many animals can I feed?An animal unit (AU) is the forage intake relative to a standard animal. The standard animal for this definition is a 455 kg (1000 lb.) mature cow.This cow would need 12 kg of forage a day (animal unit day, AUD) or 366 kg of forage per month (animal unit month, AUM) on a dry matterbasis. (To convert AUD to AUM, simply multiply by 30 or 31 days, depending on the month.) Using this information, and the Available Forage53

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationSupply (determined previously), you can calculate the carrying capacity; the amount of animal unit days (AUD) or animal unit months (AUM) thatthe rangeland or pastureland can accommodate.AUM/ha = available forage (kg/ha) ÷ amount in kg of forage needed to feed one AU for one month.Carrying capacity is also sometimes expressed as ha/AUM. In that case, the calculation would be:ha/AUM = amount (kg) of forage needed to feed one AU for one month ÷ available forage (kg/ha).What if I don’t have cows? What if I also have calves and yearlings?The animal unit equivalent (AUE) is an adjustment made to account for type, class and size of animal. To make the adjustment, take AUM,AUM/ha, AUD or AUD/ha and divide by the AUE factor from Table 3 below. If using ha/AUM or ha/AUD, then you need to multiply by the AUEfactor.For example:Number of goat months per hectare = AUM/ha ÷ AUE/goatNumber of hectares per goat month = ha/AUM x AUE/goatTable 3 - Animal Unit Equivalents (AUE) for selected animalsCattleAUEmature cows without a calf 1.0cow with a calf 1.3weaned calf to yearling 0.75steers and heifers (1-2 years) 1.054

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationmature bulls 1.3Sheepweaned lamb to yearlings 0.12mature ewe with or without lamb 0.2mature ram 0.25Goatsweaned kid to yearling 0.1doe with or without kid 0.17mature buck 0.2Horses and Mulesmature horse (1200 lbs.) 1 to 1.25mature mule 1 to 1.25Wildlifedeer 0.17antelope, mature 0.20bison, mature 1.00Stocking Rate, Carrying Capacity and Stocking DensityStocking rate is either the actual amount of AU for a specified amount of time (AUM, AUD) or the actual amount of AU on an area of land for aspecified amount of time (AUM/ha, ha/AUM, AUD/ha, ha/AUD). This is important because over that certain amount of time a certain amount offorage will be used. Carrying capacity is the same as stocking rate, except it measures the potential amount of AU, rather than the actualnumber. Stocking density is the amount of AUs on an area of land at an instant in time (AU/ha, ha/AU). For example, in a high intensityrotational grazing system where fields are small, there is a high density of animals (AU/ha). If those animals are in that field for a specific amountof time, then we start measuring how much forage they are taking (AUM/ha).55

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationSample Grazing CalculationsBy this time you have figured out how many animals of various kinds the range or pasture can feed in one month or one day. However, grazingperiods for one field are rarely exactly one month long, and a grazing season for an entire rangeland or pastureland can be as much as fivemonths (150 days). Also, fields are different sizes. To know how many animals a field or an entire pastureland can sustain, you need to know thetime in months or days, and the number of acres that each carrying capacity value applies to. The following examples will show you how to putthese numbers to work.1. A client owns a ranch with a total carrying capacity of 3000 AUM that is 6000 ha in size and has six months growth. The ranch is divided into15 equal paddocks.a) How many animal units can the ranch support (herd size)?= 500 AUb) What is the carrying capacity?= 0.5 AUM/hac) What is the stocking density in each paddock?= 400 ha per paddock; = 1.25 AU/ha2. A client has 1480 AUM of forage available in his pasture. He has 150 mature cows without calves grazing for 6 months. Does the client havea forage deficit or surplus? How much?Forage supply: 1480 AUMForage demand: 150 cows X 1 AUE/cow X 6 months = 900 AUMBalance: 1480 AUM – 900 AUM = 580 AUM56

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Association3. A client has a 30 ha range, dominated by native upland grasses. Ten range cages are set up to determine its production.Cage1 54.62 131.53 81.34 50.15 49.86 63.97 95.48 120.89 101.410 95.0Dry weight offorage clipping(g/m 2 )a) How much forage did this rangeland produce this year?Average weight = 84.4 g m -2Average productivity =Total production = 844 kg/ha30 ha = 25,317 kg= 844 kg/hab) Assuming this is an average production year, what is the annual carrying capacity in AUM (assuming proper usefactor on native rangelands of 50%)?25,317 kg 0.5 = 12665.9 kg (forgot decimal place)⁄= 34.6 AUMc) How many yearlings can be put on this pastureland for four months?= 11.5 yearlingsd) What will be the stocking rate per hectare?= 1.15 AUM/hae) What is the stock density of this pasture?= 0.29 AU/haf) If the range is divided equally into four paddocks which will be grazed for one month at a time, what will be the stocking rate and stock densityof each paddock?Rate – no change 1.15 AUM/haDensity= 1.15 AU/ha57

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Association4. The managers of the Rolling Hills Ranch, located in the Northern Mixed Grass prairie, have decided to dramatically alter their livestockoperation by switching from a traditional, year-round, cow-calf operation to a seasonal grazing operation. To make sure their sustainablegrazing management continues as they make these changes, the owners have hired you as a range consultant.Land holdings: 9,725 hectaresPrevious grazing management: 600 head of cows-calf pairs (1.3 AUE) grazed pastures from May 15-November 1, fed hay and supplementduring other months.Desired grazing management: 2/3 of grazing animals should be heifers (1 AUE) remaining 1/3 of grazing animals are cow-calf pairs (1.3 AUE).Heifers will graze pastures from June 1 to August 15, while cow-calf pairs will graze from May 15 to November 1.Please use the information the owners have provided you to determine how many heifers and cow-calf pairs are needed to graze the RollingHills Ranch according to desired management changes by the owners.Solution:Previous grazing (equivalent to carrying capacity):600 cow-calf pairs X 1.3 AU/pair X 5.5M = 4,290 AUMDesired grazing:4,290 AUM = [(1.3 AU/pair X 5.5 M)x] + [(1 AU/heifer X 2.5 M)2x]4,290 AUM = 7.15AUMx + 5.0AUMx4,290 = 12.15xx = 4,290 ÷ 12.153532x = 706The numbers of animals which should be stocked according to the ranchers’ wishes are 353 cow-calf pairs and 706 heifers58

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationRiparian, Rangeland and Pastureland AssessmentIn addition to riparian assessment, there are two major types of rangeland and pasture assessments that have been used in Manitoba; RangeCondition Assessment (RCA) and Rangeland Health Assessment (RHA). These are used to record the status of rangelands, pasturelands andriparian areas; to help apply management changes to where they are most needed; and to evaluate the effectiveness of past managementchanges.Riparian Health AssessmentRiparian Health Assessments evaluate the ability of riparian systems to provide ecological functions. Usually an entire riparian area is too large toassess completely, in which case, a reach, or segment of the water body, that is representative of the range or pasture is selected for theassessment. The assessment uses a number of different vegetative and physical indicators.VegetationSoil surface is covered by plant growth (less than five percent bare soil)Healthy and diverse native plant communitiesWeeds are at a minimumBank has a deep binding root massBanks/Shorelines No structural alterations Minimal rutting from machinery, pugging (holes) and hummocking(mounds) from livestock hoofprints (Figure 37)o Occurs when ground is saturated59

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationooIncreases compactionCan lead to vegetation changesSee accompanying “Managing the Water’s Edge”Aquatics section for details on how to conduct aFigure 37 Pasture showing extensive pugging andhummocking in riparian zoneresource for Manitoba in theriparian health assessment.What is Range Condition?Range Condition is the current state of a particular range or pasture community composition incomparison to some perceived potential (usually the climax community). It is based on the ideathat different plant species respond in different ways to grazing pressure. Range ConditionFigure 38 Performing a range condition andhealth assessment at Spy Hill-Ellice PFRACommunity Pasturelandcommunity (or the seeded plantcommunity that currently exists (Figureare classified as Poor (0-25%), Fair (25-Excellent (75-100%) (Figure 39). Anrangeland has an abundance ofAssessments (RCA) are being phased out as expectations and assumptions about plant successionhave been found to be inaccurate and there are more factors that need to be considered insteadof just species composition. The principles behind Range Condition Assessment assume that asgrazing pressure is eased, that the plant community bounces back to what it once was. In reality,this is not the case with so many grazing lands.Range Condition Assessment is a simple species percentage comparison of the expectedsuccessional climaxcommunity) and the38). Percentage quartiles50%), Good (50-75%) andExcellent or Good conditiondecreaser species (those60Figure 39 Range condition scores and relative abundances ofdecreasers, increasers and invaders

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationthat decrease with greater grazing intensity because cattle prefer to eat them over others), and a low number of increasers (those that increasewith greater grazing intensity because they are less palatable or too short to bite). Invaders are any exotic forage or weed, and tend to establishand increase in abundance when a plant community is stressed by too much grazing or some other disturbance that exposes soil and creates anopportunity for them to grow. There are some increaser species whose dominance indicates more severe levels of grazing (i.e. they are the laststanding). Note that all of these species (except invaders) exist in a natural or well-managed stand; it is just the proportions of each species thatyou need to be concerned about.When conducting a rangeland condition assessment, each field, and each major ecological site within a field are surveyed. For example, if ¼ of afield is sandy and the rest is clayey, then 2 range condition assessments will be done for that field. This is because livestock have preferences forcertain ecological sites and thus, will put greater pressure on those sites. Survey areas are representative of the field and the ecological sitewithin that field. They are not adjacent to a road or watering site or gate, because these are favoured areas for livestock and thus will scoremore poorly than the remainder of the area. Five to ten well-spaced sampling plots are established in the survey area. Plots are delineated usingframes of 50 cm x 50 cm or smaller, and each plant species is listed with its percentage contribution, with all contributions within a frame addingto 100%. The five to ten sampling plots are averaged to represent the species composition of the entire plant community within the survey area.To score the range condition of a survey area, the percentage species composition is compared against published allowable limits for decreasers,increasers, and invaders. These limits are different for different ecological sites. For example, sandgrass is likely to contribute more to a sandyecological site than a clayey ecological site. All decreasers have allowable limits of 100%, and all invaders have limits of 0%. Increasers have alisted allowable limit between 0% and 100%. When adding up the range condition score for the survey area, you include the entire amount ofdecreaser species, none of the amount of invader species, and the smaller value of either your survey percentage of increasers or the publishedallowable percentage of increasers. The total of these three categories is the Range Condition Score, and it can be assigned to a Range ConditionClass of Excellent, Good, Fair, and Poor as shown earlier in this section.61

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationThe following is a simplified example of how a range condition assessment is conducted for a loamy ecological site within one field of a tall grassprairie rangeland. The range condition score is 82.5%, which falls into the Excellent Range Condition Class.Species Category Survey % PublishedAllowable %Range Condition ScoreContribution %Indian Grass Decreaser 12.5 100 12.5Big Bluestem Decreaser 32.5 100 32.5Little Bluestem Decreaser 17.5 100 17.5Switch Grass Increaser 20.0 15 15Bent Grass Invader 7.5 0 0Low Goldenrod Increaser 6.0 5 5Forage Kochia Invader 4.0 0 0TOTAL 100.0 - 82.5What is Rangeland Health? How is it different from Range Condition?The traditional range condition assessment method just considers which species are growing, not how vigorous they are, how much insulation isover the soil, or how much soil is exposed and eroding. It also underestimates the risk posed by noxious weeds. This is why Rangeland HealthAssessment has come into use.Rangeland Health is the ability of rangelands to perform certain key functions, including net primary production, maintenance of soil, captureand beneficial release of water, nutrient and energy cycling and functional diversity of plant species. Healthy rangelands provide sustainablegrazing opportunities for livestock producers and ecological benefits to the public, such as clean water, recreation and hunting. The RangelandHealth Assessment tool (RHA) studies a number of indicators, and can be used for native rangelands, tame pasturelands, and forestedrangelands. Indicators are compared to conditions of a reference community (a plant community in pristine condition on a specific ecologicalsite). If published information is not available for what the reference plant community should be for a specific ecological site, then the evaluatorcan use a fenced out exclosure or remote part of a field that has received little to no use over the long term. Specific scoring criteria vary for62

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationeach of the native and forested rangeland assessments and the pasture assessment, but they will generally fall into the five categories describedbelow.1. Does the site have the plant species that are supposed to be there according to a natural reference community or one that hasbeen seeded onto the site?This indicator closely resembles the traditional Range Condition Assessment. The severity of past stress on the plant community by grazing,drought and other disturbances will result in a certain level of modification from this desired or reference community. Plant competitiondynamics are affected by disturbance. For example, plants that are not eaten or trampled will gain a competitive advantage and change theplant community. Quite often, the species shift is towards shorter, less palatable and trampling-resistant plants with shallower root systems andless biomass to contribute to ecological functions.2. Are all structural and functional groups adequately represented, as compared to the reference community, for example, tallgrass, short grass, legumes, tall forbs, short forbs, short shrubs, tall shrubs?“Structural groups” refers to height and type of plants, while “functional groups” refers to abilities of the plants such as having a nitrogen fixingsymbiont, annual or perennial growth, or cool season (C3) or warm season (C4) growth. Diverse plant structures and functions above groundreflect diversity of root structures and functions below ground. Structural diversity enables a plant community to acquire energy, nutrients andwater efficiently because foliage and roots are in many different locations. Functional diversity provides sustainable nutrient cycling and growththroughout spring, summer and fall. This indicator refers more generally to all species of similar structure or function, regardless of the actualspecies. For example, you may have a plant community with 50% cover of tall grass species that are not in the reference community, eventhough the reference community does have 50% cover of different tall grass species. This site will lose some points for the first indicator ofspecies composition, but it will keep all points for the second indicator of structure and function because it still has 50% cover of tall grasses. Ifthe site had only 20% tall grass cover, it would lose some points because of the significant reduction in tall grass cover.63

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Association3. Is there soil exposure and erosion beyond what is natural for the site?The top layer of the soil profile is important for plant growth, carbon sequestration, water infiltration,decomposition, and nutrient cycling (Figure 40). Exposing it to sunlight and putting it at risk of eroding from windor water will diminish these functions. It also creates an opportunity for invasive weeds to become established.With the moist climate in Manitoba we expect natural soil exposure and erosion of most ecological sites to beclose to zero, including stabilized sands. Areas with moving sands are different. They have a natural amount ofsoil exposure and erosion, but mismanagement will cause more soil to become exposed and increase erosion.Figure 20 Low litter andhigh amounts of bare soilinhibit nutrient and watercycling4. Is there enough dead plant material (litter) to conserve soil and soil moisture and to continue thenutrient cycle?Plant litter accumulates over many years when a certain amount of vegetation is left behind after grazing eachyear. If not enough is left behind after grazing, the soil is no longer protected from the sun, wind, or waterrunoff. Both plant litter and live vegetation stop water from flowing over land so it is allowed to infiltrate into the soil instead. Litter even acts asa sponge to take up extra water and release it over a longer period. Litter and live vegetation prevent soil water from evaporating by keeping thesoil cool. Seeds and seedlings of rangeland and pastureland plants are protected by litter from exposure to heat, sun, and physical damage. Birdsand rodents use plant litter for nesting and protection. Newer plant litter deposits can also create a forage bank for livestock. Some amount oflitter trampling is needed because big pieces of plants need to be made smaller and they need to touch the ground to enable soil organisms toreturn their nutrients to the soil. In Manitoba, the moist climate produces a lot of vegetation so it is fairly easy under conservative managementto accumulate litter on upland and forested rangelands and pasturelands. In many areas that are already very moist, like depressions andwetlands, the litter rots before it is able to accumulate, but through this rotting, nutrients are recycled into the soil.64

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Association5. Does the site have invasive plants that threaten the functions of the rangeland or pastureland?Invasive plant establishment can result from past disturbance or stress on the plant community, combined with introduction of seed fromnearby weed populations, contaminated machinery, contaminated forage seed, and hitch-hiking on animals or people. They create a risk ofreduced ecological benefits, and can increase risk of fire or injury to herbivores. This indicator measures the abundance (cover) and distributionpattern of the worst invaders (noxious weeds). Less cover and limited distribution create smaller risk of losing ecological benefits than highercover and frequent, extensive distribution. The greater the risk, the lower the score is for this indicator.Specific details on how to conduct a Rangeland Health Assessment can be found in the Rangeland Health Assessment Worksheet PDFs for Nativeand Forested Rangelands and Tame Pastureland.http://www.srd.alberta.ca/LandsForests/GrazingRangeManagement/documents/RangeHealthWorksheet-Grasslands-May2011.pdfhttp://www.srd.alberta.ca/LandsForests/GrazingRangeManagement/documents/RangeHealthWorksheet-Forest-May2011.pdfhttp://www.srd.alberta.ca/LandsForests/GrazingRangeManagement/documents/RangeHealthWorksheet-TamePasture-May2011.pdfInterpreting Rangeland Condition and Rangeland HealthRangeland condition and health assessments were developed to evaluate the sustainability of management on rangelands and pasturelands.They help us to decide if and what improvements are needed.Range Condition Assessment scores fall into four categories:75% to 100% Excellent. The plant community is in a very advanced state of succession. It is dominated by plants that would decrease inabundance if unsustainably managed (decreasers). Due to lack of significant disturbance, there may be an overabundance of decreaser speciescompared to a naturally occurring community that would receive occasional disturbance from fire or bison grazing. Some ecological benefits65

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationsuch as nutrient cycling, forage productivity, and wildlife habitat, may be inhibited because of too much litter cover or the spread of trees ontograssland. Increasing stocking rates or improving livestock distribution over the landscape will improve the balance of economic andenvironmental goals.50% to 74% Good. The plant community succession is fairly advanced as a result of sustainable grazing practices. Although plants thatincrease with unsustainable grazing (increasers) are common, the plant community is still dominated by decreasers. This condition category isideal because it results from a balance of livestock production which has economic benefits, and conservative grazing which has ecologicalbenefits.25% to 49% Fair. This is a mid to late successional plant community, significantly modified from a natural climax community. Althoughdecreaser plants can still be found, the plant community has been changed to one dominated by increaser plants or, in the case of nativegrassland, exotic invasive plants by unsustainable grazing management. Wildlife cover is considerably reduced and the site cannot carry as manylivestock as a site in better condition because increaser and invader plants are often unproductive, shallow-rooted, and/or unpalatable. Theecological functions of energy capture, nutrient cycling, carbon sequestration and water infiltration are diminished. Change in management, orrejuvenation in the case of tame pastureland, is needed to prevent these functions from remaining this way or declining further. Think about thefour grazing management principles and make some management and infrastructure changes to help encourage the growth of later successionaldecreaser plants. Certain invasive plants may never be removed from a native plant community once they are established, but their abundancemay be reduced to levels which will allow the site to provide ecological benefits. The number of years for the site to recover to Good or Excellentcondition under sustainable grazing management or tame forage rejuvenation depends on how severely the plant community has beenmodified.0% to 24% Poor. This plant community is severely modified to an early to mid-successional stage as a result of prolonged unsustainablegrazing management practices, or poor establishment of a seeded pastureland. It is often accompanied by bare soil. Decreaser plants areunlikely to be found and the plant community is dominated by invasive species, weedy annuals, and/or the most grazing resistant increasers66

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Association(Figure 41). Wildlife cover is considerably reduced and the site cannot carry as many livestock as a site in better condition because increaser andinvader plants are often unproductive, shallow-rooted, and/or unpalatable. The ecological functions of energy capture, nutrient cycling, carbonsequestration and water infiltration are diminished. Change in management, orFigure 41 An example of rangeland with poor rangecondition and unhealthy range scorerejuvenation in the case of tame pastureland, is needed to prevent these functionsfrom remaining this way or declining further. Think about the four grazingmanagement principles and make some management and infrastructure changes tohelp encourage the growth of mid to later successional plants. Certain invasiveplants may never be removed from a native plant community once they areestablished, but their abundance may be reduced to levels which will allow the siteto provide ecological benefits. It may take years or decades of conservative grazingmanagement, or rejuvenation of tame pastureland, for the site to recover to Goodor Excellent condition.Rangeland Health Assessment scores will fall into one of three categories:75% to 100% Healthy. Current grazing levels and management practices are sustainable (maintaining or improving the delivery of ecologicalbenefits). There may even be some opportunity to increase stocking rates to optimize both economic and environmental goals.50% to 74% Healthy with Problems. Some of the ecological functions are not being performed well, but could recover within a few years ifadjustments to management are made. Determine which of the five indicators contributes to the low score, and formulate a change based onthe four principles of grazing management. In the case of tame pastureland, forage rejuvenation may be required. Lack of action may keep thesituation at the same level of health or it may allow health to decline further over time into the Unhealthy category.0% to 49% Unhealthy. Few, if any, of the ecological functions, including forage production, are being performed well as a result ofunsustainable management practices (Figure 41). Urgent change is needed to prevent function from remaining this way or declining further.67

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationThink about the four grazing management principles and make some management and infrastructure changes to put those principles into action.In the case of tame pastureland, forage rejuvenation or even re-seeding may be required. Lack of action may keep the situation at the same levelof health or it may allow health to decline further.68

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationGlossaryAcres: an imperial unit of area mostly used for land, equal to 4,047 square metres or 0.405 hectaresAdaptive Behaviour: behaviour adjustment in response to one’s environment, an event, or others’ behaviourAgricultural Land: land used for any kind of food production, including farmland, pastureland and rangelandAllowable Limit: maximum percentage of individual decreaser, increaser, or invader species in scoring range conditionAnimal Unit (AU): a standard unit for animal size and feed requirement (based on a 455 kg (1000 lb) cow)Animal Unit Day (AUD): the forage requirement one animal unit (AU) for one day; one animal unit (AU) would need 12 kg of foragea dayAnimal Unit Equivalent (AUE): a factor used to adjust for any type, class and size of animal that is different from the standardanimal unit (AU), when calculating feed requirementsAnimal Unit Month (AUM): the forage requirement of one animal unit (AU) for one month; to convert animal unit days (AUD) toAUM, simply multiply by 30 or 31 days, depending on the monthAnnual Growth: the amount of forage grown in one year, either herbaceous or woodyAnnual Plant: a plant with a life cycle of one year or growing seasonAnthropogenic Disturbance: disturbance of an ecosystem caused by human activity such as agriculture, forestry, mining and sewageleakageAnti-Quality Factor: characteristic of feeds or forages that reduces their quality and digestibility; may lead to poor animalperformance if not managed properly69

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationAspen Parkland Ecoregion: an ecoregion in southern Manitoba distinguished by mixed woodland and grassland; a transition fromgrassland into boreal forestAvailable Forage Supply: the portion of forage production that is accessible for use by a specified kind or class of grazing animal;also a specific calculated proportion of total forage production that takes into account safe use factorBeneficial Management Practices (BMPs): any method of managing production that has positive outcomes for the three aspects ofsustainability: economic, environmental, and socioculturalBiodiversity: variety of life on Earth, can be specific to a particular ecosystem or habitatBiomass: the total mass of living plants and animals above and below ground in a specified area at a given timeBio-Security: procedures meant to protect humans or animals against disease or harmful biological agentsBlack Chernozem: soil developed in the southern part of Manitoba under relatively low rainfall and high summer temperatures andpredominantly grassland and aspen parkland vegetation; surface horizon of soil black, reflecting a significant accumulation anddecomposition of grasses and other vegetation; the most fertile and productive soil in ManitobaBoreal Transition Ecoregion: an ecoregion distinguished by a mixture of deciduous forest and farmland on highlands throughout theAspen Parkland; a transition from Aspen Parkland into closed Boreal ForestBrowse: leaf and twig growth of shrubs, woody vines, and trees available for use by animals; also meaning to search for or consumegrowth from woody vegetationBrunisol: soil developed under closed or mixed forest canopies that is in the mid stages of development; development is limited byhigh lime content or coarse texture of parent geological materialsC3 (cool season) Plant: a plant which generally makes the major portion of its growth during spring and fall and sets seed in the latespring or early summer; follows the pentose phosphate pathway of photosynthesis to break down carbon dioxide70

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationC4 (warm season) Plant: a plant which generally makes the major portion of its growth during hot summer months and sets seed inmidsummer; follows the dicarboxylic acid pathway of photosynthesis to break down carbon dioxideCarbon Sequestration: the process of removing carbon from the atmosphere and depositing it in a reservoirCarrying Capacity: the average number of livestock and/or wildlife which may be sustained on a management unit compatible withmanagement objectives for the unitClass of Animal: an animal’s sex, age, and intactness of genitaliaClimax Community: the final or stable biotic community in succession, determined primarily by climate but also influenced by soil,topographic, vegetative, fire and animal factorsCommunity Pastures: pastures for multiple producers, established and managed by federal and provincial governments orcooperativesCommunity Pastures Program: the specific community pastures which are established by and managed by the federal governmentCommunity (ecology): all of the populations of different species of plants, animals, fungi, and other living organisms living andinteracting in a certain geographical areaConservation Tillage: practices that reduce the amount and/or impact of soil tillage, thereby reducing disruption of soil and itsecological processesConservative Management: management that balances human use of the Earth’s resources with maintaining ecological integrityContinuous (or Season-Long) Grazing System: a system that allows grazing on an area for an entire growing season without restCool-Season Plant (C3 plant): a plant which generally makes the major portion of its growth during spring and fall and sets seed inthe late spring or early summer71

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationCorral: a small fenced area used to handle and sort livestock and store them temporarily for quarantine, release into pastureland orrangeland, or transportation from the landCrown Lands Act of Manitoba: an act governing the allocation and use of provincially owned lands (also known as public lands) inManitobaCrown Lands: land which is owned by provincial or federal governments of Canada; also known as public landsDark Grey Chernozem: soil developed to the east and north of the Black soils, where cooler temperatures and more humidconditions fostered a mix of grassland and forest vegetation; very productive soil in ManitobaDark Grey Luvisol: soil developed under cooler climate and forest vegetation largely in central to northern Manitoba and at higherelevations in the western part of the Province; upper layers of soil somewhat leached and, as a result, dark grey in colour; utilizedmainly for mixed farming, particularly in rolling or hilly areas where steeply sloping land is best suited to pasture and forageproductionDecreasers: plant species of the climax community that decrease in relative amount with continued overuse; in rangelands andpasturelands, they are usually the taller or more palatable plants; term used in Range Condition AssessmentDeferred Rotational Grazing System: a grazing system in which one field of a multi-field range or pasture is left ungrazed for onewhole grazing season; a different field is rested each yearDepradation: wildlife using annual crops, forage, or hay; usually in reference to damage or reduction of supplyDichotomous Key: a sequence of two-way choices for use in determining the identity of a plant or animal species, or of a plantcommunityDisturbance: a natural or human-caused change that interrupts ecological processes and alters the composition and structure of aplant community72

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationDiverse Species Mixture: a pasture seed mix that contains several to numerous different plant speciesDomestic: living organisms that have been cultured to provide food for livestock or humans, as in domesticated forage varieties, anddomestic animalsDominion Lands Act (1872): A Canadian Act outlining the process and requirements for people wishing to settle in the WesternCanadian Prairies; it offered 65 hectares for free, provided 16 ha was cultivated and a permanent dwelling erected within 3 years ofregistrationDormant: being in a state of reduced growth and respiration; in plants, usually from mid fall to mid springEcological Functions: interactions among living and non-living components of ecosystems, sometimes creating products and serviceswhich are useful to humans, interchangeable with Ecological ProcessesEcological Goods and Services: environmental benefits resulting from functions of ecosystems, interchangeable with EcosystemServices and ProductsEcological Integrity: describing an ecosystem composed of native plant and animal species, where natural ecological processes aresustained and happening at natural ratesEcological Processes: interactions among living and non-living components of ecosystems, sometimes creating products and serviceswhich are useful to humans, interchangeable with Ecological FunctionsEcological Site: a kind of land with a specific potential natural community and specific physical site characteristics, differing fromother kinds of land in its ability to produce vegetation and to respond to managementEcoregion: large geographical area determined by climate, dominant vegetation forms, and landformsEcosystem Services and Products: environmental benefits resulting from functions of ecosystems, interchangeable with EcologicalGoods and Services73

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationEcosystem: a complete interacting system of organisms (i.e. community) and their environmentEco-tourism: tourism focused on experiencing and respecting the environmentEdge Effect: the influence on the structure and function of two communities on each other at their boundaryEnergy Capture: transformation of sunlight energy by photosynthesis into a chemical form of energy which is useable by organismsin an ecosystemEnergy Flow: movement of energy through the ecosystem from sun to primary producers to consumers to decomposers, until all ofthe stored energy has been used upErosion: movement of soil particles from one location to anotherExclosure: a structure that restricts livestock and wildlife from accessing an area of rangeland or pasturelandExotic Plant Species: a plant that does not occur naturally in a location; usually refers to plants imported purposefully or by accidentfrom another continentFarmland: land that is cultivated for annual cropsField: an agricultural space that is fenced off from its surroundingsForage Bank: available forage that is not used during the grazing season but remains in place for use during the winter or followingspringForage Demand: the amount of forage needed to meet the requirements of certain numbers, types, classes, and sizes of livestockand wildlifeForage Production: weight of forage that is produced within a designated period of time, usually one entire growing season, on agiven area74

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationForage Quality: measure of how well forage meets nutritional needs of animalsForage Rejuvenation: improvement of the condition of forage or the amount of forage produced on a pastureForage Supply: the amount of forage produced that can be sustainably grazed; equal to Useable Forage Production multiplied by theSafe Use FactorForage: browse and herbaceous vegetation which is available as food for grazing animals or be harvested for feeding; also to searchfor or consume browse or herbaceous vegetationForb: non-woody plant generally with solid, non-jointed stems, broad netted veined leaves, and tap root systems; any herbaceousplant other than those in the grass, sedge or rush familiesForest: land on which the vegetation is dominated by trees; lands classified forestland if trees present will provide 25% or greatercanopy cover at maturityForested Rangeland: land on which the vegetation is dominated by trees and is usable for food and habitat by wildlife or domesticanimalsFrame: a steel, rope, wire or plastic device used to outline a sample plot so that observations can be made within its area; commonlyused in determining species composition and ground coverFrequency of Disturbance: how often a disturbance occurs or the regularity of disturbancesFunctional Diversity: a characteristic of an ecosystem of with a variety of plants that can perform different ecological functionsFunctional Group: a group of plant species performs similar ecological functions, for example, legumes, cool season plants, warmseason plants, annuals, perennials and herbaceous species75

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationGleysol: a soil found in poorly drained areas throughout Manitoba, and showing the influence of soil water; waterlogged soils tendto be dull grey in colour and soils where the water has left have orange colorationGrass: plant of the Gramineae family; usually herbaceous with narrow, parallel-veined, two-ranked leavesGrassland: lands on which the vegetation is dominated by grasses, grass-like plants, and/or forbsGrass-like Plant: plant of the Cyperaceae or Juncaceae family; usually herbaceous with slender, usually solid, round or three-angledstems and parallel-veined, often three-ranked leavesGraze: to consume herbaceous and/or non-woody plant materialGrazing Management Principles: basic ideas about beneficial treatment of rangelands and pasturelands that can be used to chooseor develop many different beneficial management practices; common themes among existing beneficial management practices thathelp explain why they give positive results for rangelands and pasturelandsGrazing Management: the manipulation of grazing and browsing animals to accomplish a desired resultGrazing Season: the period during which livestock are using rangelands and pasturelands; usually longer than a growing season, andoften from early or mid-spring to mid or late fall in ManitobaGrazing System: the way in which a pasture or range is grazed; may be planned or not; may be scheduled or flexible or neither of theaboveGrey Luvisol: soil developed under cool climates and forest vegetation largely in central to northern Manitoba and at higherelevations in the western part of the Province; the upper layers leached and, as a result, light gray in color; lower layers accumulateleached organic matter and clay; utilized mainly for mixed farming, particularly in rolling or hilly areas where steeply sloping land isbest suited to pasture and forage productionGround Cover: amount or types of material covering soil; common types are herbaceous, plant litter, moss, or fecal material76

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationGrowing Season: the period during which plants are able to grow and photosynthsize; in southern Manitoba, usually from mid Aprilto mid OctoberHealthy: condition of an ecosystem which is able to perform ecological functions well in order to create ecological goods andservices efficientlyHectare: a metric unit of area, equal to 10,000 m 2 or 2.47 acresHerbaceous: having little or no woody growth and dying back to the ground at the end of each growing seasonHigh Intensity-Low Frequency Grazing System: a heavy, short-duration grazing system in which all livestock in a set of several rangeunits or pastures graze one pasture at a time until the desired degree of use is obtainedIncreasers: plant species in a community that increase in relative amount with continued overuse; in rangeland and pasturelandcommunities, usually the shorter or less palatable plants on the site; term used in Range Condition AssessmentInfrastructure: permanent or semi-permanent physical structures; in rangeland and pastureland settings, fencelines, corrals,watering facilities, barns, constructed windbreaks, dams, and livestock crossings over water bodiesIntensive Rotational Grazing System: a grazing system in which livestock rotate relatively quickly through many small fields duringthe grazing season; fields often used twice or more during the seasonInterlake Plain Ecoregion: an ecoregion between Lake Manitoba and Lake Winnipeg; distinguished by extensive wetlands andriparian areas, and uplands covered by mixed woodland and grasslandInvaders: plant species absent in undisturbed plant communities; can invade a plant community following disturbance or continuedoveruse, via wind, water, dirty machinery, or in the coats and digestive systems of animals; term used in Range ConditionAssessment77

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationInvasive Plant: plant species absent in undisturbed plant communities; can invade a plant community following disturbance orcontinued overuse, via wind, water, dirty machinery, or in the coats and digestive systems of animalsLake Manitoba Plain Ecoregion: an ecoregion between the Manitoba Escarpment and Lake Manitoba; distinguished by extensivewetlands and riparian areas, and uplands covered by mixed woodland and grasslandManitoba Escarpment: a series of landforms running from south-central Manitoba towards west-central Manitoba that denote asignificant change in elevation from east to west, including the Pembina Hills, Riding Mountain, Duck Mountains, Porcupine HillsLegume: a plant belonging to the Leguminosae, or pea, family, which, through a symbiotic relationship, can fix its own nitrogenLitter: uppermost layer of non-living organic debris on the soil surface; essentially freshly fallen or slightly decomposed plantmaterialLivestock Distribution: spatial arrangement of grazing animals over an entire pasture or rangeLivestock Husbandry: the agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestockMarginal Land: land that is unsuitable for growing annual crops because of limitations to cultivation and crop survival such asstoniness, poor water and nutrient holding capacity, steep slopes, wetness, salt, and hard soil layers; most suitable for hay andpasture, although some be severely damaged if annual cropping attempted, or unsustainable grazing practices usedMid Boreal Upland Ecoregion: an ecoregion in west-central Manitoba made of a series of elevated landforms, distinguished fromsurrounding ecoregions by cooler temperatures, additional snowfall, and closed forest vegetationModified Landscapes: a landscape that has been altered from its original form; on rangelands it refers to plant communities with asignificant contribution from exotic forages or invasive weedsMonoculture: the planting of a single annual or forage crop in a given area78

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationNative Plant Community: plant community dominated by species of local originNative Species: a species which is part of the original flora and fauna of the area in questionNatural Disturbance: disturbance of ecosystem caused by natural events such as fire, flooding, drought and wildlife grazingNaturalized: having become so integrated into an ecosytem where the species is not native that it is difficult to eradicateNet Primary Production: the amount of photosynthetic products which are not used by the plant itself, but are stored in structuressuch as leaves, stems and roots; see also Primary ProducersNitrogen-fixing Symbiont: an organism that converts dinitrogen gas from the atmosphere into ammonia, which is used by plants; inreturn the symbiont receives carbohydrates from the plantNorthern Mixed Grass Prairie: grassland located in the Black to Dark Grey Chernozemic transitional soil zone of the Northern GreatPlains; characterized by dry western grasses such as western wheatgrass, blue grama grass, and needle and thread grassNoxious Weed: A particularly unlikable weed species; usually listed as such in provincial regulations and listed in criteria forevaluating rangeland healthNutrient Cycling: movement through an ecosystem of minerals, compounds, or elements that promote biological growth ordevelopment in a closed loop ; may contain multiple pathwaysNutritional Requirement: the amounts of various substances in food needed by an organism to sustain healthy life and reproduce,by supporting metabolism, milk production, conception, pregnancy, flowering, seed production, and growthOnce-over Rotational Grazing System: a grazing system composed of several fields or paddocks where livestock are moved fromone to the other after using each field once during a grazing season (spring to late fall)Paddock: a division of land within a pasture; often synonymous with field79

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationParkland/Northern Fescue: a grassland located on Black and Dark Grey Chernozemic or Dark Grey and Grey Luvisolic soils of theCanadian Prairies; existing on deep fertile soil and characterized by plains rough fescue and groves of aspen and/or bur oakPasture: a specific grazing area separated from other areas by fencing or other barriers; the management unit for grazing land; anyspecific area devoted to the production of forage, native or introduced, and harvested by grazing; also forage plants used as food forgrazing animals; often used interchangeably with pasturelandPastureland: a general term for grazing lands which are planted primarily to introduced or domesticated native forage species, andreceive periodic renovation (re-seeding) and cultural treatments (like fertilizer) to maintain productivity and species compositionPerennial Plant: a plant with a life cycle of three or more yearsPlant Residue: dead or dormant plant materialPrairie: large area of grasslandPredation: the preying of one animal on others; in agriculture, the injury or loss of livestock by carnivoresPrescribed Burning: a fire set in a designated place to achieve specific results and approved by land manager or ownerPrimary Producers: organisms that transform atmospheric or aquatic carbon dioxide into organic compounds using solar or chemicalenergy; e.g., plantsPrimary Production: the amount of photosynthetic products produced by plants, also referred to as Gross Primary Production; seeNet Primary ProductionPrivate Rangeland: rangeland owned by individuals or private companiesPublic Rangeland: rangeland owned by the public and managed by different governments except where a lease or managementagreement allows an individual or organization to manage and use them for a specific period of time, with certain restrictions80

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationQuarantine: the act of isolating livestock or feed temporarily for the purpose of preventing spread of disease, pathogens or invasiveweedsRange: specific area of rangeland that supports a cover of herbaceous or shrubby vegetation suitable for grazing by livestock orgame; often used interchangeably with rangelandRange Cage: a structure, smaller than an exclosure, that restricts livestock and wildlife from accessing a rangeland or pasturelandsample plotRange Condition: the present status of a unit of range in terms of specific values or potentials which are stated; also defined as thepresent state of vegetation of a rangeland or pastureland in relation to the climax (natural potential) plant community for that siteRange Condition Assessment: an evaluation of the status of a rangeland or pastureland in which species composition of rangelandor pastureland in question is compared to expected climax plant community, and scored based on relative abundance of differentplant species that respond in certain ways to unsustainable grazing pressure (i.e. decreaser, increaser, invader)Range Condition Class: name given to categories into which range condition scores fall: Excellent (75%-100%), Good (50%-75%), Fair(25%-50%), Poor (0%-25%)Range Condition Score: a percentage comparison of species composition of a rangeland or pastureland with the composition ofexpected climax plant community, based on the response of different plant species to unsustainable grazing pressure (i.e. decreaser,increaser, invader)Rangeland: land on which the plant community is comprised of predominately native or indigenous grasses, grass-like plants (e.g.sedges), forbs and/or shrubs; in Manitoba also includes forested plant communities and plant communities modified by invasiveplants; often interchanged with the term rangeRangeland Health: the ability of a rangeland to perform ecological functions and create ecological goods and services efficiently81

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationRangeland Health Assessment: the study of ecosystem indicators for the purpose of evaluating how well a rangeland or pasturelandwill functionRangeland Health Category: one of the three ratings into which a rangeland health assessment score may fall: Healthy, Healthy withProblems, and UnhealthyRangeland Health Indicator: one of a number of qualities that are studied in order to evaluate how well a rangeland or pasturelandwill functionRangeland Units: large neighbouring areas of rangelandsReach: a smaller segment of a water body whose riparian zone is used to represent the riparian zone of the whole water body, whenevaluating riparian health; see also Sample PlotReference Community: a plant community in pristine condition on a specific ecological site, whose qualities are compared to arangeland or pastureland on the same ecological site when evaluating rangeland healthReproductive Propagules: structures of plants and other living creatures, including seeds, segments of roots, rhizomes, stolons,bulbs, which allow a population to grow and spread over a landscapeRest: absence of grazing on a field or entire range or pasture for a specified amount of timeRiparian Health Assessment: the study of ecosystem indicators for the purpose of evaluating how well a riparian area will functionecologicallyRiparian Health Indicator: one of a number of qualities that are studied in order to evaluate how well a riparian area will functionecologicallyRiparian: adjacent to water and/or influenced by free water such as rivers or streams; does not refer to open water82

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationRotational Grazing: a grazing system in which animals are moved from one unit of pasture or range to anotherSafe Use Factor: a factor multiplied by total forage production to calculate how much forage should be allocated to livestock orwildlife; used to ensure enough vegetation is left behind to sustain itself and future functionsSampling Plot: small defined area where observations are made, used as representative of large area of rangeland and pasturelandSeason-Long Grazing System: A system that allows grazing on an area for an entire growing season without restSelective Grazing: grazing in which livestock eat forage they preferSymbiont: organism that lives in close and persistant association with another organism, may be beneficial or detrimental to othersymbiontShrub: a woody plant without a single main stem (trunk)Simple Mixture: forage stand composed of two (or sometimes three or four) key plant speciesSoil Chemistry: study of chemical characteristics of the soil which are affected by mineral composition, organic matter andenvironmental factorsSoil Conservation: management and land-use methods that safeguard the soil against depletion or deteriorationSoil Exposure: the amount of soil visible at the soil surface (not covered by live or dead plant material); see also Ground CoverSoil Organic Matter (SOM): organic fraction of the soil that includes microorganism, plant and animal residues and substancesexcreted by the soil populationSoil Physical Characteristics: physical properties of soil, which include, but are not limited to texture, structure, porosity andpermeability83

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationSpecies Composition: the species present in a community or ecosystem; also, a list of the proportions that each species representsin the whole communityStocking Density: the number of livestock or wildlife actually present at a single point in time on a specific area of rangeland andpastureland; preferred units are standard measures such as animal units per hectare (AU/ha), or hectares per animal unit (ha/AU)Stocking Rate: the number of livestock or wildlife actually using a specified area of rangeland and pastureland for a specified periodof time; preferred units are standard measures such as animal unit months (AUM) or animal unit months per hectare of area(AUM/ha)Structural Diversity: a characteristic of an ecosystem or plant community that is represented by many different structural groups ofplantsStructural Group: a group of plant species that has similar growth form both below and above ground, for example, tall grasses,short grasses, tall forbs, short shrubs, treesSuccession: an orderly and predictable sequence of changes in which an ecosystem becomes successively occupied by differentcommunities of higher ecological orderSupplemental Forage: additional forage provided to livestock above what is produced by the pasture or rangeSustainability: the capacity to ensure the provision of economic, environmental and sociocultural needs of future usersSustainable Management: management that balances current economic, environmental and sociocultural needs while ensuring theprovision of those needs for future usersSwitchback Rotational Grazing System: a grazing system with two fields where a field is used for ¼ of the grazing season, thenrested while a second field is used for ½ of the grazing season, then grazed again for the remaining ¼ of the season; the order of useis switched from year to year84

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationTall Grass Prairie: a very moist grassland which is a transition between deciduous forest to the east where there is a lot of rainfall,and Mixed Grass prairie and Short Grass prairie to the west where it is very dry; soil is very deep and black and dominated by verytall grass species such as big bluestemTame Pasturelands: all pasturelands by definition are tame, that is, they are seeded to exotic foragesTaste Aversion: dislike or avoidance of a particular substance because of its taste, smell or other characteristicsTopography: the shape of the land, commonly described by degree of flatness or hilliness, and regularity and steepness of slopesTrampling: the action of animals stepping on living or dead plants, sometimes causing injury or death to live plants, sometimescrushing live and dead plants into smaller piecesTwice-over Rotational Grazing System: a grazing system designed to graze a field quickly, rest it, and then graze it for a longerperiod, for the purposes of stimulating vegetation growth and improving soil microbial activityUpland: land that is not wet, adjacent to or within water bodiesUpland Grasslands: lands on dry to moist, but not wet, soil that are dominated by grassesVegetation Zones: obvious areas on a landscape where the vegetation appears different; typically describing the different rings ofvegetation radiating away from water bodiesWarm-Season (C4) Plant: a plant which generally makes the major portion of its growth during spring and fall and sets seed in thelate spring or early summerWater Cycling: cycle of evaporation and condensation that controls the distribution of the earth's water as it evaporates from bodiesof water, condenses, precipitates, and returns to those bodies of water; also called hydrologic cycleWater Infiltration: downward entry of water into the soil85

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationWeed: any unwanted or undesirable plant, whether grass, forb, shrub or treeWetland: a lowland area, such as a marsh or swamp that is saturated with waterWildlife Cover: any place an animal can use for living space(ex. nesting, hiding, safety)Woody: producing wood as a tissue and growing from stems above the ground every year86

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationAppendix A Community Pastures Across the PrairiesThe community pasture (CP) program is Agriculture Canada’s largest and longest running contribution to soilconservation on the prairies. These pastures were established by the federal government during the drought inthe 1930s. Abandoned degraded agricultural lands were becoming a noticeable problem, as people were walkingaway from the land and giving up on farming. [This is also when the Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration(PFRA) was created.] Across Canada, CPs cover in excess of 2 million acres. Approximately half a million acres arein Manitoba. Most of the pasture acres can be considered as native rangelands, making these areas important forbiodiversity.87

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationThe mandate of the program is to conserve and protect the land from deterioration, and to use the land forgrazing of livestock. Grazing is used as a tool which also supports the diverse functioning prairie ecosystem, whilemanaging often what are considered as marginal soils.In Manitoba, the community pastures were set aside starting in 1939. An agreement between the federal andprovincial government helped reclaim the badly eroded lands, or in Manitoba’s case, land which may also havebeen frequently flooded or was severely sloped. Most of the land is Provincial Crown Land, a large portion of88

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry Associationsome pastures is owned by municipalities, and some is held federally. Regardless of ownership, Agriculture andAgri-Food Canada (AAFC) has paid for infrastructure (e.g. fencing) and any applicable taxes. The pastures aremanaged by federal staff who balance the needs of pasture patrons with those of environmental conservationinterests.This past spring, as part of the federal budget cuts, it was announced that the community pasture program wouldbe ending, with pasture lands gradually reverting back to Provincial or RM management over a 6 year span. InManitoba, besides the half a million acres, this decision effects 62 federal employees, about 500 patrons, and 29municipal governments, 7 of which have rural municipality (RM) land included in the pastures. ManitobaAgriculture, Food and Rural Initiatives (MAFRI) is now working through the transfer of responsibility withAgriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC). A stakeholders committee and municipal governments are also beingconsulted.Benefits from the CP ProgramBenefits of the community pastures are numerous. The most obvious benefit belongs to the participatinglivestock producer, as the program increases the land available for grazing. Patrons deliver the cattle to the CP bya certain time in the spring, where they remain on pasture until late fall. Who gets into the pasture is decided onby a local grazing association committee, called a Patron Advisory Committee (PAC), in cooperation with thepasture manager (an AAFC employee). Grazing rates have been kept low. Rates range from $0.45/day per head to$0.60/day for bulls. Breeding services and vet bills are charged back to patrons. Surrounding communities benefitfinancially as supplies are often purchased locally, and salaries are spent by resident Pasture Managers andPasture Riders.89

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationAn evaluation of the community pasture program in 2002 indicated that these pastures provide a range ofbenefits to the general public which are just as significant to those provided to patrons through grazing. Thesepublic benefits include soil conservation, wildlife and waterfowl habitat, community development, carbonsequestration, protection of watersheds and ecosystems, and other factors. In 2002, the total [prairie wide]financial benefit was $49.6M, with 50% from grazing, and 50% from public benefits.These pastures have been studied in detail, not only because they are important for grazing, but also becausethey remain relatively large, intact native rangelands, on which we can evaluate such factors as climate change. Alarge amount of data has been collected for grazing, species composition, range condition and healthassessments, and riparian surveys. A species at risk decision support tool was also developed for each pasture.Because of the land management with grazing, community pastures have been maintained as habitat for specieswhich are being threatened elsewhere by normal farming practices. [The federal government was in the processof negotiating a species at risk memorandum of understanding with the provincial government; that is currentlyon hold.]Manitoba’s Community PasturesIn Manitoba, there are 21 separate community pastures, which are found in most of the ecozones related toagro-Manitoba. The one at the Pas (Pasquia) is the most northern pasture.PFRA Pasture Total Acres Dominant Soil ClassAlonsa 33150 45P/5WBield 7784 4STCote-San Clara 8235 3STEllice- Archie 37641 5SEthelbert-Dauphin 42152 4SP/3S90

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationGardenton-Pansy 12560 5WPLakeview 9280 4SPLangford 20621 6SLenswood-Birch River 21683 4WMLibau-Netley 2592 2WMcCreary 39955 4WPMulvihill 17929 4SPNarcisse 14074 5WPPasquia 5036 5WPortage 14290 4SPSpy Hill-Ellice 38219 5WSylvan Dale 12178 5P/6PTurtle Mountain 22701 5T/4TWallace 10082 5PWestbourne 12711 7WWoodlands 20977 4SPSimplified Soil Class TableSubclassLimitations toProduction ofAnnual CropsClass 3 Class 4 Class 5 Class 6 Class 7moderate toseveresevereverysevererestricted toperennialcropsnocapability91

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationTopography(T) (percentslope calculatedby rise over run)5-9% 9-15% 15-30% 30-45% >45%Excess Water(W)loamy to finetexturedGleysols withimproveddrainagecoarsetexturedGleysolswithimproveddrainagepoorlydrainedvery poorlydrainedopen wateror marshStoniness (P) very exceedingly excessively fragmental(S)a combination of two or more limitations92

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationAppendix B - Rangeland and Pasture Plant Species in ManitobaCategory Grass or Grass like Forb Shrub TreeUpland Grassland, conservativelygrazedbig bluestem fringed aster saskatoon aspenporcupine grass harebell prickly rose oakawned wheatgrass American vetch snowberryUpland Grassland, overgrazed June grass Pasture sage snowberryBlue grama grass Pussytoes Prickly roseLow sedgeThree-flowered avensUpland Grassland, sandy sand reed grass sunflower creeping juniper oaksand dropseed silver psoralea choke cherry aspenporcupine grass saskatoon balsam poplarMixed Grass Prairie upland porcupine grass prairie coneflower creeping juniper oakneedle and thread grass purple prairie clover choke cherry aspenJune grass three-flowered avens saskatoonFescue Prairie Upland plains rough fescue American vetch choke cherry oakawned wheatgrass wild strawberry saskatoon aspenporcupine grassthree-flowered avensTall Grass Prairie Upland big bluestem sunflower choke cherry oakside-oats grama purple prairie clover saskatoon aspenindiangrassgoldenrod93

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationCategory Grass or Grass like Forb Shrub TreeWet Meadow Northern reed grass wild mint red osier dogwood green ashAlkali cord grass water hemlock willow Manitoba mapleAwned sedge silverweed cotton woodWoodland Pasture White grained mountain rice grass Wild lily of the valley choke cherry aspenPurple oatgrass Purple peavine saskatoon oakawned wheatgrass fringed aster beaked hazel balsam poplarTame Pasture (Old Field) Kentucky bluegrass white cloversmooth bromedandelioncreeping bent grasswild strawberryManaged or Rejuvenated Pasture smooth brome alfalfameadow fescuebird's-foot trefoiltimothyred cloverInvasive species downy brome leafy spurge Russian oliveJapanese brome purple loosestrife European buckthorncommon tansyRare species buffalo grass rough agalinisplains rough fescuewestern spiderwortindiangrasssmall white lady's slipper94

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationPlant Species ReferencesFor more information on how to identify species as well as pictures, these references may be useful.Moore, J. 2003. Common Native Pasture Plants of southern Manitoba; A landowner’s guide. Critical Wildlife Habitat Program. Winnipeg, Canada.http://mbfc.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/1-6-Common-Native-Pasture-Plants-of-Manitoba.pdfHargrave, A. 2007. Identification of Common Range Plants of Northern Saskatchewan. Saskatchewan Forage Council, Saskatoon, Saskatchewanhttp://www.saskforage.ca/publications/Northern.pdfBetter pictures in the original edition: http://www1.foragebeef.ca/$foragebeef/frgebeef.nsf/all/frg1057/$FILE/nativeplantidnorthernsk.pdfHargrave, A. 2007. Identification of Common Range Plants of Southern Saskatchewan. Saskatchewan Forage Council, Saskatoon, Saskatchewanhttp://www.saskforage.ca/publications/Southern.pdfHargrave, A. 2007. Identification of Common Seeded Plants for Forage and Reclamation in Saskatchewan. Saskatchewan Forage Council,Saskatoon, Saskatchewanhttp://www.saskforage.ca/publications/Forage%20&%20Reclamation.pdfOld edition: http://mbfc.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/1-7-Common-seeded-forage-plants-of-Manitoba.pdfHargrave, A. 2007. Identification of Common Riparian Plants of Saskatchewan. Saskatchewan Forage Council, Saskatoon, Saskatchewanhttp://www.saskforage.ca/publications/Riparian.pdfOriginal edition with good images: http://www1.foragebeef.ca/$Foragebeef/frgebeef.nsf/all/frg96/$FILE/riparianplantIDSk.pdfGrasses Identified by their Vegetative Characteristics (webpage with additional relevant links; based on the book by Looman, J. entitled PrairieGrasses Identified and Described by their Vegetative Characters)http://www1.foragebeef.ca/$foragebeef/frgebeef.nsf/all/aafc143Brown, Lauren. 1979. Grasses: An Identification Guide. Houghton-Mifflin Company, Boston. 240 pp.Field Guide to the Native Trees of Manitoba. http://www.gov.mb.ca/conservation/forestry/pdf/health/fieldguidefinal.pdf95

THINK TREES – Manitoba Forestry AssociationOntario Trees and Shrubs. http://ontariotrees.com/United States Department of Agriculture. Plants Database. http://plants.usda.gov/java/(search for plants by name to get images, geographic range, and links to descriptions)H.J. Scoggan (1957). Flora of Manitoba. http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~bford/PDFs/Scoggan.pdfSaskatchewan PCAP. Saskatchewan Invasive Plant Species Identification Guidehttp://www.pcap-sk.org/docs/5_resandlit/Invasives_ID_Guide_2010_SFC_30Mar11.pdfStubbendieck, J., Hatch, S.L., and N.M. Bryan. 2011. North American Wildland Plants. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln and London.Agriculture Canada. 1987. Budd’s Flora of the Canadian Prairie Provinces. Supply and Services Canada. Ottawa, OntarioRare plant species in Manitobahttp://www.gov.mb.ca/conservation/wildlife/sar/sarlist.html96

Appendix CBackground•This scientific poster was prepared by University of Manitoba students as part of the Society for Range Management’s Rangeland Cup. TheRangeland Cup is an activity to promote critical thinking and cooperative, collaborative work on current topics and/or topics of historicalimportance to rangeland ecology and management (sound familiar?).What is a scientific poster?•A scientific poster is typically a fairly large display that quickly and effectively communicates information (usually research) at a meeting,conference or seminar.

Invasive Species Management on Tolstoi Tall Grass Prairie Preserve in ManitobaLindsey Andronak 1 , Rachel Evans, 1 Alicia Leroux 1 ,Gwen Donohoe 1 ,and Mae Elsinger 2University of Manitoba Department of Animal ScienceManitoba Forage Council1 Departments of Soil Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada R3T 2N22 Agri‐Environmental Services Branch, Agriculture and Agri‐Food Canada, Brandon, MB, Canada R7A 5Y3Society for Range Management Prairie Parkland ChapterManitoba Habitat Heritage CorporationINTRODUCTIONOver 99% of the 6000 square kilometers that was once Tall Grass Prairie in southernManitoba is now cultivated, annual crop land. The remaining (less than 1%) can be foundwithin the Tolstoi Tall Grass Prairie Preserve, located south of the city of Winnipeg (Figure1). These fragmented pieces of remaining Tall Grass Prairie are located on BlackChernozemic soils with sandy surface texture overlying a high water table. Preservingthese fragmented pieces of tall grass prairie in Manitoba requires management practicesthat favour native species and maintain biological diversity. Invasive species, includingleafy spurge and aspen, are currently the biggest threats to biological diversity. Climatechange along with social, political, and economic constraints will favour invasive speciesand further complicate invasive species management strategies.Objectives: To prepare a 20‐year management plan for the Tolstoi Tall Grass PrairiePreserve that will incorporate long‐term climate change and socio‐economic predictionsto ensure the survival of the last of the tall grass prairie in Manitoba.Figure 2. Aspen encroachment with leafy spurge understory.2030 CLIMATIC PREDICTIONSo ↑ temperature of 2 o Co ↓ summer precipitaono ↑ intensity of precipitaon eventso Overall ↑ in precipitaon2030 SOCIOECONOMIC PREDICTIONSo ↑ value for biodiversity the environmento ↓ in livestock producerso ↑ in acreageso ↑ in farm sizeo ↑ n annual crop producon acresPrevention of Aspen Encroachment:Grazingo Inexpensive and effectiveo Forage yields can increase 5 ‐10xo More palatable forageo Use high stocking rates whensuckers have emerged withrotational cyclesINVASIVE SPECIES MANAGEMENT PRACTICESFireo Pre‐planned boundaries undercontrolled conditionso Burn when plants are dormant andsoil is moisto Attracts livestock to unutilized areaso Reduces cover of weedso Reseeding in burned areasTable 1. Management in a deferred rotational grazing system following a spring burn.Year 1Year 2Year 3Year 4Spring Summer FallDefer grazing for up to 2months or when suckers areestablishedAdjust stocking rate withincrease in forage supplyReduced suckersDefer spring grazing by 2weeksHigh density, shortduration grazing to 60%use of grassesGraze to 50% use ofgrassesGraze to 40‐50% use ofgrassesHigh density, shortduration grazing to60% use of grassesLight grazingRest for re‐growthHerbicide applicationfor Leafy SpurgeNormal graze Normal graze Normal grazeFigure 1. Location of Tolstoi Tall Grass Prairie Preserve.PRIMARY INVASIVE THREATS IN 2010o Leafy Spurge (Euphorbia esula)• High water table has made it difficult for survival of biological control agents anduse of herbicides• Early emergence, deep rooted, high reproductive rate via seeds and vegetativeroots, unpalatable (toxic) to many native fauna and livestocko Aspen (Populus tremulodies)• Although aspen is a native species to North America, it is not native to the tallgrass prairie, and dense aspen encroachment has been displacing tall grassprairie speciesCURRENT MANAGEMENT PRACTICESo Grazing• Twice over grazing system (start date June 1 and end date October 15)• Grazing areas and stocking density based on habitat acres of upland, sedgemeadow, oak savannah, forest, and wetland areaso Fire• Attempted to be introduced, but socio‐economic constraints and weather make it adifficult management toolo Socio‐economic• Local producers with pasture land are encouraged to sign conservation easementswhich include grazing management plans• Educational awareness programs• Reseeding native speciesFigure 3. Climate change predictions for 2030.Management ChangesSummer precipitation will decrease but with an overall increase in precipitation, theabundance of aspen and leafy spurge is favoured. This will result in the tall grass prairie beingmore vulnerable to competitive invasive species that are adapted to lower summerprecipitation, such as downy brome. Our prediction for the following 20 years is optimistic bybelieving biodiversity and conservation efforts will hold more value to Manitobans. To achievethese goals, humans will have to play an active role in managing and maintaining the tall grassprairie. Current management plans will be modified to adjust for decreased summerprecipitation and allow more flexibility due to increased intensity of precipitation. The use ofgrazing, fire, biological control and education will be the main components of this adaptableand flexible management plan to ensure the survival and biological diversity of the tall grassprairie into the year 2030. The following demonstrates revised invasive species managementplan.Biological Control of Leafy Spurge:o Flea beetles (Aphthona spp.)• Larvae are root feeding, whereas, adults consume foliage• Can be used in combination with grazing, fire, and chemical control• Requires post‐release monitoringo Sheep and goat grazing on isolated patchesCONCLUSIONSAspen and leafy spurge are a serious threat to the continued existence of the nativeTolstoi tall grass prairie preserve in Manitoba. With proper grazing and burningmanagement techniques, the prairie should be able to thrive and even expand, despiteclimate change. It is anticipated that our proposed management techniques will beadaptable for other invasive species threats not described here.EducationGrazingHealthy Tall Grass PrairieFigure 4. Components of management plan to control existing and future invasivespecies.FireBiologicalControl

ReferencesWhat is Rangeland and Pasture?Holecheck, J., Pieper, R.D. and C.H. Herbel. 2011. Range management: principles and practices 6 th ed.Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall/PearsonNorth American Envirothon. 2012. Sustainable Rangeland Management: Achieving a balance betweenTraditional Agricultural Uses with Non-Agricultural uses on Montana Rangelands. [online] Available fromhttp://www.envirothon.org/the-competition/current-competition/254.htmlSettlement and Cultivation of RangelandsBailey, A.W., McCartney, D. and M.P. Schellenberg. 2010. Management of Canadian Prairie Rangeland.Government of Canada. http://www.beefresearch.ca/files/pdf/factsheets/991_2010_02_TB_RangeMgmnt_E_WEB_2_.pdfWho uses rangelands and for what purpose?Wood, M. Figure 3 and Figure 4Rangeland and Pasture Ownership, Management and RightsRangeland in Western CanadaBailey, A.W., McCartney, D. and M.P. Schellenberg. 2010. Management of Canadian Prairie Rangeland.Government of Canada. http://www.beefresearch.ca/files/pdf/factsheets/991_2010_02_TB_RangeMgmnt_E_WEB_2_.pdfHorton, P.R. 1994. Range resources in the Canadian context, p. 16-30. IN: Taha, F.K., Abouguendia, Z.,and Horton, P.R. Managing Canadian rangelands for sustainability and profitability, Proc. FirstInterprovincial Range Conference in Western Canada. Grazing and Pasture Technology Program, Regina,Saskatchewan.McCartney, D. and Horton, P.R. 1999. Canada’s forage resources, p. 3-10. IN: Proc. XVIII InternationalGrassland Congress, Opening Session, Winnipeg, Manitoba.Statistics Canada. 2011. Census of Agriculture. Farm and Farm Operator Data. [online] Available fromhttp://www29.statcan.gc.ca/ceag-web/eng/data-type-selection-type-donnees?geoId=460000000.Ecological CommunitiesManitoba Habitat Heritage Corporation. 2010. Personal Communication.

University of Idaho Rangeland Centre. 2011. Rangelands: An Introduction to Idaho’s Wild Open Spaces.University of IdahoGrasslands of ManitobaBailey, A.W., McCartney, D. and M.P. Schellenberg. 2010. Management of Canadian Prairie Rangeland.Government of Canada. http://www.beefresearch.ca/files/pdf/factsheets/991_2010_02_TB_RangeMgmnt_E_WEB_2_.pdfBrennan, J. 2012. C3 Versus C4 Plants. [online] Available from http://www.ehow.com/info_8171376_c3-versus-c4-plants.htmlSherritt, D. Figure 13EcoregionsEcological Stratification Working Group. 1995. A National Ecological Framework for Canada. Agricultureand Agri-Food Canada [online] Available fromhttp://sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis/publications/ecostrat/cad_report.pdfEcological Processes of Rangeland and PastureBusman, Lowell. 1997. The nature of phosphorus in soils. Minnesota Extension Service, University ofMinnesota. Figure 17Encyclopedia Britannica. 1996. Energy Flow. Figure 16Holecheck, J., Pieper, R.D. and C.H. Herbel. 2011. Range management: principles and practices 6 th ed.Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall/PearsonKnight, R.W. 1993. Managing stocking rates to prevent adverse environmental impacts. In: Managinglivestock stocking rates on rangeland. P. 97-107. Texas Agricultural Extension Service, College Station,Texas.Moss, R. Figure 18Tenuta, M. 2010. Personal Communication. Carbon Sequestration SeminarRange Plant IdentificationColorado State University. 2011. Identifying Broadleaf Trees and Shrubs. [online] Available fromhttp://www.cmg.colostate.edu/gardennotes/153.htmlLeithead, H.L., Yartlett, L.L. and T.N. Shiflet. 1971. 100 Native Forage Grasses in 11 Southern States.Agriculture Handbook No. 389 U.S. Department of Agriculture Washington, D.C. Text and Figures 19-23

University of California. 2010. Identification: Characteristics of Broadleaf Plants. [online] Available fromhttp://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/WEEDS/ID/brdlfchar.htmlInvasive Plant SpeciesHolecheck, J., Pieper, R.D. and C.H. Herbel. 2011. Range management: principles and practices 6 th ed.Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall/PearsonWood, M. Figure 25Negative Plant Impacts on Animal ProductivityGizaw, G.L. 2012. Personal Communication. Negative Plant Impacts on Animal Productivity SeminarSustainable Rangeland and Pasture ManagementFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2011. Mapping Supply and Demand forAnimal-Source Foods to 2030. Rome: FAORural Development Institute. 2010. Economic Impact Assessment of Leafy Spurge in Southern Manitoba.Beneficial Management Practices (BMPs)Gizaw, G.L. 2012. Personal Communication. Negative Plant Impacts on Animal Productivity SeminarCalculations related to Grazing Management PlanningAgricultural Research and Extension Council of Alberta. 2008. Grass Clippings: Stocking RateCalculations. Agriculture and Agri-Food CanadaPratt, M. and G.A. Rasmussen. 2001. Determining Your Stocking Rate. Utah State UniversityOther Range Management ConsiderationsOnischuk, L. 2007. Personal Communication. AGRI 1510 Production, Distribution & Utilization ofAgricultural ProductsOregon State University. 2008. Discuss the livestock dynamics on pastures and grazing. [online] Availablefromhttp://forages.oregonstate.edu/nfgc/eo/onlineforagecurriculum/instructormaterials/availabletopics/grazing/livestockInteractions between Wildlife and LivestockGovernment of Manitoba. Wildlife Disease: Bovine Tuberculosis in Elk. [online] Available fromhttp://www.gov.mb.ca/conservation/wildlife/disease/bovine.html

Ranellucci, C.L., Koper, N. and D.C. Henderson. 2012. Twice-Over Rotational Grazing and Its Impacts onGrassland Songbird Abundance and Habitat Structure. Rangeland Ecology & Management 65: 109-118.Thornton, J. 2012. Personal CommunicationVavra, Martin, and Dennis P. Sheehy. 1996.Improving elk habitat characteristics with livestock grazing.Rangelands 18: 182-185.Rangeland and Pasture AssessmentAbouguendia, Z. 1990. Range Plan Development: A practical Guide to Planning for Management andImprovement of Saskatchewan Rangeland. The New Pasture and Grazing Technologies Project.Adams, B.W., Ehlert, G. Stone, C., et al. 2009. Rangeland Health Assessment for Grassland, Forest andTame Pasture. Government of Alberta.http://www.srd.alberta.ca/LandsForests/GrazingRangeManagement/documents/RangelandHealthAssessmentforGrasslandForestTamePasture-Revised-Apr2009.pdfLaunchbaugh, K. 2008. Assessing Rangeland Condition. University of IdahoRiparian Health Council. 2004. Managing the Water’s Edge - Riparian Health Assessment for Streams andSmall Rivers. Version 1.http://www.thinktrees.org/my_folders/Envirothon_Aquatics_Resources_2010/watersedge.pdfSherritt, D. Figure 34Appendix AAgriculture and Agri-Food Canada. 2009. AESB Community Pastures with Land Management DistrictsGauer, E. 2012. Personal CommunicationAppendix BAndronak, L., Evans, R., Leroux, A., Donohoe, G. and M. Elsinger. 2010. Invasive Species Management onTolstoi Tall Grass Prairie Preserve in Manitoba. Joint Annual Meeting of the Society for RangeManagement and the Weed Science Society of America, Denver, Colorado.Appendix CInvasive Species Council of Manitoba. Invasive Terrestrial Species Listhttp://invasivespeciesmanitoba.com/site/index.php?page=terrestrial-speciesThornton, J. 2012. Personal Communication