MoToRcyclE RoAD SAFETy REpoRT 2010 - Dekra

DEKRA Automobil GmbHMotorcycle Road SafetyReport 2010Strategies for preventing accidentson the roads of EuropeAccident frequency:Risk for motor cyclistsremains highHuman Factor:Fair cooperation ontwo and four wheelsVehicle safety:ABS and airbagssave lives

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ContentsNOTEThis report deals with the road safety of motorcycles. The German FederalMotor Transport Authority responsible for stock statistics uses the term“Krafträder”, over 98% of which are two-wheeled vehicles (motorcyclesand scooters) with a registration plate, including light motorcycles with acylinder capacity of up to 125 cm 3 . The rest are three-wheeled vehiclesand light four-wheeled vehicles with registration plates. For this group ofvehicles the German Federal Motor Transport Authority responsible foraccident statistics uses the phrase “motorcycles with registration plates”(“Motorräder mit amtlichem Kennzeichen”). The corresponding drivinglicences are categorised as category A1 (for light motorcycles) and A (formotorcycles and scooters).Two-wheeled motor vehicles with insurance registration plates (poweredcycles, mopeds, small motorbikes up to 50 cc, three- and four-wheeledvehicles and electrical wheelchairs) are not considered. These vehiclescan already be driven with a category M driving licence or even a specialdriving licence. In international language use the vehicles dealt within this report are referred to as “motorcycles and scooters”. The phrase“powered two-wheelers” also covers “mopeds”.

IntroductionHigh fun factor – but also high riskMotorcycling has always been fascinating. No other form of motorised locomotion gives the driver a comparable feeling of dynamism,agility and freedom. But right from the start the special fascination of motorcycling was accompanied by an increased risk of seriousaccidents. On top of that, motorcycles – despite all the positive developments, especially in recent years – cannot possibly offer the sameactive and passive safety as passenger cars.Although the 2009 economic and financialcrisis no more spared the motorcycleindustry than any other vehicle manufacturer,the fascination of the motorcycle isundiminished. According to the “Report2010” of the Association des ConstructeursEuropéens de Motocycles (ACEM)(European motorcycle manufacturers’association), in 2008 there were morethan 33 million two-wheeled motorvehicles in use in Europe. The ACEM isexpecting this figure to rise to between35 and 37 million by 2020. Two-wheeledmotor vehicles encompass motorcycles,scooters and mopeds. At 22.2 million,motorcycles accounted for around 66%of the 33.7 million two-wheeled motorvehicles. This means a rise of almost 40%compared to 2001, when there were some16 million motorcycles. At 1 January2009, the EU countries with the mostregistered motorcycles were Italy (5.9million), Germany (3.7 million), Spain(2.5 million) and France (1.4 million).As far as Germany is concerned, engineswith a cylinder capacity of between500 cm 3 and 749 cm 3 accounted for thebiggest proportion (27.5%) of all registeredmotorcycles. The larger cylindercapacity categories taken together hada share of 32.6% (Figure 1). It is alsointeresting to note that, in the last 20years the average age of all registeredmotorcycles has risen much higher thanthat of the passenger car. While, in 1990,the average age of motorcycles was justunder eight years and that of passengercars was more than six years, in 2009 theaverage age of registered motorcycleswas just over thirteen years, whereasthat of passenger cars was “just” a littleover eight years. These Federal MotorTransport Authority figures are alsoreflected in the main inspections carriedout by DEKRA of both these categoriesof vehicles (Figures 2 and 3).Motorcycles, at least in the northernand central countries of the EU, areSafety-relevantmilestones in thedevelopment ofthe motorcycle(selection)1888J. B. Dunloppneumatic tyre(re-invention)1924Chain drivetriumphs overbelt driveSources: Department ofAutomotive Engineeringat the TechnicalUniversity of Darmstadt,DEKRA1894 Advertisement for the fi rst mass-produced motorcycle in the world1880188518901895190019051910191519201925

used quite differently from passengercars and are essentially a “recreationalobject”. In the first few years afterpurchase motorcycles are mostly riddena great deal. With increasing age, notonly does the number of vehicles fallbut the annual mileage also decreases.Older motorcycles that are not put outof operation gradually acquire the statusof collectors’ or classic vehicles, whichare moved very little but are mostly welllooked after. This does not of courseapply to motorcycles that can be riddenfrom the age of 16 with a Category A1driving licence. Schoolchildren and apprenticesin particular use these vehiclesas the only opportunity to actively participatein private motorised transport,which they do at all times of the yearand in all weathers, especially in ruralareas with no ÖPNV as a “genuine” alternative.Also, from the age of 18, thosewho cannot afford (or do not want) apassenger car travel very frequently bymotorcycle every day.Anyone who rides a motorcycle,whether for recreation or for work, isalways exposed to a comparatively highrisk of being involved in an accident.In the EU the mileage-related risk ofbeing killed in a road traffic accident is18 times higher for motorcyclists than1Stock of two-wheeled vehicles in GermanyShare according tocylinder capacityin percentage15.2%17.4%27.5%0.5%100% = 3,560,0603,560,060 two-wheeled vehicles+ 88,952 light four-wheeled vehicles+ 9,578 three-wheeled vehicles= 3,658,590 motorcycles21.6%9.7%cylinder capacity in cm 3to 125750 to 999126 to 249 1,000 and more250 to 499 unknown500 to 749Source: KBA (Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt) (Federal Motor Transport Authority) 1 January 20098.1%Better use of the traffi c areaA two-wheeled motor vehicle takes up lessspace than a passenger car in both movingand stationary traffi c. Like the passenger car,it is usually occupied by a single person.With the same transport capacity, therefore,a two-wheeled motor vehicle makes a contributionto improving how we use an increasinglydwindling traffi c area. In fact, in citieslike Paris and Rome, individual transportationwould just not be able to function withouttwo-wheeled motor vehicles. Nor shouldit be forgotten that, because of its lowerweight, it uses less fuel than a passenger car.1953Advertising poster forthe Zündapp KS 601(“Green Elephant”)1969First mass-producedmotorcycle withdisk brakes (HondaCB 750 Four)19301935194019451950195519601965197019756 | 7

Introductionit is for other road users. Experience alsoshows that, when an accident occurs, theinjuries received are often serious or evenlife-threatening. One reason for this isthat motorcycles do not have a protectivepassenger compartment. In an accident,2Pattern of motorcycle use in GermanyAverage mileage per annum (database 2007/2008)Percentage of totalSource: DEKRAtherefore, the impact forces act directlyon the motorcyclist. Also, as far as dynamichandling stability is concerned,motorcyclists can reach their limits – forexample in poor road conditions – muchfaster than a passenger car, for example.3Change in the average age of registered motorcycles and passengercars in Germany from 1990 to 2009Average age in years100806040200197015129Non-driver: less than 100 kmLow-mileage driver: 100 – 499 kmOccasional driver: 500–999 km61990197519921980MotorcyclePassenger car199419961985199820002002200420062008until 1999: Stock on 1 July, from 2001: Stock on 1 Januaryfrom 1 January 2008: only registered vehicles with no periods off the road / temporary decommissioningSource: KBA1990Year of registrationHobby driver:1,000 – 4,999 kmHigh-mileage driver:more than 5,000 km1995200020052008SAFETY MOTORCYCLES ASSAFETY CELL VEHICLES?When, at the end of the 1960s, the mobilesocieties in Europe, USA and Japan wereno longer willing to accept the deathtoll of road traffic accidents, large-scaleresearch and development programmeswere initiated in order to improve vehicleand road safety. The older generation stillremember the “US specifications” of passengercars from the 1970s with concertinalateral coverings in the area behindthe front bumper. These specificationsrepresented the first standard implementationof research findings for theimprovement of passenger safety, whichhad previously been obtained by meansof crash tests with experimental safetyvehicles. Research also began at that timeto improve the passive safety of motorcycleoccupants.An interesting reference to moredistant historical contributions to thedevelopment of motorcycle safety is tobe found in the conference proceedingsof the Second International Congress onAutomotive Safety, which took place inJuly 1973 in San Francisco, one of thesubjects dealt with being “motorcyclesand recreational vehicles”. There havebeen reports that, in March 1972, theNational Highway Traffic Safety (NHT-SA) in the U.S.A. approached the JapanAutomobile Manufacturing Association(JAMA) concerning international cooperationin the context of an experimentalsafety motorcycle project.Whereupon a working group was setup to engage intensively with the subject.It was recognised that action was urgentlyneeded and the motorcycle industrydemonstrated the will to act accordingly.However, one of the fundamentaldiscoveries was that it would be impossibleto transfer the knowledge acquiredat that time during the development ofsafety motor vehicles, especially in thearea of passive safety, to the correspondingconcept of a safety motorcycle. As1980Hydraulicanti-drive system(Japan)1983Motorcycle with its in-line 4-cylinderengine mounted lengthways,fuel injection and integrated legguards (BMW K 100); alsothe basis for safety motorcyclestudies (HUK Verband, DEKRA)1978197919801981198219831984198519861987

Doichi Aoki of JAMA put it: “Were one todo this, the motorcycle would mutate intoa vehicle that could no longer be called amotorcycle.”This conflict of objectives remainsjust as relevant today. The motorcycle isa highly individualised form of transportation.From the “easy rider”, who reallywants nothing else but to ride a chopper,to the extremely sports-oriented motorcyclist,for whom there is no alternative to ahigh-performance racing machine (whichcan be used on public roads), there isa whole range of individuals with theirspecial preferences. All have one thingin common: they travel along the roadsastride a two-wheeled motor vehicle. Theintroduction of changes to the engineeringand design of a motorcycle that donothing more than improve safety andchange the original characteristics ofthe preferred motorcycle type are oftenlooked upon with scepticism or even radicallyrejected.As mentioned above, the “classic”motorcyclist is not protected by any surroundingbodywork with an occupant cell,restraint systems and upholstery. In termsof accident research, therefore, he or shebelongs to the group of “unprotected roadusers”, which includes pedestrians andcyclists. However, the fact that enormousprogress has been made in the improvementof the safety of cyclists is largely dueto improvements in the active safety ofmotorcycles, protective clothing (helmet,suit, protectors, gloves and boots), thedevelopment of road traffic legislationwith restrictions on the acquisition of themotorcycle driving licence (graded motorcycledriving licence), advanced trainingthrough driving schools, improvements intransport infrastructure, improved rescueservices – and, of course, the impact ofcontinuous information and road safetycampaigns, in which road users are alertedto the risks and asked to take care and giveconsideration to other road users.Jan Mücke,Parliamentary StateSecretary at theFederal Ministry ofTransport, Buildingand Urban Affairs“Far too many motorcyclists are still involvedin accidents, especially on ruralroads. Excessive speed comes into playin 70% of cases and almost 80% of accidentsoccur on bends in the road. Withthe support of the internet, campaignsconducted by the German Traffi c SafetyCouncil or the “German Safety Tour”,under the patronage of the FederalMinister Ramsauer, and we continue to doall we can to increase motorcycling safety.In early spring in particular the FederalMinistry of Transportation launches safetycampaigns, whilst also highlighting therisks to which motorcyclists are exposedat the start of the “dark season”. For manyyears we contributed to this by providingfunding for safety training for riders oftwo-wheeled vehicles until such trainingwas established in the market. That motorcyclistsnow drive with their lights on andare therefore easily recognised on traffi cis important for their safety. That is why Iam utterly opposed to compulsory daytimeheadlights for passenger cars andlorries, as this would lead to motorcyclistsno longer standing out and to their beingeasily ignored. The Federal Ministry ofTransport welcomes technical developmentssuch as ABS for motorcyclists. Yearafter year, road signs with sharp edgescause avoidable deaths and seriousinjuries. I am an ardent advocate of delimitationposts made of soft plastic, whichbend over when a motorcyclist involved inan accident hits them. We have urged thehighway authorities of the Länder, whencarrying out surfacing work, not to useany material that could cause motorcyclesto skid and could be a deadly risk tomotorcyclists.”1985HUK Verbandsafety motorcycle1988ABS motorcycle(BMW K100) goes intoproduction1996First motorcycle witha combined brakingsystem in conjunctionwith ABV andtraction control(Honda ST 1100)19881989199019911992199319941995199619978 | 9

IntroductionNumerous institutions also offer special motorcycle training for women.PASSIVE MOTORCYCLE SAFETY –STILL AN ISSUE FOR THE FUTUREReiner Brendicke, General Executive Managerof the German Motorcycle Industry Association(Industrie-Verband Motorrad Deutschland e. V.)“When it comes to the development of vehicles, manufacturers oftwo-wheeled motor vehicles put safety right at the top of their list ofpriorities. Suspension systems with exceptional tracking stability and the corresponding springelements as well as high-tech tyres combine to create the basis for safe road use. Since Hondafi rst introduced an electronic traction control system, numerous other companies have also addressedthis issue and placed dynamic handling controls, some with intelligent brake systems,on the market. Seeing and being seen are other important aspects for riders of two-wheeledvehicles, who, because of their narrow silhouette, are more diffi cult to see than passenger cars.At present, motorcycle manufacturers are working intensively on vehicle-to-vehicle communication,so that safety can be improved through mutual cooperation between motorcycles andpassenger cars. In addition to the development of the vehicles themselves in accordance withthe relevant safety standards, it should not be forgotten that numerous innovate developmentshave signifi cantly improved the level of safety in the sector of safety equipment for drivers.”Improvements in the passive safety(vehicle-related measures to protectdrivers and passengers in the event of anaccident) of mass-produced motorcyclesare hardly in evidence. It is still the casethat the passive safety of motorcycles canonly be achieved to a limited extent andthat it is, therefore, (still) largely restrictedto protective clothing and to wearinga helmet. Approaches and perspectivestowards improving the passive safety ofconventional two-wheel motor vehiclescan be inferred from the correspondingnotion of “limitation of the consequencesof accidents”. In addition to the protectiveeffect of the helmet and the suitit is important that, in a collision, themotorcyclist is not injured on his own2000Market launch of the fi rsttwo-wheeled vehicle in theworld to protect the rider witha surrounding structure (aluminiumspace frame technology)in the event of an accident(BMW C1)2001Combined brakingsystem in conjunctionwith ABV andadaptive brakeforce distribution(BMW)2004Duo-lever frontwheel drive andelectrically adjustableshockabsorber (ESA)(BMW K 1200 S)1997199819992000200120022003

Self-assessment by motorcyclistsvehicle or by his own vehicle. For thispurpose, crash tests provide importantfindings. As with crash tests involvingpassenger cars, anthropometric dummiesfitted with measuring equipment representthe motorcyclists. The vehicles arealso fitted with the appropriate measuringequipment. The implementation andevaluation of such extensive tests was developedin the 1980s and DEKRA playedan active role in this development.Nowadays, when carrying out instrumentedmotorcycle crash tests, vehiclemanufacturers, authorities and researchinstitutes comply with the InternationalStandard ISO 13232, which was firstpublished in 1996. A financially viableapproach to replicating the relevantaccident situation in order to developmotorcycle safety elements is the combinationof real crash tests and virtualdigital simulations. For this purpose,in order to define sound engineeringpractice and methods, in the early 1990sthe motorcycle industry began to developthe Standard ISO 13232 together witha number of research institutions withexpertise in this area. The currentlyvalid revised second edition dates fromOctober 2005. DEKRA has worked inthe competent ISO working group since2001 and is therefore actively involved inthe continuous development of this basicstandard. In the last 30 years in particulara lot has been done to increase theroad safety of motorcycles. However, thatthis is not enough is underlined by thefacts and figures presented in the followingsections of this report.In 2007 the Technical University of Berlintogether with the Technical Universityof Dresden, the German Insurance Associationand the magazine “Motorrad”carried out a survey of motorcyclists aspart of a research project looking intothe risk of accident to which motorcyclistsare exposed. According to this survey,56.3% of the 5,297 respondents hadalready been involved in an accident. In49% of accidents (details of which wereprovided), the police did not take anyphotographs or produce a report, and69% were single-vehicle accidents. Whatis remarkable is the fact that, in the survey,motorcyclists at fault in an accidentassessed their driving ability higher thanaccident-free motorcyclists. Almost half ofthe answers to the question why peopleride motorcycles mentioned dynamichandling. Cornering and accelerationMotivation of motorcyclistsCost advantage4%Size advantage9%Freedom21%Cornering25%Source: German Insurance Association – Insurers’ accident researchprovided further motivation. At just 8%the maximum achievable speed was oflesser importance. The freedom experiencedby motorcyclists was also veryimportant.In order to establish a relationshipbetween attracting attention in trafficand the frequency and/or severity of anaccident, motorcyclists were also asked ifthey had committed any traffic violations.Of those surveyed, 1,138 said they hadcommitted at least one traffic offence.Riders of sports bikes admitted that theywere willing to take a significantly higherrisk of being prosecuted for a trafficoffence, such as speeding or driving tooclose to the vehicle in front, for example,than riders of other types of motorcycles.The majority of offences related tospeeding, followed by incorrect overtakingand defective vehicles.Acceleration21%Speed8%Sportiness12%2006First motorcycleairbaggoes intoproduction(HondaGold Wing)2009Continuously regulating supersportABS (Honda CBR 600/1000 RR),“brake-by-wire“, activation of thebrake pressure generator/electricmotor plunger and ball screw, possibilityor realising any number ofintegral functions200420052006200720082009201010 | 11

5Trend among fatally injured motorcyclists in selected European countriesAbsolute frequency1,2001,000800600400200PolandUnited KingdomGermanyFranceSpainGreecePortugalAbsolute frequency2001601208040SloveniaHungarySwitzerlandAustriaNetherlandsCzech RepublicBelgium02000 2002 2004 2006 200802000 2002 2004 2006 2008Source: CARE Databasepassenger car drivers. Approximately onein three road casualties is under 25 yearsof age but, again, the accident rate amongmotorcyclists of average age is much higherthan among passenger car drivers. Mostmotorcycle accidents happen during thewarmer months of the year, from April/May to September/October (Figure 6).SIGNIFICANT INCREASE IN THENUMBER OF FATALLY INJURED MOTOR-CYCLISTS IN SOUTHERN EUROPEAccording to the most recent database ofCARE (EU 24), in Germany the number offatally injured motorcyclists fell by around32% from 964 to 656 between 2001 and2008. In the same period the number offatally injured car occupants fell by slightlymore than 41% from 4,023 to 2,368. InFrance, the situation is as follows: whilethe number of fatally injured car occupantsfell by approximately 58% from 5,283 to2,205 between 2001 and 2008, the numberof fatally injured motorcyclists fell by„only“ around 25% from 1,092 to 817 overthe same period. In 2008, motorcyclistsaccounted for 19% of all 4,275 road trafficfatalities in France, while in 2001 (8.160road traffic fatalities) the figure was 13.4%.The situation in Italy is quite different: herethe number of fatally injured car occupantsfell by 45% from 3,847 to 2,116 between2001 and 2008 while the number of fatallyinjured motorcyclists rose by 28% from848 to 1,086. This accounts for 23% of all4,731 road traffic fatalities. There has alsobeen a significant increase in fatally injuredmotorcyclists since 2001 in, among othercountries, Romania, Spain and Greece,even though the numbers fell slightly in thelast two countries in 2008. The same is alsotrue according to the Annual Report 2009of the IRTAD (International Road Trafficand Accident Database) for Slovenia.From 2007 to 2008 the number of fatally6Fatally injured motorcyclists by month133119 139Other countries* Data from 2005** Data from 2004GreeceSpain151 600United Kingdom*GermanyFranceItaly**128 48 63356348 644340095 474184 79 4330 537262904884271084050 6211590 9556372020099552282377976 100 55183820202516 21 15 822921 267392524 24 55126 149 162 59 28191372 22 120 322 24 71 8574 385930 31260Jan. Feb. March April May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.Source: CARE Database (EU 24), August 2008, and Federal Statistical Offi ceinjured motorcyclists fell from 40 to 38,but, compared to 19 fatally injured motorcyclistsin 2000, this is a rise of 100%.Looking beyond the borders of the EU tothe USA, it is interesting to note that thenumber of fatally injured car occupants fellby just short of 30% from 20,699 to 14,587between 2000 and 2008, while the numberof fatally injured motorcyclists rose by 83%from 2,897 to 5,290.POSITIVE TREND IN GERMANYA detailed look at Germany reveals that,according to the latest report by theFederal Statistical Office, in 2008 a total of413,524 people, including 30,640 motorcyclists,were involved in road trafficaccidents. In 2008, 4,477 people, including656 motorcyclists, lost their lives in roadtraffic accidents in Germany. Of these, 596were male (= 91%) and 60 were female(= 9%). A similar difference between thenumbers of seriously injured male andfemale motorcyclists (8,396 comparedto 1,106) and slightly injured male andfemale motorcyclists (17,450 compared to3,018) was also noted. 491 motorcyclistsdied outside built-up areas while 145 diedinside built-up areas. In 2008, 616,741people, including 30,419 motorcyclists,were involved in accidents resulting in12 | 13

Road accidents and vehicle defects7 Road traffi c accidents in Germany from 2005 to 2008 with particularregard to the motorcycles concernedFacts 2005 2006 2007 2008Percentagechangein 2008compared to2005Total number of casualties 438,804 427,428 436,368 413,524 –5.8including motorcycle riders andpassengers35,703 34,221 34,802 30,640 –14.2Total number of fatalities 5,361 5,091 4,949 4,477 –16.5including motorcycle riders andpassengers875 793 807 656 –25.0Fatalities outside built-up areas 3,890 3,707 3,614 3,216 –17.3including motorcycle riders and passengers661 592 644 491 –25.7Total number of persons involved inaccidents resulting in personal injury652,487 634,947 648,796 616,741 –5.5including motorcycle riders 35,242 33,782 34,443 30,419 –13.7Main cause of accidents resulting inpersonal injury336,619 327,984 335,845 320,614 –4.8including motorcycle riders 16,610 15,956 16,433 14,541 –12.5Inappropriate behaviour of personsinvolved in accidents resulting inpersonal injury434,330 423,973 409,529 388,201 –10.6including motorcycle riders 21,746 20,958 21,157 18,791 –13.6includingexcessive speed 7,444 7,139 7,108 6,314 –15.2overtaking 2,469 2,384 2,274 1,911 –22.6distance 2,307 2,241 2,288 2,139 –7.3incorrect road use 1,257 1,175 1,085 952 –24.3the influence of alcohol 882 846 796 694 –21.3Source: Federal Statistical Offi ce, November 2009personal injury. In comparison with 2007,the number of casualties among motorcycleusers fell by 12%, while the number offatally injured motorcyclists fell by almost19% (Figures 7, 8, 9 and 10).The positive trend described here isessentially characterized by the figures for2008. Before then, the decline was muchless and, in some cases, numbers even rose.According to the latest projections by theFederal Highway Research Institute (Bundesanstaltfür Straßenwesen BASt), the positivetrend set in 2008 did not continue into2009. The figures are also highly dependenton the weather – they are higher in yearswith long, dry summers than in rainy summers.The weather during the many “long”spring weekends when there are publicholidays also plays an important role.To determine and comparatively assessthe risk of being involved in an accident,the number of accidents involving a specificgroup of vehicles can be based on theregistered vehicles in this group. This approachis common practice and the FederalStatistical Office, among others, publishesrelevant comparative figures in its annualreport. According to these figures, inGermany, with 859 casualties per 100,000vehicles, the users of motorcycles were atmuch greater risk than car occupants (582casualties). For every 100,000 vehicles, 18motorcyclists died while, among car occupants,the number of fatalities was 7 per100,000 vehicles.The difference is even more dramaticwhen the number of kilometres travelled istaken as the basis of comparison. For every8Fatally injured motorcyclists by location in EuropeUrban Extra urban9Casualties among riders of two-wheeled vehiclesin Germany by type of road use 2008Motorcycles4159Powered cycles5%Bicycles5545CarsHeavycommercialvehicles13228778Bicycles60%132,272Accidentsinvolvingtwo-wheeledvehiclesMopeds12%Pedestrians6634Motorcycles23%0 20 40 60 80 100Percentage of totalSource: CARE Database (EU 19), July 2008Source: Federal Statistical Offi ce, 2008

Road accidents and vehicle defects11Inappropriate behaviour of motorcyclists per 1,000 persons involvedin accidents resulting in personal injury in 2008 in GermanyInappropriate behaviourper 1,000 persons involved40035030025020015010050018–21Source: Federal Statistical Offi ce, 200821–25 25–35 35–45 45–55 55–65 65–75Age of motorcyclists in years (from – to under)Road safety of motorcycles in PolandTurning, changingdirection, reversing,joining and leavingtrafficThe influence ofalcoholExcessive speedOvertakingIncorrect road useRight of way/priority“In 2008, passenger car drivers in Polandcaused 29,475 road traffic accidents whilemotorcyclists caused 1,195 accidents. Giventhe huge difference in vehicle stock (justshort of 14.6 million cars and approximately825,000 motorcycles) as well as the fact thatmotorcycles are mainly ridden during warmermonths and their mileage is much lower thanthat of cars, motorcyclists have caused farmore accidents than passenger car drivers. In2008, a total of 2,762 passenger car driverslost their lives on Poland’s roads while accidentsclaimed the lives of 184 motorcyclists.Exceeding the speed limit, which motorcyclistsfrequently do, constitutes a high accident risk,one of the reasons being that, because of thehigh speed, they are seen too late by passengercar drivers in their rear-view mirrors.”Inspector Mag.-Ing. Wojciech Pasieczny,Council of the Department for Road Traffi cin the Police Headquarters of Warsaw75+COMPARATIVELY HIGH ACCIDENTFIGURES AMONG THE MIDDLE-AGED GROUPSAs far as motorcyclists involved in accidentsresulting in personal injury inGermany are concerned (30,419 motorcyclistsin total), in 2008 riders of machinesfrom 500 cm 3 cylinder capacity (7,661motorcyclists), 750 cm 3 cylinder capacity(9,245 motorcyclists) as well as between81 cm 3 and 125 cm 3 cylinder capacity(7,677 motorcyclists) were predominant.Among riders of less powerful machinesof between 81 cm 3 and 125 cm 3 cylindercapacity, the majority of motorcyclistsinvolved in accidents resulting in personalinjury were under 18 (2,668 motorcyclists).Among riders of more powerfulmachines of more than 500 cm 3 and750 cm 3 cylinder capacity, the majorityof motorcyclists involved in accidentsresulting in personal injury were between35 and 55 years of age.Most motorcyclists killed in accidentswere in the age groups 21 to 25 years ofage (96 fatalities out of a total of 656)and 40 to 50 years of age (175 fatalities).Among seriously injured motorcycliststhe age group 40 to 50 years of age (2,480seriously injured out of a total of 9,502)dominated. Among slightly injured motorcycliststhe age group 15 to 18 years ofage (2,564 slightly injured out of a total of20,468) dominated, as did, once again, theage group 40 to 50 (5,040 slightly injured).Road safety of motorcyclesin Italy“With 1,086 fatalities in 2008, motorcyclistsaccounted for 23% of all 4,731road deaths in Italy. By way of comparison,in Italy, in 2001, road accidentsclaimed the lives of 7,096 people, 848of whom – i.e. approximately 12% –were motorcyclists. Within the EU, Italyis one of the countries that has seen thebiggest increase in the number of fatallyinjured motorcyclists in recent years. In2008, for every 100 motorcycle accidentsapproximately two motorcyclists losttheir lives. For every 100 car accidents,0.8% of passenger car drivers lost theirlives. As regards the number of injured,99.6% of motorcycle accidents resultedin injury while 65.1% of car accidentsresulted in injury. In 2008, the highestproportion of fatally injured motorcyclistsoccurred in the 25 to 44 age group.”Source: Istituto Nazionale di Statistica

Road accidents and vehicle defectsspeed. These are the main reasons whyso many motorcycle accidents are causedby passenger car drivers. The majority ofaccidents happen when a passenger cardriver crosses a road junction, makes aturn, changes direction or reverses. This isalso reflected in the figures for Germany,where, in 2008, 27% of motorcyclists involvedin an accident and 31% of motorcyclistsor motorcycle passengers fatallyinjured in an accident came to harm inaccidents in which no other vehicles orpedestrians were involved. In 80% of accidentsin which motorcycles collided withanother road user, the latter was a passengercar. In 15,817 collisions of this kind,1,606 passenger car occupants and 16,548motorcyclists or motorcycle passengerswere injured. Therefore, 91% of accidentvictims were motorcyclists or motorcyclepassengers, while 72% of these accidentswere caused by passenger car drivers.REPRESENTATIVE SCENARIOS OFMOTORCYCLE ACCIDENTS IN EUROPEA current and comprehensive view of accidentson Europe’s roads (EU-14) is providedby the integrated research projectTRACE (Traffic Accident Causation inEurope), which is promoted by the EUCommission. Using the available statisticsit was established that 17% of all fatallyinjured road users in Europe were ridersor passengers of two-wheel motor vehicles– so-called powered two-wheelers (PTW).At 12.2%, motorcyclists form the largestgroup. At just 4.8%, moped riders form amuch smaller group.With more in-depth case-by-caseanalyses of motorcycle accidents inthe UK, Spain, Italy, Greece, the CzechRepublic and Germany, it was possible toidentify four representative scenarios foraccidents involving motorcycles (Figure13). Together, these account for 50% of themotorcycle accidents resulting in fatal andserious injuries that were investigated. The13Most common situations in which motorcycle accidents occurShare* Accident constellation Description Signifi cant infl uencingfactors27% Single-vehicle motorcycleaccident on roads outsidebuilt-up areas: leaving theroad, rollover on the carriageway,collisionswith safety barriersInappropriatereactions/errors,risky/unsafe driving,too high/excessivespeed on the part ofthe motorcyclist14 Overview: Periodic technicalinspection of motorcycles in EuropeCountryAustriaBelgiumCzech RepublicDenmarkCompulsoryYesNoYesYes13% Motorcycle/car collisionFront/side,Side/frontAt road junctions insideand outside built-up areasInattentiveness/errors,unsafe/risky drivingon the part of the passengercar driverUnsafe/risky way ofdriving on the part ofthe motorcyclistEstoniaFinlandFranceGermanyGreeceYesNoNoYesNoHungaryYes5% Motorcycle/car collisionSide/side in traffi cmoving along a carriagewayon roads inside andoutside built-up areasInattentiveness of thepassenger car driverUnsafe/risky way ofdriving on the part ofthe motorcyclistItalyLatviaLuxembourgNetherlandsYesYesYesNoPolandYes5% Motorcycle/car collisionRear/front,front/rear in traffi c movingalong a carriageway onroads inside and outsidebuilt-up areasInattentiveness ofthe motorcyclistInattentiveness of thepassenger car driverPortugalSlovakiaSloveniaSpainNoYesYesYesSwedenYes* Share in all motorcycle accidents in Great Britain, France, Spain, Italy, Greece, the Czech Republicand Germany investigated in the TRACE projectSource: TRACE (TRaffi c Accident Causation in Europe) 2006SwitzerlandUnited KingdomNoYesSource: ACEM (Association des ConstructeursEuropéens de Motocycles)

Road accidents and vehicle defectswould doubtless improve the technicalcondition of these vehicles, as was the casefollowing the introduction of obligatorytesting for cars and commercial vehicles.TECHNICAL LIGHTING EQUIPMENT ANDTYRES HEAD THE LIST OF DEFECTSOverall, in 2008, the majority of motorcyclesthat were examined in detail duringgeneral inspections were in good technicalcondition. According to figures released byGermany’s Federal Motor Transport Authority,72.5% of the more than 1.5 millionmotorcycles examined did not have anydefects, 18.7% had slight defects and 8.8%had substantial defects (Figures 15 and 16).The motorcycles examined by DEKRA hadan average age of slightly more than 12 andthe average mileage was 3,000 kilometres.The most striking result was that, duringthe period of intensive use (vehicleage up to 20 years), the percentage ofmotorcycles identified during the generalinspection as having slight or substantialdefects at first continued to rise. From theage of 20 years, the percentage of motorcycleswith slight or substantial defects fellslightly as a result of better care and lowermileage, but then remained at this level.16Test results of main inspections of motorcyclesPercentage of total40Proportion of vehicleswith slight defectswith significant defects30100up to3more than3 up to 5Source: KBA 2008. Data from Germanymore than5 up to 7Age of vehicle in yearsmore than7up to 9morethan 917Distribution of defects by assemblyTechnical lightingequipmentAxles, wheels, tyressuspensionsChassis/frameBraking systemSteering systemEnvironmentVisibilityOther equipment4.73.73.46.3Identification 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 35Percentage of totalSource: KBA 2008. Data from Germany1215.719.232

As far as defects in the assemblies areconcerned (Figure 17), technical lightingequipment heads the list of defectsat more than 30%. In almost one in fivemotorcycles with defects the assemblyconsisting of axles/wheels/tyres/suspensionswere found to be at fault, followedby chassis/frames at 16% and brakes at12%. Of the 30 components most commonlycriticised by DEKRA during themain inspection, tyres, drive chains, brakepads and rear retro-reflectors have thegreatest impact. These components belongto the wheels/tyres, drive train, brakeand lights assemblies. In the wheels/tyresassembly (Figure 19), at just under 25%worn tyres dominated and, for just under12% of motorcycles with defects, the treaddepth was at the wear limit. At around10%, aged tyres account for a relativelyhigh proportion of defects.As regards the drive train (Figure18), in more than 68% of cases the drivechain was to blame. In 30% of cases thetension of the drive chain was too low,and in 17% of cases the drive chain wasworn. Both defects represent a highsafety risk, the reason being that toolow tension can cause the chain to dropoff and to become entangled in the rearwheel, thereby blocking the wheel. If thedrive chain is worn, it may break, withsimilar effects as with too low tension. Inthe brake assembly (Figure 20), at morethan 25% the brake pads have the highestproportion of defects, followed by thehand brake lever with 13% of defects. Asregards the technical lighting equipment(Figure 21), the rear reflector was cruisedthe most, with more than 19% of defects.Also of interest is the issue of tuning,where thoughts generally turn im-18 0The fi ve most frequently criticiseddrive train componentsPercentage of total302010068.7Drive chain19.0Chain wheelDrive pinion5.54.21Chain guardChain tensionerSource: DEKRA 2008. Data from Germany19The most frequent tyre defectsPercentage of total3025201510524.9Tyres worn11.8Tread depthat wear limit10.4 9.6AgedOzone cracksSource: DEKRA 2008. Data from Germany6.0 5.1 4.4 4.0 3.2Filling pressuretoo lowCrackedManufacturer/typenot admissiblePorousSize not admissibleMake/type deviatesfrom part certificate/operating licenserecommendation2.0 1.4 1.3 1.0 0.5 0.5Not registeredRunning direction/assembly faultIrregular wear patternDamagedWorn on one side20The most frequently criticised brake componentsPercentage of total30252015105025.613.3Brake liningwornHand brake lever9.8Brake fluidBrake discSource: DEKRA 2008. Data from Germany8.3 8.3Brake light switch5.7Braking actionBrake pedal4.8 4.7 3.8 3.4Brake hoseBrake pipeBrake lever2.0Brake calliper20 | 21

Road accidents and vehicle defectsmediately to illegal performance-enhancingtype modifications. However, no componentsrelating to performance enhancementoccupy the top places in the list of typemodifications most frequently complainedof (Figure 22). Rather, most type modificationsare made to improve appearancerather than performance. An example isthe removal of a mud flap together with thereflector. The allegedly better appearanceis, however, to the detriment of the rider’ssafety. The second most frequently criticisedpoint (handlebars) is often due to the factthat the owner of the vehicle does not knowthat type modifications to handlebars mustbe registered. The reason for this is to ensurethat handlebars are not mounted that,for example, have an inadequate steeringangle thus compromising the driver’s safety.In principle, any modification that is carriedout on an assembly can have a negative impacton road handling and modifications toseveral assemblies can influence each otherand further increase the risk of an accident.The test results from the technicalmonitoring of motorcycles from otherEuropean countries are not available or areonly partially available. In Italy for examplefew details of the results are recorded.Nonetheless, the results should be more orless comparable with those from Germany.A look at the technical inspections carriedout in Slovenia confirms this. In 2008, approximately3.5% of motorcycles had to undergoa subsequent inspection by DEKRASlovenica either because they exhibitedsignificant defects or because were not roadworthy.The majority of vehicles exhi bi ting21The most frequently criticised technical lighting components252019.4Percentage of total151012.911.710.69.48.67.9 7.4 7.251.70Rear reflectorHeadlights anddipped-beamheadlampsSource: DEKRA 2008. Data from GermanyBrake lightsDipped-beamheadlampsFront position lamp(parking light)Tail lampsRear registrationplate lampsRear indicatorlightFront indicatorlightHeadlights

significant defects had faulty technical lightingequipment whilst those that were notroadworthy had faulty tyres.TECHNICAL DEFECTS AS A CAUSEOF MOTORCYCLE ACCIDENTSThe results of the main inspections of motorcyclescarried out by DEKRA are reflected inthe analyses undertaken by DEKRA AccidentResearch. They are also confirmed by theresults of inspections of motorcycles in whichdefects were found during roadside checkscarried out by the police between 2002 and22Criticised type changesRear reflectordoes not work 62.4Handlebars –evidence ofreliability islackingWindshield –evidence ofreliability islackingSilencer –evidence ofreliabilityis lackingTyres notregisteredExhaust system –evidence ofreliability islackingBrake hose –evidence ofreliability islackingExterior rearviewmirrors –wrong type3.53.02.32.22.01.88.623Most common defects in assembles identifi edduring traffi c controlsMultiple answers possible100% = 334 MotorcyclesSource: DEKRA. Data from GermanyLightsAdditions and superstructuresExhaust systemBraking light/indicatorService brakeTread depthWheels/tyresSteeringDrive trainOther vehicle electricsInterior actuating deviceEngine/gearboxBrake pad, brake support plateSupporting parts of the bodywork,interiorAxle/front suspensionClutch, transmission, gearboxAxle/rear suspensionShock absorbers0 20 40 60 80Percentage of totalFootrest –evidence ofreliabilityis lacking1.824Motorcycles inspected following a traffi c controlSpoiler/windguidingdevice –evidence ofreliability islackingKick standsnot asprescribedSource: DEKRA 2008. Data from Germany01.21.05 10 15 20Percentage of total100% = 610 MotorcyclesWithdefects55%Source: DEKRA. Data from GermanyWithoutdefects45%22 | 23

Road accidents and vehicle defects25Defects in motorcycles involved in accidents26Assemblies with defects in motorcycles involved in accidentsPercentage of total700 motorcycles inspected followingan accident6050403020100Tyres535WithoutdefectsBrakeEngine/gearbox165 109Source: DEKRA 2002 – 2009. Data from GermanyLighting/electricsSource: DEKRA 2002 – 2009. Data from GermanyOtherof which 165with defectsChassis56Steering/vehiclecoupling partsWith defectsof which:with defectsof relevanceto the accidentwith defects ofno demonstratedrelevance tothe accident100% = 184 MotorcyclesMultiple answers possibleAdditions andsuperstructuresBody workWithout defectsElectronics2009 (Figures 23 and 24). A total of 610 motorcycleswere inspected, a targeted selectionof which is assumed for present purposes(inspection following initial suspicions oras a result of obvious defects). The suspicionof defects was confirmed in 334 of the 610motorcycles, with 254 motorcycles exhibitingdefective lights. Further down the list ofdefects were, among others, additions andsuperstructures (235 motorcycles), exhaustsystems (179 motorcycles), braking lights/indicators (147 motorcycles), service brakes(113 motorcycles), tread depth (93 motorcycles)as well as wheels/tyres (85 motorcycles).In addition, between 2002 and 2009 atotal of 700 motorcycles were inspected byDEKRA following accidents (Figures 25 to28). Of these 700 motorcycles, 165 motorcycles,i.e. 23.6%, were defective. Of these165 motorcycles, 56 motorcycles, i.e. 33.9%,exhibited defects that were of relevance to theaccident. Again, in 56 of these 165 motorcyclesthe tread depth of the tyres was tooshallow, 34 motorcycles had defective wheelsor tyres, 27 motorcycles were being riddenwith inadequate tyre pressure, in 25 motorcyclesthe brake linings were worn, in 24motorcycles the drive train was faulty and 16motorcycles had defective lights. As far as thetechnical defects of relevance to an accidentare concerned, air pressure, lights and treaddepth accounted for almost 30%, that is tosay three individual defects that are clearlyvisible to and detectable by every driver. Themajority of technical defects of relevance toan accident related to tyres, brakes, engine/gear box, lights and chassis.The examples of accidents given on thefollowing pages show the fatal impact defectsin motorcycles can have on road safety.

27The most common defects and assemblies withdefects in motorcycles involved in accidentsTread depthWheels/tyresBrake lining carrierAir pressureDrive trainAxle/front suspensionLightingService brake28The most common defects of relevance to anaccident and defective assemblies in motorcyclesinvolved in an accidentTyre pressureLightingTread depthEngine/gearboxDrive trainWheels/tyresMixtureformation/air supplySteeringShock absorberDisc/drumEngine/gearboxService brakeBrake lining/brakelining carrierBrake calliperAxle/rear suspensionPipesDamageBrake fluidMixture formationSupporting partsof the bodywork, body workAdditions andsuperstructuresvehicle couplingpartsSteeringMultiple answers possible100% = 165 Motorcyclesbrake light/indicatorMultiple answers possible100% = 56 Motorcycles0 10 20 30 40Percentage of total012 3 4 5Percentage of total6 7Source: DEKRA 2002 – 2009. Data from GermanySource: DEKRA 2002 – 2009. Data from Germany24 | 25

Road accidents and vehicle defectsStriking examples of accidents in detailThe human factor as well as technical defects and lack of safety features are the main causes of motorcycle accidents.The following examples strongly emphasise this.1Example 1MOTORCYCLE OVERTAKES AS TRACTORWITH TRAILERS TURNS ABRUPTLY2341 Final resting positionsof the vehicles involvedin the accident2 Left front axledeformation causedby the impact of themotorcycle3 Mangled motorcycle inits final resting position4 Damage to the rim ofthe front wheelSequence of events leading up to the accident:An agricultural vehicle, consisting of an agriculturaltractor and two trailers, was being driven along adistrict road. The driver wanted to turn left. As he didso, he collided with a motorcycle, which was travellingalong the district road in the same direction andwas overtaking the agricultural vehicle at that verymoment.Vehicles involved:Agricultural tractor Steyr VT 150 with two trailers,motorcycle KTM 690 SMC.Consequences of the accident/injuries:The driver of the agricultural tractor was uninjured.The motorcyclist was fatally injured. On the agriculturaltractor the left suspension, the engine, the radiatorand the exhaust system were heavily damaged.The front of the motorcycle was totally destroyed.Causes of the problem:The motorcyclist had initiated an overtaking manoeuvreduring which several vehicles behind the agriculturaltractor and the agricultural tractor itself were tobe overtaken. The motorcyclist, when he realised thatthe agricultural tractor was turning, tried to brake hisvehicle before colliding with the agricultural tractor(skid marks 12.9 metres to the point of impact).Avoidance possibilities/approach to road safety measures:Reaction of the motorcyclist approx. 80 to 85 metresbefore the collision corresponds to approx. 2.5seconds before the collision. Because the overtakingmanoeuvre had already been underway for sometime, the motorcycle would have been visible to thedriver of the agricultural tractor if the latter had beenattentive and complied with the obligation to lookbehind and the turning manoeuvre could have beendelayed.Other characteristics of the accident:Collision speed of the motorcycle:approx. 110–120 km/h.Speed prior to evasive braking: approx. 120–130 km/h.Collision speed of the agricultural tractor:approx. 10–15 km/h.Permissible maximum speed: 100 km/h.Time of accident and characteristics of the road: summer,5 p.m. District road with traffic in both directions,one lane in either direction, direction of traffic separatedby a continuous white line. Dry road condition.

1Example 2CAR TURNS OUTSIDE A BUILT-UP AREA, MOTORCYCLEBRAKES AND SKIDS INTO THE TURNING CARSequence of events leading up to the accident:A motorcyclist was travelling along a road and collidedwith a car, which suddenly turned in front him.Vehicles involved:Car Honda CR-V, motorcycle Honda VTR Firestone.Consequences of the accident/injuries:The motorcyclist was seriously injured (head and leginjuries). The occupants of the car sustained slight injuriesand shock. The car was damaged in the area of the rear leftside wall and the rear left wheel as well as in the area ofthe rear left floor assembly. There were traces on the sideof and beneath the vehicle where the motorcyclist, havingslid under the vehicle, had made contact. The motorcyclecollided with the vehicle head-on. Before colliding withthe car, the motorcycle toppled over to the left. The motorcyclist’shelmet was scratched and deformed. It the timeof the accident it was being worn and had been properlyfastened.23Causes of the problem:Failure to keep an eye on following traffic on the partof the car driver and excessive speed on the part of themotorcyclist.Avoidance possibilities/approach to road safety measures:By reacting sooner and braking harder the motorcyclistwould have been able to prevent the accident. However,it cannot be ruled out that the motorcycle would still nothave succeeded in stopping before colliding with the car.If the passenger car driver had paid careful attention tofollowing traffic and had complied with the obligation tolook behind twice he would have seen the motorcyclist andbeen able to delay the turning manoeuvre. The collisioncould have been prevented by equipping the motorcyclewith an ABS brake. Emergency braking may have led togreater deceleration and hence a lower collision speedthereby mitigating the consequences of the accident.Other characteristics of the accident:Collision speed of the car: approx. 10 km/h.Collision speed of the motorcycle: approx. 60–70 km/h.Speed of the motorcycle prior to braking:approx. 85–95 km/h.Permissible maximum speed: 70 km/h.Time of accident and characteristics of the road: middleof November at approx. 6.30 p.m. It was dark. Wherethe accident happened there was no street lighting orother fixed source of light. The road was flat and, whenthe accident happened, it was dry.41 Final resting positions of the vehiclesafter the accident and tracks2 Damage to the turning car3 Final resting position of the motorcycle4 Fork deformation on the motorcycle26 | 27

Road accidents and vehicle defects1Example 3TECHNICAL DEFECT IN THE TYRE VALVE2Sequence of events leading up to the accident:A motorcycle with two occupants was travellingalong a main road when it toppled over. Themotorcyclist was flung under the safety barrierand the passenger lay on the ground close to themotorcycle. The front wheel did not show anysigns of impact but there was no air pressure inthe tyre.Vehicle involved:Motorrad Yamaha XV 1100 Virago (chopper).Consequences of the accident/injuries:The motorcyclist was fatally injured in the impactagainst a safety barrier post. The passenger sufferedserious injuries as a result of the fall. Themotorcycle sustained damage.3541 Photograph showingskid marks2 Final resting positionof the motorcycle3 Impact marks onthe post of the safetybarrier4 Pressureless tyre onthe front wheel5 Used damaged valve6 Valve caps compared7 Some of the protectiveclothing wornCauses of the problem:The tracks at the scene of the accident indicatedthat the motorcycle went out of control and toppledover due to a loss of air pressure in the fronttyre. Other reasons for the motorcycle to toppleover cannot be deduced from the findings at thescene of the accident. A laboratory test carriedout on the tubeless front tyre, which had been fittedshortly before the accident, together with thewheel rim, showed that the valve was old and hadozone cracks. It had been incorrectly fitted overa long period of time and was set at an angle. Inaddition, a heavy metal valve cap had been fittedwhich, in conjunction with the sloping position,placed additional pressure on the valve. Understatic pressure load the valve was not air tight,which quickly led to drop in tyre pressure duringdynamic movement.67Avoidance possibilities/approach to road safety measures:When the front tyre was replaced the valve shouldalso have been replaced. Downstand beams supportingthe safety barrier could have protected themotorcyclist, having been flung from his motorcycle,from impacting against the safety barrierposts.Other characteristics of the accident:Speed of the motorcycle prior to toppling over:approx. 60–65Both motorcycle passengers were wearing helmetsand appropriate attire with boots and gloves.

1Example 4SINGLE-VEHICLE ACCIDENT CAUSEDBY EXCESSIVE SPEED AND INADEQUATETREAD DEPTHSequence of events leading up to the accident:A motorcyclist was travelling along a winding roadoutside a built-up area. Following a depressionin the road, the motorcycle became unstable andcrashed into the right-hand safety barrier. It wasraining heavily at the time of the accident.Vehicle involved:Yamaha FR 1300.2 3 4Consequences of the accident/injuries:The motorcyclist was hurled beneath the safety barrierand sustained serious head and chest injuries,to which he succumbed at the scene of the accident.Causes of the problem:Before the motorcycle became unstable, it hadnegotiated a depression in the road on a right-handbend. The rear wheel tyre had a tread depth of 0.5mm in the centre and a tread depth of 1.6 mm atthe edge of the tread section. With the appropriateamount of water on the carriageway in conjunctionwith the reconstructed speed, the bank of the curveand the inadequate tread depth of the rear wheeltyre, the cause of the cause of the accident can beexplained by the handling of the motor cycle andthe technical deficiency of the tyre.Avoidance possibilities/approach to road safety measures:Instability as the cause of the accident could havebeen avoided if the speed limit had not been exceeded(especially considering the heavy rain!) and,in particular, the rear wheel tyre had had adequatetread depth. The fact that protectors were not fittedto the safety barrier posts at the time of teh accidentdid not have a negative effect in this case, as the motorcyclistdid not impact against the safety barrierposts. The motorcyclist’s injuries were caused by theimpact on the carriageway or by the impact of themotorcycle against the motorcyclist.Other characteristics of the accident:Initial speed of the motorcycle before it becameunstable: approx. 120–130 km/h.Speed of impact against the safety barrier:105–110 km/h.Permissible maximum speed in the area where theaccident happened: 80 km/h.571 Shape of the curve before the site ofthe accident2 Vertical post coverings not fitted at thetime of the accident3 Marks on the carriageway4 Rear tyre worn to below the minimumtread depth685 Marks on the safety barrier6 Motorcycle involved in the accident7 Impact marks on the safety barrier8 Stress marks and skid marks28 | 29

Human FactorThe human being: a risk factor in road traffi cInappropriate speed, too low a safety distance, disregard for the right of way, errors when overtaking and when turning, driving under theinfl uence of alcohol, as with accidents involving passenger cars and lorries, motorcycle accidents are frequently attributable to human error.Appropriate and anticipatory driving behaviour is therefore the be-all and end-all when it comes to motorcycling and would prevent notonly collisions with other vehicles but also many single-vehicle accidents. A sound awareness of risk is based on a solid training for drivers.Driving safety training at regular intervals is also recommended once the driving licence has been obtained. Last, but not least, it is importantto rigorously monitor compliance with the applicable road traffi c regulations.Motorcycling is extremely popular amongall age groups. Also, for seasonal reasons,temporary motorcycle permits are issuedfrom April to October. In April, due toa lack of driving practice, motorcyclistsare somewhat unprepared for influencingthe traffic situation, and therefore theyexpose themselves and other road users toincreased risks. From April, the numberof motorcycle accidents increases significantly.The latest report by the FederalStatistical Office on accidents involvingtwo-wheeled vehicles bears this out, as dostatistical analyses carried out in other EUcountries.The MAIDS Analysis (MAIDS =Motorcycle Accidents in Depth Study) ofover 900 motorcycle accidents in Europe,which was carried out on behalf of the29Experience of riding a motorcyclePercentage of total40302010024.20.5100% = 921 MotorcyclesSource: MAIDS Study16.3

European motorcycle manufacturers’association ACEM in association with theOECD, showed that almost 90% of motorcycleaccidents can be attributed to thehuman factor at the man-machine interface(Figures 29 and 30). This applies bothto the motorcyclists themselves and thedrivers of vehicles that may be involvedin a collision. For example, passenger cardrivers often become aware of motorcyclestoo late. This provides an initial impulseto the taking of targeted measures to improvethe mutual awareness of road users,to which attention should be paid when allroad users learn to drive.NON-AGGRESSIVE DRIVINGIS THE BEST SAFETY STRATEGYDuring training, special emphasis mustbe placed on training future motorcycliststo take personal responsibilityfor ensuring that they are seen (light,brightly-coloured clothing, safety distances,attention to blind spots, etc.).Passenger car drivers, on the other hand,should pay special attention to users oftwo-wheeled vehicles by driving withanticipation and constantly checkingtheir rear-view mirror. This applies inparticular during turning and lanechangingmanoeuvres. As a furthermeasure when riding a motorcycle, nonaggressive driving is the best safety strategywhereby many accidents motorcycliststhemselves are responsible for andless serious collisions can be prevented.30Driver-related accident factorsOf 921 motorcycle accidents analysed on behalf of the European motorcycle manufacturers’association ACEM in association with the OECD 87.9% can be attributed to the humanfactor. Of these, 37.4% (= 344 accidents) are accounted for by motorcyclists and 50.5%(= 465 accidents) by users of other vehicles. While, among motorcyclists, lack of attentionand a decision taken that was inappropriate to the traffi c situation led to the accident concernedtoo much the same extent, among users of other vehicles by far the most commoncause of accidents was lack of attention.Absolute frequency500450400350300250200150100500Source: MAIDS275112333110Motorcyclists2291133372Users of other vehiclesLack of attentionComprehensionerrorsDecision errorsReaction errorsOther formsof inappropriatebehaviourProf. Dr rer. nat.Wolfgang Schubert,First Chairman of theBoard of the DeutscheGesellschaft fürVerkehrspsychologiee. V. (GermanSociety for TransportPsychology)“The human factor plays a central rolein preventing motorcycle accidents.Knowledge-based, educational, vehicletechnology-based, infrastructuralas well as medical and psychologicalmeasures are required to reduce seriousinjuries amongst motorcyclists. It isalso important that these measures areeffective, economical and that they canbe implemented.”30 | 31

Human Factor31Fatalities by age and type of road use in EuropeFatalities by agePedestrian Bicycle Moped* Motorcycle* Car* Commercial vehicle0–910 –1516 –1718–2021–2425–2930–3940–4950–5960–6465–7475+Total106771142 3161822483 322253531440 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100Percentage of total *Riders and passengersSource: CARE Database (EU-19), July 2008Training courses in safe driving for motorcyclists18Safe driving pleasure requires controlover the motorcycle. In addition to basictraining, regular training in safe drivingunder the professional guidance of speciallytrained instructors is recommendedfor this. The safe driving courses set up,for example by DEKRA, in accordancewith the guidelines of the German Traffi cSafety Council include steering momentumtechniques, optimal braking, navigating aslalom course, and emergency manoeuvresamong the areas of focus. The methodconsists of training in the correct sequencesof movements, and also in the experiencingof the limits set by driving physics.Recognising and avoiding dangers in goodtime is the overriding learning aim of the6102062432823105121741484149411184 211356551 24534 269 360514648485144 337training. Of course, participants also learnhow to take control of dangerous situationsunharmed. The instructors always take careto ensure that theory and practice complementeach other. The contents of the trainingcourses are worked out jointly and takeaccount of the driving needs and issues ofthe participants.The motorcycle curve lean training programmeslaunched and offered on requestby DEKRA also contribute to greater safety.These training programmes safely showparticipants what leaning positions are possibleand how they can be controlled – anexperience that can save lives during thenext evasive manoeuvre or at a seeminglytoo high cornering speed.91097346The EU project “PROMISING” (Promotionof Measures for Vulnerable RoadUsers) has shown, among other things,that infrastructure to accommodate motorcycles(road surfaces, bumps, the layoutof road junctions, coloured markings, etc.)offers motorcyclists further potential forpreventing accidents. As regards technicalimprovements to vehicles, there aremeasures that also contribute to significantsafety gains – by fitting motorcycleswith anti-blocking brakes as standard,for example. Another way of preventinginjuries, particularly slight to moderateinjuries, would be for motorcyclists towear colourful, highly contrasting protectiveclothing to make then more noticeable.More detailed information about infrastructure,automotive engineering andclothing will be given in the next section.TRAINING ON MACHINES THAT AREADAPTED FOR USE UNDER PRACTICALCONDITIONSThe foundations of driving skills specificto motorcycles must be developed andmaintained through initial training as wellas through relevant advanced traininglater on. Training courses in safe driving,such as those offered, among other things,by DEKRA (see the box on the left), are tobe recommended. Another area of focusfor increasing road safety is the monitoringof road traffic by the police withthe aim of ensuring compliance with therelevant legislation. In this connection,motorcyclists should receive direct “feedback”,for example in the form of appropriatesanctions, for inappropriate behaviourcalled into question during trafficcontrols, in order for the correspond inglessons to be learnt.A special area of focus in the trainingof motorcyclists consists in ensuringthat there is an adequate link between the

The driver training of motorcyclists is very important for road safety.“competence” complex (theoretical andpractical driver training) and the physicaland mental conditions to be met, whichmust take account of the medical aspects(vision, a sense of balance, general healthconsiderations, illnesses, etc.) and thepsychological and performance-relatedaspects (psycho-functional performance,attention, responsiveness, concentration,coordination, etc.). It is importantto ensure that training is carried out onmachines that are adapted for use underpractical conditions and that have a similarcapacity to those that will be used lateras starter machines. Anyone who wishesto ride more powerful machines later onshould undergo further training and providea relevant certificate of competence.The driving licence regulations in Germany at a glanceType of vehicle Technical provisions Driving licence MinimumCategory old / or alternative category age of thenewdriverPowered cycleMopedSmall cubiccapacitymotorcycleMotorcycle/motorscooter (also withsidecar)Bicycle with an auxiliary engine up to 25 km/hbbH (bauartbedingte Höchstgeschwindigkeit(maximum design speed)) maximum permissibleengine speed up to 4,800 rev/min., singleseatedTwo-wheeled vehicle up to 50 cm 3 cylindercapacity and not more than 60 km/h bbH125 cm 3 cylinder capacity and not more than80 km/h bbH and a nominal power of notmore than 11 kWTwo-wheeled vehicle up to 125 cm 3 cylindercapacity, open fi nal speed and a nominalpower of not more than 11 kWMotorcycles of category 1, but with anominal power of not more than 25 kW anda power-to-unladen weight ratio of not morethan 0.16 kW/kgTwo-wheeled vehicle with more than 50 cm 3cylinder capacity and more than 50 km/hbbHSource: Federal Statistical Offi ce, Motorcycle Accidents, 2008none Test certifi cate required, if driver 15years of age after 01.04.1980 15 ordoes not yet have a driving licence4 M 1, 1a, 1b, 2 or 3; category 5, if issuedbefore 01.04.19801b A1 1 or 1a; category 2, 3 or 4, if issuedbefore 01.04.19801aAlimited1 AunlimitedAll motorcycles can be ridden 2 yearsafter issueHolders of the old category 1a musthave their driving licence converted,if they want to ride unrestricted motorcycles.15161618182532 | 33

Human FactorMotorcyclists – dangerous or endangered?Passenger car drivers underestimate the danger that motorcyclists are threatened with fromother road users. This emerged from a representative survey of 2,000 road users conductedon behalf of the German Traffi c Safety Council (Deutsche Verkehrssicherheitsrat (DVR).While 72.3% of passenger car drivers believe that the biggest source of danger for motorcyclistslies in the behaviour of the motorcyclists themselves, 57.4% of motorcyclists believethis to be the case. Almost one in two motorcyclists (46%) are of the opinion that hazardoussituations for users of two-wheeled vehicles are also brought about by the behaviourof other road users. Yet only approximately one in four (26.8%)of drivers of other vehiclessee this danger. That bikers are better than their reputation seems to suggest is shown bythe latest report of the Federal Statistical Offi ce on motorcycle accidents in Germany: of allaccidents resulting in personal injury in which motorcyclists were involved in 2008, morethan 52% were not caused by motorcyclists but by other road users.What are the biggest sources of danger for motorcyclists?environmental influencesRoad conditions(slippery road conditions(black ice), dirty carriageway)Source: DVRDanger from motorcyclistsInappropriate speedExcessive self confidenceError when driving past,risky overtaking manoeuvreDanger from other road usersBeing overlookedby passenger car driversother inappropriate behaviour(being cut, inattention)Weather conditionsSurveyedmotorcyclists6.812.79.57. 415.122.115.019.213.016.426.829.2Otherroad users37.546.044.143.057. 454.952.772.30 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80Percentage of totalMichael Pfeiffer,editor-in-chief ofthe magazineMOTORRAD“No other vehicle develops such adynamic as a motorcycle. It is controlledexclusively by a human being. Thehuman factor is therefore absolutelycrucial. Controlling a motorcycle requirespractice. Not enough attentionis paid, and too little consideration isgiven, to two-wheeled motor vehicles,particularly on public roads. So there isno alternative but to be prepared for alleventualities, such as cars ignoring theright of way, diffi cult bend combinations,or bitumen-contaminated patchwork quiltroads. We motorcyclists must simply bebetter than other road users. We must beable to react more quickly, drive morecarefully, and develop a seventh sensefor danger. Training is therefore important;we must be fi t and also composed.And that is down to us personally. Likepilots of a passenger aircraft we shouldfeel sympathy for the most important passengerin the world: yourself. That is why,at the start of the season, we shouldundergo safety training and not just driveoff when we see the fi rst ray of sunlight.Then things will work out.“

It is often the case that accidents betweenpassenger car drivers and motorcyclists can beattributed to lack of mutual consideration.Passenger car drivers: watch out!Passenger car drivers bear a great deal ofresponsibility for preventing accidents withmotorcycles. Greater partnership and considerationbetween passenger car drivers andmotorcyclists is necessary. Here are a fewsafety tips for passenger car drivers:• Specially delicate situations are turning andchanging direction (making a U-turn), changinglanes and continuing straight on over roadjunctions. In these situations, special attentionis needed.• Be careful. Sometimes there is more thanwhat the eye can see at a particular moment.Bear in mind that the view of the driver canbe obstructed by passengers, headrests, roofspars and door posts.• When you start to overtake or to changelane, always consider the possibility thatthere may be a motorcycle in the blind spotof your car.• Beware. Motorcycles are often concealedby lorries or cars. So do not simply concentrateon cars; actively and consciously lookfor motorcycles. In principle, passenger cardrivers should be trained appropriately whenreceiving driving instruction.• Even if you cannot see the motorcyclist,he can probably see you. So always usethe indicator to inform motorcyclists of yourintentions.• Do not underestimate the accelerationcapacity and speed of motorcycles. Considercarefully whether you really want to turn infront of the approaching motorcycle or whetherthere is not enough time. It is for risky formotorcyclists if they have to brake suddenly.CONSIDERATION AND SELF-CONTROLFurther accident-prevention potential lies inthe presence of behavioural characteristicsand personality traits representing compensatoryopportunities, all of which are basedon human conduct. These include non-aggressivedriving, mutual consideration andthe adequate evaluation of traffic conditions,as well as the faculty to be self-critical, theability exercise restraint or self-control.It will not be possible, and it will probablynot be necessary, to regularly test allroad users with regard to the qualitiesmentioned above. However, special attentionshould be paid to further developingthe system of event-related medical andpsychological examinations of motorcyclistswho have already been brought to the attentionof the authorities. A particular aim ofthis is to enable driving licence authoritiesto support those drivers who are unable tomeet road traffic requirements or consistentlyand repeatedly flout the law, and toenable them to change their behaviourthrough training and to retain or regaintheir driving licence.Behaviour and safety tips for motorcyclistsMotorcyclists live more dangerously thanpassenger car drivers. Yet the risks can beminimised through the correct behaviour, theright clothing, the appropriate and, particularly,roadworthy motorcycle as well asregular training. Most important of all, alwaysfactor in that extra bit of safety – never go toyour limits.Healthy scepticism towards other roadusers• Always expect other road users to makemistakes and try to anticipate their (inappropriate)behaviour.• A great deal of care is needed whenvehicles are turning or at road junctions. Thisis where most accidents happen.• When you overtake a vehicle pay attentionto its front wheels. This is how can most quicklysee if the vehicle is going to swing out. Keepout of the blind spot if possible and overtakethe vehicle quickly.Training – for beginners and experiencedriders• Undergo driver safety training regularly –the best time would be at the beginning ofeach season.• Consciously practice braking – even ifyour motorcycle has been fi tted with ananti-blocking system (ABS). Even experiencedmotorcyclists often do not manage to achieveoptimum control of braking performance inemergencies.• When you ride your motorcycle, accustomyourself slowly to the change in the behaviourof the motorcycle. Avoid braking and changingdirection suddenly and acceleratingaggressively.Protective clothing and helmets• Always wear full protective clothing, evenon short journeys.• Only buy a helmet bearing the ECE-R 22-05 mark. Full face helmets offer the greatestprotection.• Make sure that the helmet sits fi rmly onyour head and that the chin strap is fastened.Be visible – at all costs• When buying your helmet and clothes gofor clearly visible, bright, vivid, contrastingcolours.• This also goes for the motorcycle itself.• Always keep your lights switched on.Treacherous carriageway• Always keep an eye on the carriageway.Motorcyclists can easily skid on sand, leaves,dirt, grit, oil and diesel spills. Wet, snow-coveredor icy roads can also be tricky of course.• Bitumen, which is often used for road repairs,is particularly treacherous. Especially when thebitumen is wet, the motorcycle’s grip on thepatches of bitumen is strongly diminished. Thisis also true for road markings.• Watch out for manhole covers, tram lines,wheel ruts and longitudinal joints on motorways!• Current safety barriers pose a special risk.When they fall, motorcyclists often slide underthe barrier or collide with the posts. The risk ofinjury is signifi cant. So ride carefully at trickyplaces where there are protective barriers.Keep your motorcycle well maintained ...and you are halfway there• It is especially important to regularly checkthe air pressure and the condition of the tyresand valves.• Make sure that the tread depth of the tyresis adequate and that the brakes and lights areworking.34 | 35

Vehicle safetyIncreasing active and passive safetyThe data and information assembled in this report clearly show that, contrary to the general trend of falling numbers of fatalities and seriouslyinjured road users in Europe, among motorcyclists these numbers have stagnated at a relatively high level for a number of years. There ispotential for optimisation: in terms of the motorcycle, in matters of protective clothing, as regards road infrastructure and, last but not least,the road users themselves. Numerous EU road safety projects show this to be the case.In contrast to passenger car drivers, motorcyclistsare exposed to a much higher riskin road traffic. This is due to the differentdriving physics, the always delicate state ofequilibrium, and the special physical andpsychological strain that motorcyclists areunder. At the same time, motorcyclists aremuch more sensitive to climatic influencesand other disruptive factors, such as roadconditions and unforeseeable traffic situations.In addition, a motorcycle does nothave any protective bodywork. So motorcyclistsare unprotected when they collideor fall, even if they are wearing protectiveclothing. And, more importantly, seriousaccidents often prove fatal.Therefore, there is urgent need foraction – each injured or fatally injuredmotorcyclist is one too many. For decadesthere have been intensive efforts at alllevels with regard to increased roadsafety for motorcyclists. The EuropeanCommission has introduced, and isstill introducing, new projects aimed atimproving the systems of active and passivesafety. An example of such a projectis “APROSYS” (Advanced PROtectionSYStems), which involved 46 partners(universities, research institutions, suppliersand manufacturers) from twelveEuropean countries. One such partnerwas DEKRA. The “Integrated Project onImproved Protection Systems” concerneditself with scientific and technologicaldevelopments in the domain of passivesafety – focusing on human biomechanics,the crash performance of vehicles andinfrastructure, and on protection systemsfor vehicle occupants, motorcyclists andother road users.Measures and strategies for twowheeledmotor vehicles were included inthe scope of subproject 4 (SP 4), whichdealt with motorcycle accidents. Theaim of this subproject was to reduce thenumber and severity of the injuries sufferedby road users in accidents involvingtwo-wheeled motor vehicles for the most

There is a wide variety of safety helmets for motorcyclists. The integral, full-face helmet offers the best protection. However, with the classic jet helmet,the chin is unprotected.important types of accidents. To this end,accidents that had actually happened invarious EU states were analysed in depthand the injuries resulting from the differentimpact velocities were examined,with interest being focused on “forgiving”road design and layout as well as protectivesystems for motorcyclists.PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS THAT LEAVEMUCH TO BE DESIREDThe aforementioned accident scenariosconfirmed the results of earlier studies,which found that motorcycle and/or caraccidents can often be attributed to errorsin perception. The most common types ofaccident are head-on collisions betweenmotorcycles and cars as well as the lateralimpact of a motorcyclist against a car.Avoidance measures taken by motorcyclists,such as braking or swerving,are often unsuccessful. Where injuriessustained by riders of two-wheeled motorvehicles were caused by contact with a car,these injuries were usually serious or fatal.Where riders of two-wheeled motor vehiclescollided with infrastructural facilities,the majority of obstacles – especiallyin accidents with serious consequences– were trees, pillars, and safety barriers.Other impact objects were posts as well asthe carriageway itself. The initial impactwas often against an infrastructuralfacility. Impact against safety barriers inparticular frequently led to serious injuries.Collisions with obstacles led, withparticular frequency, to head injuries,with injuries to the lower extremities beingalmost as common.In order to determine the effectivenessof safety devices for drivers oftwo-wheeled motor vehicles, crash testsand paired comparisons between dummieswith and without protective equipmentwere carried out in four protectionstages as part of the APROSYS project.The impact velocities chosen for thispurpose were 0 to 35 km/h, 36 to 70 km/hand more than 70 km/h. Even at speedsof up to 35 km/h the loads acting on thedummy indicated a risk of serious, criticalor life-threatening injuries to the head,chest, pelvis and upper extremities. Ananalysis of the loads acting on the spinalcolumn attested to the effectiveness ofprotective clothing in reducing both theseverity of the injuries and the numberof injuries resulting from accidents in allspeed ranges.HELMET AND CHEST PROTECTOROne of the results of the APROSYSproject is the conclusion that the protectionprovided by currently available,very safe helmets can by optimised evenfurther. At the moment, helmets have topass a series of impact tests in accordancewith the applicable regulations, especiallyECE Regulation 22 as amendedby the 05 series of amendments (ECE-R 22-05). However, this standardonly takes partial account of specificviolations on the basis of turning andacceleration effects. Therefore, theCentre for Innovation and Safety at theUniversity of Florence (CISAP) developeda prototype helmet with a moving,thermoplastic and reinforced fibreglasschin part, which is supported by meansof a honeycomb structure on the left andright of the helmet shell and thereforeacts like a crash box. On impact, thehead acceleration and the forces actingon the chin straps could therefore bereduced. In the opinion of the CISAP,The GermanRoad Traffic Act(StVO) prescribesthe wearing of asuitable helmet.DEKRA explicitlyrecommends that,when buying a newhelmet, motorcyclistsshould ensure thatit has passed theECE-R 22-05 test.The relevant markingcan be found onthe interior paddingand the chinstrap.36 | 37

Vehicle safetythese findings should therefore have aninfluence on the ECE-R 22-05 motorcyclehelmet safety standard in the future.The scientific analysis of accidentsalso highlights the fact that motorcycliststime and again suffer serious injuries inthe chest region due to impact. Therefore,a study was carried out within theAPROSYS to develop suitable protectionfor this region of the body. The Italianmanufacturer Dainese and the LudwigMaximilian University in Munich collaboratedon the development of such protection,a special chest protector. SeveralAirbag prototype for mid-rangetouring motorcycleA big touring motorcycle like the HondaGold Wing offers plenty of room for theinstallation of a large airbag. Accordingto currently published information, thishas a volume of 150 litres. Honda wastherefore able to adopt the relativelylow-risk approach of restraining a riderand bringing him or her to a completestandstill by means of a fully inflatedairbag. This purely restraint-basedpro tective effect can be observed inthe crash tests carried out at an impactspeed of 48 km/h in accordance withISO 13232.To present the protective effect of asmall motorcycle airbag, between 2001and 2004 DEKRA developed a motorcycleairbag with a volume of 60 litresto be mounted on a mid-range touringmotorcycle. Four real-world crash testswere carried out in accordance withISO 13232, during which the motorcyclecrashed into the side of stationaryand moving passenger cars. The pairedcomparisons demonstrated that theimpact against the opposing vehiclewas significantly lessened by the airbagcompared to the tests without the useof an airbag. Once again, this showsthat, even for smaller touring motorcycles,which are manufactured and soldin large numbers, the airbag can be apromising protective measure for theimprovement of passive safety. However,there is a risk of injury during the continuedmovement of the motorcyclist followingthe much lessened initial impactagainst the airbag until the secondimpact on the road. Further extensiveresearch and development work in thisarea is necessary.simulations to determine the effectivenessof the protector showed that it distributedthe forces exerted during impactbetter, thereby preventing dangerous,inwardly directed rib fractures. The systemconsists of a polypropylene helmetshell, into which a honeycomb structuremade from aluminium, which cushionsthe impact, is integrated. Its protectionis greatest during head-on impacts. Thedevelopment of the chest protector tookaccount not only of passive safety aspectsbut also of ergonomic aspects in terms ofactive safety. Attention was also paid tomaximum freedom of movement duringthe wearing of the protector to enable therider to control the motorcycle and avoiddangerous situations.Running partly in parallel withAPROSYS, the EU follow-up project“Safety in Motion” (SIM), a safety conceptagain involving several partners,including DEKRA, investigated elementsof active and passive safety as well asprevention. The project focussed onmotorcycle traction control, a semiactivedamping system, lift-off protectionfor the rear wheel, an airbag, inflatableprotective jackets and a fully integratedABS. The research platform was providedby the three-wheeled motor scooter MP3,which was launched onto the market byPiaggio in 2006, and with which a promisingsafety concept was implemented.The chest protector contributes to theprevention of dangerous rib injuries.In the Crash Test Center in Neumünster DEKRA also regularly carries out crash testswith two-wheeled motor vehicles.

In 2006 the Honda Gold Wing was the first motorcycle with an airbag fitted as standard.AIRBAG PROTECTS HEAD,NECK AND CHESTThe airbag in particular could becomeincreasingly important as an element ofpassive safety in the future. In 2006 Hondalaunched the first motorcycle with anairbag fitted as standard onto the market.Admittedly, research in this area had begunwell before then. Reports on trials andprototypes have been coming out worldwidesince 1973 and DEKRA AccidentResearch has been working intensively onthe motorcycle airbag since 1987. In 2002the first full-scale trials with a prototypeairbag developed in-house for a mediumsizedtouring motorcycle were conductedin the DEKRA Crash Test Center in Neumünster.The series of tests continued inearly 2004.The airbag did not become the focusof attention of accident researchers andmotorcycle manufacturers without goodreason and it is based on the detaileddescription of accidents presented in thisroad safety report. The other party mostfrequently involved in accidents withtwo-wheeled motor vehicles both insideand outside built-up areas is the motorcar.Different analyses of the regions of thebody sustaining injuries indicate that thehead is most in danger when it comes toserious and fatal injuries, even when a helmetis worn. There is also a wide varietyof injured regions of the body, includingthe upper and lower extremities, dependingon the type of accident and the impactconstellation of the motorcycle.One type of accident with an often fataloutcome for the motorcyclist involved themotorcyclist’s head impacting against theside roof edge of a passenger car. Accidentinvestigations carried out by the MedicalUniversity of Hanover, on the other hand,have shown that, in general, impact at anangle against the front and rear side of thecar, occurs more frequently. In the case ofparticularly serious accidents, however, theimportance of the head striking against theside roof edge of the car was confirmed.The frequency of injuries to head, neckand chest was particularly high. The decelerationsof the head upon impact with theroof edge, the decelerations of the chest,the forces exerted on the neck and thebending moments of the neck are critical,life-threatening or even fatal.The priority action in the case of accidentsbetween motorcycles and passengercars is the protection of the motorcyclists’head, neck and chest. The impact of thehead against the passenger car must becompletely prevented, or its effects mustbe significantly alleviated. This meansthat, at the start of the collision, the kineticenergy of the occupant of the motorcyclesliding forward and then impacting againstthe opposing vehicle must first be reducedto the lowest level possible. Any kineticenergy remaining after the initial impactagainst the opposing vehicle can then beused to introduce an upwards movementof the occupant. At high impact speeds,the occupant can overfly or slide over theroof of an impacted passenger car.38 | 39

Vehicle safetyCrash test not with a dummy, but with a stunt man.It is just these requirements that themotorcycle airbag fulfils when a motorcyclecollides head- on with a passenger car.At the same time, a motorcycle airbag canreduce the risk of injury when a motorcyclistimpacts against the tank of his orher motorcycle or gets caught on the handlebars.The series of tests carried out byDEKRA on the basis of the regulations ofISO 13232 (international standard specifying,among other things, the simulationof impact accidents with motorcycles)emphatically underpin this.REDUCING THEMEASURED LOADSA series of tests of the type moving/stationary– the collision partner of the movingmotorcycle was a stationary passengercar – with the collision occurring at rightangles showed that the direct impact of themotorcyclist’s head against the roof edge ofa passenger car can be prevented. After theinitial impact, in the subsequent motionsequence, with its trunk and upper bodyagainst the airbag the dummy (representingthe motorcyclist) glided upwards andits head, avoiding the roof edge, was ableto escape the danger zone. All the loadsexerted on the dummy during the testwith the airbag were much lower than thecorresponding values when the same testwas carried out without an airbag and werealso well below the biomechanical limitvalues. A hybrid III 50th percentile maledummy was used in the initial series oftests. A second series of tests of the typemoving/moving – the moving motorcycleimpacts against the side of an, also,

moving passenger car – showed, in someways similar, positive but also differentiatedresults. For the first time, in tests itfinanced itself, DEKRA used the specialMATD dummy as described in ISO 13232.This very lavishly instrumented dummywas designed specially for the multiple directionsof motion and loads experiencedduring motorcycle impacts. The loadvalues determined using the MATD enablea complete risk-benefit analysis to becarried out in accordance with ISO 13232,which is ultimately the central result of acomplete series of tests with supplementarydigital simulations.In this second series of tests, a very differentmotion sequence resulting from thepre-collision movement of the impactedcar presented itself. Once again, the airbagwas able to prevent head impacts but,because of the distinct lateral movementof the crossing motorcar, the dummy didnot slide onto its roof. Here too, all themeasured values produced by the dummywere below the biomechanical limit value.Apart from the neck bending momentand the neck pressure force, the measuredloads were significantly reduced in allother cases.PROTECTION FORCAR PASSENGERS DURINGSIDE-ON COLLISIONSThe airbag is also important in view of thefact that the trend among car buyers is forever taller vehicles such as SUVs and vans.The problem is that, when a motorcyclistcollides with a high-sided vehicle, his orher head and upper body directly impactagainst the vehicle structure. If the motorcyclistis flung against the lateral front sectionof the vehicle he or she has no chanceof gliding over the hood, as would happenin the case of a passenger car with a lower,flatter front. Steep, high vehicle frontsimpede the trajectory of the motorcyclistand therefore increase his or her risk ofbeing injured.The fatal consequences were underpinnedin a crash test carried out byDEKRA and AXA Winterthur Versicherungin 2004 in Wildhaus, Switzer land.The crash test also showed that, when amotorcycle crashes into the side of a passengercar, the passengers in the car areexposed to a considerable risk. Duringthe test, the impacting motorcycle penetratedthe vehicle to such an extent thatthe head and upper body of the passengerssitting in the area of the impact were atrisk. Under certain circumstances, sideairbags fitted in a passenger car cannotrealise their full protective potential,Motorcycle manufacturers offer their customersmore and more models with ABS.as the release mechanism is primarilydesigned to react to an impact from a car.It is worth noting that an occupant in theaforementioned passenger car is at riskof being injured during a lateral collisionwith a motorcycle. The motorcyclist is notlifted over the vehicle and may penetratethe glass of the side window. A motorcycleairbag may remedy this by initiallyrestraining the motorcyclist when thecrash occurs and then possibly pushinghim or her upwards and raising him orher over the danger zone, i.e. the roof ofthe passenger car. A motorcycle airbagcan, in such case, reduce the risk of injurynot only of the motorcyclist but also of theoccupants of the passenger car.ABS HELPS TOPREVENT ACCIDENTSThere is no doubt that, in the future, thefocus will shift more and more to activesafety systems. Compared with a passengercar, there are fewer possibilities forincorporating passive safety elements intomotorcycles. Therefore, the importance ofthe use of active safety for motorcyclistscannot be overstated. The availabilityof active safety systems is still, however,very limited. Although anti-lock brakingsystems (ABS) and wheel slip controlsystems for motorcycles exist, other marketabletechnical solutions for stabilisingmotorcycles do not. And there is anotherproblem: the existing safety systems areinstalled as standard in very few models.In the majority of cases, they have to bepurchased as extras. Although the numberof motorcyclists who are prepared to digsomewhat deeper into their pockets forthese extras is increasing, the bottom lineis that the number is still far too low. Acommon reason for the lack of acceptanceis that numerous motorcyclists areconvinced that only inexperienced bikersneed an ABS.There is no question that the investmentis worthwhile. Many accidents canbe prevented and the severity of impactscan be reduced through the use of an ABSor a technical assisted braking system.This is one of the conclusions reached by40 | 41

Vehicle safetya simulation study carried out by DEKRAAccident Research on the basis of 87 welldocument motorcycle accidents. The scientistsundertaking the research showedthat, if the motorcycles had been fittedwith an ABS 25 up to 35% of the accidentsanalysed would have been prevented.The perfect technical solution wouldhave been a combination of ABS with anintegral brake and a technical assistedbraking system, which is currently still inthe development phase. This would haveprevented almost twice as many accidents(50% to 60%), as such systems react muchmore quickly than conventional brakingsystems in dangerous situations.The background to this is that, in dangeroussituations, motorcyclists often donot exploit breaking performance to thefull, fearing that this will lock the frontwheel, and so settle for a braking distanceextended by a few crucial metres. In suchsituations, ABS and modern combinationbraking systems, which optimally distributethe braking force between front andrear wheel, could demonstrate their fullpotential, especially on wet roads. Thanksto ABS, deceleration values of up to 8 m/s²and more can now be achieved, even onwet roads (Figure 32). ABS stabiles braking,reduces braking distance and inhibitsoverbraking at the front wheel, therebyWith the BMWC1, the rider isprotected by anenveloping yokestructure.preventing falls during braking. ABS alsoreduces the strain placed on the motorcyclistduring braking, especially in crisissituations and emergencies.The Allianz Zentrum für Technik(AZT) (Allianz Centre for Technology)worked intensively on ABS, analysing200 particularly serious motorcycle accidents.Approximately 90 accidents werefiltered out as being of relevance to ABS,as they clearly exhibited braking in the“pre-crash” phase. It was found that ABSrelevantcases increased by 69% in nonbuiltup areas. The majority of opposingvehicles were passenger cars and tractors(59% and 13% respectively).POSITIVE COST-BENEFITANALYSIS FOR ABSOf the 90 ABS-relevant cases, adequatedocumentation on the length of the skidmark, the length of the scratch mark andpossible other traces was available in 48

Vehicle safetySafe cornering with sloping-positiontraining by DEKRA.recognise dangerous situations and areable to introduce full braking pressuredespite weak actuation of the brake.A further reason for longer stoppingdistances is the long period of time everyhuman needs to react to dangers. Toreduce the reaction times of approximately0.8 to 1.2 second identified for an averagelygifted rider in normal situations, inthe future systems such as the PredictiveBrake Assist can be used, which recognisedangers in good time with the help of environmentsensors and react by automaticallyincreasing braking pressure in thereaction phase.In fact, were ABS systems to be extendedby means of a brake assist function, afurther reduction in the stopping distancewould be highly likely. For one thing,the maximum braking pressure wouldbe introduced at the start of decelerationand, for another, the threshold times ofthe braking system would be demonstrablyshortened. The use of the PredictiveBrake Assist would make it possible toreduce the speed of the motorcycle in therider’s basic reaction phase. The thresholdtime of the braking system would also beshortened, as there would be low brakingpressure in the hydraulic lines right fromthe start of the braking action. Statisticalanalyses have shown that the number ofvery seriously injured road users could bereduced by 32% and the number of criticallyinjured road users 21% through thewidespread use of such a system (Figure33). Admittedly, this prognosis contains arelatively high uncertainty factor. Experientialdata from actual accidents is notyet available. However, it should not beforgotten that a single-track motorcycleis far less stable than a four-wheeled passengercar.A research project undertaken by theBASt in association with the Departmentof Automotive Engineering of the TechnicalUniversity of Darmstadt investigatedwhether and which innovate dynamichandling controls for motorcycles (ESPand similar systems for example) aretechnically feasible and whether theycould contribute to reducing the numberof motorcycle accidents. An accidentanalysis identified accidents resulting fromlateral acceleration during cornering beingexceeded, without the use of brakes, andfrom friction coefficient jumps (as a resultof flat road sections, sand, oil, bitumenand suchlike, for example) as relevanttypes of accidents for future dynamichandling controls and were used as mainscenarios for potential dynamic handlingcontrol systems. A central result of the investigation,however, was that the potentialof innovative dynamic handling controlsas regards the prevention of accidents

Prof. Dr rer. nat. Hermann Winner, the Chair ofAutomotive Engineering at the Technical University Darmstadt“In the long term, I see huge potential in vehicle communication,i.e. in driver assistance systems that enable data to be exchangedbetween motorcycles, other vehicles and vehicle infrastructure via wireless communication,with the protective effect extending beyond the individual motorcycle. But several more yearswill pass before a successful market launch and acceptable market penetration. In the mediumterm, the further development and networking of existing control systems (such as ABS, ASR,semi-active suspension and steering dampers, for example) still offer many opportunities toincrease safety when riding a motorcycle. Research is currently being carried out into differenttechnical measures to enable braking to be easily controlled during cornering, especially inthreatening situations.”At the “International Technical Conferenceon the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles”,which was held in 2009 in Stuttgart, BMWfinally presented a further four assistanceconcepts: the bad weather warning (opticalinformation or voice announcement on astretch of road with poor weather conditions),the obstacle warning (informationfor example on a vehicle left at the sideof the road, an accident, a slippery patchof road or a traffic jam), the emergencyvehicle warning (information that anemergency vehicle is approaching frombehind) and the electronic brake light(communicating information to followingtraffic through braking).INTEGRATED SAFETYis considered to be relatively low. Thoseinvolved in the project were of the opinionthat future research should therefore focuson extending existing control systems formotorcycles (ABS, ASR) and, especially,on transversal dynamics.ACTIVE SAFETY SYSTEMSdriver reaches the junction and the driverdoes not slow down, the driver receivesthis information early enough to brakegently. As the driver approaches the lights,a recommendation can also be given ofthe speed at which a road junction can bereached when the lights are green.Combining active and passive safety intoso-called integrated safety, using availablesensors for other applications, andthe future networking of vehicles to createa cooperative transport system based onwireless vehicle communications alsopromise additional safety. An ongoingproject, which is being conducted by theThat active safety has still has enormouspotential for bringing down accidentnumbers is increasingly demonstrated bythe fact that motorcycle manufacturers areworking intensively on other assistance systems.To increase safety at road junctionsthe engineers of BMW, for example, aredeveloping a system mounted in passengercars and motorcycles for the prevention ofaccidents at road junctions within the contextof a research project. This “IntersectionAssistant” has been designed as an anticipatorysystem. Using information gatheredby radio, it analyses the current positionsand movements of road users equippedwith this system as they approach a roadjunction, the situation regarding the rightof way as well as the probability of collisionand assesses the behaviour of passenger cardrivers who have to wait. If such a driverdoes not react appropriately, he or she iswarned of the risk of collision in stages optically,acoustically and haptically inside themotor vehicle. On the motorcycle, as therisk of an accident increases, the headlightgradually modulates, the intensity of theheadlight increases, and additional LEDwarning lights on the side of the motorcycleare activated to broaden the silhouette. Ifthe risk of collision is acute the motorcycle’shorn sounds.BMW is also developing a traffic lightphase assistant, which enables the trafficlight installation to communicate with thevehicle. If the traffic lights are red when the33The prevention of accidents through the use of different brake controlsShare of ABS-relevant accidents that would have been preventable through the use of abrake controlBuilt-in braking system, driving skillsand form of brake activation Preventable Not preventableABS, normal driver,only VRBABS, normal driver,VRB and belatedly HRBABS, normal driver,integral braking systemABS, experiencedfrequent driver,only VRBABS, experiencedfrequent driver,VRB and belatedly HRBABS, experiencedfrequent driver,integral braking systemABS, integralbraking system, BASABS, integral brakingsystem, BAS, PBAABS = anti-lock braking systemBAS = brake assist systemSource: DEKRA7131923273842550 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100Percentage of totalVRB = front wheel brakeHRB = rear wheel brakePBA = Predictive Brake Assist44 | 45

Vehicle safetyDepartment of Automotive Engineeringof the Technical University of Darmstadtin association with the company carhs.communication, is to be seen in thislight. The project is entitled “MoLife”and consists in developing an integratedcommunication and warning system formotorcycles, which provides timely warningof danger spots by means of wirelesscommunication.In order to identify such danger spots,in addition to technical vehicle-dynamicssensors, the driver is involved as an active“sensor”. Besides developing, or furtherdeveloping, sensor-based danger spotdetection methods, the challenge is todesign control and warning elementsthat neither alarm nor distract the driver.After all, motorcyclists are exposed togreater stresses than passenger car driversand small errors on the part of the drivercan have fatal consequences. Therefore,MoLife is not only developing danger spotdetection; it is also evaluation variousman-machine interface concepts to meetthe aforementioned requirements so as toensure that the driver is warned effectively,with no adverse effect on driving safety.DESPITE ASSISTANCE SYSTEMS,THE MOTORCYCLIST’S ATTENTIONMUST NOT DIMINISHWhat active safety systems will one daysupplement the existing systems remainsto be seen. One of the issues current beingaddressed by an EU road safety projectnamed “Saferider” is what driver assistancesystems already used in passengercars and commercial vehicles are transferableto motorcycles. The project is focussingon four systems which, as concernsthe safety of motorcycles on the road,have great potential benefits: systems thatwarn against exceeding the speed limit,excessive cornering speed, obstacles andbeing too close to the vehicle in front, aswell as road junctions and other dangerousstretches of road.The “Pisa Project” (“Powered Two-Wheeler Integrated Safety”) is alsoattempting to define driver assistancesystems to address the current motorcycleaccident situation. Essential systems withgreat potential for reducing the numberof motorcycle accidents are: active emergencybraking, collision warning, brakingassistant, ABS, integral brake, AdaptiveCruise Control (ACC) and improvingvisibility. Particularly with regard to environmentsensor systems, close examinationof the advantages and disadvantagesis required before they can be fitted asstandard. Particularly with regard tosystems that support the driver in drivingsituations encountered every day andhence convey a feeling of security, there isalways the danger that drivers will be lessattentive to the situation on the road andmay cause preventable accidents due to anincreased willingness to take risks.HELMET AND PROTECTIVECLOTHING ARE INDISPENSABLEThe issue of protective clothing hasalready been addressed during the discussionof the EU Project APROSYS. Indeed,protective helmets, protective clothingand protectors make a substantialcontribution to significantly reducing theseverity of injuries sustained in an accident.Their main benefit lies, for example,in providing protection against extensiveabrasions, cuts and puncture wounds aswell as burns caused by friction heat. Theimportance of the helmet as an essentialitem of protective equipment is reflectedin the generally high rate of use. The BAStreported that, in Germany, 97% of driversand 98% of passengers of two-wheeledmotor vehicles wore a protective helmetin 2008. The proportion of drivers of twowheeledmotor vehicles who also woreprotective clothing as well as a helmetwas 51%. However, “as well as a helmet”may mean that, under certain circumstances,only gloves were worn. Only19% of all drivers of two-wheeled motorvehicles wore full protective clothing. Itshould be noted, however, that the datapool examined (traffic monitoring) wasall two-wheeled motor vehicles. The percentageof drivers of powered cycles andmopeds who wore full protective clothingin a built-up area would be interesting,as, from experience, apart from a helmet,riders in this group seldom wear otherprotective clothing. The 19% mentionedabove must also be relativised. 35% ofpassengers of two-wheeled motor vehicleswore other protective clothing as well asa helmet, 22% of passengers wore full protectiveclothing.High rates of helmet wearing of over90% are also shown by the MAIDS analysis(MAIDS = Motorcycle Accidents inDepth Study) of over 900 motorcycle accidentsin Europe carried out on behalf ofthe motorcycle manufacturers’ associationACEM in association with the OECD. Onthe other hand, the EU project “COST327” (Motorcycle Safety Helmets) showed

that 67% of helmet-wearing motorcyclistsnonetheless suffered head injuries. Headinjuries account for 81% of serious orfatal injuries. Although a helmet cannotprevent all head injuries, it can nonethelessreduce their severity. And, accordingto COST, 50% of fatal injuries can be preventedthrough the wearing of a helmet.COMPLIANCE WITHEUROPEAN STANDARDSIn the choice of helmet, it is important toensure that it complies with the currentECE standard R 22-05. If this is the case,compliance with the standard is also indicatedon the helmet itself. According to theInstitute for Motorcycle Safety (Institut fürZweiradsicherheit), the greatest protectionis provided by an integral, full-face helmetwith an integrated chin guard. Modernflip-up helmets, which have a chin partthat can be opened upwards by means ofa hinge, nowadays achieve good values.They are especially preferred by spectaclewearers because they make it much easierfor them to put on and take off their spectacles.On the other hand, cross helmetsand jet helmets offer very limited protection,even though they bear the currenttest marking. It is especially important thatthe helmet sits firmly on the head. Onlythen can it have its full protective effect.According to the MAIDS study, almost10% of accident victims lose their helmetat some time during the accident. In mostcases, the chin strap was not fastened orhad even been removed.As far as protective clothing is concerned,the basic equipment consists ofa classic leather outfit or an appropriateleather suit, suitable gloves and sturdyshoes. To provide optimum protection,the materials should be weatherproof,tear proof and abrasion proof. They mustalso be light reflecting, as this increasesvisibility at night and in bad weather. ItDr med. Rainer Zinser, surgery, trauma surgery and emergencymedicine specialist at the St. Elisabeth Hospital in Ravensburgis important that the protectors, whetherseparate or integrated into the clothing,have been tested in accordance with theEuropean standard EN 1621-1 or EN 1621-2.For all items of clothing, it is importantthat the rider is able to feel the vehicle, asthe special driving physics of the motorcyclecalls for constant control of the entiresystem consisting of motorcycle and rider.This control system cannot be maintainedwithout adequate feedback on the currentdriving state.“While head injuries sustained during motorcycle accidents havealways been a problem, in the last few years the number of motorcyclists,who have been involved in accidents, being admitted to our clinic with serious leg and pelvicinjuries has increased enormously. Therefore the wearing of appropriate protective clothingand protectors is, from a medical point of view, absolutely essential. The same is true of coursefor helmets. Although injuries to the skull and brain, in some cases serious, stemming from excessivespeed, among other things, cannot be prevented by wearing a helmet, without a helmetthe motorcyclists would have lost their lives. Integral helmets provide much better protectionthan half-shell helmets, especially since the latter are frequently wrenched from the head duringan accident if incorrectly fastened and are therefore unable to offer any further protection. Onthe other hand, it is encouraging that neurological rehabilitation sometimes achieves miracleseven in the case of serious skull and brain injuries. But motorcyclists shouldn’t bank on this, butshould ride more carefully.”46 | 47

Vehicle safetyNEW AIRBAG SYSTEM IN THE HELMETAND ON THE BACKIt is clear that the issue of helmets andprotective clothing is moving forward.One of the more recent examples is theairbag system called the “D-Air RacingSystem”, which was developed by Daineseand presented in 2007. The system ismounted on the shoulders and back ofthe rider and functions entirely independentlyof the motorcycle. When therider crashes, the airbag is activated bymeans of a system of acceleration andgyro sensors. Before this, an integratedmicroprocessor constantly monitors therider’s seating position. The appropriatesignals are evaluated by a data computationalgorithm, which causes the airbagto inflate if necessary. The airbag wrapsaround the neck, shoulders and collarbonelike a straightjacket and withstandseven heavy abrasion. The rider continuesto slide with the airbag around his or herneck and, on reaching his or her finalresting position can simply remove thesystem.In 2008, the world’s first motorcyclehelmet with integrated airbag waspresented at the International Fair forMotorbikes and Scooters (Intermot)in Cologne. Assembly, maintenance,Court ruling: less compensationAccording to the ruling of the HigherRegional Court of Brandenburg compensationfor motorcyclists involvedin accidents will be reduced (Ref.: 12U 29/09). Under the German RoadTraffi c Act (StVO) motorcyclists are onlyobliged to wear an appropriate protectivehelmet, but, if a rider without protectiveclothing is involved in an accident,he and his wallet will come off worst. Inthe case at hand, the motorcyclist wasnot wearing appropriate protective onhis legs and sustained injuries there. Thecourt found the motorcyclist guilty of“fault against oneself”. In accordancewith case law such fault exists if a “prudentand circumspect person” does nottake the necessary care to protect himselffrom harm. The Higher Regional Courtis of the opinion that every motorcyclistwithout adequate protective equipmentruns a much higher risk of being injured.The injuries could have been reduced orprevented through the wearing of adequateprotective clothing.Wearable safety:The motorcyclejacket with airbag byHit Air protects thechest, back, napeof the neck andshoulders in theevent of a fall.communication with the user and theaccident detection system were developedin such a way as to offer motorcyclistsprotection without complicated manoeuvres.A small control device housed in thehelmet compartment or under the seatprocesses all incoming pulses. On thebasis of the results obtained, the helmetreceives the command to inflate, whereuponthe airbag inflates in less than 0.15seconds. The activated airbag encirclesthe neck and runs down the nape of theneck to just below the seventh cervicalvertebra, stabilising the neck area andcushioning blows in the upper back areaduring an accident. The planned marketlaunch was preceded by numerous crashtests carried out by DEKRA in accordancewith ISO 13232 DEKRA.IMPROVED RECOGNISABILITYTHROUGH DAYTIME DRIVING LIGHTSCrashes between motorcycles and passengercars often occur because the passengercar driver involved recognises the motorcyclisttoo late. Daytime driving lightscould increase the safety of motorcyclistssignificantly. This was the conclusion of anew study carried out by the BASt on therecognition of motorcycles during the day.The obligation for motorcyclists to ridewith lights on during the day was introducedin 1988 to make motorcycles easierto see and hence to reduce accidents. InGermany, on October 2005 the FederalMinistry for Transport recommended thatall multi-track motor vehicles should alsobe driven with dipped beams or special

daytime driving lights during the day(in accordance with ECE-R 87).Daytime driving lights for multi-trackmotor vehicles were designed specificallyto improve the recognisability of motorvehicles, and their radiation characteristicsare different to those of dipped beams.If daytime driving lights for multi-trackmotor vehicles become more widespread,it cannot be ruled out that motorcycleswill become more difficult to recognisecompared with the present situation, as,currently, motorcycles cannot be fittedwith daytime driving lights.That is why the BASt is investigating towhat extent the recognisability of motorcyclescan be increased compared withthe present situation. The investigationshould also clarify whether motorcyclescould be less recognisable in the futurewith today’s signal pattern during the day(dipped beam). The following configurationswere therefore mounted on two differentmotorcycles: dipped beam, dippedbeam with permanently lit front directionindicator lamps, daytime driving lights inwhite, selective yellow and amber, as wellas white daytime driving lights as a pair orwith maximum intensity. In the static test,these were then comparatively evaluatedby volunteers in different real-life trafficscenarios. The most important findingswere as follows:• One daytime driving light in accordancewith ECE-R 87 is more recognisable thanone dipped beam.• Two daytime driving lights are more recognisablethan one daytime driving light.• More intense daytime driving lights aremore recognisable from a greater distancethan less intense daytime driving lights,while differences in recognisability resultingfrom different colours or colour ranges decreasewith increasing observation distance.• Multi-track motor vehicles and theirlights had no effect on the evaluation ofthe recognisability of motorcycles.As a consequence of the findings ofthe investigating into the recognisabilityof motorcycles, according to the BAStthe fitting of one or two in accordancewith ECE-R 87 to motorcycles should beallowed, so that the motorcyclist can rideduring the day with daytime driving lightsswitched on instead of a dipped beam.In this connection, mention must alsobe made of the EU project “2-be-safe”, inwhich the BASt and the Technical Universityof Dresden are involved as Germanpartners. The focus of the project is onimproving the signal pattern of motorcyclesby day and by night. One of thetopics discussed will be what contributiondaytime driving lights can make.Too low tread depth greatly endangers the safety of motorcyclists on the road.DEFECTIVE TYRESARE A SAFETY RISKDefective tyres and inadequate air pressureaccount for a significant proportionof the defects in the motorcycles inspectedby DEKRA following accidents. The factis that motorcycle tyres can suddenly orslowly lose internal pressure. As a ruleand in most cases separations can occurbetween the belt plies in the tread centre ofmotorcycle tyres because of high temperatures.These separations are caused byinsufficient pressure or by excessive strainas a result of high speeds. Investigationscarried out by DEKRA have shown thatapproximately 50% of the separations werecaused by insufficient air pressure which,in turn, was usually caused by holes or byleaking valves.In recent years, DEKRA has beenincreasingly commissioned to carry outinspections of motorcycles with refittedtyres that have been involved in accidents.Some of the crashes occurredwhen the motorcycles were leaving thepremises of the tyre dealers or just a few100 metres down the road. As motorcycletyres have to transfer strong circumferential,braking and lateral forces,the adhesion and grip of the rubbermixture in the tread area is enormouslyimportant. Because of the softness ofthis rubber mixture, manufacturers haveoptimised the adhesion for warm operatingtemperatures. The rubber mixturesare designed so that they do not establishtheir optimum grip until the material hasreached a temperature of 60 degrees andmore. Cold motorcycle tyres exhibit alower temperature after the start and sotheir adhesion is much reduced. In somecases, the manufacturer’s labels are notremoved from the tread area or adhe-48 | 49

Vehicle safetyTips on motorcycle tyres• Carefully warm up cold motorcycletyres; initially avoid extreme sloping positionsand circumferential forces duringacceleration and braking.• Carefully run in new tyres – becauseof the separating agent – for at least 200kilometres.Motorcycle accidentscan be caused by defectiveor clogged valves.• Pay attention to the load reserves ofthe rear tyre when touring with a pillionpassenger; there should be 50 or morekilograms of load reserve (depending inthe type of motorcycle and the tyres).• Obtain and take note of the recommendationsof the tyre and motorcycle manufacturers,if only because of the optimalmatching of tyres with the wheel rim.• Check air pressure at least every twoweeks or at the start of a long journey.As the checking devices at petrol stationscan be out by up to 0.2 bar despite thecalibration identifi cation plate; better to putin an extra 0.2 bar. In this connection, anelectronic air pressure monitoring systemon teh motorcycle is highly recommended.• With tubular tyres, loosen the knurledheadscrew on the valve after infl ationand preferably turn it back as far as thevalve cap. This way, it is possible to tell bythe inclination of the valve stem whetherthe tyre has twisted or not. If it has there isa danger of a valve tear-off at the valvebase.• Take care when handling high-pressurecleaners, as tyres can be „burned“ by theeffect of corrosion despite cold water.sive residues remain after the labels havebeen removed. Also, when the labels areremoved, any adhesive residues can pickup grit and dirt from the surface of theroad, significantly reducing the adhesionin some parts. Another common cause isthat, soon after they have been fitted, thetyres are loaded with strong braking orcircumferential forces.Furthermore, investigations have shownthat the mounting paste used takes severalhours to dry. Failure to take this into accountleads to the tyre rotating on the rimdue to the high torques on the rear wheel.This significantly impairs the ride stabilityof the motorcycle. Tyres with inner tubesare subject to additional hazardous torquesof a valve tear-off or (slow) puncture.SPECIAL TRAINING FOR TYRE FITTERSAs far as the tyre remaining firmly inplace on the rim is concerned, it should benoted that a large number of different rimcontours are used, especially in the motorcycleindustry, such as CP rims, WM rims,MT rims, normal rims and many others.As regards the selection and matchingof the tyre to the rim, therefore, the tyredealer must inform the purchase whetherthe tyre can also be used for the correspondingwheel rim. This requires the tyredealer to read the product descriptions orask the tyre manufacturer. The incorrectmatching of tyre with rim contour mayalso lead to the tyre rotating on the rim,with the aforementioned additional hazardoustorques in the case of tubular tyres.Accidents have other causes. Valve capsin the form of a rifle cartridge are used,especially on Harley Davidson machines.These valve caps are much heavier thannormal metal or plastic caps and lead tothe deformation of the valve stem andthe formation of fissures with centrifugalforces at higher speeds. Breakdown sprays(Pannensprays) must also be used withcare, as the Latex in the spray may clogthe valve inserts and cause them to leak.The resulting gradual loss of air leadsCrash test carried out by DEKRA to optimise safety barrier systems.

Safety integratedinto the landscape:NATURE rail withunderrun protectionwas designedespecially forequipping windingbiking roads.Flexible underrunprotection preventsmotorcyclists fromsliding under thesafety barrier.to separations in the tread area through“flexing” during the rolling of the tyre. Insum, the correct choice of motorcycle tyre,working perfectly with the rim, as wellas the correct choice of valve insert andvalve are the responsibility of the tyre andmotorcycle dealers. Specific knowledge isalso required to change a motorcycle tyre,especially on the rear axle, as this involvesnot only fitting the tyre onto the rim butalso mounting and dismounting the completerear wheel for the different modelswith shaft drive or chain drive. It is all themore necessary, therefore, that motorcycletyre fitters are specially trained.UNDERRIDE PROTECTIONON SAFETY BARRIERSWhen it comes to increasing road safetyfor motorcyclists, road infrastructure paysa quite central role. Safety barriers, whichare designed to cushion the impact of passengercars and commercial vehicles, posea special problem. The space between thesafety barrier and the ground exposes themotorcyclists to great risks. If a motorcyclistloses control on a bend and crashes,there is a risk that he will slip under thesafety barrier or impact against one of thesupport posts, often resulting in extremelyserious or even fatal injuries.This problem was recognised more than20 years ago. An initial approach to reducingthe risk of injury was to install safetybarrier post casings made from foam.However, these foam protectors deteriorateover time and are only practical at low impactspeeds of approximately 30 km/hour.Also, the gap between the safety barrierand the ground remains, which is especiallydangerous given that approximately50% of motorcyclists who have an accidentinvolving safety barriers slide against themin a horizontal position. To counteract theresulting injuries, the “Euskirchen System”was developed in the context of a regionalinitiative of the Rheinisches StraßenbauamtEuskirchen (Euskirchen Road andMotorway Directorate of the Rhineland).This involved upgrading conventional steelguard rails by mounting a binding beamunder the existing capping piece. Thissystem was tested by the BASt in January2003 and subsequently included in the“Guidelines for passive protection devices”.It prevents motorcyclists from slidingunder the capping piece or getting caughton individual barrier components and beinginjured or impacting directly against asafety barrier post.SAFETY BARRIER WITH UPPER BINDINGBEAM AND LOWER BINDING BEAMAs far back as 1998 the BASt commissionedDEKRA Accident Research toundertake a research project to systematicallyinvestigate the existing risk potentialand possible improvements on the basis ofimpact tests with motorcycles impactingagainst protection devices. The findingsof real-word accident analyses were usedto define the test conditions. The testswere carried out in the DEKRA CrashTest Center Neumünster. During the tests,motorcycles occupied by dummies wereridden into steel safety barriers and aconcrete barrier in an upright position andwhile skidding on their side. The testedsafety barriers were a standard safety barrier(einfache Schutzplanke (ESP) and aA good safety barrier system ischaracterised by, amongst other things,the fact that the motorcyclist can notslide under it after impact.50 | 51

Vehicle safetyCommon accident situations fromthe motorcyclist’s perspectiveAccidentsituationAccidenton bendsAccidentwhileturningPossible road factors infl uencingthe accident situationnot enough traction betweenwheel and carriageway(cracks, bitumen repairs,replacement of road surface,markings, objects or liquidson the carriageway, etc.)poor view of the road ahead(diffuse incidence of light,slopes, planting, etc.)discontinuous line management(sequence of radii, radii jumpsinside a bend)adverse slope conditions(low traction between wheeland carriageway)poor recognisabilityand understanding ofthe nodal pointpoor view of traffi cwith prioritystandard distance safety barrier (Distanzschutzplanke(EDSP)). The tested concretebarrier was designed as a single-sidedsystem with “New Jersey profile”.Constructive proposals for improvementwere elaborated on the basis of thefindings of these tests. Some of theseproposals were implemented in the form ofa new safety barrier consisting of a Swissbox profile and a steel-binding beam. Thesame crash tests as those with conventionalsafety elements were carried out. Significantpotential for improvement both in thecase of impacts with the motorcycle in anupright position and while skidding on itsside was demonstrated. However, the testsalso showed that the costs of this systemwere relatively high and prevented theirwidespread use on the relevant stretches ofroad. Other crash tests with passenger carsalso showed that the impact severity levelincreased with such safety barriers andthat, as a result, the risk of injuries to theoccupants of passenger cars during impactincreased.In 2004, the BASt, in collaboration withthe Federal Ministry of Transport, Buildingand Urban Affairs, charged DEKRAAccident Research with a follow-up projectto develop and test requirements for safetyelements to improve the safety of motorcyclists.The findings of the previous projectand knowledge gained from practical experiencewere taken into account. Approachesusing a safety barrier with an upperbinding beam and a lower binding beamwere developed, with particular emphasisbeing placed on costs and ease of assembly.Evaluations of adaptive safety elementsalready on the market provided additionalfindings. The Euskirchen Plus system wasdeveloped on this basis. An improvedprotective effect for riders of motorcyclescrashing in an upright position and whileskidding on their side was established. Thesame protective effect was also demon-Accident ata turning/junctionAccidentin paralleltraffi c onbendsotheraccidentpoor recognisabilityand understanding ofthe nodal pointpoor view of traffi cwith prioritypoor view of the road ahead(diffuse incidence of light,slopes, planting, etc.)collision with obstacle(branches, shed load, etc.)on the carriagewaySource: Forschungsgesellschaft für Straßen- undVerkehrswesen e. V. (Road and TransportationResearch Association), CologneDr-Ing. Achim Kuschefski, Director of the Institut für Zweiradsicherheite. V. (ifz) (German Institute for Motorcycle Safety)“Many experts talk of a safe road, some even talk of ‘Vision Zero’ – butno motorcyclist! It is obvious why or, rather, the answer lies in the past.The reason is that, unfortunately, too little attention has hitherto been paid to this group ofunprotected road users. The reason for this probably lies less in the chronic lack of money andthe resulting lack of investment in the construction of roads and more in the perspective or basicattitude of many decision-makers towards the two-wheeled motor vehicle. Most probably manyof these people have never ridden a motorcycle. For this reason, I would like to be able totravel with them through Germany so as to expand their horizons to all the possible risks, suchas safety barriers, masts, etc. Due to time constraints, however, this is, unfortunately, unthinkable.That is why we at ifz rely on judgement and on the effectiveness of our information campaign,which we have been operating for many years now.”

strated for the occupants of passenger carscrashing into a safety barrier.ROAD CONSTRUCTIONAUTHORITIES REACTAdditional opportunities for optimisingroadside safety barriers were discussedwithin the aforementioned EU projectAPROSYS. In this connection, Hiasa, aSpanish manufacturer of road safety barriers,developed a system that stronglyresembles the “Euskirchen Model” of 1998:a steel binding beam between the cappingpiece and the ground prevents the motorcyclistfrom sliding through the safetybarrier and cushions the impact with itssuspensions. The system proved its worthin full-scale crash tests carried out in accordancewith the Spanish standard UNE135900, and the head injuries sustained bythe impacting dummies were non-critical.The responsible road construction authoritiesin numerous EU countries are nowaware of the issue. In Germany, for example,the local authorities are identifying moreand more critical stretches of road withintheir area of responsibility and are retrofittingthem with an underrun protectivedevice. An example of this is the Glemseckbetween Leonberg, Gerlingen and Stuttgart,which is one of the best-known meetingpoints for motorcyclists in Baden-Württemberg.In good weather, very many bikersgather there at weekends and on publicholidays.Yet the accident figures are shocking:from 2004 to the middle of August 2009,according to the Böblingen police directorate,out of a total of 81 road traffic accidentsinvolving motorcycles, there were 5fatalities, 28 seriously injured and 49 slightlyinjured casualties. Many of the survivorssuffered lasting damage to their health. OfDangerous signsthese accidents, 49, i.e. 60%, were caused bythe motorcyclists themselves. The activitiesof the police and the authorities at theGlemseck were and are immense and consistof regular speed measurements, checks ontwo-wheeled motor vehicles and providingmotorcyclists with relevant information. Inmatters of passive safety, a further stretch ofroad was fitted with the, often life-saving,underrun protective device on existingsafety barriers.The road construction authorities arealso supported by private initiatives suchas MEHRSi (MEHR Sicherheit für Biker)(MORE safety for bikers). The associationhas devoted itself for at least five years tothe task of reducing the death toll and theseverity of injuries amongst motorcyclists.According to MEHRSi, 482 bend sectionsin Germany have been secured with 62,938metres of underrun protection.To increase road safety on dangerous stretchesof road, the authorities specify speed limitsby means of mandatory signs. In addition,road users can be made aware of dangerspots by means of danger signs placed at theedge of the road and be motivated to driveespecially carefully. Such signs are occasionallysupplemented by poster campaigns.For motorcyclists, however, this can lead toadded dangers. Every massive obstacle atthe edge of the road is a possible dangerfor motorcyclists, who may crash and sustainextremely serious or even fatal injuries –coming off the road after a fall, for example.The picture above shows part of a roadthat is very popular amongst motorcyclists.Extremely serious and even a number offatal motorcycle accidents regularly tookplace here. Reducing the speed limit anderecting signs warning of the bad conditionof the road alone did little to improvethe situation. All the safety barriers on thatstretch of the road were then retrofi tted witha binding beam in an exemplary fashion.Posters specifi cally targeted at motorcyclistswere put up. However, the danger still posedfor motorcyclists continuing to crash into theposts of some of the older signs was notalways taken into account. For the postercampaign, new billboards with massivestands fi rmly anchored into the ground onconcrete foundations, were erected – someof them in areas defi nitely still directly reachableby motorcyclists (and also by passengercar drivers) moving at a high residual speedduring accidents in which the vehicle comesoff the road. Road signs are pliable – signcarryingposts and poster stand posts arenot, which is why, although the intention wasgood, there is still room for improvement.52 | 53

SummaryFurther effort is required throughout EuropeExperts agree that, in order to increase the safety of motorcyclists even further, there are a number of approaches that can be adopted.ABS and airbag are, in this connection, key words, alongside protective clothing and helmets, visibility, road infrastructure and roadconstruction measures, driver training and safety training, as well as the periodical technical inspection of motorcycles.Year on year, fewer and fewer people arekilled on the roads throughout virtuallythe whole of Europe. This is an extremelypleasing development, especially againstthe background of the EU Road SafetyCharter signed by DEKRA, among others,in 2001, the declared aim of which is tohalve the number of deaths on the road to25,000 by 2010.But there is a downside: while thenumber of car users killed on the roads hasdeclined, the number of motorcyclists killedon the roads has stagnated at a comparativelyhigh level. Although a decline hasoccurred in many EU States – in Germany,for example, between 2001 and 2008 from964 to 656 (= minus 32%) or in Francefrom 1,092 to 817 (= minus 25%), the trendin other States is upward. The rise has beenparticularly high in, among other places,Italy: between 2001 and 2008 the number ofmotorcyclists killed on the roads rose from848 to 1,086 (= plus 28%). This shows thataction is required on many fronts.An important basis for all measures are,for a start, detailed and harmonised statisticson motorcycle accidents. The crossnationalstatistics provided for example bythe EU database of CARE or the annualreports of the IRTAD (International RoadTraffic and Accident Database), as well asnational statistics, provide much more accuratedata material than a few years ago,but a clear and, above all, pan-Europeanuniform distinction between motorcycles,scooters, mopeds and powered cyclesis still lacking. A harmonised Europeanaccident database would be importantbecause governments can only create theframework conditions for greater roadsafety on the basis of detailed and accurateaccident data.

PROTECTIVE CLOTHING,HELMETS AND PROTECTORSIncreasing passive and active vehiclesafety offers great potential for a pan-European fall in the numbers of injuredand fatally injured motorcyclists. Unlikepassenger cars or lorries, motorcyclesdo not have a protective rigid body andso motorcyclists are directly exposed toinjury during collisions or falls, with seriousaccidents in particular often resultingin death. The wearing of adequatetear-proof and abrasion-proof as well asclearly visible protective clothing andprotectors is just as important as wearinga helmet, for the selection of which caremust be taken to ensure that it complieswith the current ECE standard R 22-05.Integral helmets are to be preferred overhalf-shell or jet helmets, the formerclearly offering greater protection, especiallyin the chin and face area. It is ofcourse also important that the helmet sitsfirmly on the head and that the chinstrapis fastened.The scientific accident analyses showthat motorcyclists still sustain seriouschest injuries as a result of impacts.Within the framework of the EU project“APROSYS” (Advanced PROtection SYStems),in which DEKRA, among others,was involved, a study was therefore carriedout to develop appropriate protectionspecifically for this region of thebody. Several simulations to determinethe effectiveness of the chest protectorshowed that it distributed the forcesexerted during impact better, therebypreventing dangerous, inwardly directedrib fractures.AIRBAGS, DAYTIME DRIVING LISTSAND HIGH-VISIBILITY JACKETSAnother, very promising, protective elementduring an accident is the motorcycleairbag. Numerous crash tests, such asthose carried out by DEKRA for manyyears, have demonstrated the effectivenessof the airbag, especially in collisions with apassenger car, which is the most commonopposing vehicle in an accident. Especiallywhen the head strikes against the side roofedge of a passenger car, the frequency ofinjuries to the motorcyclist’s head, neckand chest is particularly high. The airbaghelps to cushion or even completely eliminatehead impacts. It can also reduce therisk of injury when a motorcyclist impactsagainst the tank of his motorcycle or getscaught on the handlebars.Accidents between motorcycles andpassenger cars often happen because passengercar drivers often become awareof motorcycles too late. Special daytimedriving lights could help to alleviate this,as shown by a study carried out by theBundesanstalt für Straßenwesen (BASt)(Federal Highway Research Institute).As a consequence of the findings of theinvestigation into the recognisability ofmotorcycles, according to the BASt thefitting of one or two in accordance withECE-R 87 to motorcycles should be allowed,so that the motorcyclist can rideduring the day with daytime driving lightsswitched on instead of a dipped beam. Asfar as the recognisability of motorcyclistsis concerned, a further safety elementshould not be forgotten: the high-visibilityjacket. In many EU States, such as France,Italy, Spain, Portugal and Austria, thewearing of these high-visibility jacketsis an obligation. They must also be wornby motorcyclists outside built-up areas incase of breakdown or accident. A similarregulation could also be appropriate forGermany.FEWER ACCIDENTSAS A RESULT OF ABSThere is no doubt that, in the future, thefocus will shift more and more to activesafety systems. Compared with a passengercar, there are fewer possibilities forincorporating passive safety elements intomotorcycles. Therefore, the importance ofthe use of active safety for motorcyclistscannot be overstated. This is particularlytrue of anti-lock braking systems (ABS),which are being offered more frequentlyby manufacturers – fortunately not just intop models.54 | 55

SummaryThe fact is that many accidents canbe prevented and the severity of impactscan be reduced through ABS. This wasthe conclusion reached by, among otherthings, a simulation study carried outby DEKRA Accident Research, in whichit was demonstrated that by equippingmotorcycles with 25% to 35% of the seriousaccidents analysed would have beenpreventable. Were one to combine theABS with an integral brake and a technicalassisted brake system, which is still in thedevelopment phase, almost twice as manyaccidents (50% to 60%) could have beenprevented, as such systems respond muchmore quickly than conventional brakingsystems in dangerous situations.The Allianz Zentrum für Technik(AZT) (Allianz Centre for Technology)has devoted a great deal of work to ABSand its effectiveness. Extrapolating the resultsto Germany alone, if all motorcycleswere equipped with ABS, approximately100 lives would be saved every year. Therewould be a four-digit fall in the number ofseriously and slightly injured motorcyclistsevery year. To benefit fully from the safetyadvantages in an emergency, motorcyclistsmust naturally control braking with ABS.It is therefore all the more important thatmotorcyclists regularly undergo driversafety training. Such programmes consistof training in the correct sequences ofmovements, and also in the experiencingof the limits set by driving physics. Theyare particularly appropriate at the startof the motorcycling season as well as forthose returning to motorcycling and olderbeginners.That the issue of active safety still hasenormous potential for reducing accidentfigures is increasingly demonstrated bythe fact that motorcycle manufacturersand scientific institutions are working intensivelyon other systems – the intersectionassistant, traffic light phase assistant,obstacle warning or networking vehicles toa cooperative traffic system using wirelessvehicle communications, to give just a fewexamples.IMPROVING ROADINFRASTRUCTURESafety barriers at the side of the road posea significant danger to motorcyclists.Although they offer the best possibleprotection for drivers of passenger carsand commercial vehicles, the space betweenthe safety barrier and the groundexposes the motorcyclists to great risks.If a motorcyclist loses control on a bendand crashes, there is a risk that he or shewill slip under the safety barrier or impactagainst one of the support posts, oftenresulting in extremely serious or even fatal

injuries. Intensive research has thereforebeen carried out to minimise this risk. TheEuskirchen Plus system, which was developedas a result of a project undertaken bythe BASt and DEKRA Accident Research,has proved to be an efficient safety element.These safety barriers, which arefitted with a binding beam, provide betterprotection for motorcyclists whose motorcyclescrash into them in an upright positionand while skidding on their side.Bitumen repairs on roads also pose athreat to motorcyclists. Bitumen has approximatelyjust one third of the frictioncoefficient of normal asphalt surfaces.When the bitumen is wet, or with temperaturesabove 23 o C, these values fall evenfurther, as the repairs become soft. Roadgrip suffers while the motorcycle is travellingboth in an upright and in an inclinedposition. Bitumen casting compoundsshould therefore not be used for roadimprovement works if at all possible. Thisis especially true for the large-scale use ofthis process.TECHNICAL MONITORINGOF MOTORCYCLESThe accident analyses carried out byDEKRA show that technical defects mayalso be responsible for motorcycle accidents.According to these analyses, 23.6%of the motorcycles inspected followingan accident between 2002 and 2009 haddefects, of which 33.9% were of relevancefor the accident. It is therefore all the moreimportant that motorcycles are regularlyinspected as regards their safety. Suchvehicle monitoring is already the rule innumerous EU Member States, As concernsthe main inspections carried out byDEKRA between 2007 and 2008, technicallighting equipment headed the list ofdefects at over 30%. In almost one in fivemotorcycles with defects the assembly consistingof axles/wheels/tyres/suspensionswere found to be at fault, followed by chassis/framesat 16% and brakes at 12%. Theproper functioning of all safety equipmentmust, in any case, be guaranteed.One final note: regardless of anymeasure to increase road safety, howeverefficient it may be, a non-aggressive, anticipatorydriving style, especially on the part ofmotorcyclists, is the best safety strategy. Thiswill prevent not only collisions with other vehiclesbut also single-vehicle accidents. Everymotorcyclist personally lays the foundationstone for sound risk awareness: in the form ofsolid driver training.The DEKRA requirements in brief• Creation of a single pan- Europeanaccident database• Wearing of protective clothing,including a helmet and protectors• Improvement of passive and activesafety• Optimisation of road infrastructure• Introduction throughout Europe ofperiodical technical inspections formotorcycles• Solid driver training and regularparticipation in driving safetytraining programmes56 | 57

ContactAny questions?ACCIDENT RESEARCHAlexander BergTel.: +49.7 11.78 61-22 61alexander.berg@dekra.comMarkus EgelhaafTel.: +49.7 11.78 61-26 10markus.egelhaaf@dekra.comJens KönigTel.: +49.7 11.78 61-25 07jens.koenig@dekra.comWalter NiewöhnerTel.: +49.7 11.78 61-26 08walter.niewoehner@dekra.comDEKRA Automobil GmbHHandwerkstraße 1570565 StuttgartACCIDENT ANALYSIS APPRAISALSJörg AhlgrimmTel.: +49.7 11.78 61-25 41joerg.ahlgrimm@dekra.comDEKRA Automobil GmbHHandwerkstraße 1570565 StuttgartBibliographyACEM – Association desConstructeurs Européens deMotocycles, Market fi guresand statistics: Circulating park.Brüssel, Januar 2010.ACEM – Association desConstructeurs Européens deMotocycles, Report 2010.Brüssel, Januar 2010.Autofore, Study on the FutureOptions for RoadworthinessEnforcement in the EuropeanUnion: WP530 – Extension ofroadworthiness tests to othervehicle categories. 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