VIC Koala Management Strategy - Department of Sustainability and ...

Victoria’skoalamanagement strategy

Victoria’skoalamanagement strategyBiodiversity and Natural Resources DivisionDepartment of Sustainability and EnvironmentSeptember 2004

Published by the Victorian Government Department of Sustainabilityand Environment 2004Compiled by Peter Menkhorst, DSE©The State of Victoria Department of Sustainability and Environment 2004This publication is copyright. No part may be reproduced by any processexcept in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968.ISBN 1 74106 6549This publication may be of assistance to you but the State of Victoria andits employees do not guarantee that the publication is without flaw ofany kind or is wholly appropriate for your particular purposes andtherefore disclaims all liability for any error, loss or other consequencewhich may arise from your relying on any information in this publication.For further information contact the Department of Sustainability andEnvironment, PO Box 500, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia 3002.Web: http//www.dse.vic.gov.au (plants and animals)Customer Service Centre – phone 136 186Authorised by the Victorian Government, 8 Nicholson Street,East Melbourne.Printed by Impact Digital, 32 Syme Street, Brunswick.AcknowledgementsMembers of the Victorian Koala Working Group (1995-1999) played amajor role in the development of this strategy. They were: Justin Cook,Alan Crouch, Peter Goldstraw, Dr Kath Handasyde, Wayne Hill, PeterMenkhorst, Phil Pegler, Ian Walker and Ross Williamson. Likewise, themembers of the Parks Victoria/DSE Koala Technical Advisory Committee(2000-2004) (Dr Kath Handasyde, Prof. Tony Lee, Dr Michael Lynch, PeterMenkhorst, Dr Sally Troy, Ian Walker and Dr Chris Weston) havecontributed enormously through wide-ranging discussions of Koalamanagement. The contribution of discussions with other koala managersand researchers is also gratefully acknowledged: they include Barbara StJohn, Bob Inns, Dr Pip Masters, Dr Graeme Moss and Dr Glen Shimmin(Department of Environment and Heritage, South Australia), Dr NatashaMcLean (University of Melbourne), Prof. Des Cooper and Dr CatherineHerbert (Macquarie University), Dan Lunney (NSW National Parks andWildlife Service), Dr Alistair Melzer (University of Central Queensland),and Dr John Callaghan (Australian Koala Foundation).Barbara Baxter and Scott Leech expertly produced Figure 1 usingthe Victorian Fauna Display (DSE).

ContentsAcknowledgments 2IntroductionThe Need for a Koala Management Strategy 4Key Principles 5Responsibilities 5Policy Framework 6Key Issues in Koala Management in VictoriaIssue 1. Defining, Ranking and Conserving Habitat 8Issue 2. Monitoring Populations 10Issue 3. Managing Over-browsing 10Issue 4. Managing Genetic Structure 12Issue 5. Investigating the Role of Chlamydophila in Population Processes 13Issue 6. Understanding Population Demographics 14Issue 7. Managing Interactions with People 14Issue 8. Managing Captive Koalas 14Issue 9. Managing Sick and Injured Koalas 14Issue 10. Involving the Community 15Issue 11. Implementing the Strategy 15The StrategyAim 16Objectives and Actions 16References 21AppendicesAppendix 1. Known Koala Forage Trees in Victoria 23Appendix 2. Protocols for Translocation of Koalas 23Appendix 3. Decision Tree for Selection of Release Sites 27Appendix 4. Glossary 283

IntroductionThe Need for a KoalaManagement StrategyWorldwide, the Koala is probably the mostrecognised of Australia’s wildlife species. To seea Koala is important to a large proportion ofboth domestic and international tourists inAustralia. The value of the Koala as a tourismicon for Australia in 1996 has been estimated at$1.1 billion (Hundloe and Hamilton 1997).Further, from the perspective of biodiversityconservation, the Koala is highly significantbecause it is the only living member of itsfamily, the Phascolarctidae. This is an ancientfamily that reached maximum diversity in theOligocene Epoch (34-24 million years ago). Sixgenera and 18 fossil species have beendescribed (Black 1999) but only one speciesremains – the Koala Phascolarctos cinereus.GovernmentCommonwealthVictoriaSouth AustraliaNew SouthWalesQueenslandACTLegislationEnvironment Protectionand BiodiversityConservation Act 1999Wildlife Act1975Flora and FaunaGuarantee Act 1988National Parks andWildlife Act 1972Threatened SpeciesConservation Act 1995National Parks andWildlife Act 1979Nature ConservationAct 1992Nature ConservationAct 1980StatusNot listedOther ProtectedWildlifeNot listedSchedule 9– RareSchedule 2 –VulnerableProtectedWildlifeCommon Wildlifeexcept for South-eastQueenslandBiogeographic Regionwhere VulnerableNot listedOn a national level, the Koala is not secure (Melzer, et al.2000) and there exists a great deal of national andinternational concern for its conservation (Cork, et al. 2000).The level of international concern is reflected in the decisionin May 2000 by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to list theKoala as a threatened species under the U.S. EndangeredSpecies Act. This decision was based largely on documentedrates of vegetation clearance within the Koala’s distribution.However, in an assessment conducted in 1995 on behalf ofthe Australian Government, the Koala was assessed as notmeeting the criteria for listing as a threatened species at thenational level (Maxwell, et al. 1996). In Victoria, the Koala hasnot been listed as threatened under the Flora and FaunaGuarantee Act. In New South Wales it is listed as Vulnerable,as is the population in South-east Queensland (Table 1).Table 1 Levels of legislative protection afforded the Koala(at August 2003).Victoria has a large and thriving Koala population. Koalas arewidespread in lowland and foothill eucalypt forests andwoodlands across much of Victoria where the annual rainfallexceeds about 500 mm (Figure 1). In most Victorian forestsand woodlands Koala population densities are naturally low(

Many Koala populations andtheir habitats are protected inVictoria’s conservation reservesystem, including National Parks,Nature Conservation Reservesand Special Protection Zones inState Forests.so high that the resulting browsing pressure on preferredtree species is unsustainable, and is a direct threat to theintegrity of entire forest patches. In other areas, populationsappear to be declining and are in need of managementsupport. Many Koala populations and their habitats areprotected in Victoria’s conservation reserve system, includingNational Parks, Nature Conservation Reserves and SpecialProtection Zones in State Forests. Other importantpopulations occur in rural and semi-rural freehold land, withincreasing infiltration into semi-urban areas, for examplenorth-east Melbourne, Ballarat and Portland.Key PrinciplesThis strategy has been developed within the framework of thefollowing key principles:• Because the Koala is more secure in Victoria than in theother states, Victoria carries a heavy responsibility tomanage its Koala populations to ensure that the speciescontinues to flourish in the wild, without damaging othernatural values, as an important component of thenation’s biodiversity, and as a major tourist drawcard.• Conservation and management of the Koala must beintegrated with other measures to conserve Victoria’sbiological diversity, including Victoria’s Native VegetationManagement Framework (Department of NaturalResources and Environment 2002) and the BioregionalAction Plan process.• Community input and involvement is crucial to theeffective management of the Koala in Victoria.• Local Government planning schemes play a key rolein land-use planning and zoning, and thus stronglyinfluence the capacity to maintain Koala habitat onfreehold land and other land within the jurisdiction ofLocal Government.• Fragmentation of habitat is a serious issue for Koalaconservation because of the species’ specialisation to alow-energy, low-nutrient diet that leaves little scope forincreasing energy expenditure in order to travel betweenhabitat fragments (Hume 1990).• The proclivity of Koala populations in some Victorianforests to grow to unsustainable population densities is amajor concern, not only to the Koalas themselves, butalso to the ecological integrity of the forest communitiesthey inhabit.• The population on French Island is free of diseasesassociated with the organism Chlamydophila andtherefore has a very high intrinsic rate of growth. Havingalready been the saviour of Victoria’s Koala population –as the source of most animals used to successfully reintroducethe Koala throughout its natural range inVictoria – its value as insurance against further declineson the mainland is recognised.• Any manipulation of Koala population numbers shall beundertaken in accordance with strict wildlifemanagement and veterinary protocols, including a clearlydocumented rationale for the action. These will bedeveloped after consultation with relevant stakeholdersand shall be subject to public scrutiny.ResponsibilitiesResponsibility for native fauna in Victoria is vested in theCrown under the provisions of the Wildlife Act 1975. This Actconfers protection on all vertebrate animals (except fish) thatare indigenous to Australia. Strategic responsibility formanagement of Koalas in Victoria rests with the Biodiversityand Natural Resources Division of the Department ofSustainability and Environment and extends across all publicand private land. This strategic responsibility includes thedefinition, authorisation and coordination of appropriate Koalamanagement practices. Responsibility for on-ground actionrests with the relevant land manager, within the bounds oflegislative provisions, this strategy and associated guidelines.5

Policy FrameworkThis strategy is intended to sit beneath the ‘National KoalaConservation Strategy’ (ANZECC 1998). The aim of thenational strategy is:‘To conserve Koalas by retaining viable populationsin the wild throughout their natural range’.Victoria’s Koala Management Strategy provides guidancetowards achieving the aim of the national strategy andmeeting its six objectives in the State of Victoria.A number of Victorian Acts of Parliament and departmentalguidelines are relevant to the management of Koalas. Themost important of these and their relevance are brieflydescribed below:Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1986Provides for legal action against people who cause unduediscomfort to animals in their care, including wild animalscaptured for management purposes. Requires that scientificstudies that utilise wildlife be scrutinised by an accreditedAnimal Experimentation Ethics Committee.Victoria’s Biodiversity StrategyProvides a commitment and a framework to incorporate floraand fauna conservation goals into all activities. A key conceptof the strategy is the use of bioregions as a planningframework, and the production of Biodiversity Action Plans ineach bioregion.Wildlife Act 1975Provides for the management of wildlife, and research intowildlife and its habitat. It also provides for the control ofwildlife in situations where wildlife may be causing damage tovegetation or property. The Koala is ‘protected wildlife’ underthe Wildlife Act. It is illegal to take, interfere with or destroyKoalas without authorisation. Actions to control Koalapopulations that have been authorised under the Wildlife Actinclude translocation and fertility control.National Parks Act 1975Allows for to the preservation, protection and re-establishmentof indigenous flora and fauna in areas reserved under the Act.Forests Act 1958Provides for the development of Forest Management Plansthat may include guidelines for the management of a range offorest values, including biodiversity conservation.Sustainable Forests (Timber) Act 2004Provides a framework for sustainable forest management andsustainable timber harvesting in State Forests, including anobjective to protect biological diversity and maintain essentialbiological processes and life-support systems.Planning and Environment Act 1987Establishes a system of planning schemes based on municipaldistricts to enable land-use policy and planning to be easilyintegrated with environmental, social, economic, conservationand resource management policies at state, regional andmunicipal levels. Provides for protection of natural resourcesand the maintenance of ecological processes and geneticdiversity. Requires that responsible authorities consider theeffects of proposed developments on the environmental valuesof the site. The State Planning Policy Framework for municipalplanning schemes contains objectives for the conservation ofnative flora and fauna, and the Particular Provisions of theplanning schemes contain Native Vegetation RetentionProvisions, which control clearing of native vegetation.6

Key Issues inKoala Management in VictoriaBefore developing a strategy for themanagement of Koalas in Victoria it is necessaryto identify key issues that influence Koalapopulation trends. This section describes 11 keyissues affecting Koala populations and theirmanagement in Victoria. It is followed by asection that presents the objectives to beachieved in order to adequately address eachkey issue, defines actions necessary to achieveeach objective and lists the lead agencies andtime-frames for their implementation.Issue 1. Defining, Rankingand Conserving HabitatKoalas are widespread in Victoria and occur across a range ofbiogeographical regions and habitats. They also occur on mostland tenures, including National Parks and other conservationreserves, State Forests, other Crown Land, and freehold land.An essential component of informed conservation planning isa detailed understanding of what constitutes habitat, and thedistribution and availability of that habitat. This knowledge islacking for the Koala in Victoria and a program of habitatdefinition and mapping would assist in planning for Koalaconservation.Examples of high quality Koala habitat - Coastal Manna Gumwoodland, Yellow Box woodland, River Red Gum forest.As a start to the process of documenting Koala habitatavailability, Parks Victoria undertook a GIS-based assessment ofthe extent and distribution of potential Koala habitat inVictoria (Centre for Environmental Management 2001). Thisassessment was based upon the distribution of EcologicalVegetation Classes (EVCs) containing eucalypts known to bebrowsed by Koalas. It provides a useful statewide overview ofpotentially suitable habitat.Tree species that occur naturally in Victoria and are knownto be browsed by the Koala are listed in Appendix 1. Giventhe level of taxonomic revision in the genus Eucalyptus inrecent years, it is likely that many newly described speciesare also eaten, so the list is almost certainly incomplete.The underlying geology and soil fertility may also play animportant role in determining the quality of Koala habitatthrough their effects on the levels of foliage nutrients andsecondary metabolites (Moore and Foley 2000). Thus, a treespecies may be readily eaten in one locality but not favouredat another.Mapping at the statewide scale is useful for obtainingan overview of the availability of habitat for Koalas, forexample, to indicate the distribution and extent of potentialrelease sites available for use during translocation programs.However, for land-use planning on a local scale, greaterprecision is needed in both habitat definition and mapping.For mapping habitat at a level useful for Local Government,the Koala Habitat Atlas project of the Australian KoalaFoundation provides a useful model (e.g. Phillips, et al.2000). This methodology combines detailed vegetationand soil mapping with a quantified measure of local Koalapreferences for browse tree species, to indicate habitatquality at the local level.There is also a need for further elucidation of theenvironmental factors that influence the selection ofindividual browse trees by Koalas, so that more sophisticatedmodels of Koala habitat quality can be developed andapplied to landuse planning (Moore and Foley 2000).Once an area has been recognised as important habitat forthe Koala, attention should focus on how best to ensure theconservation or enhancement of that habitat. The approachtaken will depend on land tenure and status. In Victoria,most Koala habitat and most Koalas occur on Crown Land.Freehold land has mostly been cleared of native vegetationand, where Koalas persist on freehold, they are often at low8

In addition to protection ofexisting habitat, the Victoriancommunity is putting a greatdeal of effort into revegetationwork throughout the freeholdland estate, through programssuch as Landcare and Bushcare.population densities because the carrying capacity of thehabitat has been reduced.Three categories of land tenure are particularly relevant:1. Parks and reserves – Because the primary aim ofmanagement in parks and reserves is to conserve naturalvalues, one might assume that little work is required toensure the conservation of Koala habitat in this category.However, a major cause of decline in Koala habitat inVictoria is over-browsing by the Koala itself, and mostcases of over-browsing occur on parks and reserves.Further, the management response to over-browsingfrequently involves other land tenures (for example, asrelease sites for translocated animals), necessitating closecoordination between land management agencies.2. Forests available for commercial timber harvesting –In Victoria there is now relatively little overlap betweencommercial timber harvesting and key Koala habitat.Exceptions to this include:• hardwood plantation forestry in the Strzelecki Ranges• native forest harvesting in some forests in centraland western Victoria.Where timber harvesting occurs, the network of SpecialProtection Zones (where harvesting is excluded) and habitatprescriptions, minimise the impact on local Koala populations.3. Freehold land – Protection and enhancement of habitat onfreehold land relies heavily on voluntary cooperation fromlandholders. Mechanisms for promoting the conservationof Koalas and their habitat on freehold land include:• the Land for Wildlife Scheme• Trust for Nature covenants• Biodiversity Networks established under Victoria’sbiodiversity framework• Regional Catchment Strategies and Whole ofCatchment Plans• Catchment Management Authorityvegetation management plans• Local Government Planning Schemes.In Victoria, Biodiversity Action Plans prepared for eachbioregion will provide an integrated framework for achievingbiodiversity outcomes at a landscape scale. These plans arebeing progressively developed by a coalition of theDepartment of Sustainability and Environment, CatchmentManagement Authorities and key regional stakeholders. Theyfocus on the protection, enhancement and linking of remnantvegetation and will benefit Koala conservation in themedium- to long-term.A strategic framework for native vegetation management isprovided in Victoria’s Vegetation Management Framework(Department of Natural Resources and Environment 2002)and in native vegetation plans prepared by CatchmentManagement Authorities. The Native Vegetation RetentionControls, established under the Planning and Environment Act1987, are also an important policy tool for habitat protectionwhen a development or change in land use is proposed onfreehold land.In addition to protection of existing habitat, the Victoriancommunity is putting a great deal of effort into revegetationwork throughout the freehold land estate, through programssuch as Landcare and Bushcare. This often includes the reestablishmentof locally-indigenous eucalypt species and willbe of increasing benefit to Koala populations as theseplantings mature. Revegetation actions should aim to increasethe size of existing forest or woodland patches, increase theconnectivity of remnants through the establishment ofcorridors and stepping stones of habitat, and provide anincrease in tree cover. Only locally-indigenous plants shouldbe used.9

Issue 2. Monitoring PopulationsThere is evidence that Koala populations in some parts ofVictoria are increasing in density and in extent, while in otherplaces populations are declining. In order to be able to mounteffective management responses to these changes, a level ofknowledge of population trends is required. This is particularlycritical for populations with a history of over-browsing, orwhich are thought to be approaching unsustainable levels.Populations can be monitored at a number of scales. Thecrudest level is to monitor population range by a distributionmapping system, in this case the Atlas of Victorian Wildlifeprogram. This scale can indicate medium- to long-termchanges in distribution.More detailed monitoring of local populations needsto include an estimate of population number, as well as localdistribution. Methods of estimating population number thathave been used in Victoria include double-count transects(Caughley and Sinclair 1994) and the Morgan method of linetransectestimation (e.g. Morgan 1999). Both methods haveadvantages and disadvantages and research is underway todetermine the most appropriate method to use in a range ofvegetation types, and to develop correction factors thataccount for variations in detectability between vegetation types.Population monitoring is necessary in the following situations:1. sites where over-browsing is occurringand is being managed2. sites where over-browsing is anticipated to be a problem3. populations of special conservation significance,such as those in South Gippsland.4. populations with anecdotal evidence of a decline.Issue 3. Managing Over-BrowsingIn some circumstances in southern Australia, Koala populationsgrow to unsustainable densities resulting in defoliation of theirfavoured food trees. This phenomenon is referred to as overbrowsing.In severe cases, over-browsing leads to widespreadtree death, alterations to the tree species composition of theforest (through the killing of favoured food species) and, inextreme cases, starvation of Koalas. Over-browsing of MannaGum in coastal Victoria has reached a level whereby it isconsidered to be a threat to the conservation of two EcologicalVegetation Classes – Damp Sand Herb-rich Woodland andStony Rises Woodland.Koala over-browsing was first recorded on Wilsons Promontoryin 1907 (Kershaw 1934), in an environment little changed byEuropeans except for one critical factor – the decline of localAboriginal populations. Aboriginal hunting may have helped toconstrain Koala population growth (Strahan and Martin 1982)and, in its absence, over-browsing and subsequent populationcrashes may be a regular feature of Koala populationdemographics in favoured habitat in southern Australia.A stand of Manna Gums along the Hopkins River atFramlingham that was killed by Koala over-browsing duringthe late 1990s.An alternative hypothesis is that over-browsing is aconsequence of ecological stresses placed on eucalypts byfragmentation of forests and woodlands, and ecologicalchanges such as altered fire regimes, nutrient cycles andhydrological patterns. Eucalypts may respond to such‘stresses’ by producing foliage with higher nitrogen andsugar content which makes them even more palatable toherbivores (Jurskis and Turner 2002). It is likely that researchinto the ultimate causes of over-browsing will be requiredbefore a viable solution to the problem can be achieved.Since 1923, the Victorian Government has activelymanaged over-browsing problems by a program oftranslocating Koalas out of high-density sites (Figure 1).Initial translocations were onto islands because they wereconsidered safe havens. Later, the Government began anextensive program of re-introduction to mainland habitatleft unoccupied following the dramatic population crashthat occurred in Victoria in the early 1900s. This reintroductionprogram has continued and translocationshave taken place in 67 of the 80 years since 1923.However, since the mid-1980s the purpose of thetranslocations has shifted from re-introduction to habitatprotection at the over-browsed sites (Menkhorst 1995,Martin and Handasyde 1999).Sites at which serious over-browsing occurs invariably havea few easily recognisable characteristics:• most are islands, the others are habitat isolates on themainland• all are dominated by Manna Gum; usually the coastalforms Eucalyptus viminalis subsp. pryoriana orEucalyptus viminalis subsp. cygnatensis.• all have only one, or occasionally two, preferredeucalypt species present (see Appendix 1).10

Koalas ready for release at a re-introduction site, 1950s.Bringing a Koala to ground.In some extensive mixed-species forests, over-browsing ofindividual trees can occur, particularly along drainage lineswhere high-quality browse is more likely to be found.In these situations over-browsing has not led to widespreaddefoliation or to a major loss of tree cover. However, overtime, it may result in a change to the eucalypt speciescomposition in valleys.Signs that over-browsing is occurring include reduced canopydensity, often with tufts of leaves remaining on twigs beyondthe reach of Koalas. This characteristic tufted appearance is animportant clue that the defoliation is due to Koalas rather thaninsect attack or loss of tree vigour due to other causes.Figure 1. The distribution of sightings of Koalas in Victoriasince 1970, the distribution of Koala release sites, and thelocations of populations that have been a source of Koalasfor translocation. Data from Atlas of Victorian Wildlife, 2004.Koala sightings since 1st January 1970Koala release sitesKoala source populations11

12In the development of a suitable response to over-browsing,five options have been considered. These, and their likelyconsequences, can be summarised as:1. Do nothing – leads to ecological damageand Koala starvation.2. Translocate – has been highly successful but limitedunoccupied habitat remains, risk of creating newover-browsing problems.3. Introduce disease (Chlamydophila) – no control overimpacts, little predictive ability, ethical questions.4. Cull – is a contentious issue within the Australiancommunity, was not supported in the National KoalaConservation Strategy (ANZECC 1998).5. Reduce birth rate – acceptable to the community,but may not be practicable over large areas.Culling has not been supported as a method of populationcontrol in Victoria. Instead, research into potential methods ofbirth control, such as slow-release hormone implants andimmuno-contraception, has been supported in an attempt to finda means of population control that is acceptable to the Victorian,Australian and world communities (e.g. Middleton, et al. 2003).A sedated Koala is prepared for sterilisation in the field.The following key points need to be considered whendeveloping a strategy to control Koala over-browsing at agiven site:1. Early detection of high Koala population levels and signs ofcanopy depletion is essential for successful management.Local knowledge is required to ensure that other potentialcauses of dieback have been discounted as the cause ofcanopy depletion.2. Where canopy depletion is apparent in 50% or more oftrees of favoured Koala browse species (Appendix 1), acontrol strategy, including an ecological rationale, shouldbe prepared by the land manager. The control strategyshould consider the following points:• An estimate is needed of the maximum sustainablepopulation density, or the desired population level forthe site.• The need to rapidly reduce the population to belowthe estimated maximum sustainable level. This can beachieved by either translocation or fertility control, ora combination of both, depending on the alternativesavailable in each case.• Survival rates of translocated Koalas are likely to bestrongly influenced by habitat quality at the releasesite and the density of resident Koala populations.• Currently, the most promising method of fertilitycontrol is to use slow-release implants of a progestinhormone, such as levonorgestrel, or low-doseoestradiol, in female Koalas.• Surgical sterilisation involves tubal transection andcautery of females and/or vasectomisation of males.The efficacy of male fertility control is unclear pendinga better understanding of paternity patterns in Koalapopulations. However, vasectomy of males is lessinvasive and less costly than tubal transection offemales.• Surgical sterilisation is an irreversible method offertility control. Therefore, careful and informedmodelling of the population should be used todetermine the proportion of animals that need to betreated to achieve the desired result.• Because of possible cumulative effects, it isimportant that animals are not subjected to surgicalsterilisation and long-distance translocation in quicksuccession. An alternative strategy is to surgicallysterilise animals and release them at the point ofcapture, with the option of recapture andtranslocation at a later date. This strategy will notproduce a rapid decline in population number, butmay, over time, produce a decline, depending onthe proportion of animals treated.3. If capture, translocation or fertility control is to be part ofthe management response, an authorisation under theWildlife Act 1975, issued by the Department ofSustainability and Environment, will be required.4. An essential tool for informing the development of controlstrategies will be a Koala population model (see Issue 6).5. When undertaking translocations, the decision on whetheror not to include fertility control will depend partly on theavailability of release sites of adequate size, habitat qualityand connectivity to accommodate an expandingpopulation. Sterilisation or contraception of animals to betranslocated gives greater flexibility in selection of releasesites by allowing release into smaller habitat patches, andgreater confidence that future over-browsing problems willnot be set in train.

6. All translocation programs should include an on-goingprogram of fertility control in the population remaining atthe over-browsed site.7. Detailed protocols for capture, translocation and release ofKoalas are provided in Appendix 2.8. If over-browsing threatens to kill stands of trees, theprotection of individual trees to maintain genetic diversityby providing sources of local seed, may be a priority. Forisolated trees this can be achieved by banding the trunk ormain branches with a one metre high ring of sheet tin.Issue 4.Managing Genetic StructureVictorian Koalas have a most unusual genetic history. Koalapopulations in Victoria declined drastically during the early1900s. By the 1930s, the Koala on the Victorian mainland wasthought to be confined to a few remnant populations in SouthGippsland and the Mornington Peninsula (Lewis 1954).Fortunately, local people had introduced a few Koalas toFrench Island and Phillip Island in Western Port during the1890s and early 1900s. The descendants of these animals havesince been used to restock unoccupied habitat across Victoriain one of the largest and most successful wildlife reintroductionprograms ever undertaken.Unfortunately, the stock used to found the French Islandpopulation in about 1898 probably comprised only a fewanimals, thereby creating a severe genetic bottleneck. Thefounders for the Phillip Island population were more numerousand from a greater geographical range, but never-the-less alsorepresent a significant genetic bottleneck. An unforeseenconsequence of using these populations to restock theVictorian mainland is likely to have been the genetic swampingof any remnant populations by the restricted and in-bredisland gene pool. Thus, the level of genetic variation inVictorian Koala populations is significantly lower than thatfound across comparable areas in NSW and Qld (Houlden,et al. 1996, 1999). It is also lower than in several species ofendangered marsupial including the Bilby, Bridled NailtailWallaby and Queensland populations of Yellow-footed RockWallaby, but is higher than in the two species of hairy-nosedwombat (Bower, et al. 2002). Therefore, there is a higherthreat of inbreeding depression in Victorian Koala populationsthan in Koala populations further north.Although genetic theory predicts that populations with lowgenetic variation will have lower survival prospects, there iscurrently no evidence that the population growth potential ofVictorian Koalas is being constrained by their genetic history.On the contrary, many populations derived from island stockare flourishing. However, given the finding that a higher thannormal proportion of male Koalas on French Island exhibittesticular aplasia (Seymour, et al. 2001), it would be prudentto be alert to signs of inbreeding depression in VictorianKoalas (Sherwin, et al. 2000).Only in South Gippsland does it appear that some remnants ofthe original gene pool survive, thanks to a strong remnantpopulation and few releases of island stock. However, currentinformation on the geographic spread of Koalas with thishigher genetic variation is poor. Further, very little Koalahabitat in South Gippsland is reserved for conservationpurposes. Most is highly fragmented, and some is threatenedby unsympathetic land uses. Therefore, if significant remnantgenetic resources persist in South Gippsland it is imperative toensure that habitat is protected as far as possible (Objective 2).It may also be prudent to spread the risk to the remnant SouthGippsland population by establishing new populations, usingfounders from South Gippsland, in areas isolated from theeffects of the re-introduction program. The WonnangattaValley has been suggested as one such locality (Martin 1989).Releasing Koalas from French Island onto Kangaroo Island,South Australia, 1925.13

Issue 5. Investigating theRole of Chlamydophila inPopulation ProcessesDiseases associated with the micro-organism Chlamydophilacan have a significant impact on individual Koalas and onpopulation growth rates. In Victoria, overt clinical symptomsare rarely seen, the main effect being chronic infertility. Ingeneral, populations which are free of Chlamydophila havefertility rates of 70-95% and have the potential to double insize every few years, whereas populations infected withChlamydophila have fertility rates from close to zero up to80% and usually have considerably slower growth rates(Martin 1989). In some cases, for example on Phillip Island andin The Grampians, widespread infertility caused byChlamydophila is believed to have been a major cause ofpopulation decline. Current knowledge about the strains ofChlamydophila in Victoria, their distribution, and impacts onpopulation demography is rudimentary.There is currently no means of managing this disease in wildKoala populations so its relevance to this strategy relatesmainly to the aim of avoiding rapid exposure of naive animalsto Chlamydophila as a consequence of translocation.Issue 6. Understanding PopulationDemographicsTo apply fertility control techniques at the population level it isnecessary to be able to predict population trends under variouslevels of fertility control, so that the most effective programcan be devised and implemented. This is best achievedthrough construction of a computer model that simulatesKoala population fluctuations under a range of recruitmentand mortality levels. Basic data on age structure, age-specificfecundity, and age-specific mortality was obtained from largesamples of Koalas captured during recent translocationprograms. These data have allowed the construction of acustom-built Koala population model, for both Chlamydophilafreeand Chlamydophila-affected populations (McLean 2003).Issue 7. Managing Interactionswith PeopleKoalas frequently come into contact with human society,usually to the detriment of the Koalas. Koala populationsoccur on the urban fringes of Melbourne, Ballarat and severalsmaller towns. In such situations they can be harassed by dogsand threatened by road traffic. Numerous Koalas utilise habitatclose to major highways and deaths from being struck byvehicles are common. Livestock, particularly cattle, are alsoknown to harass and even kill Koalas that are attempting tocross paddocks. While not necessarily threatening the viabilityof populations, all of these situations cause concern tomembers of the public and create demands on the time ofagency staff, Local Government rangers and voluntary wildlifecarers. A program of community education would help tominimise the frequency of such problems and help to ensurean appropriate response when situations arise.Wildlife veterinarians from Melbourne Zoo checking Koalahealth on Raymond Island, 2004.In recent years improvements in the design and constructionof major roads have resulted in reductions in the frequency ofroad trauma to Koalas at key sites. Improvements includeKoala-proof fencing and underpasses beneath major roads.A good example of Koala sensitive design is the Woodendbypass on the Calder Freeway. In areas with high levels ofKoala road mortality, such design features should beincorporated into all major road works.Issue 8. Managing Captive KoalasKoalas may be kept in captivity only by holders of aCommercial Wildlife Licence (Wildlife Demonstrator or WildlifeDisplayer) under the Wildlife Regulations 2002. A condition ofa Commercial Wildlife Licence is that the Secretary,Department of Sustainability and Environment approve thedesign and construction of the display facilities. Further, thelicensee must conform to the Code of Practice for the PublicDisplay and Exhibition of Animals 1994, produced underthe Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1986. Koalas fordisplay must be obtained from existing captive stocks. Permitsto take Koalas from the wild will not normally be issued by theDepartment of Sustainability and Environment.Husbandry standards for the management of captive Koalasare provided by Jackson (2003). These should be promoted asthe benchmark for captive husbandry standards.A major difficulty in maintaining captive Koalas is the provisionof adequate fresh eucalypt foliage. In the past some displayershave harvested foliage from remnant eucalypt forest close totheir facility. This can lead to unacceptable pruning ofsignificant vegetation remnants.14

Issue 9. Managing Sick andInjured KoalasPartly because of the iconic status of the Koala, there isfrequently a good deal of concern shown by members of thepublic when an injured Koala is found. However, becauseKoalas are powerful animals and have sharp claws, theirhandling by untrained people can lead to serious injury. As forall wildlife, the care and rehabilitation of sick and injuredKoalas is undertaken by skilled volunteer wildlife carers, or bystaff of Healesville Sanctuary and Melbourne Zoo. There is aneed for public education about whom to contact when adebilitated Koala is found.Issue 10. Involving the CommunityThe enormous public interest and goodwill towards the Koalaprovides an excellent opportunity to involve the community inpractical wildlife conservation actions. Community involvementin the implementation of this strategy is perhaps the best wayto promote realistic and sensible attitudes towards Koalamanagement in Victoria. It would also help to ensure that thisstrategy is fully implemented.Some areas of important Koala habitat have culturalsignificance for local Aboriginal people. In such cases liaisonwith local Aboriginal organisations with a view to developingcollaborative management arrangements can have manysynergies and will be encouraged.Issue 11. Implementing theStrategyOn freehold land the primary avenue for achievingimplementation of this strategy will be through the BioregionalBiodiversity Action Plans being produced by the Department ofSustainability and Environment and Catchment ManagementAuthorities. On Crown Land responsibility lies with the landmanagement agency, with DSE providing direction on crosstenureissues.For issues relating to research and monitoring, and the controlof over-browsing, DSE and Parks Victoria have established anindependent scientific advisory body, the Koala TechnicalAdvisory Committee, to provide scientific advice and reviewproposals.15

The StrategyAIM: The aim of this strategy is to ensure thatviable wild populations of the Koala persistwherever suitable habitat occurs throughouttheir natural (i.e. pre-European settlement)range in Victoria.Objectives and ActionsThe time frames nominated for each objective are indicativeonly. Short-term objectives should be addressed within threeyears of the release of this strategy, medium-term objectiveswithin five years and long-term within ten years.Issue 1. Defining, ranking andconserving habitatObjective 1To conserve the Koala and its habitat through jointcollaborative management of Koala habitat and populationsacross land tenures.Lead Agent: DSE Biodiversity and Natural Resources Division, inpartnership with Parks Victoria, DSE Parks and Forests Division,Catchment Management Authorities, and Local Government.Timeframe: short-termAction 1:• Officers of State and Local Government agencies willensure that the habitat needs of the Koala are addressedthrough the application of all relevant vegetationprotection and vegetation management policies.Priority: highAction 2:• Ensure that Koala management is adequately consideredduring the development of Biodiversity Action Plans, ParkManagement Plans, Forest Management Area Plans, andduring reviews of the Codes of Forest ManagementPractices for both Crown land and freehold land. Peoplewriting or revising such plans must be aware of thehabitat requirements of the Koala in their local area, andmust ensure that these are accounted for in the plans.Improving linkages between remnant forest andwoodland patches is particularly important for the Koala.Priority: highObjective 2To develop a clear understanding of the distribution of theKoala and its habitat across Victoria and across all landtenures.Lead Agent: DSE Biodiversity and Natural Resources Division.Timeframe: short-termAction 3:• Establish a system for reporting and curating observationsof Koalas feeding, including accurate identification oftree species, to gain a more complete understanding ofKoala food tree preferences.Priority: mediumAction 4:• Encourage all staff of DSE, Parks Victoria and the generalpublic to report sightings of Koalas to the Atlas ofVictorian Wildlife.Priority: mediumObjective 3To develop detailed maps of the distribution and quality ofKoala habitat in appropriate Local Government Areas andincorporate these maps into overlays of environmentalsignificance on shire planning schemes.Lead Agent: Local Government in partnership with AustralianKoala Foundation and DSE.Timeframe: medium-termAction 5:• Local Government, in partnership with the AustralianKoala Foundation, should undertake Koala Habitat Atlasmapping in key Local Government Areas. Priorities forLocal Government Areas to be assessed should be basedon degree of pressure for development in areas occupiedby Koalas.Priority: highAction 6:• Once Koala habitat mapping is completed the LocalGovernment should transfer the information toEnvironmental Significance Overlays that define, rankand map Koala habitat.Priority: high16

To manage Koala populationsizes in habitat isolates so thatover-browsing damage toeucalypt communities is kept toacceptable, sustainable levels andover-browsed vegetation is ableto recover.Issue 2. Monitoring populationsObjective 4To develop estimates of population sizes in key areas, and ofthe trend in population numbers at those sites.Lead Agent: DSE Biodiversity and Natural Resources Division(State Forest and freehold land) and Parks Victoria(conservation reserves).Timeframe: short- to medium-termAction 7:• Conduct comparisons of a variety of Koala censustechniques in a range of forest types to compare theiraccuracy and cost.Priority: highAction 8:• Develop a standardised technique (or techniquesappropriate to broad habitat types) to estimate Koalapopulation numbers that can be implemented by trainedagency staff or volunteers, and use this technique tomonitor Koala numbers at sites where activemanagement is occurring or desirable, and also where apopulation decline is postulated.Priority: highIssue 3. Managing over-browsingObjective 5To manage Koala population sizes in habitat isolates so thatover-browsing damage to eucalypt communities is kept toacceptable, sustainable levels and over-browsed vegetation isable to recover.Lead Agent: DSE Flora and Fauna Program in partnership withParks Victoria and other affected land managers.Timeframe: short- to medium-termAction 9:• Ensure that ecological rationales are included in themanagement strategy for each site where Koalapopulation management is proposed.Priority: highAction 10:• Arrange the purchase or manufacture of slow-releaseimplants containing the progestin hormonelevonorgestrel, or oestradiol, to be applied at suitablesites where Koala populations are unsustainably high.Priority: highAction 11:• Continue to investigate the efficacy of a range of othermethods of fertility control in the Koala.Priority: highAction 12:• Develop veterinary standards against which to assess thecapacity of individual Koalas to withstand the rigours oftranslocation or fertility control.Priority: highAction 13:• Investigate the cost-effectiveness and efficacy of the useof tranquillising drugs delivered by darts as an alternativeto the traditional noose and flag method for capturinglarge numbers of Koalas (e.g. Lynch and Martin 2003).Priority: mediumAction 14:• Initiate field trials of techniques for remote delivery ofhormone implants or other fertility control agents viaa dart gun. This delivery method would be a majoradvance towards cost-effective fertility control ona wide scale.Priority: highAction 15:• Develop a method for scoring tree condition that willallow efficient assessment of over-browsing impacts, andchanges in condition over time.Priority: high17

Objective 6To understand the underlying causes for over-browsing andreasons for it arising at some sites and not at others.Lead Agency: DSE Biodiversity and Natural Resources Divisionin conjunction with an appropriate ecological researchinstitute.Time frame: medium to long-termAction 16:• Facilitate research into ecological and tree physiologicalfactors that are associated with Koala over-browsing.Priority: mediumIssue 4. Managinggenetic structureObjective 7To conserve the remnant genotype in South Gippsland Koalas,and to ensure that the low level of genetic variation in Koalaselsewhere in Victoria does not adversely affect the capacity ofthe species to survive and flourish in this state.Lead Agent: DSE Biodiversity and Natural Resources Division inconjunction with an appropriate genetics research laboratory.Timeframe: medium- to long-termAction 17:• Initiate a detailed survey of genetic diversity, usingmicrosatellite and mitochondrial DNA markers, acrossSouth Gippsland, from Western Port to Sale and from thePrincess Highway to Refuge Cove, Wilsons Promontory.Priority: highAction 18:• Facilitate research into the relationship betweenthe low genetic diversity of Victorian Koalas andpopulation fitness.Priority: mediumAction 19:• If surveys of genetic diversity in South Gippsland indicatethat the remnant genotype is geographically restrictedwithin that area, investigate the practicality and value ofartificially disseminating the diverse genotype(s) morewidely through the Victorian population.Priority: mediumAction 20:• Depending on the outcome of Actions 16 and 18,investigate the suitability of the Wonnangatta Valley asKoala habitat. If it is deemed suitable, use Koalas fromSouth Gippsland to establish a population there bytranslocation. Obtain advice from Koala geneticists on anappropriate number of founder animals, having regardfor possible impacts on the source populations.Priority: mediumAction 21:• Facilitate the collection and analysis of DNA samples fromother areas of Victoria where remnant genes may persist.Such areas include East Gippsland, Stony Rises [roughlybetween Colac and Cobden] and Strathbogie Plateau.Priority: mediumIssue 5. Investigating the role ofChlamydophila in populationprocessesObjective 8To gain an improved understanding of the prevalence, strainsand impacts of Chlamydophila acting on Victorian Koalapopulations.Lead Agent: DSE Biodiversity and Natural Resources Division inpartnership with veterinary research institutes.Timeframe: medium- to long-termAction 22:• Initiate a survey of the Chlamydophila status of Koalapopulations throughout Victoria. The aims are to identifypopulations which are antibody positive, and those whichare antibody negative to Chlamydophila, to identify thespecies and strains of Chlamydophila present, to recordthe prevalence of clinical signs of the disease, and toidentify populations of Koalas in which Chlamydophilaappears to be a significant factor affecting populationdemographics.Priority: mediumAction 23:• Use the results of Action 22 to reassess the relationshipbetween Chlamydophila status and populationmanagement needs, including selection of release sitesfor translocated Koalas.Priority: medium18

Issue 6: Understandingpopulation demographicsObjective 9To develop the capacity to accurately predict the demographicresponse of Koala populations to a range of managementactions and stochastic events.Lead Agent: DSE Biodiversity and Natural ResourcesDivision in partnership with Parks Victoria and theUniversity of Melbourne.Timeframe: short-termAction 24:• Facilitate the preparation of a species-specificdemographic model for the Koala using demographicdata collected from the Snake Island, Framlingham andMt Eccles populations during 1997-2001. Use the modelto predict the levels of translocation or fertility controlnecessary to achieve management aims at sites whereover-browsing is a concern.Priority: high.Issue 7: Managing interactionswith peopleObjective 10To improve understanding within the community of how tolive with local Koalas in a benign manner.Lead Agent: DSE Flora and Fauna Program and Bureau ofAnimal Welfare in partnership with Catchment ManagementAuthorities and Local Government.Timeframe: short-termAction 25:• Initiate a widespread community education programstressing requirements for living with Koalas in suburbanenvironments, rehabilitating habitat for Koalas in ruralareas, and the need for responsible dog ownership.Priority: mediumIssue 8: Managing captive KoalasObjective 11To have all existing Koala displayers achieve self-sufficiency in theprovision of eucalypt browse for their Koalas within eight yearsof adoption of this strategy, and to ensure that new licences todisplay Koalas are not issued unless the applicant candemonstrate self-sufficiency in the provision of Koala browse.Lead Agent: DSE Biodiversity and Natural Resources Division.Timeframe: medium-termAction 27:• Implement a licence requirement that the licenseeestablish plantations of appropriate eucalypt species(Appendix 1), so that eucalypt foliage is obtained solelyfrom plantations grown specifically for that purpose.Priority: lowIssue 9: Managing sick andinjured KoalasObjective 12To ensure that sick or injured Koalas receive appropriate careand attention by properly qualified carers.Lead Agent: DSE Biodiversity and Natural Resources Divisionand Bureau of Animal Welfare in partnership with AnimalWelfare Advisory Committee.Timeframe: short-termAction 28:• Ensure that staff of Local Government and StateGovernment agencies are fully appraised of theavailability of experienced wildlife veterinarians orwildlife carers who are trained in the handling andcare of Koalas.Priority: highAction 26:• Liaise with VicRoads to encourage Koala-friendly roaddesign in key Koala habitat.Priority: medium19

Issue 10: Involving the communityObjective 13To involve the community in implementation of this strategywherever practicable.Lead Agent: DSE in partnership with Local Government,Catchment Management Authorities and Parks Victoria.Timeframe: short-termAction 29:• Encourage agency staff and members of the public toreport sightings of Koalas, including road-killed animals,to the Atlas of Victorian Wildlife database.Priority: mediumAction 30:• Encourage members of the public to report signs ofimpending over-browsing damage to local DSE or ParksVictoria staff.Priority: highAction 31:• Encourage community-based population monitoring inkey areas such as suburban or township land, and inparks and reserves where a friends group is active. Areaswhere population declines are thought to be occurringshould also be targeted. Provide guidelines on the mostappropriate methods for population monitoring.Priority: highAction 32:• Develop partnerships with Aboriginal organisations tofoster Aboriginal participation in the management ofKoalas and their habitat in areas of cultural significancefor Aboriginal people.Priority: mediumIssue 11: Implementingthe strategyObjective 14To achieve coordinated and smooth implementation ofthis strategy.Lead Agent: DSE in partnership with Parks Victoria.Timeframe: short-termAction 33:• When interventionist actions such as translocation orfertility control are proposed, detailed strategic plans willbe prepared by the land management agency andsubmitted to DSE as part of the application for a permitto undertake the work, as required under the WildlifeAct 1975. These plans will need to give adequateattention to cross-tenure issues and collaborationbetween the relevant land managers.Priority: high.Objective 15To provide the best available advice on technical issues relatedto implementation of this strategy.Lead Agent: DSE in partnership with Parks Victoria.Timeframe: short-termAction 34:• A Koala Technical Advisory Committee, jointly convenedby Parks Victoria and DSE, has been established toprovide independent scientific advice about all aspects ofKoala management, and to provide scientific scrutiny ofKoala research and monitoring initiated under thisstrategy.Priority: highObjective 16To review all aspects of this strategy and its implementationafter five years. Lead agency: DSE.Action 35:• Conduct a thorough review of the strategy and progresstowards its implementation five years after its adoptionby the Victorian Government, ie. in 2009.Priority: medium20

ReferencesANZECC. 1998. National Koala Conservation Strategy.Environment Australia, Canberra, ACT.Black, K. 1999. Diversity and relationships of living and extinctKoalas (Phascolarctidae, Marsupialia). AustralianMammalogy 21: 16-17.Bower, J. C., Newell, G. R. and Eldridge, M. D. B. 2002.Genetic effects of habitat contraction on Lumholtz’s treekangaroo(Dendrolagus lumholtzi) in the Australian WetTropics. Conservation Genetics 3: 61-69.Caughley, G. and Sinclair, A. 1994. Wildlife Ecology andManagement. Blackwell Science. Cambridge,Massachusetts.Centre for Environmental Management. 2001. PreliminaryKoala Habitat Capability Assessment of Crown Land inVictoria. Unpublished report to Department of NaturalResources and Environment. University of Ballarat, Ballarat,Victoria.Cork, S. J., Clark, T. W. Mazur, N. 2000. Introduction: aninterdisciplinary effort for Koala conservation. ConservationBiology 14: 606-609.Department of Natural Resources and Environment 2002.Victoria’s Native Vegetation Management: A Frameworkfor Action. Department of Natural Resources andEnvironment, Melbourne.Houlden, B. A., England, P. R., Taylor, A. C., Greville, W. D. andSherwin, W. B. 1996. Low genetic variability of the koalaPhascolarctos cinereus in south-eastern Australia followinga severe population bottleneck. Molecular Ecology5:269-281.Houlden, B. A., Costello, B. H., Sharkey, D., Fowler, E., Melzer,A., Ellis, W., Carrick, F., Baverstock, P. and Elphinstone, M.S. 1999. Phylogenetic differentiation in the mitochondrialcontrol region in the koala, Phascolarctos cinereus(Goldfuss 1817). Molecular Ecology 8: 999-1011.Hume, I. D. 1990. Biological basis for vulnerability of Koalas tohabitat fragmentation. Pp 32-35 in Koala Summit:Managing Koalas in New South Wales. Proceedings of theKoala summit held at the University of Sydney, 7-8November 1988. Ed by D. Lunney, C. A. Urquhart and P.Reed. New South Wales National Parks and WildlifeService, Sydney.Hundloe, T. and Hamilton, C. 1997. Koalas and Tourism: anEconomic Evaluation. Discussion paper 13. The AustraliaInstitute, Canberra.Jackson, S. (ed). 2003. Australian Mammals: Biology andCaptive Management. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.Jurskis, V. and Turner, J. 2002. Eucalypt dieback in easternAustralia: a simple model. Australian Forestry 65: 87-98.Kershaw, J. A. 1934. The Koala on Wilsons Promontory.The Victorian Naturalist 51: 76-77.Lee, A. K., Martin, R. W. and Handasyde, K. A. 1991.Experimental translocation of koalas to new habitat. Pp.299-312 in Biology of the Koala. Ed. by A. K. Lee, K. A.Handasyde and G. D. Sanson. Surrey Beatty & Sons,Chipping Norton, NSW.Lewis, F. 1954. The rehabilitation of the Koala in Victoria.The Victorian Naturalist 70: 197-200.Lynch, M. and Martin, R. 2003. Capture of koalas(Phascolarctos cinereus) by remote injection of tiletaminezolazapam(Zoletil) and metadomidine. Wildlife Research30: 255-258.Martin, R. W. 1989. Draft management plan for theconservation of the Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) inVictoria. Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental ResearchTechnical Report Series Number 99, Department ofConservation, Forests and Lands, Melbourne.Martin, R. and Handasyde, K. 1999. The Koala: NaturalHistory, Conservation and Management. University ofNew South Wales Press, Sydney.21

Maxwell, S., Burbidge, A. A. and Morris, K. (eds) 1996.The 1996 Action Plan for Australian Marsupials andMonotremes. Wildlife Australia, Canberra.McLean, N. 2003. Ecology and management of overabundantKoala (Phascolarctos cinereus) populations. PhD thesis,University of Melbourne.Melzer, A., Carrick, F., Menkhorst, P., Lunney, D. and St John,B. 2000. Overview, critical assessment, and conservationimplications of Koala distribution and abundance.Conservation Biology 14: 619-628.Menkhorst, P. W. (ed.) 1995. Mammals of Victoria:Distribution, Ecology and Conservation. Oxford UniversityPress, Melbourne.Middleton, D. R., Walters, B., Menkhorst, P. and Wright, P.2003. Fertility control in the koala, Phascolarctos cinereus:The impact of slow release implants containinglevonorgestrel or oestrogen on the production of pouchyoung. Wildlife Research 30: 207-212.Mitchell, P. 1991. Social behaviour and communication ofkoalas. Pp. 243-248 in Biology of the Koala. Ed. by A. K.Lee, K. A. Handasyde and G. D. Sanson. Surrey Beatty andSons, Chipping Norton, NSW.Santamaria, F. 2002. Outcomes and implications of a Koalatranslocation in the Ballarat region. PhD thesis, Universityof Ballarat, Ballarat, Victoria.Seymour, A. M., Montgomery, M. E., Costello, B. H., Ihle, S.,Johnsson, G., St John, B., Taggart, D. and Houlden, B. A.2001. High effective inbreeding coefficients correlate withmorphological abnormalities in populations of SouthAustralian koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus). AnimalConservation 4:211-219.Sherwin, W. B., Timms, P., Wilcken, J. and Houlden, B. 2000.Analysis and conservation implications of Koala genetics.Conservation Biology 14: 639-649.Strahan, R. and Martin, R. W. 1982. The Koala: little fact,much emotion. Pp. 147-155 in Species at Risk: Research inAustralia. Ed by R. H. Groves and W. D. L. Ride. AustralianAcademy of Science, Canberra, ACT.Walsh, N. G. and Entwisle, T. J. (eds). 1996. Flora of VictoriaVolume 3, Dicotyledons, Winteraceae to Myrtaceae. InkataPress, Melbourne.Moore, B. D. and Foley, W. J. 2000. A review of feeding anddiet selection in Koalas. Australian Journal of Zoology48: 317-333.Morgan, D. G. 1999. Snake Island Koala population,September 1999. Unpublished report to Parks Victoria.Department of Zoology, the University of Melbourne,September 1999.Parks Victoria 2003. Post-release monitoring of surgicallysterilised and relocated Koalas, Mt Eccles National Park,Victoria. Unpublished report, Parks Victoria, Melbourne.Phillips, S., Callaghan, J. and Thompson, V. 2000. The treespecies preferences of koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus)inhabiting forest and woodland communities onQuaternary deposits in the Port Stephens area, New SouthWales. Wildlife Research 27:1-10.22

AppendicesAPPENDIX 1.TREE SPECIES KNOWN TOBE EATEN BY WILD KOALASIN VICTORIA(excluding cultivated plants). Taxonomy and nomenclaturefollow Walsh and Entwisle (1996); it is assumed that allsubspecies and variants of a species are eaten.* - Preferred forage species in Victoria.Scientific NameEucalyptus baxteriEucalyptus bosistoanaEucalyptus botryoidesEucalyptus bridgesianaEucalyptus camaldulensis *Eucalyptus camphoraEucalyptus cephalocarpaEucalyptus cypellocarpaEucalyptus divesEucalyptus globulus *Eucalyptus goniocalyxEucalyptus largiflorensEucalyptus leucoxylonEucalyptus macrorhynchaEucalyptus melliodoraEucalyptus microcarpaEucalyptus muellerianaEucalyptus obliquaEucalyptus ovata *Eucalyptus paucifloraEucalyptus polyanthemosEucalyptus radiataEucalyptus regnansEucalyptus rubidaEucalyptus tereticornisEucalyptus viminalis *Common NameBrown StringybarkCoast Grey-boxSouthern MahoganyBut ButRiver Red-gumMountain Swamp-gumMealy StringybarkMountain Grey-gumBroad-leaved PeppermintSouthern Blue-gumBundyBlack BoxYellow GumRed StringybarkYellow BoxGrey BoxYellow StringybarkMessmate StringybarkSwamp GumSnow GumRed BoxNarrow-leaved PeppermintMountain AshCandlebarkGippsland Red-gumManna GumAPPENDIX 2.PROTOCOLS FOR CAPTURE, HANDLINGAND TRANSLOCATION OF KOALASWith the success of the Koala translocation program over thepast 80 years, the re-introduction phase of Koala managementis complete. Translocation of Koalas is now undertaken only toreduce over-browsing damage to trees at a few sites wherepopulation densities have reached unsustainable levels, andwhen fertility control is not feasible or would be an inadequateresponse on its own. The decision to translocate should bebased upon a combination of the feasibility of fertility control,the known history of defoliation at the site, the current extentand severity of defoliation, and information on the trend inKoala numbers at the site.Because translocation is logistically complex, and involvesteams of people whose composition is often not static overtime, detailed protocols for the different component taskswere considered desirable. The following text attempts toencapsulate the important factors to be considered whenorganising a translocation, and describes the recommendedmethods.Timing of translocationsIdeally, translocations should take place when the number ofback young and pouch young in a population is minimal. Theweather during capture and transport should also be mild anddry. In southern Victoria, October – November is the optimaltime as there is evidence that Koalas are in their best conditionduring spring, most young from the previous season arenearing independence, and few females have given birth inthe current breeding season. Further, the risk of a suddenchange to cool, wet weather is low. The weather can also besuitable during early autumn (March – April), but with agreater chance of a cold change. At this time many femaleswill have pouch young and there is a risk that stress to themother will result in the death of small pouch young.Koalas should not be handled when they are wet because iftheir fur becomes wet through they may become chilledduring transportation.Captures should not be attempted when ambienttemperatures are above 30° C because of the risk ofheat stress.23

Determination of numbers to be translocatedTranslocation programs should aim to reduce populationdensities to below one koala per hectare. However, thenumber removed will be dependent on the resources available,the ease of capture, and availability of adequate release sites.Translocation programs should be combined with fertilitycontrol in the source population to maintain the populationdensity below one koala/ha, or as advised by the KoalaTechnical Advisory Committee. In small isolated habitatpatches, such as islands, consideration should be given to thecomplete removal of Koalas; otherwise a commitment must bemade to long-term, and expensive, population management.Selection of individuals to translocateExperience over the past 80 years has shown that Koalas ofmost age classes and both sexes can be translocated withoutproblems. Therefore, the only individuals that should not betargeted are obviously aged or sick animals. There is extensiveexperience to show that both pouch young and back youngsurvive translocation well, providing animals are not undulystressed and the young are not separated from their motherat any stage.Koalas have a solitary social structure (Mitchell 1991, Martinand Handasyde 1999) and there is no evidence thatmaintenance of social groupings, apart frommother/dependent young pairs, is necessary duringtranslocation programs. Groups released at a given site shouldcomprise roughly equal numbers of each sex (the natural sexratio is 1 : 1.2 ).Capture protocolsSafe handling of Koalas requires experience and strength andshould not be attempted by inexperienced persons. At leastone member of each catching team should be an experiencedKoala catcher and the other members should have receivedhands-on training in Koala capture techniques.The current recommended technique is the noose and flagtechnique. However, advances in darting technology, and theuse of tranquillising drugs, may provide a less stressfulalternative in the near future. The noose and flag techniqueinvolves two long, extendable poles of aluminium or fibreglass.One pole carries a rope noose with a knot or pin to set aminimum diameter for the noose. The trailing end of the ropepasses back along the pole to the operator. This pole is usedto place the noose over the head and, preferably, one shoulderof the Koala, after which the pole is removed. The other polehas a coloured flag on the end. The flag is positioned abovethe Koala’s head, causing the animal to back down the treeaway from the flag. When the Koala is within reach of thesecond pole the noose can be positioned while the flagdistracts the Koala. The animal can then be coaxed to lowerlevels in the tree by flagging and appropriate tension on therope. The rope can be used to discourage the Koala fromascending the tree. Lowering the Koala by the rope around itsneck should be avoided, but there is no evidence that it isharmful to the animal.Capture is more efficient and less stressful if a trained treeclimber is used to noose the animal with minimal use of flags.Climbing should only be undertaken by trained personnelusing approved climbing equipment and methods. If capturecannot be effected within 30 minutes efforts to capture thatindividual should be abandoned.Once the Koala has been brought to the ground it can begrasped firmly by the fur and skin of the nape and rump andforced into a curled position, preferably with its chest on theground so that the forelimbs and hindlimbs, with theirextremely sharp claws, cannot move freely. Koalas should notbe pulled off the tree trunk because their claws may beembedded in the bark and there is a danger that they will beinadvertently pulled out. The captured animal can then beplaced in a good quality jute sack, or straight into thetransport crate. Koalas should not be held in a sack for morethan 30 minutes, less in hot weather, and sacks and cratesshould be kept in the shade.Transport protocolsKoalas are transported singly (except for mothers and theirdependent young) in slatted wooden crates (420 x 470 x 580mm). Crates are transported by tray truck or trailer, and can bestacked two deep as long as air circulation to all crates isassured. A shield from excessive wind, in the form of atarpaulin, should be provided, as should fresh eucalypt leavesfrom the favoured species at the capture site. Koalas shouldnot remain in crates for longer than 24 hours but can be heldovernight in a protected environment when provided withfresh moist eucalypt foliage from the appropriate species.Vehicles should be driven in a manner that minimises bounceand sway in the load.Release protocolsAt the release site crates should be carried into the forest awayfrom the road, laid on their side with the lid propped openand left so that the Koala can leave in its own time. Koalasneed time to recover from the exigencies of the trip, assess thesurroundings, and make a decision about which tree to climb.Whenever possible, large, smooth-barked and straight-trunkedeucalypts should be avoided because they are more difficultfor a Koala to climb when stiff and stressed from thetranslocation. Crates should be placed several metres from thebase of a tree so that the Koala has to exercise its limbs beforestarting to climb. This assists the animal to recover from anystiffness due to being confined in the crate for an extendedperiod. Crates should not be placed too close together toavoid having more than one Koala climb the same tree. Timeof day is probably not critical because Koalas can be active dayor night. However, releases during hot weather should avoidthe hottest time of day.24

Selection of release sitesThere is a need for centralised coordination and a centraliseddatabase of release sites to avoid too frequent releases at agiven site. Records of releases are stored as Project 105 on thedatabase of the Atlas of Victorian Wildlife and managed byDSE’s Flora and Fauna Information Management Section. Thisdatabase should be examined as part of the selection processfor release sites.Appendix 3 presents a decision tree to guide the site selectionprocess. The statewide assessment of Koala habitat (Centre forEnvironmental Management 2001) provides the first level ofdiscrimination of potential Koala habitat suitability for sites onCrown Land. Areas identified as optimal or suitable habitat areavailable for selection. However, selection of actual releasesites within a forested area requires a site assessment by DSEor PV staff expert in identification of eucalypt species. Theapproval of the land management agency must be obtainedearly in the planning process. If the site is in an area subject totimber harvesting or controlled burning, it is essential toconfirm that neither activity is planned within 3 years of therelease.Several restrictions apply to selection of release sites:• All sites must be below 700 m altitude.• The Reference Area Advisory Committee has asked thatno releases take place within Reference Areas.• In order to protect remnants of the original gene pool inSouth Gippsland, a release exclusion area has beendeclared south of the Princess Highway between 146 and147 degrees of longitude.• Koalas sourced from outside the range of the Paralysis TickIxodes holocyclus should not be released within the rangeof the Paralysis Tick - because the ticks can cause mortalityin naive animals. For the purposes of these protocols, thedistribution of the Paralysis Tick is assumed to extendeastwards from the Timbarra River and south of 37° 20’ S.• Release sites should be at least 1 km from a majorroad or railway.For release of fertile Koalas, release sites should be containedwithin a forested area at least 1000 ha in extent, have treedlinks to other forested areas, and contain several eucalyptspecies including at least two of the eucalypt species listed inTable 1. Pure stands of Manna Gum must be avoidedcompletely because they are highly prone to lead to furtherover-browsing problems.Determination of numbers and age/sexcombinations to be released at a siteThe number of Koalas to be released in a given area of forestwill depend on the extent and quality of the habitat itcontains, and on the fertility status of the animals. For fertileanimals no more than one Koala per 20 ha of suitable habitatshould be placed into a forest area. For infertile animals oneper 2 ha should be an upper limit. Within a forest area thereshould be multiple release sites, with no more than 20individuals released at a site, rather than releasing a largenumber of animals at one site. Sites should be at least 500 mapart. A few hours after release Koalas begin makingexploratory movements through the surrounding forest. Someindividuals make very long movements while others mayremain close to the release site. Thus, the Koalas are quitecapable of locating the best available habitat within range.The sex ratio of the released group should be close to thenatural value, which is 1 : 1.2 . A spread of age classesshould also be included.Post-release monitoringBecause released Koalas can travel widely after release,monitoring their fate is difficult, time consuming, expensive,and rarely informative unless radio-tracking is used. The levelof mortality associated with translocations is not known indetail. Those studies that have been conducted (Lee, et al.1991, Santamaria 2002, Parks Victoria 2003), indicate widelyvarying success. However, the success of the re-introductionprogram overall indicates that many translocated Koalassurvive and breed after release.Due to cost factors, detailed post-release monitoring is notconsidered to be necessary for every translocation event.Instead, trees surrounding the release site should be searchedthe day after release and 7-14 days after release, to check thatno undue levels of mortality are occurring. During the firstsearch, note should be taken of the behaviour of any Koalasfound, especially of feeding observations. Koalas sitting onthe ground should be recaptured and taken to a veterinarianexperienced in marsupial health for assessment. It is quitelikely that few or no Koalas will be found during the latersearches.Prior to a translocation, Wildlife Shelter operators in thevicinity of the release sites should be informed of the timetableso that they can make preparations to accommodate anydebilitated animals.Female Koalas that have been permanently sterilised can bereleased into areas as small as 50 ha. A similar number ofmales should be released, with or without sterilisation.Sites on freehold land that meet the above criteria areavailable for selection if the landholder is keen to have Koalasreleased on the property and is willing to enter into a WildlifeCooperative Management Agreement. However, because longtermsecurity of habitat cannot be guaranteed, sites on publicland are preferable, and sites within the conservation reservesystem are best.25

Data recordingAll translocated Koalas above 2 kg body weight should be eartaggedwith numbered plastic swivel sheep tags according tothe colour scheme described in Table 2. For each animal thefollowing details must be recorded prior to its despatch: tagcolour and number, date, catch location (either a GPS readingor an Australian Map Grid reference (AMG)), catch time, treespecies, sex, weight, breeding status and tooth-wear class. Atthe release site the following details must be recorded for eachanimal: tag colour and number, date, location (includingAMG), time of release and weather conditions. Electroniccopies of all data should be submitted to the Atlas of VictorianWildlife for storage under Project 105.Table 2. Colour of ear tags to be used for Koalas derived fromeach over-browsing site.Over-browsing SiteEar tag colour and abbreviationFrench Island Blue, F. I.Sandy Point/BalnarringYellow, S.P./B.Mt Eccles White, Mt E.FramlinghamTower HillRaymond IslandSnake IslandRed, FramPale green, T.H.Mauve, R.I.Orange, S.I.26

APPENDIX 3.DECISION TREE FOR SELECTION OF KOALARELEASE SITEIs this area outside the South Gippsland exclusion zone and the tick zone?YES>Does the area rate as optimal or suitable habitat in the Preliminary KoalaHabitat Capability Assessment (February 2001)YES>Area size and connectivity – for unsterilised Koalas at least 1000ha of forestand treed connections to other forest patches, for groups with sterilised females50ha minimum with no more than 2 Koalas per ha, connectivity not essential.YES>NO>NO>NO>REJECTXREJECTXREJECTXCrown LandPrivate Land>>Conservation Reserve State Forest Other>Contact PVChief Ranger>>Contact Regional ForestManagerIs landholder willingto enter into WildlifeCooperativeAgreement?YES>NO>REJECTX>>>In principle approval?In principle approval?YES>NO>REJECTXYES>NO>REJECTXCheck current area management plan – is timber harvesting or high intensityprescribed burning planned within 3 years?NO>YES>REJECTXCheck Atlas of Victorian Wildlife database (Project 105) – are there records ofprevious Koala releases within last 3 years?NO>YES>REJECTXConduct site visit – at least 2 known Koala forage species present?YES>NO>REJECTXSigns of existing Eucalypt dieback?NO>YES>REJECTXSite sheltered from strong prevailing winds, with drainage lines present?YES>NO>Site 1km from any main road or railway?YES>NO>REJECTXREJECTXSuitable for release.27

APPENDIX 4.GLOSSARY.Translocation is defined as the deliberate movement of wildindividuals from one area with free release in another. The fourmain classes of translocation are defined as follows:Introduction is the intentional or accidental dispersal byhuman agency of a living organism outside its historicallyknownnative range.Re-introduction is an attempt to establish a species in an areathat was once part of its historical range, but from where ithas been extirpated.Re-establishment refers to successful re-introduction.Re-enforcement is defined as the addition of individuals to anexisting population of con-specifics [this is also sometimesreferred to as supplementation or re-stocking].28

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