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Towards InclusiveGovernancePromoting the Participation ofDisadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificUNDP Regional Centre in Bangkok

The analysis, opinions and policy recommendations contained in this publication do not necessarilyreflect the views of UNDP.Copyright © 2007 UNDPUnited Nations Development ProgrammeRegional Centre in BangkokUN Service BuildingRajdamnern Nok AvenueBangkok 10200 Thailandhttp://regionalcentrebangkok.undp.or.thDesign and layout: Keen Media (Thailand) Co., Ltd.ISBN: 978-974-06-2837-8Sales No.: E07IIIB12

ForewordThis publication is the result of a collaborative effort among three regional programmes managed bythe UNDP Regional Centres in Bangkok (RCB) and Colombo (RCC). The Centres are regional hubs fordevelopment knowledge and expertise, providing policy advisory, programming and capacitydevelopment services. Inclusive Governance represents a priority area of work for UNDP in this region,examining the extent to which governance institutions provide space to overcome the systematicexclusion of disadvantaged groups seeking to participate in decisions affecting them.Lack of inclusive governance is widening the divide between rich and poor across Asia and the Pacific.Barriersto governance structures inclusive of disadvantaged and marginalized groups are preventing access by tensof millions in the region – women, indigenous peoples, people with disabilities, victims of natural disastersand others – to critical governance services, as well as preventing them from exercising their human rightsand achieving higher levels of human development. Political inclusion of such groups is essential toovercome the deeply embedded social inequities and economic inequalities prevalent in the region.Although national circumstances differ across the Asia-Pacific region, governments face a commonchallenge: to create an enabling governance environment that is not only aware of, and responsive to, theneeds and interests of the most disadvantaged and marginalized – but that also is willing and able toprovide sound, effective remedies to these groups’ concerns.This publication also examines the application of the principles of non-discrimination, participation,accountability and empowerment in governance arenas, and promotes the use of a human rights-basedapproach to programming on inclusive governance. Presenting lessons learnt in eight Asia-Pacificcountries through ten case studies, a strong case is made for greater inclusion in governance as part of theagenda to deepen and consolidate democracy, ensure effective representation, and develop capacities tobetter respect, protect, and fulfil human rights.We trust that this selection of case studies can contribute to a better understanding of issues of inclusionand exclusion experienced by disadvantaged groups in the region, and provide an insight into thestrategies appropriate for participatory interaction between these groups and governance institutions.Elizabeth FongRegional ManagerUNDP Regional Centre in Bangkokiii

AcknowledgementsThis publication owes much to many people. The initiative was conceptualized and carried out by theUNDP Regional Centres in Asia-Pacific, through three regional programmes – the Asia RegionalGovernance Programme, the Regional Initiative on Indigenous Peoples’ Rights and Development, and theAsia Pacific Gender Mainstreaming Programme.Thanks are due to UNDP Regional Centre in Bangkok staff for their sustained involvement in all stages ofthis project: Radhika Behuria, Marcia V. J. Kran, Helen Leake, Emilia Mugnai, Mary O’Shea, Chandra Roy, RukkaSombolinggi, Arusha Stanislaus and R. Sudarshan. The project is also indebted to UNDP Country Officecolleagues in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Iran, Fiji, Philippines and Sri Lanka for theirsupport, and in particular to: Aparna Basnyat, Emmanuel Buendia, Wouter Dol, Dilrukshi Fonseka, RadhikaHettiarachchi, Hanieh Khataee, Shashikant Nair, Jennifer Navarro, Kong Rady, Ahmad Salari, Pradeep Sharmaand Sitara.The core of this project is the case studies contributed by Shabnam Mallick, Raja Devasish Roy, Sara Hossain,Meghna Guhathakurta, Maria Backstrom, Jeremy Ironside, Sandra Bernklau, Amit Prakash, Sushma Iyengar,Shahla Moazami, Marvic M.V.F. Leonen, Ledivina V. Cariño, Lionel Siriwardena and Amarasiri de Silva. Wethank them for their detailed analyses and commitment to the project.Comments on the draft case studies were provided by the UNDP Regional Centre in Bangkok and ClarenceDias, consultant to the RCB. The key role played by Clarence Dias in drawing out common concerns, keystrategies for inclusion in governance of excluded groups suggested by the case studies, is gratefullyacknowledged.Support during the project was provided by Panvirush Vittayapraphakul, Kullawan Arphasrirat and SomlakSupkongyu, without which this publication would not be possible.Kay Kirby Dorji and Mark Bloch took up the indispensable role of editors and we thank them for theirunderstanding and cooperation in the final stages of this project. Credit for the design/layout of thispublication must go to Keen Media, Bangkok.v

Funding programmesAsia Regional Governance ProgrammeAsia Regional Governance Programme, a flagship programme covering the Asia region, focuses onoperationalizing the link between democratic governance and the MDGs by advocating for moreresponsive representative government, improving access to justice by the poor and disadvantaged groupsand promoting more effective partnerships for improved service delivery.Regional Indigenous Peoples’ ProgrammeThe Regional Indigenous Peoples’ Programme aims to support regional dialogue and cooperation onindigenous peoples’ issues; developing regional public goods on critical issues and emerging trends;facilitating knowledge sharing and learning; and strengthening the human and institutional capacity ofkey partners for more equitable and participatory governance. UNDP’s Policy of Engagement withIndigenous Peoples (2001) and the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007) provide theguiding principles.Asia Pacific Gender Mainstreaming ProgrammeThe Asia Pacific Gender Mainstreaming Programme is UNDP’s regional programme aimed at engenderingeconomic policies and furthering women’s economic rights and promoting gender-responsivegovernance leading to greater gender equality and furthering women’s empowerment. A rightsperspective underpins the design and implementation of this programme. Its goal is the progressiverealization of women’s economic and political rights as guaranteed by major human rights treaties.vi

ContentsForewordAcknowledgementsFunding programmesiiivviIntroduction: Inclusive governance for human development 1Clarence Dias and R. SudarshanParticipation of the disabled population in elections in Afghanistan 14Shabnam MallickAccess to justice for indigenous peoples: a case study of Bangladesh 28Raja Devasish Roy, Sara Hossain and Dr. Meghna GuhathakurtaIndigenous traditional legal systems and conflict resolution in Ratanakiri andMondulkiri Provinces, Cambodia 50Maria Backstrom and Jeremy IronsideAn analysis of influencing family law: A case study of legislative advocacy andcampaigning in Fiji 66Pacific Regional Rights Resource Team and Fiji Women’s Rights MovementAdivasi rights in Jharkhand state, India 82Amit PrakashThe interface between formal and informal systems of justice:a study of Nari Adalats and caste Panchayats in Gujarat state, India 99Sushma Iyengar

Access to justice: the case of women in Iran 114Shahla MoazamiThe irony of social legislation: reflections on formal andinformal justice interfaces and indigenous peoples in the Philippines 124Prof. Marvic M.V.F. LeonenParticipation and representation of disadvantaged groups inparliamentary processes in the Philippines 144Ledivina V. CariñoPromoting inclusive governance in tsunami recovery in Sri Lanka 160Aparna Basnyat, Dilrukshi Fonseka and Radhika Hettiarachchi

IntroductionInclusive governance for human developmentClarence Dias and R. Sudarshan 1What is inclusive governance?To be inclusive is a core value of democratic governance, in terms of equal participation, equal treatmentand equal rights before the law. This implies that all people – including the poor, women, ethnic andreligious minorities, indigenous peoples and other disadvantaged groups – have the right to participatemeaningfully in governance processes and influence decisions that affect them. It also means thatgovernance institutions and policies are accessible, accountable and responsive to disadvantaged groups,protecting their interests and providing diverse populations with equal opportunities for public servicessuch as justice, health and education.The Asia-Pacific region, with almost 60 percent of the world’s population and a wide range ofsocio-economic and political issues, presents a challenging context for the promotion of inclusivegovernance. While the region has made rapid economic progress, these gains have not been distributedequally or equitably, either between or within countries. Underlying structures of inequality remain deeplyembedded in historical processes of discrimination and inequitable development. Indeed, many groupstoday still find themselves excluded – socially, politically and economically – and marginalized fromnational development and governance processes, with few opportunities for redress. This is especially sofor indigenous peoples, who are an integral part of the culturally diverse mosaic of the Asia Pacific region.Inclusive governance is critical to UNDP’s mission, which is to support countries to accelerate progress onhuman development, an integrative concept that aims at real improvements in people’s lives and in thechoices and opportunities open to them. Central to the human development approach is the concept ofhuman empowerment. This goes beyond economic development, in terms of income and gross domesticproduct, to encompass access to education and health care, freedom of expression, the rule of law, respectfor diversity, protection from violence, and the preservation of the environment as essential dimensions ofhuman development and well-being.The three traditional branches of governance – legislature, executive and judiciary – along with civilsociety, the media and the private sector all have unique roles in promoting sustainable humandevelopment. Moreover, the diverse functions of these institutions offer multiple opportunities for policyand programming to promote inclusion of disadvantaged groups.1The authors acknowledge the insights, inputs and advice received in drafting this paper. Special thanks are due to Mary O’Shea, Emilia Mugnai, RadhikaBehuria, Marcia V. J. Kran, Chandra Roy and Kay Kirby Dorji.1

UNDP has been at the forefront of developing the capacity for democratic governance as a primary meansof eradicating poverty. 2 To help facilitate inclusive governance mechanisms, UNDP follows a humanrights-based approach for its development cooperation and programmes, 3 which contributes tothe overall concept of human development. UNDP’s human rights-based approach to developmentprogramming – and thus, human development – is normatively based on international human rightsstandards as adopted by the Member States of the United Nations. It reaffirms three key elements ofdemocratic governance: inclusion and participation, including political, economic, civil, social and culturaldimensions; 4 equality and non-discrimination, which are especially important for minority groupsand indigenous peoples; 5 and transparency, accountability and access to effective remedies. 6 Inclusivegovernance encompasses the management of social, political and economic institutions for humandevelopment, and represents the essence of the rights-based approach.Increasingly, governance programmes must tackle issues on many fronts: conceptual, methodological,institutional and strategic. Does international human rights law provide standards that enable thedefinition and implementation of inclusiveness? If so, how are such standards implemented at countrylevel? How can inclusiveness actually be measured? In which governance institutions, and at what levels,has it been implemented in Asia and the Pacific? Does inclusion of civil society organizations enhancetheir ability to serve as effective vehicles for participation by disadvantaged groups, in particular womenand indigenous peoples? How, when and where can development programming promote inclusiveness?Should it be reactive to requests and demands, or proactive, through affirmative action to redresshistorical exclusion?Key issues in commissioned case studiesThis publication presents lessons learnt on inclusive governance through 10 case studies of developmentpolicies and programmes, in eight Asia-Pacific countries (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Fiji, India,Iran, Philippines and Sri Lanka). Overall, they address two key questions:• Does inclusiveness in governance and development processes enhance the human rights ofdisadvantaged groups in actual terms?23456The future course of UNDP policy and programming for inclusive governance is set out in its Strategic Plan 2008-2011, which focuses on three areas ofsupport to democratic governance: (1) Fostering inclusive participation; (2) Strengthening accountable and responsive governing institutions; and (3)Grounding democratic governance in international principles. The Strategic Plan states,“UNDP will assist in the identification of effective interventionsstrengthening participation by the poorest social sectors, as well as by women, youth, persons living with disabilities, and indigenous people.”A 2003 inter-Agency United Nations workshop adopted a Statement of Common Understanding on a Human Rights-Based Approach toProgramming. It declares that (1) All United Nations programmes of development cooperation, policies and technical assistance should further therealization of human rights as laid down in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other international human rights instruments; (2) Humanrights standards contained in, and principles derived from, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other international human rightsinstruments guide all development cooperation and programming in all sectors and in all phases of the programming process; and (3) Developmentcooperation contributes to the development of the capacities of duty bearers to meet their obligations and/or of rights holders to claim their rights.In the context of development, participation is affirmed as an interdependent means and end of development and must be “active, free and meaningful,”according to the 1986 United Nations Declaration on the Right to Development.All key human rights instruments prohibit discrimination of any kind, defined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as including “race, colour,sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.”This element has been primarily developed under national constitutions and laws, which affirm freedom of information, the right to know, and thepower to act upon such knowledge through exercising the right to an effective remedy from competent national tribunals.2

• And does the awareness and assertion of human rights by disadvantaged groups ensure greaterinclusion in governance processes and outcomes?The case studies offer pertinent insights, documented here, that go a long way toward addressing theabove questions. In various ways, they focus on inclusiveness issues faced by disadvantaged groups andindicate what types of strategies may be best suited for participatory interaction between these groupsand governance institutions. And most importantly, they provide a foundation to advance the humanrights-based approach to development programming.Programming for inclusive governance: reflections on the case studiesAll of the case studies underscore the need for assessing governance reform on the basis of the impact onthe human development and human rights of disadvantaged groups. They demonstrate that, if exclusionfrom governance processes is to be prevented and eliminated in Asia and the Pacific, every category ofhuman rights – economic, cultural, social, civil and political – must be effectively respected, protected andfulfilled for all. When exclusionary policies, laws, procedures and practices are compounded by lack ofawareness, it results in enormous challenges to address human rights violations.Many of the case studies address the question of who is excluded. An important finding is that women andindigenous peoples suffer most from exclusion and discrimination in governance processes across theregion. In India, Iran, Bangladesh and Fiji, women face violations of their right to participation and inclusion.Likewise, indigenous peoples face such obstacles in Cambodia, Bangladesh and India. Two other groupsalso have been studied in relation to social, economic and political exclusion: persons with disabilities(Afghanistan), and victims of natural disasters (Sri Lanka).In terms of how exclusion from governance processes happens, it tends to arise from two factors: law (Iran,Fiji) and culture (India, Iran, Afghanistan). Still others address the question of why exclude – often tosubjugate and dominate through patriarchy (Iran, India), or to exploit, displace and plunder through forcedor fraudulent land alienation (Bangladesh, Cambodia).Human rights in struggles for inclusionThe case studies collected here go well beyond a general exhortation to link human rights to humandevelopment. They have the merit of focusing on specific human rights that are pertinent to particularcontexts of exclusion, such as the rights to housing, family, education, health, land, property, and freedomof movement.The rights to dissolution or termination of marriage, custody, housing in the matrimonial home, shelter incases of domestic violence and once again – and importantly – land, property and inheritance rights,feature prominently in the case studies dealing with women.3

In the case of indigenous peoples, the particular rights that are prominent are rights to land, forestsand their produce, and mineral resources. Also important are the rights to preservation of socio-culturaldistinctiveness of indigenous communities, rights to development, participation, protection fromdisplacement and right to resettlement.Central to the case studies involving indigenous peoples is their right of self-identification. And central toall of the cases is the criticality of rights to life, liberty and personal security.Exclusion of womenAcross the region, the case studies document obstacles to gender justice and women’s inclusion ingovernance processes. These include new trends of violence against women; lack of awareness withintraditional justice institutions, government bodies and NGOs regarding women’s rights; and lack ofawareness of pro-women constitutional, legal and customary rights, such as inheritance rights. Otherobstacles may include limited or no representation of women at higher levels of decision making, anddiscriminatory faith-based and other traditional personal laws.In particular, traditional justice institutions are a focus of impediments to access to justice for women. Inmany countries of the region, women, particularly disadvantaged women, prefer to seek remedies fromthese traditional institutions rather than access family courts. However, the lack of documentation andreporting before formal justice institutions of violence against women is compounded by inadequateorientation on gender issues within traditional justice institutions, as well as by lack of social support –medical, psycho-social counselling, or shelter – from state or NGO services.RecommendationsThe Iran case study in its examination of gender discrimination in the legal frameworks presents theexperiences of women who are judges, attorneys, offenders and claimants in the process. In its analysis, ithighlights the need for greater human rights education and a need for strengthening accountabilitysystems which could contribute to creating an enabling environment for legal reform aimed at genderequity and justice.The India case study on Nari Adalats (women’s courts) presents an interesting analysis of how these courtscan serve as venues of justice for women. However given the voluntary and informal nature of such courts,it presents several recommendations such as the need for more education on the formal legal and judicialsystems, so as to engage with other forms of justice delivery for women.Exclusion of indigenous peoplesIndigenous peoples in particular remain vulnerable and marginalized in their access to services,protection fortheir basic rights and their ability to determine the course of their own development. Increasingly,however, the emphasis is being placed on the cultural and social aspects of poverty, with attention paid to4

indigenous rights as a result of solidarity and mobilization by indigenous peoples themselves.Complementing indigenous mobilization are evolving international, regional and national instrumentsand institutions to protect indigenous peoples’ rights, which merit support under inclusive governanceprogramming. 7 In this context the September 2007 adoption by the UN General Assembly of the Declarationon the Rights of Indigenous Peoples 8 provides a fresh impetus for increased attention and action.In the Asia-Pacific region, most important to indigenous peoples is the right of self-determination andrecognition of their identity as distinct peoples. Indigenous peoples’ fight for inclusion also centres onthe rights to land, forests and their produce, and mineral resources; livelihoods and socio-economicdevelopment; developmental infrastructure; and displacement, resettlement and freedom of movement(Bangladesh, Cambodia and India).RecommendationsThe Cambodia case study on conflict management involving traditional institutions of indigenouspeoples underscores the trust placed by those people in those institutions, and their marginalization in theformal legal system. The study recommends reforms in both sets of dispute resolution institutions. Itrecommends that the formal legal system should recognize some of the existing roles of thetraditional system.The case study from the Chittagong Hill Tracts notes that the Special Tribunal on Violence against Womenand Children is yet to be established. It recommends a series of changes needed, both in policiesand attitudes. It contains proposals for law reforms, and strengthening access to public servicesand services.Exclusion of persons living with disabilitiesThe Afghanistan case study also found that persons living with disabilities suffer multiple forms ofdiscrimination and face economic, social and political exclusion, suggesting a twin-pronged approach toovercome this.RecommendationsIn addition to alleviating institutional discrimination, recommended by the case study, it also identifiesstructural entry points. These include providing physical assistance and removing barriers tocommunication, increasing representation of persons with disabilities, and reducing economic barriersthrough socio-economic empowerment programmes. Behavioural entry points encompasssensitization, advocacy, outreach and strengthening of organizations for people with disabilities, researchand analysis, and networking.78At the international level, these include the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues and the Declaration on the Rights of IndigenousPeoples, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in September 2007. In addition, in 2001 UNDP adopted a Policy of Engagement withIndigenous Peoples. The Policy is in direct response to the disproportionately vulnerable situations facing many indigenous peoples, and the needfor constructive dialogue with indigenous peoples when devising development activities that affect them.A/RES/61/295.5

Exclusion in law-making processesSeveral case studies, including in Fiji and the Philippines, addressed historic exclusion and discriminationthrough the enactment of specific laws (the Family Act in Fiji 9 and Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act [IPRA] 10in the Philippines).The Fiji case study, based on experience after enactment of the national Family Law, provides a stepby-step“manual” for campaign for law reform to secure inclusive governance, enhancing participation ofdisadvantaged groups and identifying strategic entry points of influence.The Philippine case study, meanwhile, provides an engrossing account of how different groups, suffering fromdiscrimination and exclusion under the Marcos dictatorship, tried to use participation in subsequentlegislative processes to gain inclusion. In these efforts, crucial avenues of access included electoral processes,influencing the setting of the public agenda, and access to the legislature.These were buttressed by strategicthinking and action; confrontation, negotiation and compromise; and parallel informal interventions. Suchfindings have general salience for successful legislative policy and advocacy interventions.RecommendationsThe Philippines case study offers several pragmatic recommendations for those seeking inclusion inlaw-making processes aimed at disadvantaged groups, civil society support groups, the State, multilateralorganizations such as UNDP, and research institutions that can play a positive role through policy supportand advocacy.Exclusion in judicial and dispute resolution processesFrom different perspectives, several of the case studies focus on access to justice for groups excluded ordiscriminated against, notably women (Bangladesh, Fiji, India, Iran) and indigenous peoples (Bangladesh,India).These studies identify obstacles to access to justice for such groups and ways of overcoming them.Obstacles may be internal to the group, such as limited legal or activism knowledge, as well as languagebarriers. Others relate to economic constraints, leadership gaps, remoteness of communities, inter-ethniccompetition, lack of media attention, and political instability.Some of the case studies (Cambodia, Philippines) also explore the interface between the formal legalsystem and the customary or indigenous law system, examining both complementarity and prejudice.However, such interface may be minimal, as the Cambodia case study of traditional conflict managementfor indigenous peoples found.9Family Law Act (2003).10 Republic Act No. 8371 (1997).6

RecommendationsThe Cambodia case study recommends reforming both formal and traditional systems, given thatindigenous peoples are marginalized in the formal legal system, while trusting and using indigenousinstitutions of conflict resolution.Similarly, the study of nari adalats (women’s courts) in Gujarat, India, notes that the dialectic of choosingbetween what is just and what is legally right is played out between the traditional and modern courtsystems. It stresses the importance of decentralized, local alternative dispute resolution systems in therealm of social justice. In addition, it recommends increased entitlements and constitutional rights forwomen, as well as strengthening of their abilities to participate in institutions of judicial governance.Exclusion in conflict and post-disaster situationsGovernance and the strengthening of key national institutions for political development have gainedgrowing recognition as important tools in the prevention of and recovery from conflict. In particular,inclusive governance is crucial in four key areas: deeply rooted conflict; power inequalities andasymmetries; ethnic conflict and governance; and multi-centrism in a fragmented world. Two of the casestudy countries – Afghanistan and Sri Lanka – are categorized as post-conflict and face their ownunique governance challenges, many of which fall in these key areas. Three additional countries – Iran,Bangladesh and Cambodia – have long emerged from conflict but are still finding it difficult toinstitutionalize inclusive governance.At the same time, natural and man-made disasters are an unfortunate fact of life in the Asia-Pacific region.The Sri Lanka case study on tsunami recovery also has important findings and recommendations ofwider relevance here. The study found, for example, that the failure to build inclusive governance into thetsunami recovery process in Sri Lanka has had serious implications on the conflict-affected, as well ascertain ethnic groups and women. It likewise has contributed to skewing the delivery of recovery infavour of certain groups over others, and has contributed to deepening divides between identity groupsin the country.RecommendationsKey recommendations include development of post-disaster recovery interventions that are sensitive toexisting identity-based vulnerabilities and dynamics; contextualizing “inclusive governance” againstground realities; and strengthening capacities for decentralized and localized governance processes inpost-disaster recovery.The way forward: toward more inclusive governanceUsing a human rights-based approach to development programming, three steps have emerged that areessential in creating the enabling environment under which disadvantaged groups can better seekinclusiveness in governance and development processes. These are:7

1. Establishing the human rights normative and legal framework through support for:• Promoting ratification of international human rights treaties and removing reservations to such instruments• Harmonizing national laws with international human rights treaties• Reforming national laws to strengthen promotion and protection of human rights2. Applying and enforcing the human rights normative and legal framework through support for:• Creating and strengthening national human rights institutions, in accordance with the ParisPrinciples 11• Analyzing, reformulating and monitoring budgetary expenditures from the perspective of poor anddisadvantaged groups• Creating administrative remedies and making them accessible and effective• Making judicial remedies available, affordable, accessible, timely and effective3. Social mobilization around human rights law through support for:• Raising awareness of human rights among rights holders 12• Educating and strengthening capacity of duty bearers on human rights• Enhancing accountable and effective roles for independent media• Advocating for human rights• Supporting networking for human rights• Building partnerships and coalitions to promote inclusive governance through applying a humanrights-based approach to development programmingBeyond the enabling environment, however, a need exists for well-developed indicators that can help tomonitor and evaluate real and substantive results of programmes intended to strengthen capacity forinclusiveness in governance institutions. These can add to the many indicators already available formeasuring discrimination, exclusion, inclusion and formal participation.Overall, the 10 case studies in this publication work toward defining a strategy for inclusiveness ingovernance. Returning to the two key questions above – Does inclusiveness in governance anddevelopment processes in fact enhance the human rights of disadvantaged groups? And doesdisadvantaged groups’ awareness and assertion of human rights ensure greater inclusion in governanceprocesses and outcomes? – these initiatives point to the need to take up the challenge of governancereforms for inclusion at the local, national, regional and international levels.Such reforms are likely to take time, because they involve confronting privileged interests and changingtraditions. But there are grounds for optimism across the Asia-Pacific region. Evidence of progress canbe found on many fronts: more meaningful local elections, broader public consultations, stronger11 The United Nations Principles relating to the status and functioning of national institutions for protection and promotion of human rights (ParisPrinciples) incorporate a series of recommendations on the role, composition, status and functions of national human rights instruments.12 In a human rights-based approach, human rights determine the relationship between individuals and groups with valid claims (rights holders) andstate and non-state actors with correlative obligations (duty bearers). It identifies rights holders and their entitlements and corresponding dutybearers and their obligations, and works toward strengthening the capacities of rights holders to make their claims and of duty bearers to meettheir obligations.8

commitments to providing citizens with good public services, and increased debate on governance as awhole. The end of discriminatory laws and regulations, together with fewer restrictions on civil societyorganizations and more freedom of the media, can provide further impetus for this trend. Together,commitment and action by governments and citizens alike can ensure a future for Asia and the Pacific thatepitomizes the best of human development – freedom to choose, and full participation in the processes bywhich people govern themselves.9

© Marie Frechon/UNDPParticipation of the disabled population in elections inAfghanistanShabnam MallickACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe author acknowledges the insights, input and advice received from the numerouscontributors involved along with the support of the Regional Centre in Bangkok. Specialthanks are due to Sarah Dyer, William Headley, Shaya Ibrahim, Richard Ponzio, RajarshiSen, Sitara, Hiroko Takagianzl and Habibullah Wahidi.

AFGHANISTAN

ACRONYMSADUAIHRCHRBAJEMBMMDNDCNGONPADUNDPUNICEFAfghan Disabled UnionAfghanistan Independent Human Rights CommissionHuman rights-based approachJoint Electoral Management BodyMinistry of Martyrs and DisabledNational Disability CommissionNon-governmental organizationNational Programme for Action on DisabilityUnited Nations Development ProgrammeUnited Nations Children’s Fund

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacific1. OVERVIEWDisability and extreme poverty are interdependent,resulting from ignorance, low expectations,prejudice and lack of opportunities. 1 An importantpriority for disability policy is capacity-building ofdisabled people’s organizations. But how thisshould be approached remains an open questionbecause of, among others, divergent definitions ofequality, equity, mainstreaming and discriminatorypractices among governments, donors and NGOs.In the context of the participation and representationof disabled and marginalized people in democraticelections in post-Taliban Afghanistan, this studyexplores these issues through extensive deskreview and survey research. The study has revealedimportant patterns of exclusion and discriminationand has found various obvious and non-obviousobstacles to inclusive governance faced by disabledand marginalized groups in Afghanistan. Theseinclude, among others, socially entrencheddiscriminatory practices that are aggravated bythe impact of war; predictable and unpredictablereactions of people towards these obstacles;preference falsification; and gender-baseddiscrimination. Better understanding of such aspectscan enhance the participation, representation andempowerment of disabled people in Afghanistan.Programmatic entry points are identified forimproving participation and representation. Theseinclude structural entry points (e.g. promotinginstitutional reform, improving physical access for all,reducing economic and communication barriers, etc.)and, among others, greater state intervention.Behavioural entry points are also considered as isthe need to capitalize on human agency throughsensitization, outreach, advocacy and empowermentmeasures.2. ANALYSISBaselineAvailable literature suggests that accurate statisticson rates of impairment are difficult to come by.Latest estimates place the number at about 4percent of the population (approximately onemillion people).The Afghanistan Ministry of Labourand Social Affairs estimates the current number ofdisabled persons at about 300,000, but the actualnumber is likely to be significantly higher. 2Disability is a highly subjective phenomenon, andmany might not have wanted to be counted assuch. The World Health Organization and UnitedNations estimate that the actual number ofdisabled persons in Afghanistan is closer to 2million, which corresponds with interim figuresavailable from the Afghanistan Ministry of Martyrsand Disabled. 3123See, for instance, Ann Elwan,‘Poverty and Disability’, A Survey of the Literature, World Bank, 1999.Afghanistan Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs’ estimates and interview with author/s.Qaseem Faizi,‘Statistic and Disability Planning: Afghanistan Database’, Ministry of Martyrs and Disabled, Kabul, Afghanistan, 2003.14

Participation of the disabled population in elections in AfghanistanGeneralized views and beliefs that classify alldisabled people as weak, dependent, unable towork, unproductive and needing social protection,regardless of their real potential (all characteristicsnoted in Afghanistan), places them in a constantlyvulnerable position. Many disabled people,therefore, have very low expectations and lackself-esteem and, hence, power. Years of exclusionand negative attitudes compound the situation tomake it difficult for disabled individuals to realizetheir rights and capacity.Disablist language is an accepted feature of life fordisabled persons in Afghanistan and is a feature ofongoing oppression that is often overlooked,although it has profound effects. Disabled peoplereported that the main forms of discriminationthey experience are verbal abuse and completeindifference; they also reported that they arespoken of in such a derogatory manner by theirneighbours that they felt discouraged to socializewith them. This affects families as a whole and isquite a common experience for parents of disabledchildren.Faced with constant verbal abuse and derogatoryremarks, many disabled persons choose towithdraw from society.This, in turn, leads to a senseof fear and apprehension among disabled personsabout life and has implications for thedevelopment of a disability movement and for thesuccess of organizations representing disabledpersons. Lacking self-confidence and awarenessmakes it unlikely that disabled persons will wish tobe part of a movement for social change.The ability to work and provide for your family isintegral to defining the “self” in Afghanistan. It issuch a strongly held social standard that to beperceived as being dependent in any way isshameful. As reflected in a survey conducted forthis paper, the most widespread feeling disabledpersons felt about themselves was shame. 4Unemployment rates amongst disabled people areas high as 80 percent. 5 Disability can substantiallyincrease the risk of poverty; it is also often asymptom of poverty. The effects of poverty ondisabled people are harsh, and they are alwaysseverely affected by conflict situations and naturaldisasters. They tend to occupy the most vulnerablesocial and economic positions in society, therebymaking it difficult for them and their families todeal with unexpected events.BackgroundThis study comes at an opportune moment as theGovernment of Afghanistan and the internationalcommunity are embarking on a human rightsbasedapproach (HRBA) to disability issues in asystematic and concerted manner. The goal ofHRBA is to promote an inclusive, dignified,barrier-free and rights-based society for personswith disabling impairment in Afghanistan.Accordingly, disabled Afghans are entitled tobenefit from the full range of civil, political,socio-economic and cultural rights embodied inthe Afghan Constitution and international humanrights instruments.National policy strives to create a barrier-freesociety for all, based on the principles ofparticipation, integration and the equalization ofopportunities, as defined by the United Nations inits World Programme of Action ConcerningDisabled Persons; Standard Rules for theEqualization of Opportunities for Disabled Persons;45Shabnam Mallick, et al, Inclusive Governance of Marginalized Groups: Persons with Disabilities in Afghanistan, (forthcoming).Afghanistan National Programme for Action on Disability’s estimates and interview with the author(s).15

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificThe Biwako Millennium Framework for Actiontowards an Inclusive, Barrier-free and Rights-basedSociety for Persons with Disabilities in the Asia andPacific Region; and the ongoing elaboration for theInternational Convention to Protect and Promotethe Rights of Disabled Persons. In doing so, theGovernment of Afghanistan has enabled disabledpersons to take charge of their lives by removingany barriers to their full participation in society.The Government of Afghanistan has formulated acomprehensive National Policy on Disability, whichtreats disabled persons as individuals andmembers of society and deals with all aspects oftheir lives. 6 Some key areas that need specialattention have been identified based on theperceived needs and priorities of disabled Afghans.These include supporting disabled people’sorganizations, especially supporting disabledwomen’s groups; raising awareness to educate andchange public attitudes towards disabled people;prevention, early intervention and rehabilitation,including health care and therapeutic aids;the development of guidelines for accessibleenvironment and facilities, including access toinformation; education for all; accessible vocationaltraining programmes and facilities; and anaffirmative action plan to ensure that disabledpeople have equal employment opportunities,including sheltered employment. Furthermore, theinclusion of disabled persons in society requiresphysical and programmatic access to cultural andrecreational activities, including sports, as well asaccess to social welfare, housing and transport.Training will be given to personnel involved in theplanning and provision of services for disabledpersons. The government in coordination with theNational Disability Commission (NDC) will take thelead role in the collection and dissemination ofinformation, as well as research into the needs ofdisabled people.In implementing this National Policy on Disability,the Ministry of Martyrs and Disabled (MMD) willtake the lead role for the coordination of nationalprogrammes. Designated ministries have beenassigned special roles and responsibilitiesin implementing the policy. The MMD and relatedgovernment agencies will work closely withnational and international organizations, includingdisability organizations to realize this policy. TheMMD and NDC will collaborate with otheragencies, notably disabled persons’ organizations,to monitor the implementation of this policy.• Linkage is envisaged through the newthree-year policy framework and actionplan and also the Justice programme –Justice in the Community;• Lessons learned from this study will reinforcenationally obtained lessons already embeddedin NPAD’s (National Programme for Action onDisability) work to ensure that it feeds intopolicy and programming;• The findings of this study will try to further theadvisory capacity of the AfghanistanIndependent Human Rights Commission(AIHRC), the nodal body mandated withproviding suggestions and corrective measuresat every level of governance for the bettermentof human rights in the country basedon international human rights principlesand standards;6Ministry of Martyrs and Disabled, The Comprehensive National Disability Policy, Kabul, Afghanistan, 2003.16

Participation of the disabled population in elections in Afghanistan• The hope is that this study will be timelyand relevant to the ongoing democratictransition and associated general elections inAfghanistan;• It will also be in keeping with the MillenniumDevelopment Goals review currently under wayin Afghanistan;• The Joint Electoral Management Body (JEMB) toplan a review in the area.It follows that for concerted attention toparticipation, representation and empowerment ofdisabled persons in Afghanistan, the types andpatterns of exclusion and discrimination need to beadequately researched and understood, if we are todevise,fund,implement and supervise human rightsbasedprogrammes to address these issues.Objectives• Demographic focus:disabled women and men;• Thematic focus: participation and representation.3. LESSONS LEARNEDResearch method and limitationsMeasuring disability by statistical and ethnographictools is fraught with difficulty. Part of the reasonis that there is no clearly agreed definition ofdisability and because disability is a highly relativeand subjective factor.The Afghan government and internationalagencies, as well as some national NGOs, havecarried out or are carrying out surveys. However,the results of these surveys are still of a provisionalnature, or are based on small populations,anecdotal evidence or case studies. Theirmethodologies raise doubts on their reliability,validity and representativeness because of poorstandardization and quality control as wellas non-comparable estimates. Thus, little definitiveinformation may be gleaned on underlyingpatterns and causality from available data beyondgeneral inferences and broad estimates.In Afghanistan, research is complicated by theinsecurity prevailing in various parts of the countryand the legacy of decades of conflict; because ofthis, any serious qualitative or quantitative researcheffort is compromised. Reaching marginalizedsections of society, especially women, is a problemfor researchers. This study and its findings,particularly the emphasis it places on women andgender-related questions, are thus inevitablyaffected by the above limitations and, as this studyis still a work-in-progress, the results should beviewed as preliminary and non-prescriptive.As part of this study, UNDP Afghanistan and itspartner agencies investigated the propensity,prevalence and cause of various difficulties facedby persons with disabilities in voting and politicalparticipation. In doing so, the agencies applied thefollowing methods: a literature review, expert17

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacificinterviews and a ‘quick and dirty’ exploratorysurvey, followed by focus group discussions. Thefirst survey questions were loosely structured andformulated to capture the maximum amount ofrelevant information, in the spirit of a casual andfriendly dialogue. They were also intended tocapture any area-based variation of the livedexperiences of persons with disabilities and alsosituate their difficulties, if any, of voting andpolitical participation within the broader context ofdaily living. Respondents were encouraged toenthusiastically answer all the questions as fully aspossible. It was stressed that there were no ‘right’ or‘wrong’ answers and that whatever they wished tosay was equally valid.The first translated survey results are now available,and plans are in hand to include more geographicalregions, enhance the sample group’srepresentativeness, and develop more investigativequestions and refined analysis in subsequentversions of the survey. 7 We have tried to applyrelevant theories to the survey results, in orderto conclude the findings and makerecommendations.The intention has been to arriveat preliminary hypotheses and then test thesethrough focus groups, quasi-experimental designsand participatory approaches.InferencesIndeed, even the destructive effects of modern war,from which seemingly nothing can escape, areno match to the entrenched institutions ofdeteriorating social relations and mores. Sociallyembedded discriminatory practices and institutionscontinue to replicate themselves as fast as everand, perhaps, in newer, subtler and more insidiousways as a result of constant warfare.The diminishingstock of social capital and exacerbated effects ofsocial dislocation due to the war, if anything, makethe task of alleviating the plight of the discriminatedmore intractable than before.The survey provides a profile of social exclusionamong disabled populations in Kandahar.Exclusionary practices in the various intersticesof society have become systematized andentrenched, and work against the interests andgoal of inclusive governance. The following is anaccount of common responses from intervieweesto standard survey questions, and our attempt tocategorize those responses in terms that may berelevant to deducing policy for inclusivegovernance of marginalized groups:Irrational ReactionsSome of the survey respondents reactedirrationally to the question: “What, if any, are someof the difficulties in your area that trouble yourright to vote and/or participate in politics?” Theirreplies:“I don’t have any business with politics. I ama poor woman” or “I have no problem. I (am) evenhappy on death rather than my life (sic).”Rational ReactionsIn general, we find predictable and pragmaticresponses to an entire range of concerns, from thedramatic to the mundane, among some extremelymarginalized disabled Afghans. Rational concernsover security have weighed heavily on theirdecision not to vote. Security concerns, as variouslyreported by survey respondents, have ranged fromgeneral lawlessness, specific threats to murder orphysical harm from malicious political interests, oreven rumors of enemy attack. Other concerns arealso reported as the main reasons for notvoting, such as joblessness, cost of living or7Shabnam Mallick, et al, ibid.18

Participation of the disabled population in elections in Afghanistanvoting, burden of household chores, familyresponsibilities, limitations on movement andcontempt or neglect from others, etc.The picture that emerges of this marginalizedgroup is one of extreme vulnerability, subsistenceor below subsistence living, very limited copingcapacity, no inclination for deferred gratificationand, hence, very restrictive strategic agency orcapacity for strategic choice.Infrastructural and institutional issuesInfrastructure problems too have directly plaguedparticipation and elicited the decision of selfexclusionamong the disabled: bad roads,inaccessible polling stations, personal immobilityand lack of good wheelchairs, bicycles, or suitableassistants to help when travelling to the poll.Moreover, survey respondents conducted for thispresent study have clearly and not-so-clearlyreported different forms of neglect, indifferenceand other discriminatory practices when theycome in contact with different public institutionsand government service providers. Yet, there isclear and overwhelming interest among therespondents in a future of inclusive politics andimproved governance in Afghanistan.In another recent survey, conducted by theUNICEF-supported Afghan Disabled Union,most disabled respondents felt that the newconstitution was unsatisfactory as it onlycontains a short paragraph about them. GivenAfghanistan’s fledgling institutions, it isn’t entirelysurprising that this dissatisfaction extends to theperformance of line ministries. Indeed, only aminority of people appear to be satisfied with thegovernment’s performance and service delivery;the same people believe that the governmentshould seek outside help, including frominternational agencies and disabled persons’organizations, in order to improve on all thosescores. 8The rational irrational?More challenging is the problem of decisions thatseem individually rational but might well becollectively irrational. How can that which is in therational interest of an individual be bad for society?In this respect, the literature on the discriminatoryeffects of preference formation and on poverty trapsis instructive.Ethnically segregated communities, for instance,are known to emerge where individuals possess‘mild’ preferences to living in neighbourhoods withethnic majorities, even if all individuals wouldideally wish to live in integrated communities.Hence, apparently harmless and mild preferencesof otherwise well-meaning individuals can lead todetrimental, exclusionary outcomes. Similarly, peergroup effects that lead to poverty traps aresometimes known to appear rational to anindividual who is a group member. But when allmembers behave similarly, it collectively provesdetrimental to the group as a whole by entrappingits members in impoverished conditions. In otherwords, when the behaviour of one groupmember is dependent on the behaviour ofothers, it can lead to a self-reinforcingbehaviour. Within a given behaviouralconfiguration, however, each individual maybe acting ‘rationally’. But that does not mean thateach configuration is equally desirable from theperspective of the members of the group, in thesense of avoiding a poverty trap. 98Afghan Disabled Union, Survey on the Problems of Barrierfree Access for People with Disabilities in the city of Kabul, Afghanistan, 2004.19

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificIn the present study exploring barriers toinclusive governance of marginalized persons withdisabilities in Afghanistan, the ‘I don’t have anybusiness with politics. I am a poor woman’ or ‘I haveno problem’ type of responses fall into thiscategory of individually rational but collectivelydetrimental responses. Non-voting or nonparticipationin politics for reasons related todisability or other physical impairments, asreported in the survey, may be other examples ofself-denial and a non-engaging outlook to life thatmay ultimately be detrimental for the individual, aswell as polity. Problems such as joblessness, highercost of living and inflation, burden of dailysubsistence or household chores, contempt orneglect from the government and non-governmentofficials as well as the general public arepredictable responses which, as have beenreported in the survey, can lead counterintuitivelyto unpredictable and detrimental outcomes in thefuture. In short, the opportunity cost of notvoting and not participating can be very high.International affairs as barriers tolocal governanceIn social science literature, little information isavailable to explain the embroiling effect of‘reputation’ as succinctly as the above cliché. This isthe plight of the international community inAfghanistan. The unpopularity of foreigners,including the American-led international coalitionand international reconstruction efforts inAfghanistan, is reflected in repeated commentsfrom interviewees. Many have suggested that theyrefuse to vote because the elections have beenorganized by foreigners. These sentiments areoften transient and unique to Afghanistan and inplaces that are heavily reliant on internationalassistance; however, it does not mean that thisproblem is any less “development-relevant”.Gender-based discriminationDisabled women are twice as likely to bevictimized and discriminated against as their malecounterpart. Our limited survey has revealedinstances of this critical problem. While the datacollected is gender-segregated, there was only alimited opportunity to probe and explore specificmanifestations of gender-based discrimination,which would result in a more sophisticatedunderstanding of contentious issues. Nevertheless,women interviewees have unambiguously andrepeatedly mentioned that they have not beenallowed to vote or participate in politics becausethey are women. The “women don’t knowanything…” syndrome is alive and thrives inAfghanistan, even among men who self-confessedlydon’t know much!Available evidence suggests compellingdifferences between disabled women and men ingainful labour/economic activities and access tothe economic sphere. This is perhaps indicative offormative discrimination of women, and disabledwomen in particular, that begins early in their ownhomes. 10 Sure enough, in Afghanistan, a survey of350 people in Kabul city indicates that personswith disabilities are mainly involved in low-incomeoccupations, such as cleaning, housekeeping,painting, selling wood, etc. Fifty-nine percent ofmen but only 10 percent of women had jobs beforethey became disabled, and 45 percent of personswith disabilities have lost their jobs because oftheir disabilities. 119Steven Durlauf, Groups, Social Influences and Inequality: A Memberships Theory Perspective on Poverty Traps, 2002.10 Ann Elwan, Poverty and Disability: A Survey of the Literature, World Bank, 1999.20

Participation of the disabled population in elections in AfghanistanWomen in Afghanistan are usually confined to theirhomes and have limited access to the public sphere.It is small wonder then that women with disabilitiesdo not have access and thus do not reflect on issuesthat are related to access. Almost a third of therespondents of the ADU survey in Kabul, most ofwhom were of course women, reported that thequestion on accessibility did not apply to them. 12 Theoverall condition in rural areas is understood to bemuch worse.Preference falsification ornaïveté?Another interesting revelation evident in oursurvey is a disparity between some of the problemsand causes identified. This disparity, by implication,must impact the nature of remedies sought. Forinstance, and this is repeatedly evident, a problemreported by interviewees is the neglectful andcontemptuous attitude shown towards them bysociety and the government. But when asked“What do you think are some of the specific causesbehind those difficulties?” the same intervieweesreplied that economic conditions and joblessnesswere among the causes for the difficulties theyexperienced. This begs the question: will simplyimproving economic conditions and providingjobs really help alleviate the attitudinal hostilityshown towards persons with disabilities and, ineffect, end the discrimination they encounter insociety?Clearly, the causes and implied solutions are notgermane to the problems. But why this disparity? Itseems there can be two possible answers to this.The first one is simple. The respondents, in theirnaïveté, have misconstrued the problem andmisidentified the underlying causes. But how canthis be? How can so many people be so naïve?Doesn’t such a conclusion go against the receivedwisdom of participatory research? After all, it is thevictims who are expected to have a better insightto their plight rather than independent, outsideobservers.This brings us to the other possible explanation.Could it be that there is something preventing therespondents from revealing their true wishes? Thepossibility of such a paradoxical situation isexplained in behavioural economics by theinsightful term “preference falsification”. 13 What itmeans is that because of, among others, grouppressures and fear of social sanction or reprisal, thepolicy preferences that people express in publicoften differ from those they hold privately. Thus,people rely on the prevailing climate of opinionwhen developing their personal belief systems thatunderpin their policy choices and preferences.In the case of a person with disability fromthe marginalized sections in Afghanistan, theprevailing climate of opinion is one of contempt,ridicule and neglect towards the disabled. Andbecause the victims of such practices haveinternalized discrimination all their lives, they tendto deemphasize the attitudinal hostility, which isreal or at least the preeminent cause of problems,and, instead, emphasize other issues, such aseconomics. That is not to suggest that economicissues are not relevant. The point is that solutionspremised on economic aspects alone or evenprimarily will fall short of solving the problems.11 Afghan Disabled Union, op. cit., 2004.12 Ibid.13 Timur Kuran, Private Truths, Public Lies: The Social Consequences of Preference Falsification, Harvard University Press.21

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacific4. RECOMMENDATIONSOne overarching and overwhelming sentiment ormandate that needs to be made clear at the outsetis that there is no support for retreat of the State,despite calls for enhanced efforts by nongovernmentaland civil society organizations.Almost all interviewees suggested that the Afghangovernment should not be in competition with thenon-state sector but rather complement existingefforts.Structural entry pointsThese structural entry points should be devised,funded and implemented in a manner that:• Alleviate institutional discrimination byaffording gender sensitive legal protection,implementing institutional reform andcapacity building, and implementing antidiscriminationlaws already on the statutebooks to benefit persons with disabilities;• Promote outreach to disadvantaged groups bymeans of effective and targeted disseminationof information and increasing awareness of theirrights within the context of human rights-basedapproaches;• Provide physical access for persons withdisabilities to polling stations, voting material,means of transport to and from such places,including providing unhindered access topublic facilities in general; introduce lateopening hours for polling booths;• Remove barriers to communication by providingsignage and communication which is appropriateto people with disabilities, as well as providingaccess to professionals (interpreters,psychologists) to help them engage in the civicprocess;• Increase representation of persons withdisabilities and women with disabilities inpolitics, including the government, bureaucracy,election management and legal system;• Lift the economic barriers that preventdisabled persons to participate socially, withspecial focus towards disabled women.Behavioural entry pointsStrategies that cater to the above structural factorsalone may not be adequate to the task of ensuringfunctional inclusive governance of marginalizedgroups because many of the barriers are of abehavioural and attitudinal nature. While there issome circular causality between behavioural andstructural factors, specific measures focusing onbehavioural and attitudinal changes of humanagency are necessary.In addition to enhanced service delivery andtighter quality controls across the board, thefollowing may be treated as pointers for improving“inclusive governance” programming for capacitydevelopmentof human agency:• Sensitize disabled people, governmentand non-government officials, stakeholdersand the general public through awarenesscampaigns of the rights of persons withdisabilities;• Advocate against the entrenched discriminatorypractices and stereotypes held against personswith disabilities;22

Participation of the disabled population in elections in Afghanistan• Conduct outreach programmes that targetmarginalized persons with disabilities in orderto instill confidence in them and allay their fearsand mistrust against mainstream institutions;• Increase local content in all developmentprogrammes and civic/election managementteams, as well as making all programmesless Kabul-centric and reach out to theremotest corners, within the possibilitiesafforded by security conditions, in order toenhance the legitimacy of authorities;• Formulate social and economic empowermentprogrammes that provide private incentives toconstructive choices by beneficiaries, i.e.incentives that are manifestly stronger than theconstraints that limit those choices (such as‘shame’ and ‘honour’ based inhibitions, inaddition to harder and more conventionalconstraints); utilize sociological andpsychological perspectives, such as ‘socialmultipliers’, in addition to the formal logicand rigour of economics to plan andanalyse such interactions and to capture a‘richer’ causal picture of social change;• Fund research and ‘network analysis’studies of associational and membershipgroup so as to open up the multiplicity ofinteractions that contribute to socialnetworks, and leads to a more complexunderstanding of those kinds of networksthat might facilitate trust and activism andthose which do not;• Build the capacity of disabled people’sorganizations active in inclusive governanceprogramming, so that they may identify andreduce the barriers to collaboration andcommunicative action, thereby reducing thepossibilities of value laden assumptions incommunities that lead to stereotyping andunlawful decisions.This study shows that there are still many gaps inour knowledge. Some of the gaps which need to beaddressed by researchers should consist of:• Probing the ‘gendered paths’ of apparentlygender-neutral discrimination, such asinstitutional discrimination;• Exploring poverty-related factors in the nexusbetween poverty and disability, or formingresearch questions that use gender, disabilityand poverty as dependent variables;• Studying variance in discrimination basedon regional, ethnic/racial differences andcustoms, and conducting research onhousehold-based discrimination, its impact inthe public sphere and attendant micro-macrolinks;• Conducting basic research on validatingmeasures and tools in the subject.More innovative programming and emancipatorygoals can only be reached through finer analysisof data and a systematic collection of statisticaland empirical evidence; employing appropriateanthropological and participant-observationmethods; sharper analysis of gender effects/stereotypes/social-relational dimensions ofmarginalized groups and poverty/discriminationtraps; stronger political and donor commitment;greater awareness of the opportunity costs inneglecting the disabled; and a human rights-basedinclusive governance approach.23

© Mr. Raja Devasish RoyAccess to justice for indigenous peoples: a case study ofBangladeshRaja Devasish Roy, Sara Hossain and Dr. Meghna GuhathakurtaACKNOWLEDGMENTSA team consisting of an advisor, Raja Devasish Roy, and two national consultants, Sara Hossain and Dr.Meghna Guhathakurta, combined deskwork, consultation processes and action research to seek insightsand in-depth information on key issues concerning access to justice.

BANGLADESH

ACRONYMSCATCEDAWCERDCHTCHTDBCHTDFCHTRCCRCCSODCEBSATAGOHDCsICCPRICESCRILOMoCHTANGORCRFSAARCUNDPUPDFConvention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment orPunishmentConvention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against WomenConvention on the Elimination of Racial DiscriminationChittagong Hill TractsChittagong Hill Tracts Development BoardUNDP Chittagong Hill Tracts Development FacilityCHT Regional CouncilConvention on the Rights of the ChildCivil society organizationDeputy CommissionerEast Bengal State Acquisition and Tenancy ActGovernment officialsHill District CouncilsThe International Covenant on Civil and Political RightsInternational Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural RightsInternational Labour OrganizationMinistry of CHT AffairsNon-governmental organizationRegional CouncilReserved forestsSouth Asian Association for Regional CooperationUnited Nations Development ProgrammeUnited People’s Democratic Forum

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacific1. OVERVIEWStatement of the problemThe overall justice system in Bangladesh has longbeen seen to provide a deteriorating service to thepopulation, in particular to indigenous peoples.Most approaches adopted to date to enhanceaccess to justice have been inadequate in theiroutreach and largely insensitive to culturaldistinctiveness of indigenous peoples and theirsituation of social disadvantage.The population of indigenous peoples or Adivasisin Bangladesh stands at 1,772,788, according to the2001 provisional census of Bangladesh. About1,036,006 Adivasis live in the plains, in the northernborder regions, and south-central and southeasterncoastal areas, while some 736,682 Hillpeoples (Paharis) inhabit the Chittagong Hill Tracts(CHT) in the south-east.ObjectiveThis case study aims to identify the main problemsregarding access to the formal and traditionaljustice systems for indigenous peoples as aparticular disadvantaged group. An emphasis is onthe rights and access to land and forests; life,liberty and personal security; gender justice; and toparticipation and representation.The design and methods of the study follows aninclusive and participatory approach. This studyinvolves representative voices of Adivasis fromdifferent peoples and communities from both theplains and the CHT. Field work and in depth focusgroup discussions took place among the Santalcommunity in Rajshahi and Dinajpur, and amongthe Hill peoples (mainly Chakma, Marma, Tripuraand a few members of the less numerous groups)in the CHT.2. ANALYSIS OF KEY FINDINGS: OBSTACLES TO ACCESSTO JUSTICERight to property: land and forestsGiven the overwhelming dependence on land andagriculture, access to and enjoyment of land arecommon problems in Bangladesh, irrespectiveof ethnicity. Land is also of particular social andcultural significance to the Adivasis. Specificdifficulties are faced by Adivasis, who have, in manycases through operation of law and by force, beensystematically dispossessed of their lands. Shiftingdemographics and the expansion of the Bengalicultural majority into areas traditionally inhabitedby Adivasis, including some areas that haveformally been designated as ‘forests’, have givencontinued impetus to forcible and violentdispossession.28

Access to justice for indigenous peoples: a case study of BangladeshGiven the operation of different legal frameworksin each case, issues regarding rights to land andforests are discussed separately below for the CHTand the plains, respectively.LandChittagong Hill TractsThe applicable statutory laws in the CHT recognize thecustomary rights of Adivasis to land and resourcesto a considerable extent. The traditional rights ofthe Hill people, which are expressly recognized,include to ‘occupy’ homestead land (Rule 50, CHTRegulation) and to use timber, bamboo and other‘minor forest resources’ for domestic purposeswithout obtaining prior permission from the DC(Forest Act, 1927; CHT Forest Transit Rules, 1973).Other such rights are indirectly acknowledged bythe CHT Regulation, such as the right to engage inswidden (jum) cultivation (Rule 41, CHT Regulation)and to use forest resources for domestic purposes(Rule 41A, CHT Regulation). However, othercustomary rights, e.g. over hunting and the use ofwater resources, lack explicit legal recognition.Under the CHT Regulation, the DeputyCommissioner (DC) was responsible for landadministration and, unlike the practice in otherregions, was obliged to consult with headmenbefore making any settlement (freehold grant) ofland and providing permission for transfer of landownership (Rule 34 of the CHT Regulation). In casesof leasehold grants of land above a specifiedamount, the National Board of Revenue (and nowthe Board of Land Administration) had residuarypowers.The protection scheme of Adivasi land rights, asprovided by the CHT Regulation, came undersevere assault over subsequent years through bothlegal and practical measures, with many Paharis 1being dispossessed of their lands, including ploughlands, and being compelled to give up traditionaljum cultivation. The most severe acts ofdispossession included the appropriation of forestlands by the colonial Forest Department, thecommissioning of the Kaptai hydro-electric dam in1960, the leasing of lands to non-Adivasis forcommercial and residential purposes, and theGovernment’s policy (from 19791982 in particular)of systematic resettlement of Bengalis from theplains in the CHT.Significant changes in the legal frameworkfacilitated the process of leasing lands andresettling people. In 1971, the CHT Regulation wasamended to reduce the freehold grant to residentfarmers from 25 acres to 10 acres, followed byanother amendment in 1979, to further waterdown restrictions against the acquisition of landrights by non-residents.These latest changes paved way for theGovernment of Bangladesh to settle some 200,000-400,000 landless Bengalis within the region. Thesettlers were provided with a parcel of land (whichthough treated as ‘khas’ or government-ownedland was in fact often traditional commons,homesteads, or individually or collectively-usedfarmlands of the Adivasis) and with an initial cashpayment, cattle, housebuilding materials andregular ‘rations’.1Paharis or Hill people is the term used in Bangladesh to describe indigenous peoples living in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. It is used to distinguish themfrom people residing in the plains.29

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificDespite the limited degree of recognition ofAdivasi customary land rights under the CHTRegulation and subsequent legislation, majorproblems remain with regard to the enjoyment ofthese rights, particularly the practice of stateauthorities of disposing of Adivasis communitylands (including forests, graveyards, cemeteries andindividuallyheld homestead) as khas land, anddistributing it as part of a scheme of land reform.Customary land and resource rights are also oftenrelegated to mere usufructs rather than fullownership rights. Rights over hunting, trappingand fishing are similarly ignored.PlainsThe special status of Adivasi-owned lands isexpressly recognized in Section 97 of the EastBengal State Acquisition and Tenancy Act (EBSATA)of 1950, which prohibits the transfer of such landto ‘non-aboriginals’ without prior permission of theRevenue Officer (usually the DC). Based on thisprovision, a convention developed in colonialtimes, and observed by the DC’s office in some ofthe northern districts (such as Dinajpur,Mymensingh and Rajshahi), required priorpermission of a civil society organization for thesale of land by an Adivasi to a non-Adivasi.These provisions are now regularly flouted,particularly in the cases of Adivasis who areconstrained for economic reasons or threats ofviolence to sell their land. Cases of forcibledispossession are widely reported among theRakhaines, Santals, Oraons and Garos), resultingfrom land grabbing by powerful members of theBengali majority, or by major economic interests,including those involved in ongoing construction ordevelopment projects.In addition, the abuse of the Vested Property Act,1974 (earlier the Enemy Property Act 1965) hasbeen a major cause for dispossession ofAdivasi traditional lands in various parts of theplains. A land study, carried out in 1940, showedthat the Garos, Hajong and Koch had owned 850acres, but that by 1990 Hajongs owned no moreland; the Garos only had about 50 acres left, and allthe others had been dispossessed.Plains Adivasis face different problems dependingon where they live. In the south-east, around themangrove forests of the Sunderbans where shrimpcultivation is widespread, many Adivasis are nowbeing dispossessed of their lands and onlyreceiving nominal compensation. In some areas,following illegal dispossession of governmentownedwetlands by powerful interests, fishermenfrom the Bagdi community and the general publicalike have no access to such areas, and are forced topay tolls to enter the area. Many instances ofland-grabbing are accompanied by false casesagainst the dispossessed, as well as physicalintimidation and harassment, but few affectedpeople are able to obtain legal redress.The government has not only failed to recognizecustomary/prescriptive rights to land in the plainsbut has continued to consider them as khas landsand has been distributing plots of land as part of ascheme of land reform, which may or may notbenefit Adivasis. In general, it fails to take actionagainst breaches of the EBSATA of 1950 for the saleand transfer of Adivasi lands to ‘non-aboriginals’(particularly when Adivasis are constrainedthrough economic need or under threat ofviolence). The absence of a one-stop mechanism,such as the CHT Land Commission establishedunder the 1997 Peace Accord, further inhibitsaddressing long-standing disputes in the plains.30

Access to justice for indigenous peoples: a case study of BangladeshForestsThe conflict between state and customary law isclearly manifested in the management of commonproperty resources, and in particular with regard toforests. Prior to the colonial period, Adivasis mainlyused the land for their homesteads, cultivation orother domestic uses, and for gathering and sale offorest produce.Chittagong Hill TractsThe Government of Bangladesh has used itspowers under the Forest Act of 1927 to make anumber of sudden declarations of particular areasas being reserved forests, resulting in arbitraryevictions of the forest dwellers and/or restrictionson their livelihoods of gathering food, fuel andwater. In addition, even swidden commons used byAdivasis (jum areas regarded as ‘unclassed stateforests’) outside the reserved forest areas aredisputed, and the people of the area remain inapprehension of occupation or eviction.PlainsAdivasi forest dwellers have also been severelyaffected by the Forest Act of 1927 (as amended in2000), which in effect criminalizes theirlivelihoods and deprives them of their enjoymentand use of what they had treated as their commonlands, following the declaration of an area as‘reserved forest’.Thus, in 1982, about 59,648 acres ofland within the Attia Forest in the Districts of Dhakaand Tangail were designated as reserved forests,even though Adivasis had lived there for years, andthe area had long ceased to be a forest as itno longer had any trees or other permanentvegetation. No legal challenges to this decision wereadmitted.Adivasis in the plains have also faced threats fromthe acquisition of their lands for projectdevelopments, which threaten their habitat. Forexample, the government has reclaimed lands forthe purposes of developing an eco-park at Kulauraunder Moulvibazar, which poses a specific threat tothe livelihood and security of the Khasi communityin that area.Right to life, liberty and personalsecurityLife, liberty and securityThe threats to life, liberty, security and theunwillingness of law enforcement agencies tointervene are common concerns for manyBangladeshis. The sense of feeling threatened,particularly among the Adivasis, is heightened inthe light of the record of impunity enjoyed by theperpetrators of even the most egregious acts ofviolence.Land conflicts have spawned violence againstindividuals or communities in both the plains andthe CHT. Such violence perpetrated against Adivasiwomen has been used systematically to intimidateand harass the population. Some of the commonpractices used to facilitate the removal of Adivasisfrom their lands include arbitrary powers ofdeclaration of certain areas as ‘reserved forests’ andthe consequent criminalization of forest dwellers,or the treatment of certain areas as khas land or‘vested property’, and the consequent eviction ofthe existing inhabitants. Laws such as the ForestAct or the Vested Property Act have been usedextensively in certain areas within the plains forthis purpose. False cases to harass individuals havealso been brought under the Forests Act in the CHT,as in Madhupur in the plains. Powers of arrest (andearlier, detention) are frequently misused by thepolice – reports indicate that powerful interestsbent on harassing Adivasis (and others) aredeploying laws, such as the Suppression ofViolence against Women and Children (Special31

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificProvisions) Act, as well as the Speedy Trial Act, bothof which have draconian bail provisions to ensurethe arrest and incarceration of individuals.During the conflict in the CHT, violence was notconfined to purely military targets or ‘armed’forces onboth sides but spread to ‘non-combatant’ Adivasi andnon-Adivasi civilian populations. While manyinstances of killing of Bengali settlers by the ShantiBahini were reported during these years, the Hillpeople were undoubtedly the victims of morewidespread and pervasive human rights violationsperpetrated by the security forces, often acting incomplicity with sections of the Bengali Settlers.There is little public information on theinvestigation or prosecution of those responsiblefor at least 11 major massacres of Hill people since1980. During the conflict period, political activistsand others were frequently held in ‘preventivedetention’, pursuant to the Special Powers Act.From the early 1990s, systematic legal supportbegan to be provided to Pahari detainees in suchcases. Today, 10 years after the Peace Accord, thePaharis’ situation with respect to enjoyment oftheir most fundamental rights remains very bleak.Failures on the part of successive Governments toimplement the terms laid down in the PeaceAccord and subsequent legislation have beenlargely to blame. Human rights defenders andothers continue to face harassment and arrestthrough abuse of laws and being implicated infalse cases.In the plains too, Adivasi households are oftensubjected to false cases. For example, members ofthe Mandi community claimed that since theForest Department has acquired land in Madhupur,it has been involved in illegal felling of trees, inmany cases compelling them to do so and thenimplicating them in criminal cases under the ForestAct. The legal indemnity for Forest Officers againstprosecution (under the Forests (Amendment) Act,2000) inhibits accountability for such acts ofharassment.Anti-Adivasi bias within law enforcement agenciesAdivasis appear to strongly perceive andexperience institutional bias, racism andcorruption within law enforcement agencies. Theyconsider that the agencies systematically favournon-Adivasi parties, either by instituting falsecriminal cases against them, or refusing to acceptcomplaints from Adivasis. Law enforcementagencies are also reported to act in complicitywith powerful interests, intent on the forcibleoccupation of Adivasi land. For example, ourinformants report that the police accept patentlyfalse cases against the inhabitants of reservedforests, including against disabled and infirmpeople! In the CHT, there is a perception of stateinaction in cases of organized violence againstAdivasis in the post-Accord period. The absence ofa multi-ethnic police force and of the failureto devolve law and order to the hill district councils(HDCs) exacerbates this perception, and perhapseven the reality.32

Access to justice for indigenous peoples: a case study of BangladeshGender justiceGender issuesThe issue of gender has been largely deprioritizedwithin Adivasi rights organizations until relativelyrecently. A significant exception is in the context ofviolence, occupation and oppression by powerfulpolitical and economic interests, or by securityforces – whether in the plains or the CHT – whichhave drawn attention to acts of violence againstwomen, and the failure to provide redress.However, the pervasiveness of genderdiscrimination and violence against women withinand outside Adivasi communities remains largelyunacknowledged by the community as a whole,and unaddressed by justice institutions.In the plains, a common position among (largelymale) Adivasi activists is that existing Adivasi lawson marriage, divorce, guardianship and custodyand adoption fully protect women’s rights and thatwomen are adequately represented in religious orsocial events, in contrast to the absence of women’scentral role in such gatherings in Bengali society.However, female Adivasis informants pointed tomany gender-discriminatory aspects of such lawsand customary practices.In the CHT, despite inclusion of the genderquestion, it was a lower priority in the Hillpeople’s political agenda for autonomy. However,both men and women activists agreed that thestruggle for autonomy had catalysed anunderstanding both of the need for genderequality and its absence in traditional Chakmasociety where women enjoy relatively moremobility and freedom than in mainstream Bengaliculture.At the same time, the policies, strategies andprogrammes adopted by national women’sorganizations, with significant exceptions, rarelyappear to take the specific needs and concerns ofAdivasi women into account.The issues of gender justice that plagueindigenous communities generally are:• Lack of awareness regarding women’s orchild rights issues within traditional justiceinstitutions, government bodies and evenNGOs, particularly with regard to questionsof child custody or welfare issues in cases ofdivorce and separation;• New trends of violence against women,hitherto unknown among Adivasis, thoughcommon among Bengalis, such as dowryrelatedviolence in the plains, and in theCHT, cases of kidnapping/abduction beingfiled to harass couples who marry withoutparental approval;• Lack of awareness of constitutional, legaland customary rights prevents many Adivasiwomen from seeking redress when unjustlytreated;• Limited or no representation of Adivasiwomen at higher levels of decision makingwithin the formal, regional and traditionalsystems prevents their playing a role indevelopment, reform or implementation ofthe law;33

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacific• Religion-based and other traditional personallaws continue to apply to determine rightswithin the family for all persons, includingAdivasis in the plains and perpetuate genderdiscriminationwith regard to rights to marriageand dissolution;• Lack of recognition in formal state laws ofcustomary traditions, including of women’sexisting inheritance rights (e.g. amongmatrilineal communities such as the Garosand Khasis in the plains), results indeprivation of property rights;• While able to do so, plains Adivasi womenrarely access the Family Courts, as they areperceived as insensitive or do not understandAdivasi rights and customs, and instead seekremedies before their traditional justiceinstitutions;• Lack of documentation and reporting ofviolence against women before formal justiceinstitutions (in cases of ‘insider/outsider’violence), due to the fear of, and lack ofconfidence in, law enforcement agencies;• The non-existence of a Special Tribunal onViolence against Women and Children in theCHT and the consequent need to access thedistantly located Divisional Commissioner’sCourt in Chittagong;• Lack of support in the form of medical,psycho-social counselling or shelter from anystate or NGO-led services exacerbated in theCHT by intelligence agency surveillances,amounting to harassment of organizationsproviding such services;• Adivasi women face real marginalizationand exclusion from decision-making inmany of the traditional justice institutions. Inthe process of traditional dispute resolution,women’s participation is highly restrictedeven where they are a party in a case. Insome cases concerning premarital orextramarital relations or sexual crimes,some of the physical punishments which aremeted out may disproportionately impacton women: for example, sentencing thewoman concerned to carry 100 buckets ofwater to the top of the hill to water a tree, orto stay alone in the monastery or temple(Pagoda or Kyang) for 10 to 15 days for thesalvation of her soul;• Inadequate training and orientation oftraditional institutions on women’s rightsand gender issues;• In some cases, women are allowed toparticipate in the traditional disputeresolution process, with those responsiblefor decision-making hearing her side of thestory before any settlement is reached. Butin general, gender bias is pervasive withinthe community justice system.Right to participation andrepresentationAdivasis lack effective participation in, orrepresentation at, various levels of elected office –the Union Parishad level, the Paurashavas and CityCorporations and Parliament – as well as in theexecutive arm of the government, with only ahandful of persons serving in these institutions.Theonly exceptions can be found within the CHT,where Adivasis overwhelmingly occupy traditionalinstitutions of the Headman, Karbari and CircleChiefs, and in the Hill District Councils and RegionalCouncil.34

Access to justice for indigenous peoples: a case study of BangladeshParticipation in the formal justice systemThere is one Adivasi Judge, and there are some fivelawyers (all men) in the Supreme Court. There arealso reportedly very low levels of representationwithin the lower judiciary and the Magistracy.Judges and other officials are usually not familiarwith, and therefore do not take cognizance of,Adivasi traditions in resolving disputes.Language is also a barrier. Adivasis may face aproblem in terms of understanding their rights oraccessing remedies before the police orformal justice institutions (such as the Courts or theDC), in the absence of proper translation facilities.In many cases, dispossession of Adivasis from theirland has been facilitated through exploitationof their ignorance of land laws, or throughmanipulation of language (one often citedinstance among the Santal is of agreeing to sell “barbigha”(two bighas in Santali), which is later claimedby the usually non-Adivasis purchaser to be ‘barobigha’ (twelve bighas in Bengali)). Women areparticularly affected, as they may remain silentabout violence before a male translator orwithout any support.The expense of seeking justice in court is asignificant barrier for most Adivasis. Theexisting official legal aid scheme does nottarget Adivasis, or take any special measures toaddress them, and is not aware of the extentto which it provides services to Adivasiscommunities. Although some NGOs reach outto Adivasi communities to provide training andorientation on rights awareness, or to provide legalaid and assistance, very few appear toconsult with Adivasi groups to identify priorityissues or concerns, and tend to be largelyreactive and adhoc in their responses.Participation in the traditional justice systemSome of the pitfalls of participation in thetraditional justice systems are the following:• Risk of traditional justice institutions failing torecognize or mediate acts of violence againstwomen (in ‘insider/insider’ cases);• Risk of traditional justice institutions imposingpenalties, which do not conform tofundamental human rights norms and victimizethe more vulnerable members of thecommunity, e.g. women;• Absence of state support for training andcapacity-building of traditional justiceinstitutions.Social, cultural, religious andeconomic participationAn increasing loss of language skills and culturalidentity has occurred among many Adivasis, due tothe dominance of Bengali culture and increasingBengalicization of society. Many young Adivasis areabandoning their traditional languages and culture.Chittagong Hill TractsAdivasi communities discourage conversion toother religions and may punish such individualactions by the threat of or actual expulsion fromthe community (one respondent cited the case of aBrahmin who converted to Christianity butultimately returned to his faith/community afterhaving been excluded for a time). Instances ofconversion of minorities to Islam or Christianityhave also been alleged.35

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificPlainsIn the plains, there are traces of an inherent racismin the majority community towards many Adivasis,perhaps as a form of residual caste consciousnessdue to the historical influence of Hinduismdominant in the plains. Often, this results in thesegregation of Adivasis from other students inschools or prohibitions on their entry torestaurants (as reported in North Bengal).Cultural and religious discrimination is oftenapparent in acts such as the theft of idols/imagesfrom places of worship reported in Rakhaine areasor restrictions on religious practices (e.g.prohibition on singing kirtons (religious songs) orringing temple bells).In the plains, traces of anti-Adivasi racism in themajority community, possibly due to residual casteconsciousness arising from the historical influenceof Hinduism dominant in the plains, results in, insome areas, the segregation of Adivasis from otherstudents or prohibitions on their entry torestaurants and other public places.Given limited representation at the highestlevels within the Government and agencies such asthe Chittagong Hill Tracts Development Board(CHTDB), there is limited input by Adivasis into theformation of economic and development policiesor the allocation of resources.Restrictions on Adivasil-ed NGO operations, byboth the NGO Affairs Bureau and the securityagencies (especially in the CHT), createunnecessary barriers for Adivasis to work for theirown economic benefit.3. KEY LESSONS LEARNED FROM APPLYINGPARTICIPATORY APPROACHESResearch processes and toolsusedThe methods used for researching the topic werethe following:• Desk work: reviewing literature and existingreports;• Focus group discussions with local Adivasisgroups and individuals;• Consultation meetings;• Interviews with duty bearers: Officials in national,regional and local NGOs as well as legal aidorganizations, professionals, academics andlawyers.Effective participatory processesEffective participatory processes were ensured byusing effective contact points. The UNDP officefacilitated meetings with the Government ofBangladesh, while the UNDP Chittagong Hill TractsDevelopment Facility helped to facilitate thoseregionally. The quality of the research data wasenhanced by using local resource persons like theChakma Chief, Raja Devasish Roy. His inclusion asthe team advisor helped to legitimize the researchamong the local population. The researchers toohad a background of both scholarly work andactivism in the CHT and in the plains. Thisprofile enabled them to use their professional36

Access to justice for indigenous peoples: a case study of Bangladeshconnections, e.g. lawyers, academics, NGO workers,in the data gathering process. Furthermore, theactivist background as researchers helped inthe meetings with human rights activists anddefenders, which, in the light of the delicatesituation reigning in the CHT, was especiallyhelpful. Very marginalized and little-knownAdivasis, such as Mundas and Bunos, were alsoinvolved in consultations due to prior connectionsof some of the researchers with these groups.Challenges to the participatory processesThe sensitive nature of the topic, especially giventhe political context of the CHT, created manychallenges in the process of data gathering. Someof these were as follows:• Reticence of government officials to discussquestions openly, especially in Dinajpurwhere the local administration was underthe influence of the local MP who happenedto be a minister, and also the sister of thethen incumbent prime minister;• An intransigent and evasive attitude ofgovernment officials towards Adivasis;• In many cases, total ignorance of Adivasi issuesamong highly placed government officials;• Male dominance among Adivasi leadersinhibited women from talking of their ownproblems in a free and fair way. Hence infocus group discussions, special effort wasneeded to get women to talk of their ownproblems in a free and fair way;• Vested interest groups within thegovernment and local officials who wereinvolved with power politics at the regionallevel often tried to impose their views onthe researchers.Principles of gathering data and ensuringsustainable participationSome lessons can be learned regardingprinciples of data gathering and ensuringsustainable participation. These are:• Ensure acceptability of researchers tovarious sections of duty-bearers and claimholders;• Create separate forums to discuss problemsof most disadvantaged sections of Adivasissociety, as they tend to get submerged bydominant community concerns, e.g. genderand problems of extremely marginalizedAdivasis. In Rajshahi, we had to ask the mento leave the women’s group, saying that wehave some “girlish” things to discuss!• Gain the trust of claimholders by followingup on certain actions, even during theperiod of research, as so manydisadvantaged people tend to think thatresearch is all words and no action. This iswhere principles of action-research comeinto play;• An inadequate sense of responsibility wasfelt among duty-bearers to Adivasi claims.The above-mentioned action researchmethod often helped duty-bearers to bereminded of their responsibility;Linkages to human rights standards werearticulated only to those with exposure to suchdebates in the national and internationalforums. Human rights standards were oftenblatantly refuted or misinterpreted withinpolitical circles, e.g. deliberately misusing theterminology of indigenous (who is an Adivasiand who is not) to generate a politics of insidervs. outsider and deny indigenous people theirinherent and customary rights to land.37

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacific4. RECOMMENDATIONSIn order to ensure access to justice for Adivasis, it isessential that a common ground is developedfor discourse and exchange between Adivasiorganizations and existing institutions of justicedelivery at both the state and non-state levels.The key points of any such discussion must includethe adoption of commitments, by both state andnon-state actors:• To end racial,religious and gender discriminationin both law and practice;• To undertake necessary legal and policyreforms;• To enable collaboration among Adivasiorganizations, individuals and mainstreamjustice delivery organizations;• To strengthen community-based organizationsamong Adivasis so that they are able toparticipate fully in political, economic and socialdevelopment, and also to deliver access to justice;• To establish a clear division of responsibilities andchains of command between differentadministrative authorities to ensure accountabilityfor purposes of good governance.Improvement of the existing legalframeworkRecognition of parallel legal systemsThe formal legal system should recognize, to theextent that they conform with human rightsnorms, the decisions of the traditional disputeresolution bodies operating within most Adivasicommunities (particularly in the plains).Recognition of prescriptive and customaryrights to land and forests• For the concerned communities, preservationof certain areas as common property forcommunity forests, communal grasslandsand grazing lands, and jum cultivation orother agricultural cultivation;• Establishment of an elected body for thepreservation and management of suchcommon property;• Preservation of water bodies as commonproperty for use by Adivasis, rather thanallocating/leasing/licensing them to anyindividual or corporate body as privateproperty;• Recognition of customary rights ofinhabitants of reserved forests.Compilation of existing laws and customsReview and dissemination of existingcompilations and analysis of Adivasi laws andpractice in easy-to-understand and accessibleformats. In the CHT, recognition and partialcodification/documentation may be possiblethrough the HDCs and/or the CHTRC;Implementation of existing laws• Ensuring application and effectiveimplementation of section 28 of the ForestAct within the CHT by assignment of rightsby the government to inhabitants ofreserved forests or, alternatively, by ensuringthat the majority of income from the sale offorest produce is given to village forestcommunities, through agreement (followingprecedents established in India, for example);38

Access to justice for indigenous peoples: a case study of Bangladesh• Cancellation of declarations of RF madebefore the CHT Peace Accord under section20 of the Forest Act or otherwise underprocess of reservation, and placing theselands within the jurisdiction of the HDCs orhaving the disputes resolved through theLand Commission.Amendment/Repeal of existing laws• If necessary, reform of existing laws could bebrought about through constitutionalchallenges, if the legislature appearsunresponsive. For example, the question ofwhether the pre-constitutional Forest Act isin violation of rights to life/livelihood,property or movement, could arguably beraised by a constitutional challenge beforethe Supreme Court;• In addition, dialogues on processes of lawreform within the communities could beinitiated, for example, on the elimination ofgender discrimination in family laws andinheritance laws (as pioneered within theBawm and Khyang peoples in the CHT) andon child rights and other relevant humanrights issues.Resolving conflict of laws• Non-implementation of certain existinglaws, and non-availability of these laws tothe public at large, means many conflictingapplications of the existing law are ongoing.There is a need to recognize and removeexisting conflicts of laws.Ratification of and incorporation into domesticlaw of international instruments• Immediate steps to incorporate into nationallaw the provisions of treaties already ratified byBangladesh (ICCPR, ICESCR, CERD, CEDAW, CATCRC and ILO Conventions No. 107 and No. 111)and to expedite ratification of other keyinternational treaties on human rights andenvironment (including ILO Convention No.169, the Rome Statute on the InternationalCriminal Court and the Optional Protocol to theICCPR);• Existing declarations or reservations totreaties already ratified by Bangladesh (e.g.ICCPR, ICESCR, CEDAW, CAT and CRC) shouldbe reviewed and withdrawn.Process of law reforms• Existing laws applicable to Adivasi communitiesshould be reviewed and analysed, in order tomake necessary amendments and ensure theirconsistency to the possible extent withtraditional culture and values of Adivasicommunities, and also with basic human rightsprinciples;• As part of this process of review andanalysis, action-research should be carriedout on a pilot basis in several key areas tomap the diversity of problems faced byAdivasis located across the country as wellas their suggestions for legal changesneeded. Ensure that consultations are heldwith a diverse cross section of personswithin the community, particularly Adivasiwomen and children, in order to incorporatetheir perspectives.Formal justice systemStreamlining of functions of differentinstitutions• To ensure more expeditious access to justicein the CHT, the powers of the DC andCommissioner (and the executive branch of39

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacificthe government) need to be limited andreplaced, as appropriate, by those of civiland criminal courts under the SupremeCourt of Bangladesh. This must take intoconsideration the particular features ofjustice dispensation in the traditionalinstitutions in the area. As the first step, theCHT Regulation (Amendment) Act of 2003should be brought into force, and theappropriate judicial officers and ancillaryadministrative personnel appointed;• In the CHT, build institutional linkages betweencentral, regional and local institutions withregard to dispute settlement processes andwith respect to development planning whichmay impact on access to justice issues.Making the CHT land Commission effectiveEnsuring that the CHT Land Commission’soperation incorporates amendments to the LandCommission Act as advised by the RegionalCouncil.Setting up a land commission for the plainsProviding a one-stop service for addressing all landdisputes and eliminating the protracted delays andmultiple levels which any litigant in a land case issubject to in the current system.Addressing land acquisition of Adivasi lands• Putting in place systems for identifying suchland and ensuring that it is protected fromcompulsory acquisition;• Imposing restrictions on the transfer of rurallands to individuals/organizations notassociated with local people or Adivasis orHill peoples;• Providing legal, strategic and organizationalsupport for ensuring preservation of landand forest rights of Adivasis;• For the concerned communities, preservingcertain areas (including water bodies) ascommon property for community forests,grazing lands, communal grasslands andjum cultivation or other agricultural cultivation;• Establishing an elected body for preservationand management of such common property(at the mauza level in the CHT);• In the CHT, cancelling all leases granted tonon-residents (in particular influentialpersons, administrative officials); establishinglocal committees to scrutinize such leases,and amount of land so leased; then developinglegal strategies to address these problems,with collective participation in the process.The DCs could be instructed to initiate suomoto processes to cancel such leases;• Following best practice from elsewhere, inapplying section 28 of the Forest Act withinthe CHT to ‘village forest communities/forest dwellers’ within Reserved Forestswhere tens of thousands of indigenouspeoples live. Similar processes could also beinitiated in the plains in greater Sylhet,greater Mymensingh, etc.;• Cancelling declarations of reserve forestmade under the Forest Act before theAccord, or otherwise under the process ofreservation, and placing these lands withinthe jurisdiction of the HDCs, or having thedisputes resolved by the Land Commission;40

Access to justice for indigenous peoples: a case study of Bangladesh• False cases (including under Forests Act orViolence against Women Act) should bewithdrawn to prevent further harassment;• In tea gardens, considering leasing out toAdivasis and other workers the unusedcompany lands where tea is not cultivableand lands where tea could be cultivated butis not being cultivated.Reduction of delays in the courts• In the plains, circulars or notifications todirect the cases involving the rights ofAdivasis are dealt with on a priority basis(particularly on land and forest cases);• Case management programmes to prioritizeareas with high Adivasi populations toensure speedier disposal of existing caseloads.Affirmative action• Following best practice from the colonialperiod of appointment of ‘Special Officersfor Aboriginals’ and/or ‘Welfare Officers’ inAdivasi areas to advise the DC. In doing so,recruiting only Adivasis from the relevantarea to such posts will enable effectivecommunication and response to Adivasis’needs in any area;• Translation facilities should be madeavailable in courts (including new courts tobe established within the CHT) in casesinvolving Adivasis who are unable tocommunicate fully or effectively in thelanguage of the court, as well as in policestations.Elimination of bias within the system• Cases involving Adivasis as victims/survivorsshould be investigated promptly, impartiallyand independently wherever possible, toallow for speedy provision of remedies. Thepattern of inaction in such cases breedsresentment and distrust in the legal process,which further prevent the possibility ofensuring access to justice for Adivasis;• Awareness-raising programmes should beundertaken among judicial officers, courtofficers, police, prison officials andgovernment legal aid staff, to developgreater sensitivity regarding the issues andconcerns faced by Adivasis, including thosefrom vulnerable or marginalized communitiesfacing intersecting discriminations;• Similar awareness-raising programmes arerequired for NGOs who are working withformal legal system, for example in providinglegal services.Registration of Adivasi marriagesProviding for registration of Adivasi marriages, withAdivasis themselves being responsible forundertaking and maintaining registrationprocesses.Medical care in cases of violenceMedical examinations in cases of allegedviolence against women should be held at theUpazilla level without any delay or obstacles.Currently, regulations that require a medical boardto be established prior to an examination of thevictim/survivor lead to delays and the risk of losingvital evidence.41

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificTraditional or informal justicesystemsCompilation of traditions and customsCompile and then partially codify or documentexisting customs of Adivasis from the ground level.The compiled list should be given to the LandCommission and elsewhere (for example, thelibraries of various Bar Associations and judges’libraries in the Supreme Court and lower courts).Full codification may not be appropriate because itmay affect the participatory manner of customarylaw-making and render flexible rules into rigid andstatic practices that may not be responsive tochanging social needs.Recognition by the formal legal system• Ensuring some level of recognition in thetraditional dispute resolution methods bythe formal legal system, especially in theplains, where indigenous chiefs andheadmen are not formally recognized;• Invoking criminal laws against those engagedin traditional dispute resolution who imposepenalties or sanctions on the disputants whichcontravene fundamental rights.Affirmative actionIncreasing involvement of wider sections of thecommunity in traditional dispute resolution bodies(for example, by ensuring that more women areappointed as Headmen and Karbaris or thatwomen and individuals from ‘low castes’have morevoice in the process).Elimination of bias within the system• Training members of the traditional disputeresolution bodies in constitutional rights,human rights standards (including women’srights and children’s rights, in particular) andstatutory laws to ensure that customarydispute resolution processes and outcomesare in conformity with the constitutionaland legal framework, and respect fundamentalhuman rights;• Also consider how to avoid losing discretionand flexibility inherent to the customarysystem (consider the risks of a full formalcodification);• Also consider the risk of bringing in a moreadversarial process, which would preventeffective dispute resolution that is generallymore rehabilitative and participatory thanprocesses that are oriented around incarcerationand other punitive or monetary sanctions;• Provide a platform for dialogue anddiscussion on various community problemsand issues with government officials. Thereis a need to build up the capacity ofindividuals and representative organizationsof each community to this end. The CHTRegional Council (RC) could start playing arole in this regard.Building linkages between formal andtraditional justice systems• Reform of Land Commission, by ensuringrepresentation and participation of allcommunities in the CHT, removing provisionregarding its Chairman’s overriding decisions,putting limitations on its geographicaljurisdiction and ensuring its effective operation,among others;• Consider including Karbaris and Headmenin the Standing Committees of the UnionParishads, particularly on the StandingCommittee on Law and Order issues.42

Access to justice for indigenous peoples: a case study of BangladeshEnhancing capacity to providejusticeImplementation of the Peace Accord 1997The Implementation Committee for the PeaceAccord should be reconstituted, or a ParliamentaryCommittee (ensuring the representation ofindigenous peoples) established, in order toaddress and continue the implementation of thePeace Accord.Reform and activation of the Land Commission• The Land Commission should be activated(subject to the proposed amendments);• In the meantime, forcible land settlement inthe CHT must be stopped;• In the interim period, internally displacedpeople among the Adivasis should beprovided food aid, healthcare, educationand other supports from governmental andother sources.Conduct of land surveyA land survey should be held within the CHT and inother areas, with participation by a significantnumber of the Adivasi populations to ensure anaccurate demarcation and ownership of land –including community land. The land survey shouldbe conducted only after a settlement of existingland disputes as affirmed in the Accord. It issuggested that any such survey should be held inthe presence of independent monitors (forexample, lawyers of the Bangladesh Bar Council) toensure that records are properly drawn up andprovided to the owner(s) concerned.Reorganization of MoCHTA• Holding meetings of the Advisory Committeeof MoCHTA (including MPs, RC, HDCchairpersons, chiefs and three non-tribaladvisers);• Increasing the number of Adivasisrepresented on the staff of MoCHTA willincrease its credibility among the Adivasipopulation of the CHT;• Restructuring the work of MoCHTA toinclude more consultations with the CHT,RC, HDCs, and the traditional institutions onissues of access to justice will furtherenhance the ministry’s capacity to act onsuch issues.Enhancing representation of Adivasis in thejustice system and civl administration• The current quota for indigenous peoples inthe judicial service and administrativeservice should be maintained and filled, asshould the quotas with respect to the civilservice and the police;• Quotas or affirmative action policies shouldbe put in place amongst NGOs working inthe area of human rights, women’s rights orlegal services to ensure that Adivasis aremore closely involved in identifying andresponding to rights violations involvingtheir own communities and in designingresponses to those violations;• Inclusion of Adivasi individuals or otherindividuals versed in Adivasi issues in thePublic Service Commission.43

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificTraining of government officials/NGOs• Training programmes should be set up forgovernment officials (judges, police, civilservants) and NGOs to increase awarenessand understanding of the issues thatconcern Adivasi communities, including theAdivasi traditions, customs and culture. Suchtraining should be mandatory for all thoseposted to areas with high density of Adivasipopulations, including the CHT;• Orientation could be provided beforeofficers are dispatched to Adivasi settlements(e.g. for UNOs, Police, DCs, Magistrates, Judges)and, if possible, for MPs and UP chairpersonsand members if they are not Adivasis;• The curriculum for training of magistrates/judges (in JATI) and other officers couldinclude information on Adivasi laws andpractices, and on priority problems faced byAdivasi men, women and children in theiraccess to justice.Public consultation with Adivasi communities• NGOs, particularly legal services andhuman/women’s rights organizations, shouldhold broad-based consultations among andwithin different sectors of the Adivasicommunities. These consultations will help toidentify more clearly their needs and concerns,in particular those of vulnerable ormarginalized groups experiencing intersectingdiscrimination (on grounds of race andgender/age/disability, etc.), and to designinterventions accordingly;• Similarly, consultations with potentiallyaffected Adivasi communities must be heldprior to undertaking any developmentprojects, such as eco-parks or mines, etc.These projects should not be establishedwithout the prior, informed consent of thecommunities concerned.Monitoring and evaluation• The Government Legal Aid Committees, aswell as NGOs, should develop closermonitoring and evaluation of their owninterventions, to ensure a more effectiveimpact, and also incorporate the lessonslearned into the regular review ofprogrammes;• The Bar Council could strengthen andcoordinate the human rights cells of thevarious Bar Associations across the countryand encourage them to work in closeconjunction with key NGOs and GOs, inorder to prioritise investigation, fact-findingand legal support in cases involving Adivasis(prioritizing the areas of family, land andcriminal law).Enhancing capacity to demandjusticeEmpowerment strategies• Awareness-raising programmes should beheld by and among Adivasis regarding theirconstitutionally guaranteed and statutoryrights to life, liberty and personal security;equality and non-discrimination; property(in relation to land, family and criminaljustice in particular); and available remediesbefore formal and non-formal institutions ofjustice;• Human rights education programmes couldbe included at school and college level aswell in institutions of higher education,preferably in Adivasi languages;44

Access to justice for indigenous peoples: a case study of Bangladesh• Mobilization programmes should be held byand among Adivasis to enable them todemand enforcement of their constitutionallyguaranteed fundamental rights and statutoryrights.Strengthening organizational capacity• Skills-building – specialized skills ininvestigation and documentation as well asin media and communications could bedeveloped within existing Adivasiorganizations in order to enhance theircapacity to identify human rights violationsand to demand appropriate remedies;• Creating paralegals and mediators – capacitybuilding among Adivasi activists andorganizations, particularly the training ofAdivasis as lawyers, paralegals and shalishkars,in order to facilitate more effective access toformal legal system and non-formal legalsystem;• Monitoring – Monitoring cells could bedeveloped within Adivasi organizations andcommunities across the country toinvestigate, document and report on humanrights violations, and/or to make referrals toappropriate bodies to invoke appropriatelegal remedies;• Networking – Adivasi organizations/communities could develop closer linkswith a wider and more broad-based set ofissue-based networks and organizations(such as on violence against women,children’s rights, or environmental matters),as well as human rights and legal servicesorganizations in order to provide them withsome ‘coverage’ in addressing sensitivematters, and also to enable them to draw onthe strengths and abilities of the latter whiledeveloping their own capacity;• Strengthen networking among Adivasis atleadership levels across South Asia/SAARC(e.g. parliamentarians) and internationallevels to focus demands on policy/lawreform changes.Partnerships with NGOs/CSOsNetworking with and among Adivasiorganizations• NGOs (including development organizations,human rights organizations, women’s rightsorganizations and legal services groups)need to move away from a firefightingmode – of responding only to headlines ofhuman rights violations – and insteadengage in activities directly with Adivasicommunities, through their organizationson a regular basis;• NGOs and CSOs also need to develop moreeffective linkages on the ground withAdivasi communities to ensure more regularcommunications and followups in casesthat require their intervention or support;• In developing such networks, considerwhether a more formal network should beestablished or whether it is preferable todevelop or strengthen existing workingrelations to enable more responsive andspeedy interaction, particularly in thecontext of a sensitive security environment;• In developing the networks, special emphasisshould be placed on giving priorities to themost marginalized and disadvantagedAdivasi communities;45

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacific• A particular effort needs to be made tofacilitate opportunities for women to raisetheir concerns within existing Adivasiorganizations or, alternatively, to organizeautonomously and articulate their concerns.Awareness-raising among NGOs/CSOs• Awareness-raising programmes should beundertaken by and among NGOs/CSOs onthe key terms of the Peace Accord of 1997 inorder to develop a more effective means forimplementation and to otherwise helpfacilitate the process of implementation;• Awareness-raising programmes andconsultations need to be engaged amongNGOs in order to build a wider understandingof key Adivasi issues and concerns, tostrategically prepare appropriate responses,and to build these into the NGO’s programmeactivities.Incorporating Adivasi concerns into existingaccess to justice initiativesIn designing and developing access tojustice-related programmes, NGOs should workmore proactively to reflect and incorporate Adivasiconcerns (for example, including information onAdivasi family laws in a training on family laws oron specific problems affecting Adivasi children).Developing greater diversity within NGOsCurrently, many NGOs have limited or norepresentation of Adivasis within theirorganizations; they also have little awareness ofsuch lack of representation. Consequently, theyshould consider adopting internal policies forrecruitment on the basis of affirmative action,particularly the recruitment of women, atdecision-making levels.Role of international communityUN agencies/Specialized agencies• The ILO Office in Bangladesh should reviewits obligations to address the rights ofindigenous peoples, pursuant to ILOConvention No. 169, ILO Convention No. 107and ILO Convention No. 111; disseminateinformation about the Conventions; andundertake appropriate strategies andprogrammes to help implement them;• The UNDP Regional Centres for Asia Pacificand the ILO Regional Office for Asia and thePacific could discuss a common frameworkto address such issues;• Support initiatives to build the capacity ofRC and HDCs in framing regulations for theirown operations, as well as for addressingrelations with the traditional justice systems;• Strengthen and build the capacity oftraditional dispute resolution bodies (suchas the Karbaris and Headmen) and ensurethat their activities are carried out inconformity with human rights standards;• Support action research on the role andfunctions of traditional justice institutionsand establish closer linkages with formaljustice institutions;• Enable provision of support servicesthrough local NGOs to enhance access tojustice, including legal advice, psycho-socialcounselling, medical services and sheltersfor victims of violence;• Support compilation of customary laws ofAdivasis in the plains and in the CHT.46

© Mr. Colin NicholasIndigenous traditional legal systems and conflictresolution in Ratanakiri and Mondulkiri Provinces,CambodiaMaria Backstrom and Jeremy IronsideACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe authors are grateful for the invaluable assistance they received from the team of elder researchers fromthe Highlanders Association, and the team of youth researchers from IYDP. Secondly, they acknowledge thetime and information given freely by the villagers from 15 villages in Ratanakiri and three in MondulkiriProvinces that made up this study, as well as participants in three inter-ethnic workshops conducted. Theyalso acknowledge the prisoners and others around Ban Lung who assisted in creating a better picture ofthe traditional justice situation.

CAMBODIA

ACRONYMSDKCCDRCHAICCPRIYDPMoIMoJOLMUPCCDistrict/Khan Cadastral CommissionsDispute Resolution CommitteeHighlander’s AssociationInternational Covenant on Civil and Political RightsIndigenous Youth Development ProjectMinistry of InteriorMinistry of JusticeOffice of Land Management, Urban Planning, Construction and Cadastre

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacific1. OVERVIEWThis paper presents a summary of the findings of aparticipatory action-research case study intoindigenous traditional legal systems in Ratanakiriand Mondulkiri Provinces. 1 The research took placein March and April 2006.The two main objectives ofthe case study were:• To describe traditional justice systems andpractices, and develop recommendations forpolicy-makers on amendments to legalprovisions and institutional arrangements,which would ensure that indigenous peopleshave improved access to justice through boththeir customary legal practices and the formaljustice system; 2• To describe some of the difficulties thatindigenous peoples face in finding justresolutions to their problems outside theirvillage and suggest some possible solutions.The indigenous peoples of Cambodia are amarginalized group with poor access to justicethrough the formal legal system. 3 A major factorcausing this marginalization is the almost totalabsence of formal legal services and institutionswhere indigenous peoples might be able to havetheir cases fairly adjudicated. Social protest is oftenthe last resort when individuals and communitymembers have been unable to seek just redressfrom the courts regarding their land disputes.‘Protesters’ are often jailed for long periods,without appropriate hearings, legal procedures orlegal representation.Rapid and uncontrolled development processes inindigenous areas (which have traditionally beenrich in natural resources) are also a marginalizingfactor. With improved infrastructure throughoutthe country, there has been a rapid increase inmigration to remote regions. This has resulted inlarge-scale alienation of indigenous communityland and increasing numbers of conflicts over landand natural resources. Wealthy and powerfulpeople, both inside and outside the government,and especially outsiders to the region, are betterable to take advantage of the opportunitiesafforded by expanding markets and improvedtransport. Highland villagers, on the other hand,find themselves without their land or the necessarycapital, resources and knowledge to takeadvantage of new opportunities.This summary will discuss some of the main policyissues that need to be dealt with as part of a reformprocess to enhance access to justice for indigenouspeoples. It will also describe the participatoryresearch process and summarize the mainrecommendations.123See Backstrom, M. Ironside, J. Paterson, G. Padwe, J. and Baird, I.G., ‘A Case Study of Indigenous Traditional Legal Systems and Conflict Resolution inRatanakiri and Mondulkiri Provinces, Cambodia.’ UNDP/Ministry of Justice, Legal and Judicial Reform Programme. 2006.In this abstract, the words ‘informal’,‘traditional’ and ‘customary’ are used interchangeably.See also Yrigoyen Fajardo, Raquel Z., Kong Rady and Phan Sin, Pathways to Justice: Access to Justice with a Focus on Poor, Women, and Indigenous Peoples,UNDP Cambodia/Ministry of Justice, Royal Government of Cambodia, Phnom Penh, 2005.50

Indigenous traditional legal systems and conflict resolution in Cambodia2. KEY FINDINGS AND MAIN POLICY ISSUESKey findingsIndigenous communities overwhelmingly trust,use and support their customary laws and theconflict-resolution processes within theircommunityThis is perhaps the main finding from the villageconsultations, with community members clearlystating that they wish to be able to continue to useand rely on customary laws and conflict-resolutionprocesses. The vast majority of the indigenouspeople who were interviewed see the traditionalsystem as fairer, more pro-poor and easier for localpeople to access than the formal justice system.The research findings demonstrated that theconcept of justice for indigenous communitiesextends much further than simply punishing theoffender. It also includes other important elementssuch as compensating the victim, restoringharmony in the community and reconciling thetwo parties. To achieve these other aspects ofjustice requires the wide and active participation ofcommunity members in the conflict-resolutionprocess. The result of such a process is thatindigenous community members have a strongand clear sense of right and wrong. From thisperspective, the decisions indigenous communitymembers see coming out of the courts do notconform to any moral code they use, implementand know. As villagers from Reu Hon Village put it,in the courts:“What is wrong is right, and what is right is wrong.”Some problems with traditional systems raisedincluded the at times unfair and overly heavy finesand, more recently, cases in which more powerfulpeople pay off the adjudicators. Women alsocomplained that sometimes their suggestions andinput are not given the same weight assuggestions/input from men. However, women ingeneral supported their traditional justice systemsas the proceedings are carried out in their locallanguages, and they are supported by theirfamilies. Indigenous youth also generally supporttheir system but some see traditional systems asnot being able to deal with modern-day conflicts,especially those involving outsiders.Indigenous groups are marginalized in theformal legal systemAs a result of the above, indigenous communitiesmake only very limited use of the formal legalsystem (e.g. provincial level courts) and, whennecessary, seek assistance with conflicts whichcannot be resolved internally at the village,commune and district government level. Theresults showed that 170 out of 257 cases dealt withby the traditional authorities in 10 villages in therecent past had been resolved by traditionaladjudicators. Eighty-seven of those cases weretaken to the government-appointed village chieffor further assistance, 30 were taken to theCommune Council, 19 to the Communal Police,nine to the district level, and only six were taken tothe courts.Indigenous community members are intimidatedand marginalized in court. They are oftenunfamiliar with both written and spoken Khmerand with Khmer legal systems and terminology.They are fearful of high-ranking officials and policeand do not have the support of their friends andfamily, which is a key part of traditional legalprocesses. There is also little or no legal defenceoffered to indigenous peoples, and there are no51

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacifictrained indigenous lawyers working on behalf oftheir own people. Because the formal system oftenrequires the use of money (both for legal fees andbribes), indigenous peoples are unable to obtain‘justice’ from a court.The court system is often usedby powerful interests to silence individuals andfurther disenfranchise them.A dysfunctional formal legal systemAs described above, ‘new’ disputes are not beingaddressed by the formal system. “There is the law,but no one obeys the laws”(Kanat Thoum villagers).As the traditional authorities lack the authority todeal with new disputes, there are no forums foraggrieved parties to have their case heard. Inparticular, the Land Law and other laws are notbeing implemented or followed. This lack of accessto justice is creating a very dangerous situation,with increasing numbers of conflicts and threats ofviolence each year. In the absence of justice,communities are disintegrating, and powerlessindividuals find themselves without land andunable to call upon traditional forms of mutual aid.The result is the increasing impoverishment of thealready poor.Traditional law allows indigenous cultures tomaintain their integrity and cope with changeIndigenous communities make it clear that thepreservation of their culture and traditions ispremised on the maintenance of communitysolidarity.Traditional law plays a much wider role inthese societies as it is a most important method ofpreserving community harmony and solidarity, andmakes it possible for communities to adaptgradually to changing circumstances.Although the traditional legal system is still widelyused in many aspects of indigenous culture, it isclear that it is facing several challenges to itscontinued existence. Change is taking place inindigenous communities at a more rapid pace thanat any time in the past, and this is undoubtedly asource of problems for traditional systems.However, traditional justice systems have alwaysadapted to changing circumstances, and theadaptability of these systems is such that they stillmanage to maintain a strong moral code and areable to deal with many new and complex conflicts,even in the face of rapid change and incommunities that have been seriously impacted byland loss, etc.There is a lack of interface between the formaland the traditional legal systemsThere are several examples of good cooperation onconflict resolution between traditional legalsystems and local government at the communeand district level. Community members by andlarge see the commune and district levels as the‘formal’ legal system because governmentofficials are involved in adjudicating cases and usenational laws to do so. However, decisions, fines andpunishments at the commune and district levelsare just as much, or more, founded on traditionallegal concepts and norms as they are on theapplication of national laws. In addition, some cases– such as criminal matters – cannot be handled bycommune and district officials as they do not havea legal mandate to do so.There are very few examples, however, ofcooperation between the traditional legalsystems and the formal judicial system, and someof the villages that were surveyed had never had aconflict go to the provincial court. Tension existsbetween the police and the traditional legalsystems as the police sometimes perceive thetraditional systems as being in competition withthem, particularly in their informalconflict-resolution capacity; this may be related tothe police practice of extracting fines fromviolators and not sharing the money with thevictim.52

Indigenous traditional legal systems and conflict resolution in CambodiaThe formal and traditional legal systemsaddress different rights, responsibilities andconflictsTraditional systems address issues within thecommunity or, more rarely, between two villages.The traditional system focuses on such areas asinheritance, theft, marriage and other localconcerns. 4A judge in Ratanakiri’s provincial centrecommented that court cases between outsidersand indigenous peoples are mainly about land, andthat cases where both parties are indigenous aremainly related to divorce and assault/domesticviolence. Most common cases between Khmer aredivorces and contract disputes over loans.The system chosen (traditional or formal) to resolvea dispute depends on who the communitymembers trust and seek help from in a conflict, andwhether the traditional authority is able and hasthe authority to deal with the conflict.Foremost among the new problems whichtraditional authorities have to deal with is anincreasing number of disputes with morepowerful people – usually outsiders – over thecontrol of a village’s land and forests. Disputes withneighbouring villages over village boundaries andancestral land claims are becoming increasinglydifficult to resolve because of these new pressuresfrom outside. Increasing numbers of outsiders arenow living in indigenous villages, as reflected in acomment made by a villager in Reach village:In the past outsiders who came to live in thevillage had to agree to follow the traditional law. Nowthere is an influx of outsiders who don’t respect villagelaw. If there is a conflict, they don’t agree, respect, listento the traditional resolution. They depend on thenational law and the courts.The effectiveness and authority of traditional legalsystems are, however, affected by a lack of anystatus or recognition under Cambodian law.Community members who have money cansometimes bypass traditional systems and achievethe decision they want by paying off communeand district authorities, as well as court officials.Policy discussionIn terms of policy-level recommendations toimprove the poor levels of access to justice ofmarginalized indigenous communities, thisresearch has identified two key aspects which needto be dealt with:• The role of traditional law within the formallegal system should be acknowledged;• Reform of the formal legal system is essential.Acknowledging traditional law within the formallegal systemThe principles of equality before the law and nondiscriminationare enshrined in the Cambodianconstitution and international human rightsinstruments and may be drawn on to enhance therole of traditional law within the formal Cambodianlegal system. 5 These established principles give theCambodian government the legal authority topass/amend legislation to achieve these ends,which local and other authorities then have toimplement.Historical analysis carried out as part of the casestudy shows that the French colonial authoritiesboth recognized and encouraged ‘tribal’ customary4There is, however, also a strong tradition of dealing with all types of criminal and civil offences, including serious crimes.53

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacificlaw in special courts as a way to control localpopulations. This analysis constitutes a warning onthe perils of pulling informal or non-state systemsinto the sphere of state regulation. As the Pathwaysto Justice report indicates, and the case studyshows, it is their very independence from politicalstate structures that gives these traditional legalprocesses their legitimacy in the eyes of communitymembers. In contrast, the fact that village chiefs,commune councils and the courts draw theirlegitimacy from state authority, and that staterepresentatives often adjudicate unjustly, makesthis path for legal recourse unappealing tovillagers. Balancing the independence of thetraditional justice system while at the same timerecognizing it as part of Cambodia’s legal structureis a key policy question/dilemma.Pilot activities may be able to answer some of thesequestions, but even these should be approachedand planned with care and with the closecooperation of communities, their representativesand indigenous advisors. This is important work,and a key principle must be not to harm theexisting structures and processes which aredelivering justice to these groups. Top-down, wellintentionedbut unwise interventions could causemore problems than they solve.Policy to enhance the formal role of traditionalauthorities has to acknowledge and allow for thefact that, like all justice systems, the traditionalsystem needs to evolve and adapt to changingcircumstances. As has been shown, an inherentpart of these systems is their ability to incorporateaspects of other justice systems from former (andpresent) regimes. 6 The Brao, Kreung and Kavet, forexample, typically cite legal precedent fromdifferent regimes when deciding on cases,indicating that their legal system is grounded inthe concept of following precedent and changingwith the times. One of the recommendations fromcommunities is that there should be a codificationof their laws by the indigenous communitiesthemselves. If this were done, it would be possibleto understand the diverse influences and the waythis body of law has adapted and evolved. It wouldalso reveal the variations across communities andethnic groups, as traditional law is by natureadaptive, learned by experience and transmittedorally from generation to generation.A further key point with implications for povertyreduction is that the work of the traditionalauthorities directly benefits not only thecommunities themselves, but also widerCambodian society by bringing justice to the mostvulnerable, as well as maintaining community lawand order. Indigenous elders are dealing with theconsequences of social disintegration broughtabout by new development pressures in theircommunities. To avoid the disintegration ofindigenous cultures and societies in the face of thischange, and the ensuing widespread socialconsequences, communities and their elders needto be supported, and their work in maintainingsocial order needs to be recognized. It could beargued that maintaining and supporting thesesystems is the key to the development ofindigenous peoples and poverty reduction for theforeseeable future.Reform of the formal systemA further policy issue is that justice reform alsoneeds to focus on the reform of the formal system.While the indigenous system may ‘work better’56Article 31 of the Cambodian Constitution and article 26 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR).See Appendix 2 of the corresponding full case study (on included CDROM).54

Indigenous traditional legal systems and conflict resolution in Cambodiathan the formal one, it does not follow thattraditional justice systems can substitute or repair abroken ‘formal’ system. As has been pointed outbefore, the two systems often deal with differentrights, responsibilities and conflicts.A policy assumption that needs to be addressed isthat bolstering alternative/traditional disputemechanisms will “fix” the problems of thehighlanders. As this research shows, many of theproblems faced by indigenous peoples come fromoutside their communities. Justice in this sense isnot something that can operate, be delivered orexist in a vacuum. Indigenous communities, ofcourse, need the authority to implement theirtraditional laws and to manage their traditionalareas. However, this authority must be supportedby an environment in which laws are implementedand people are punished for their crimes. If not,impunity, corruption and the abuse of power andmoney will continue to be the de facto law of thecountry and will eventually infect and poisontraditional systems as well.Policy should also focus on enhancing theparticipation of indigenous groups and anypolicies affecting them should only be pursuedwith their informed consent. This goes beyondsimply consulting indigenous peoples to involvingthem in decision-making in the developmentprocess. The right to self-determination (orparticipation rights) forms the basis upon whichindigenous peoples share power within the stateand gives them the right to choose how they willbe governed.Given the size of Cambodia’s indigenouspopulation and the process of decentralizationthat is underway, the commune councils stillrepresents the best opportunity for self-determination(or participation) in communes where minoritygroups are in a majority, even if they are not to befound in highland indigenous customarystructures. These participation rights should befurther explored with the indigenous groups.55

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacific3. METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDYThe fieldwork was primarily focused on reviewingand cataloguing customary practices in conflictresolution in indigenous communities in Ratanakiriand, to a lesser extent, Mondulkiri provinces.Interviews were also conducted with state officialsin Ratanakiri province.An important objective of this study was to providea basis for ongoing dialogue, consultation andfollowup research with both the intendedbeneficiary indigenous communities and with localgovernment representatives. The field work wasstructured to provide a starting point for thisdialogue. Another important component of thefield work was capacity-building for indigenouspeoples’ representatives (e.g. women, youth andelders) in order to allow them to conduct the fieldwork themselves. The action-research approachmade it possible for resource persons among theindigenous peoples in the target communities tofamiliarize themselves with the policy discussionon improving access to justice and to involve themin any future consultations and pilot activities.Partner organizationsThis research process involved a partnershipbetween the study team and two indigenousgroups:1. The Highlander’s Association (HA), a localgrassroots organization in Ratanakiri Provincerepresenting the interests of the province’sindigenous people. Active since 2001, thisassociation has considerable experience inconducting consultations with indigenouscommunities and engaging participation in theformulation of legal instruments to implementthe 2001 Land Law.2. The Indigenous Youth Development Project(IYDP) was created in 2000 to provideopportunities for educated indigenous youthto contribute to the development of their owncommunities. The IYDP programme has usedaction research as one of its capacity-buildingand awareness-raising tools since its inception.Human resourcesA total of 14 elders (from the HA elders council) and14 youth (including four women) from IYDP wereselected as research assistants. These were dividedinto eight research teams, each with one or twoelders and one or two youth. This model has beenfound to work well for community development inindigenous villages in Ratanakiri, as it makes itpossible for educated and literate youth to work inclose cooperation with elders who lack thenecessary literacy skills but who have bothlegitimacy and a knowledge of customarypractices. As far as possible, research assistantswere chosen who could speak the same languageas the target community to which they wereassigned. The elders were able to build trust withcommunity members, explained the objectives ofthe study and facilitated group sessions. The youthresearch assistants guided the process using asemi-structured interview format and documentedthe results. The fieldwork took a total of three tofour days in each target village. Evenings were usedfor larger group meetings and focus-groupdiscussions, and individual interviews were heldduring the day. The research team trained theresearch assistants prior to the fieldwork andmonitored the process.56

Indigenous traditional legal systems and conflict resolution in CambodiaStudy sitesFifteen villages within the HA network were chosenas study sites in Ratanakiri.Three villages were laterchosen in Mondolkiri. The villages were selected torepresent the range of ethnic groups in all ninedistricts of Ratanakiri, in addition to two districts ofMondulkiri. Stable communities and those facingserious social disruption (such as immigration andland loss) were included in the study in order tocompare the range of responses.On average, at least 40 members participated ineach target village. Over 600 indigenous communityrepresentatives (at least 30 percent women) wereconsulted during the course of the fieldwork andverification workshops.Village-level research was also conducted in a Jaraivillage in Andong Meas district and some Braovillages in Ta Veang district. Brao people living inthe provincial capital of Ban Lung were interviewedto determine the extent to which traditional justicesystems are still used there.Process and research contentThe research format was developed in consultationwith a group of elders from the HA AdvisoryCouncil.This was further adjusted and adapted at atrial consultation organized by the HA, where theresearch teams tested the methodology on over 55participants divided into five ethnic/languagegroups. Based on the experience of this trial (whichalready generated a lot of information), theresearch teams were trained for three days. Eachresearch team went to two study sites in Ratanakiri.Based on their experiences in Ratanakiri, a teamlater travelled to Mondulkiri Province andconducted research in three Phnong (Bunong)ethnic villages.This was useful for comparison withthe groups in Ratanakiri.Verification of the field data and findings inRatanakiri was carried out over the course of twoworkshops. These workshops were conductedprimarily in local languages, with facilitators fromthe HA and IYDP youth assisting with translationand documentation. Local authorities from village,commune and district levels also participated.Because the marginalized indigenous groups arethe rights-holders of policies to improve access tojustice, understanding their situation and theirjustice reform needs helped in understanding thelikely impacts of any proposed policy. An historicalperspective/analysis was also undertaken tounderstand the changes that traditional legalsystems are experiencing in order to developappropriate policy recommendations.During the village-level research, mixed groups ofelders (both women and men) were consulted, aswell as disaggregated groups of women and youth.This was done to ensure participation fromall groups in the community, even the mostmarginalized groups, and to understand importantdifferences between them. Some of the questionsthat were raised included:• what are the differences in access to traditionalconflict-resolution processes within communities?• what are the differences in perspectives on thetraditional authority’s conflict-resolutioneffectiveness?• what are the differences in the various powerbases existing within the community?Some of the topics of discussion included:• Customary law;• Identifying traditional authorities and their role(past and present);57

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacific• Identifying the process of conflict-resolutionand adjudication for different kinds of cases;• Analysis of the case load in the village over thepreceding years or decades;• Documentation of specific cases of interest;• Identifying changes which have taken place inthe customary system;• Perception of the customary system by specific• groups (women, youth, local authorities);• Identifying the strengths and weaknesses offormal and customary justice systems;• Identifying interfaces with the formal justicesystem and local authorities;• Community recommendations.Interviewing state officials was also important asany measures to improve access to justice forindigenous peoples will to a certain extent beimplemented by non-indigenous state officials.Commune, district and provincial officials, heads ofthe provincial Office of Land Management, UrbanPlanning, Construction and Cadastre (OLMUPCC),the provincial Department of Rural Development,police and military police were also interviewed. Aninterview was also conducted at the national levelwith H.E. Suong Leang Hay, the Deputy Director ofthe Project Management Unit, and some of hiscolleagues at the Council for Legal and JudicialReform; one of the issues discussed duringthis meeting was the possibility of recognizingtraditional conflict resolution in the overall judicialreform programme.Lessons learnedIt was important that the claim holders themselveswere involved at an early stage of the research.Thisallowed the research to be designed according tothe issues and problems that need to be addressedfrom the rights-holders’ perspective.It was also found that this type of research cannotbe rushed and that understanding the problemsfrom the claim holders’ perspective was veryimportant. Significant time and effort wererequired to understand the living conditions ofmarginalized groups in the early part of theresearch process in order to develop appropriatepolicy recommendations. The group of researcherswho undertook this case study had many years ofexperience in working with indigenous groups innorth-eastern Cambodia. They were therefore ableto make use of existing information and practicalexperience. This was necessary with the shorttimeframe that was allocated for the case studyto be able to move quickly to an indepthinvestigation of critical issues.The following are guidelines for the researchprocess:• Develop a broad understanding of the livingconditions and customary practices ofmarginalized groups from both primary andsecondary research to allow for an indepthinvestigation of critical issues and theidentification of policy issues to be addressed;• Ensure participation of all groups in thecommunity, even the most marginal, tounderstand important differences andvariations in opinions between them;• To achieve this broad participation from allgroups in the community, the consultationsshould be carried out in a local language;• Ensure capacity-building for indigenouspeoples’ representatives (e.g. women, youthand elders) to allow them to conduct thefieldwork.58

Indigenous traditional legal systems and conflict resolution in CambodiaThe following is an overview of the sequence offield work process:• Research topics were identified, and the researchformat was developed, in consultation with a groupof elders from the HA advisory Council;• The research villages were chosen based on existingpartnerships and to maximize comparabilitybetween and within language groups;• Secondary data was collected and analysed(when available);• Key informants were interviewed to gain abetter understanding of the topics and theresearch sites;• A semi-structured list of interview questions wasdeveloped in consultation with key informants;• The interview questions and the elder/youthresearch teams were piloted at a trialconsultation with members of the differentethnic target groups;• The semi-structured interview questions werere-evaluated and finalized;• Based on the feedback about the methodology,the research teams were trained for three days;• Each research team began in villages that theywere already familiar with;• Field data and findings were verified at twoworkshops conducted primarily in locallanguages with facilitators from the HA assistedby IYDP researchers.4. RECOMMENDATIONSEmphasis should be placed on initiating andsupporting a process in which indigenous peoplesthemselves are engaged in documenting/codifying their own justice system andconflict-resolution processes. As discussed, flexibilityis one of the advantages of the traditional system,and utmost care must be taken not to sacrifice this.The aim is to strengthen what already exists anddevelop the capacity to address external problems.Consultations need to include a dialogue ondealing cooperatively with tricky issues, such as theapplication of village-based restitution/penaltiesfor more serious criminal offences and how tointegrate the traditional into the formal system. Itmust be emphasized that this is a process that maytake several years. It is not possible to come up witha list of instant recommendations to beimplemented. Some suggestions include:1. Create a facility within the Ministry of Justice(two to three people), authorized to liaise withother relevant institutions (e.g. the Ministry ofthe Interior and the Department of EthnicMinorities in the Ministry of RuralDevelopment). This facility would permit aregular dialogue with designated representativesof indigenous peoples on ongoing researchand documentation of indigenous customary59

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacificlaw/systems, as well as on initiatives to createan interface between customary and formalsystems. It would also be responsible fortraining commune, district and court officialson how to operate on the interface betweentwo legal systems;2. Support an ongoing process of consultation,research and documentation with indigenouspeoples communities (in a number ofprovinces). This should be led by indigenousorganizations/networks and feed intonational-level consultations (as in point 1above). The objective would be to buildagreement on how traditional systems can bestbe recognized by the formal system and howthe interface between the two could function.The present study is a starting point for moreindepth action/reflection research and analysis;3. In the meantime, it is strongly recommended toallow traditional authorities to continueproviding the valuable social function role theyare currently playing, including allowing theconstructive interface already taking placebetween traditional and local authorities at thecommune and district levels, concurrently withthe dialogue mentioned in points 1 and 2above;4. Enhance indigenous peoples’ participation(self-determination) as a basis on which thegroups can share power with the state. Thisgoes beyond simply consulting indigenouspeoples and involves including them in thedevelopment decision-making process. Giventhe size of the indigenous population inCambodia and the current decentralizationprocess, this can best be accommodated underthe commune councils, where the indigenousgroups are in a majority. The new Organic Lawon the structure, roles and duties of thesub-national levels of government shouldconsider the participation rights of indigenouspopulations and accommodate specific needsin indigenous areas;5. Explore opportunities for the traditionalauthorities to play a more formal conflict-resolutionrole in the commune councils with delegationof power from the Ministry of Justice (MoJ) andMinistry of the Interior (MoI). The Ministries candelegate power to the commune councilsunder article 44 of the Law on theAdministration of Communes (KhumSangkat).Opportunities should be explored by the MoJand the MoI on which roles can be delegated tothe traditional authorities and the communecouncils in both criminal and civil disputes/conflicts. It is important, however, to ensure thattraditional adjudicators are not overly reliant oncommune council members and that the moreformal role that traditional authorities wouldtake on under the commune councils would beworked out in consultation with indigenousrepresentatives;6. Develop the role of the Dispute ResolutionCommittee (DRC) which can be set up underArticle 27 of the Subdecree on theDecentralization of Powers, Roles and Duties toCommune/Sangkat Councils. The DRC inhighland areas could be developed into animportant instrument in the formal interfacebetween the traditional system and the formalsystem with a legal mandate to facilitate andconciliate civil disputes;7. The government should invest traditionalauthorities with the formal authority to dealwith illicit land sales and conflicts, and tomediate boundary disputes, including ancestral60

Indigenous traditional legal systems and conflict resolution in Cambodialand claims. The role of the traditionalauthorities to manage their communalproperty under the 2001 Land Law must beinterpreted to include an authority to manageland conflicts on their lands, and this roleshould be further defined and strengthened.Guidelines also need to be formulated as amatter of urgent priority for these land disputeresolutions (following existing laws). These alsoneed to be constructed in such a way that thetraditional authorities remain accountable tothe whole community. The role of thetraditional institutions should also include theauthority to formally recognize villageboundaries that have been decided with theagreement of village elders of neighbouringvillages;8. Traditional conflict-resolution processes shouldalso be recognized within existing governmentstructures (e.g. Cadastral Commission, ProvincialLand Allocation Committee, etc.). Where suchprocesses already exist, as where local eldertrustees function as ad hoc members of theDistrict/Khan Cadastral Commissions (DKCC)under Article 5 of the Subdecree on theOrganization and Functioning of the CadastralCommission, they should be strengthenedand utilized;9. Traditional conflict-resolution processes shouldfurther be formally recognized in theProcedures for Registration of IndigenousImmovable Property. As this legislation iscurrently under development, there is anexcellent opening to explore opportunities formerging traditional and national laws onconflict-resolution in relation to the immovableproperties of indigenous communities;10. Measurement and demarcation of communalland. Under Article 25 of the 2001 Land Law, thetraditional authority is given a specific role inthe measurement and demarcation ofimmovable properties of indigenouscommunities. This role should for the timebeing be further defined under existing legalprocedures for registering immovableproperties and later further developed in theProcedures for Registration of IndigenousImmovable Property;11. There needs to be some geographical or socialdelineation where traditional justice systemsmight apply. For example, in communitieswhere indigenous peoples are in the majority,the traditional system should apply and berespected. In villages where lowlandimmigrants make up a significant percentage ofthe total population, some kind of hybridsystem would need to be set up. The lowlandsector of the community, for example, coulddevelop their own representation in thetraditional system (their own elders, mediators,etc);12. In communities where indigenous peopleshave become a minority, they should still havethe right to practice their traditional justicesystem within their own group (if they wish), aswell as enjoy representation in theconflict-resolution process of the widercommunity;13. Improve the formal legal system and enhancethe official role of traditional authorities. Thefight against corruption in the formal legalsystem should be continued in order to protectand preserve the cultures of indigenous61

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacificpeoples and traditional systems. It should alsocreate an environment where the traditionalsystem can function as a separate but integratedsystem in Cambodia. The government has anobligation to do this under the Cambodianconstitution and international instruments.Points 8 to 14 should be implemented toenhance the official role of the traditionalauthorities under the formal legal system;14. Ultimately, it is the traditional legal system thatneeds recognition, not the traditionalauthorities. Certain individuals should not bevested with authority, but the authority shouldbe vested within communities so that they areable to follow their present practices inchoosing different adjudicators and go-betweensdepending on the circumstances. Traditionalauthorities are chosen by community membersbased on their performance and integrity, notbased on their position; if they are seen to bebiased or corrupt, they should be excluded bycommunity members. The system worksbecause the community has ownership andtakes responsibility for it – not an outsideauthority. This is an important element in thechecks and balances system.62

© Megan KrolikAn analysis of influencing family law:A case study of legislative advocacy and campaigning inFijiPacific Regional Rights Resource Team and Fiji Women’s Rights MovementACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe authors wish to thank both the RRRT and FWRM teams who contributed to this report, in particular, theconsultant who wrote the first draft, Diane Goodwillie.The authors also wish to acknowledge Imrana Jalal’scontributions in providing historical and technical oversight.

FIJI

ACRONYMSADBAGAPWLDCEDAWCRCDAWNDFIDFLAFLRCFWRMHRBAIWRAWMPMWCNGOOAGRRRTUNUNDPUNESCAPAsian Development BankAttorney GeneralAsia Pacific Forum on Women, Law and DevelopmentUnited Nations Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination againstWomenUnited Nations Convention on the Rights of the ChildDevelopment Alternatives with Women for a New EraUK Department for International DevelopmentFamily Law ActFiji Law Reform CommissionFiji Women’s Rights MovementHuman rights-based approachInternational Women’s Rights Action Watch (IWRAW)Member of ParliamentMinistry of Women and CultureNon-governmental organizationOffice of the Attorney GeneralPacific Regional Rights Resource TeamUnited NationsUnited Nations Development ProgrammeUnited Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacific1. OVERVIEWWomen and, by extension, their children – therights-holders in this case study – have facedsystemic discrimination against them under Fijifamily law. Fiji family law was previously based onnine pieces of legislation issued between 1892 and1973. The main legislation, the Matrimonial CausesAct, was based on the 1953 British legislation wordfor word and was imposed on Fiji when it was still aBritish colony. The legislation, common law andlegal practices were discriminatory against women,legitimizing violence against them and were basedon rigid concepts of women’s roles within thefamily. Reform of the family law was seen as apriority by the Fiji Women’s Rights Movement(FWRM); in 1996, the government decided toreform this law, in large part through the sterlingwork carried out by the FWRM.FWRM was the national NGO partner organization,and the Office of the Attorney General (OAG), theFiji Law Reform Commission (FLRC) and theMinistry of Women and Culture (MWC) were thegovernment partners in the specific family lawproject of the Pacific Regional Rights ResourceTeam (RRRT). This case study will document that itis partly through these strategic alliances thatwomen were able to be included in governanceprocesses leading to the successful passing of newlaw affecting them.This study describes the process taken by the twoorganizations, from 1991 to 2003, to achieve thesuccessful passage of the Family Law Act inOctober 2003. It outlines the strategies used,mitigating factors that enabled change and thelessons learned from the struggle to empower thelives of Fiji women through legislative change. Inparticular, it attempts to record the ways in whichthe rights-holders were able to, through the FWRM,influence and shape the final law passed, so that itbetter reflected the needs and aspirations of Fijiwomen, particularly disadvantaged women.The resulting law, which is based on a no-faultprinciple of divorce, utilizes a non-adversarialcounselling system and a specialist Family Divisionof the Court which prioritizes children’s needsand parental support. It removes all forms ofdiscrimination against women and grants themrights to enforceable custody and financial supportfor them and their children. It legitimates andrequires recognition and implementation of theUN major human rights conventions affectingfamily law. 1 From early results, it appears that thenew Fiji Family Law Act will substantially reducethe costly use of lawyers and legal aid.1United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and United Nations Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination againstWomen (CEDAW).66

An analysis of influencing family law: A case study of legislative advocacy and campaigning in Fiji2. ANALYSIS OF KEY FINDINGSAdvocacy in support of the Family Law Act projectwas successful and demonstrated a positiveinteraction between various governanceinstitutions and women’s groups. This project is asound example of inclusive governance fordisadvantaged women’s groups.The capacities of the rights-holdersto advocate and mobilize forinclusive governanceWell researched, informed and mandatedwomen’s groups with tenacityIt is critical that the group initiating change isregarded by both governance institutions andother women’s groups as being experts. The groupmust also have the political skills to inform andmobilize the community. It must also have themandate of those whom they purport to represent,in this case, disadvantaged women. FWRM spentover seven years sponsoring research whichculminated in a seminal book, Law for PacificWomen: a legal rights handbook written by a FWRMmember. 2 The research for this book provided theinformation on which the campaign was based.Theresearch not only outlined circumstances affectingPacific women, but it also gave credibility to theFWRM members conducting the research. FWRM’sinitial mobilization as an NGO was partially basedon complaints from women about family law. Inaddition, FWRM and lawyers from the Fiji Women’sCrisis Centre had represented poor women in courtand witnessed first-hand the discriminationexperienced by women. The process ofinitiating change began in the early 1990s andculminated with the new law being passed in 2003.FWRM’s tenacity in sustaining this long projectthrough three coup d’états and a hostile politicalclimate is also a critical factor of success.Education of all major stakeholders on the need forreform, especially major opinion shapersWith technical assistance and funding from TheAsia Foundation, the United Nations Economic andSocial Commission for Asia and the Pacific(UNESCAP) and the UK Department forInternational Development (DFID), FWRMconducted legal literacy workshops throughoutFiji. Carried out mostly in the vernacular, family lawswere explained, injustices discussed, case studiesdocumented, and the reform process outlined.Once women began to understand their legalrights, FWRM felt justified in mounting a family lawreform campaign.Major opinion-shapers were targeted, particularlyof the OAG, FLRC and MWC. This targetedcampaign led to the appointment of the FWRMmember and RRRT lawyer, who had conducted theresearch, as the government appointedCommissioner for Family Law Reform. Thisprovided a rare opportunity in which critical lawreform affecting women was led by a feministhuman rights expert, rather than a conservativelawyer unwilling to push for advanced reform. Bythis time, it had become clear that radical reformwas required and not band-aid change.Media skillsStrategic use of the media in the family lawcampaign and the communication skills of thelobbyists were crucial. FWRM and the Commissionermainly resorted to using low-cost radio talk shows,press releases and letters to the editor to2P. Imrana Jalal.67

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacificcommunicate information. Journalists who alsohappened to be FWRM members were able to helpby maximizing the coverage. Regional networks andmedia coverage offered solidarity and changedpublic opinion about the Fiji Family Law Bill.The independent technical expert assisted boththe government and the NGOThe FLRC appointed Commissioner who led thefamily law reform process was not only anacknowledged regional expert in family law, butwas also a lawyer with RRRT and a FWRM Boardmember. This unique strategic positioning enabledRRRT as a donor and technical adviser to play a rolein bringing together government and NGOs foraccess to justice. Having a Family LawCommissioner independent from political orgovernment organizations made it possible toguide the process and promote the cause despitechanges in governments and Attorneys Generalover a period of time. 3Sound partnership between women’s NGO andexpert technical advisorsFWRM has been RRRT’s Fiji national NGOpartner for some 10 years. RRRT has providedfunding, training and capacity building to FWRM.The partnership was a tried and tested one, basedon trust and accountability, enabling a sound andcredible partnership to meet the challenges. FWRMwith RRRT technical support vigorously led thelegislative campaign, creating unique collaborativelinks with the government, media and civil society.Results included changes to the law reformmethods as well as improved lobbying skills forFWRM and its staff. Documentation of this processhas helped organizations to review their campaigningtechniques, and a legislative lobbying resourcebook is currently being written.Community consultations state-wide; theprocess must be a meaningful oneThe consultation process must be a meaningfulone. The community must understand the law andits impact to be able to make appropriatesubmissions. Women’s groups were generally wellinformed because of the prior work done byFWRM. In the family law consultations (funded byDFID as the state did not have funds) theCommissioner and the FLRC made presentationsabout the law, the impact of the law and thereforms proposed. They then received ameaningful response. Some women’s groups alsosent written submissions after the consultations. Insome consultations, “votes’ were taken to gaugesupport for a proposed law, particularlycontroversial proposals, such as whether or not thenew divorce law should be based on the “no-fault”concept.Being politically strategicFWRM realized that a campaign on ‘family issues’rather than ‘women’s rights’ would have a strongerpublic appeal. FWRM and RRRT found that in thefirst part of the campaign, grassroots support andparticipation were important. But in the finalstages, one or two well-trained lobbyists –informed, empowered, ethical and sincere womenwith good family connections and leadershipqualities – could maneuver quickly and effectively.FWRM was forced to constantly reaffirm its positionand strategy. 4 Every tactic required soul searchingto ensure that equity for women would not be34The government has since abandoned the practice of appointing Commissioners as the Attorney General because it felt law reform became too tiedto the personality of the Commissioner.Notes and writings of Jalal noted questions and answers such as: Should the bill recognize de facto marriages? (The Constitution says that you cannotdiscriminate on the grounds of marital status.) Should a provision to ensure gay people’s rights to claim custody of their children be included? ShouldFWRM’s stance be based on equity for women or more popular notions of family and children’s rights? (Be strategic: don’t jeopardize the bill bycelebrating the women’s issues.The bill provides equity, so don’t cater to anti-women prejudices by using feminist logic.) What should be the approachto those with opposite viewpoints and how much fraternizing should there be? (Politics is the art of negotiating, and to negotiate you have to engagewith those with opposing values and viewpoints.)68

An analysis of influencing family law: A case study of legislative advocacy and campaigning in Fijidiluted or sacrificed to traditional, religious or racistviewpoints.Links and donor supportRRRT played a unique bridging role among NGOs,government and the judiciary for the benefit ofimproved legislative policies and laws. For NGOs toimplement long-term projects, such as this type oflegislative lobbying, new arrangements were needed.UNDP/RRRT’s association with FWRM became amodel for governance programmes. The twoorganizations developed a partnership, with RRRTproviding management and technical support toFWRM staff in exchange for FWRM’simplementation of training, projects and services atthe national and community level. 5 Donors providedstrong but flexible core funding.The campaign benefited from NGOs’ extensiveregional and international women’s networks. Forexample, the Asia-Pacific Forum on Women, Law andDevelopment (APWLD) and International Women’sRights Action Watch (IWRAW)-Asia Pacific providedtechnical, financial and logistical support whenFWRM presented its CEDAW Alternative Report.Sustained campaigning and campaigning styleFWRM’s campaigning style was to try and engagein positive rather than negative lobbying. Theywere helped in this by RRRT and its constructivedialogue approach. The powerful Methodist churchwas opposed to the proposed law, and it wascritical to counter the opposition with rational andlogical responses.It is also crucial in any law reform campaign to beprepared to accept that the entire process isgenerally a long one. If the proposed law is one thatwill change the fundamental nature of familyrelationships and personal beliefs, then the road iseven longer.The capacity of duty-bearers toincrease participation ofdisadvantaged groupsPolitical and legal environment must beconducive to engagement betweendisadvantaged groups and governanceinstitutionsThe political and legal environment is crucial toinclusive governance. If the conditions ofdemocracy are not present, disadvantaged groupsare unable to require accountability from the statebecause it means that citizens are not allowed tochallenge existing policies, law and practices. Thenew 1997 post-coup d’etat democratic Constitutionhad a strong Bill of Rights guaranteeingfundamental rights and freedoms, including freespeech and equal rights. FWRM based its legalcampaign on equal rights, the ratification ofCEDAW and the injustice to women.Partnerships between state and civil societysupport inclusive governanceThe partnership referred to is that of the OAG, theFLRC and the MWC for government; FWRM as leadNGO; and RRRT as technical support to both. It isimportant to note that although the partnershipbetween RRRT and the AOG and FLRC was a formalone, with a formal appointment of a Commissionerand specific terms of reference, the “partnership”between FWRM and the various governanceinstitutions was not a “formal” one at any stage. Itwas an implicit recognition of mutual support. TheGovernment of Fiji was not, at that stage, and is stillnot, ready to formally recognize the added value ofworking “with” NGOs.5Two FWRM salaries are covered by RRRT.69

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificThe passing of this law gained the unanimousexplicit support of all Members of Parliament, inboth upper and lower houses across party lines.This was a historic and unprecedented event inFiji’s legislative history.Recognition of expert civil society groupsrepresenting women by the stateGovernment and the judiciary noted FWRM’s staffcredentials (lawyers and experienced communitydevelopment officers). Setting the stage for thecampaign, FWRM had built public credibility andspecialty knowledge through provision of legal aidcounselling and legal literacy workshops. It haddone its homework and knew when to listen, howto counter arguments and when to stand firm.Recognizing and working with the champions ofchange within governance institutionsAnalysis of power relationships is a keyprinciple of political lobbying. Family lawadvocates from within Parliament and senate wereidentified and approached for support. They gavevaluable insights into tactics being used to delay orcompromise the bill. This information was thenshared between the lobbyists and FWRM boardmembers so that appropriate actions could bedeveloped. Persuasion and friendly dialogues areas critical in such a campaign as accountabilityunder a legal framework.Different personalities and attitudes playedan important part in the lobbying. The threedifferent Attorney Generals in place over thecourse of the project had different ideas onquestions such as de facto marital relationships:one wanted it included, another was adamant thatit not be included, while another was neutral on theissue but felt a review in 10 years should beconducted.Women’s legislators/MPsWomen’s training and ability to get electedand appointed to the Fiji Parliament played animportant role in providing key support for theproposed law within parties. However, not allwomen parliamentarians supported changes.Significantly, both parties had indicated passing ofnew laws as part of their 2001 campaignplatforms. However, after much controversialposturing by politicians, when the vote came, theFamily Law Act was passed unanimously.Ministry of Women and Culture working withingovernmentAn active and strong women’s ministry/department working within government can be aconsiderable advantage. In this case, the MWCworked from within to create support for change. Awoman at the head of an organization lobbying fora gender equity law may not be the best person todo so; as the representative of the executivepowers of government, the Attorney General hadmore power and influence.Consistent donor supportIn the early 1990s, donors reflected the World Bankpriority of improved governance, which in turn ledto initiatives for justice, leadership and povertyalleviation. FWRM strategically requested funds for“community information dissemination andsupport for legislative change to the Family Law”rather than for “political lobbying”, which mighthave been perceived as too political.Donor funding to FWRM provided staff as well asthe administration the core funding essential toencourage long-term commitments for legislativechange. Ongoing commitment, despite Fiji’spolitical upheavals, was shown by two majordonors, Oxfam New Zealand and the AsianDevelopment Bank (ADB), who were flexible inapplying their funds to FWRM.70

An analysis of influencing family law: A case study of legislative advocacy and campaigning in FijiChallenges and barriers toparticipation of disadvantagedgroupsLack of information at community levelCommunity empowerment is often limited bymisunderstanding of laws and reliance onexpensive legal interpretation. Legal literacy is anextremely important tool for empowering women.Any information should be written simply by usingas many culturally appropriate illustrations andcase studies as possible. Leaflets translated intovernacular and vernacular radio were also usefultools to reach beyond the urban centres. Legaljargon should not be used as it is difficult tounderstand and translate.The need to negotiate and compromise toachieve resultsThe influence of the AG who speaks for the PrimeMinister and the Cabinet is often misunderstood orunderestimated. This became clear with the issueof de facto relationships. The Commissioner’smandate was to reflect community input. Only onecommunity consultation argued for giving fulllegal recognition to de facto relationships. Mostconsultations and submissions had notemphatically stated that they were againstrecognition of de facto relationships. Even thoughin early discussion papers the Commissioner hadrecommended legal recognition of de factorelationships, the Commissioner was forced tocompromise with the AG. Hence, to achieve themuch-needed overhaul of family laws, de factorelationships were removed from the finalrecommendations. Children of de facto relationshipswere protected under the Act by a provision for‘ex-nuptial’ children. As a compromise, the AGrecommended that within 10 years the family law,and especially the issues relating to de factorelationships, be reviewed.Language, educational and other barriers toaccessing informationFWRM used surveys to give them feedback on theircampaign and took this feedback into accountwhen reviewing its tactics. In August 2002, FWRMthought that its approach should change oncediscussions stalled in the Parliamentary SectorCommittee. It decided to conduct a small opinionsurvey to help gauge public support and reactionsto the huge objections from the Church. Twohundred Fijians were interviewed.Through FWRM’sinformal survey, it discovered that many wereconfused about what the law contained and how itwould affect the institution of the family; so, FWRMaltered its media approach to use of the vernacular.Religious and cultural biasesThe most significant and obvious challenge to theproposed law was culture and custom, pittingculture against human rights and custom againstequality for women. Race, religion, class andsexuality were all used to oppose changes to thefamily laws. The concept of women’sempowerment and gender equality in Fiji wereconsidered, like democracy,“a foreign flower” 6 FLRC,RRRT and FWRM responded to the forces against thechange with a strategic campaign based onpersuasive dialogue and engagement funded byextra funds from flexible donors.This required bothgroup meetings and one-on-one meetings, theformer with potential powerful allies from withinstate institutions and the Christian churches.6Adi Finau Tabaukacoro, an indigenous chief and staunch nationalist supporter of indigenous rights, first used this term in a letter to the Fiji Times afterthe 1987 coup.71

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificEntry points for women toinfluence decision-makingImportant strategic partnershipsRRRT brokered and nurtured the extremelyimportant government and NGO relationship,which ultimately led to the passing of the Bill withunanimous support of all parties in Parliament.Thelatter was a historic and unprecedented event inFiji’s legislative history.Individual champions of change from withingovernance institutionsThe AG was the most critical figure in thiscampaign, and access to him was critical. Apowerful minister or other Member of Parliamentcan be an important ally and champion for thechange. Such persons should be identified early in acampaign,and such strategic relationships nurtured.Building strategic coalitions and alliancesApart from the woman-headed teachers’ andnurses’ unions, unions have played a minimal rolein legislative lobbying for four reform issuesaffecting women. 7 Only recently have the teachersand nurses unions integrated with women’s NGOson various campaigns; yet, they have much to offerwith their organizing and advocacy strengths.Although community groups had a limited role inthe final stages of political lobbying led by FWRMand RRRT, their early involvement was important.The qualities of those identified as leading thechangeThe Commissioner provided leadership in thecampaign and received the support of allcampaign partners, including civil society andgovernance institutions. A HRBA does notformally recognize the cult of the personality increating change. However, sound leadership isimportant, and those with leadership must bepeople who are experts in the relevant area.7The four issues initiated by the Law Reform Commission at approximately the same time were family law, domestic violence, sexual offences and environmental management.72

An analysis of influencing family law: A case study of legislative advocacy and campaigning in Fiji3. KEY LESSONS LEARNED IN APPLYING A HRBAKey lessons learned in a applyinga HRBA to the campaign1. Participation and accountabilityFWRM, and later RRRT and the FLRC, worked hardduring the long build-up over 12 years, until theactual final stages of the campaign with women’sgroups and its partners, to ensure women’sparticipation in law-making and the formulation oflegal policy. This was through public consultations,seminars and workshops in both urban and ruralareas. This enabled early access to policies andlegislative frameworks for large groups of women.The Fiji Family Law Act has been heralded by thegovernment and civil society alike as being theonly properly consulted law in Fiji’s legislativehistory and “representing law making at its best”. 8However, during the parliamentary stages in thefinal two years, fewer women were involved. Theywere mainly FWRM and RRRT staffers and fewknowledgeable supporters.With its small population, news travels quickly inFiji and can be passed informally through taxidrivers and meetings in the supermarket, in thestreet or at restaurants. Information is exchangedboth informally (through extended family,community and church networks) and formally,through extensive media coverage. Therefore, thetime and resources needed to hold formalmeetings, develop solidarity on tactics and keepsister organizations advised of detaileddevelopments is time consuming, costly and maynot be necessary. In addition, frank, sensitive,potentially libelous analysis and decisions onlegislative lobbying actions with a larger group,even by e-mail, would require careful thought andtime to present the situation carefully. Thus, forFWRM, political techniques included the use of asmall committed group trusted by campaignaffiliates. It may be that advocacy in small,developing island countries is of a different natureto techniques and tactics used in larger Asian andAfrican countries or those more economicallydeveloped nations.2. Non-discrimination and empowermentThe family law campaign empowereddisadvantaged women and their communitiesthrough capacity-building. This occurred duringthe first 10 years of the campaign throughtraining and mass media education. As stated inearlier sections, the legislation was based onremoving discrimination against women informal legislation, common law, judicialpractices and legal practices. CEDAW and s.38of the Constitution required all forms ofdiscrimination against women to be removed. Themain beneficiaries of the new law would bedisadvantaged and poor women. Gender and classanalysis were both integral to the family lawcampaign, not just an “add on”.At the grassroots level, women felt disconnected tothe final lobbying process. They did not feelcomfortable with the act of lobbying andneeded training in examining and recognizingtheir contribution. However, some women wereencouraged to attend Parliament during debates.The MPs could see women observers in Parliamentcarefully taking notes and knew that FWRM wastracking their debate. Earlier strategies during the2001 elections included a FWRM political survey,with results of party positions on women’s rightspublished.8Comments made by the Attorney General during the parliamentary debate on the Family Law Bill in October 2003.73

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacific3. Linkages to human rights standardsBoth FWRM and RRRT organizations adoptedan explicit rights-based approach connected tothe international human rights normativeframework. The new law explicitly recognizesCEDAW, CRC and the Hague Conventions onPrivate International law as the guiding ethosand basis of interpretation for courts andthe administration of justice. It explicitlyencourages the protection and realization ofhuman rights. The FLRC and the campaignersused human rights conventions as a set ofstandards and common language during theconsultative process, in the family law reportand right up until the final stages to argue thejustice of the new law.The December 2001 Fiji report to the UNCEDAW committee also presented a strategicopportunity to use the internationalaccountability mechanism to push for domesticchange. FWRM (with RRRT’s technical support)led the NGO delegation to present analternative parallel report that highlighted howthe political crisis in May 2000 had interruptedthe law reform process. After hearing the NGOreport, the CEDAW committee highlighted theneed for the proposed law to be passed in itsconcluding comments. This enabled thewomen’s ministry and FWRM to help put theproposed law back on the legislative agenda.Key lessons learned in a applyinga HRBA to the researchThe case study exercise unravelled and capturedimportant historical information through extensiveinterviews, review of media reports, production ofan accurate timeline and research to compare theprocess used for the Family Law Act with otherpieces of similar legislation in Fiji and Vanuatu.The study examined the roles of both therights-holders (women and children representedthrough key lobby groups) and duty-bearers(Government of Fiji) by analysing past records,reports and media coverage. In addition, interviewswere held with key players to revisit the roles andstrategies of groups at the time that the Family LawAct was being publicly debated.After reviewing collected information, primaryresearch with key actors was undertaken. Themethodology included semi-structured interviewswith key government officials, religious leaders,representatives of women’s organizations, advocacygroups and the judiciary. Interviews exploredthe obstacles faced by both rights-holders andduty-bearers in the implementation of a moreequitable family law for Fiji. Two focus groups,one in a rural setting and the other which drewtogether national NGOs, helped identify lessonslearned. Unfortunately, due to changes in keydonor staff, little information could be foundto substantiate donor decision making andinvolvement.74

An analysis of influencing family law: A case study of legislative advocacy and campaigning in Fiji4. RECOMMENDATIONSMore training on campaigning and lobbyingskillsLaws affect everyone, yet many do not understandhow or why they should contribute and participatein complex legislative change. Building capacitywithin civil society about law reform is importantfor community trainers, government officers andnon-governmental organizations to:• Increase their awareness about legislative andpolitical processes for law reform;• Develop and use appropriate training materialsto improve lobbying skills targeting legislativeprocesses;• Help civil society effectively strategize forchanges to legislative frameworks;• Help to develop a responsible media whichunderstand political processes, gender issuesand the importance of law reform.Simplifying legal terms and skills in thelobbying processLegal literacy is an extremely important tool forempowering women. Any article should be writtensimply by using as many culturally appropriateillustrations and case studies as possible. Leafletstranslated into vernacular and vernacular radiowere also useful tools to reach beyond the urbancentres. Legal jargon should not be used as it isdifficult to understand and translateKeeping your partners and constituentsinformed and involvedRecognizing and valuing all contributions, howeversmall, can lead to greater empowerment of thosewho feel overwhelmed and confused by legislativeand national parliamentary lobbying.Being prepared to accept backlash fromsupporters and partnersPolitical negotiations are always subject tocriticism. Even though individual NGOs could anddid submit written comments, some were angeredthat FWRM did not push further on the issue of defacto relationships and argued that FWRM had“sold out” on women. When conflict by NGOs overcompromises or strategies emerges, it is importantfor the NGO community to find ways toaccommodate each other’s differencesOngoing monitoring of new lawEnactment of law is not the only step in attainingjustice and equity for women. Ongoing research andeducation are particularly needed in the first decadeafter implementation of the Family Law Act.The post-lobbying phase of reflection (initiatedthrough this case study) was valued by NGOs.Documenting lessons learned from the campaignprovides an improved understanding of the impactof legislation on women and children, of politicaland parliamentary systems and of ways to maximizeNGO contributions in law reform. Lessons learnedcan be applied now to other legislative reform.Monitoring the use of new procedures andrevisions needed for the Family Law Act is essential,as there is bound to be areas in need ofmodification. Ongoing participatory research andcritical analysis of the political processes andlegislative frameworks, including their need forreform, are critical to support the campaign.75

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificNGO drafting of legislationPreparing draft bills containing equity reforms canbe useful to provide a legal framework and raiseNGO consciousness, but the political lobbyingprocess is a more important tool in gettinglegislation changed. Both FWRM (for sexual assault)and the Fiji Women’s Crisis Centre (for domesticviolence) have provided the government and theOAG with reviews and draft-revised legislation.Counting the cost of outdated lawsImplementation costs for new reforms are notnormally used in legislative lobbying. Some,including the new Judge of the Family Division,suggested that a careful financial impact analysisshould have been conducted prior to acceptanceof the law. Others say that the overhaul of courtpractices was long overdue; that the cost factorswere less important; and that costs are always usedto argue against pro-women or human rightsreform. Courts were inefficient and the costs toestablish and maintain a new system would beentirely justified with the improved outcomes fromthe family court.Private sector involvement in lobbying forlegislative changePrivate enterprise (apart from law firms) is oftennot involved in the legislative change process. Also,NGOs do not have a history of partnership withprivate enterprise; so, it is not surprising thatprivate donors for the family law lobbying were notapproached. However, NGOs promoting legislationsuch as domestic violence and sexual assault couldencourage donations by the private sector butmight need technical assistance from the donors tohelp sharpen their fund-raising skills.Passing laws is not enoughThe role of a champion or “commissioner” withinthe government has been sorely lacking, with thecurrent Fiji domestic violence law reform, eventhough community consultation has informedgovernment reports.This highlights the acute needfor organizations to continually monitor law reformprocesses and identify key support person/s withinthe governing body who will act as a liaison, giveinformation to active NGOs and promote the causefrom within. 10Flexible donor fundingCore flexible funding is essential to help NGOs intheir training and legislative lobbying campaigns.The public exposure and debate during the debateprobably contributed to the government’sensuring that the Act was implemented. However,Asian feminists have noted that: “Each legal orpolicy victory of the women’s movement couldoften evaporate on the ground as the struggle forimplementation and enforcement begins.” 1110 When the environment bill was being proposed, NGOs were not as well organized and had no individual (or group) to champion or mobilize publicopinion and push the bill through Parliament. As a result, the legislation was dramatically altered. Currently (2006), the Parliamentary Act has yet tocome into force.11 Dhanraj, Misra and Batliwala, The Future of Women’s Rights, Association for Women’s Rights in Development (AWID), 2004.76

An analysis of influencing family law: A case study of legislative advocacy and campaigning in Fiji5. CONCLUSIONIn Fiji, women are building on their legislativelobbying experience and mounting campaigns forchanges to legislation on domestic violence, sexualoffences, employment relations and the charitabletrust state framework. FWRM is bringing youngwomen into the movement to carry on the issuesand provide “a human shield of activists” 12 whounderstand the issues, monitor achievements andlook to new legislative issues.12 Term taken from an interview with Gigi Franciso, Regional Coordinator of Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era (DAWN)17.77

© Dr. Amit PrakashAdivasi rights in Jharkhand state,IndiaAmit PrakashACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe author is grateful to UNDP India and the UNDP Regional Centre in Bangkok for supporting this study.Thanks are also due to A. Kanan and Suvir Ranjan for research assistance, and to Shivaji Mishra for exemplaryassistance with fieldwork logistics. A word of gratitude must also be added for all the activists, governmentofficials, academics, non-governmental organizations and adivasi individuals who often went out of theirway to share their views and experience with the research team. All these individuals were extremelyhelpful in giving their time and knowledge, for which the author is extremely grateful.

INDIA

ACRONYMSHRBAPESASTUNUNDPHuman rights-based approachPanchayatis (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) ActScheduled TribeUnited NationsUnited Nations Development Programme

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificINTRODUCTION *The discourse of rights offers a robust analyticalframework to examine contemporary realityagainst a normative goal, which is a central issuewith respect to the marginalized sections ofsociety, amongst which the adivasi communitiesare at the forefront. One of the most marginalizedcommunities in India, the adivasi communitieshave suffered deprivations of myriad kinds, despitespecial provisions for them in the Constitution, 1alegal framework for the implementation of theseprovisions and several targeted public policyinitiatives. This study therefore focuses on anadivasi state of India – Jharkhand – to assess thestatus of adivasi rights.The importance of Jharkhand lies in the fact that itwas created as a separate State of the Indian Unionin 2000, in recognition of a century-old demandpremised on the distinctiveness of adivasi heritageand culture. Simultaneously, it was inextricablylinked to the question of development. Both ofthese premises reinforce each other and lead to adistinctive content to the concept of adivasi rightsin Jharkhand. 2The Constituent Assembly of India broke newgrounds when it incorporated a chapter onFundamental Rights 3 wherein “equality of statusand of opportunity” and “justice, social economicand political” and “dignity of the individual” wereguaranteed. 4 Simultaneously, it also created certaingroups of rights, wherein the right of all citizens tohave “a distinct language, script or culture of itsown”and the “right to conserve the same”were alsoguaranteed. 5 This simultaneous privileging of bothindividual and group rights has been operating in asocio-economic and political context, wherein anumber of historically disadvantaged communitiessuch as tribes have continued to suffer a variety ofhandicaps – social, economic and political, with theresult that the rights guaranteed to them by theConstitution are far from being realized. Thistension lies at the root of both the problems in theassessment of rights of marginalized sections andthe political contestation for the realization ofthese rights in a resource-deficit political economy.Both these substantive aspects of adivasi rights areunder threat from the processes of developmentadopted by the Indian state, which lead to pressureon the space necessary for a negotiation of theserights in their correct context. Thus, a politics ofdevelopment and identity is generated, which hasperhaps formed the leitmotif of all contestation foradivasi rights in India.*12345This paper is an abridged version of the full study: Amit Prakash, Tribal Rights in Jharkhand. Much of the arguments presented in this paper are thereforepremised on the analysis presented in the full study, which will henceforth be referred to as ‘Companion Paper’.Particularly, Part X of the Constitution. Schedules V and VI were incorporated into the Constitution to provide for particular responsibilities of the statewith respect to administration of areas inhabited by the adivasi populations, apart from a variety of enabling provisions for the betterment ofindividuals belonging to adivasi communities.See for instance the debates on the Bihar Reorganization Bill, 2000 (which created the State of Jharkhand) on its introduction in Lok Sabha on 25 July2000 and follow up discussions in Lok Sabha on 2 August 2000.There was a general consensus amongst the members that ‘development’was the mainissue left to be realized after the State recognising the Jharkhandi idenity was created. Lok Sabha Debates, XIII Lok Sabha, 25 July 2000 and 2 August 2000.See Companion Paper for a detailed discussion of the Constitutional provisions.‘Preamble’ to the Constitution of India (as of 1 January 2001), New Delhi: Lok Sabha Secretariat, n.d., Article 366.Constitution of India, Ibid., Articles 29 (1) & (2).82

Adivasi rights in Jharkhand state, IndiaTHE RIGHTS FRAMEWORKAdivasi rights can be seen as part of the largerdiscourse on human rights which emanates fromthe Universal Declaration on Human Rights of1948, and is constantly being developedand refined through the means of politicalcontestation, international debates, and discussionto include a wide array of rights that arefundamental to a dignified human existence. 6Rooted in the Universal Declaration on HumanRights of 1948, mediated through the ILOConventions No. 107 and No. 169 and closelyinteracting with a growing literature on the rightto development, adivasi rights have acquired adistinctive content and meaning. This contentis also anchored in the academic debates onmulti-culturalism.Adivasi rights and how they operateWhile significant attention has been paid to theissue of the rights of the individual, particularlythose of marginalized communities such as theadivasi communities, the meaning and contents ofthese rights has branched out as they evolves viathe avenue of changing discursive structures of theinternational debate on Human Rights. Guided bythe human rights-based approach to developmentpromoted by UN agencies, it is now widelyrecognized that development processes involve“the development of the capacities of‘duty-bearers’ to meet their obligations and/or of‘rights-holders’ to claim their rights.” Furthermore,the agreement lays down six principal componentsof human rights, all of which are central todevelopment programming: 71 Universality and inalienability;2 Indivisibility;3 Interdependence and inter-relatedness;4 Non-discrimination and equality;5 Participation and inclusion;6 Accountability and the rule of law.Therefore, the key factor in any delineation ofadivasi rights is participation, without which alllisted goals would have little substantive content. 8Within the human rights framework, the substantivecontent of adivasi rights in India may beconceptualized as follows:• Right to preservation of their socio-culturaldistinctiveness;• Right to socio-economic development.These two sets of rights are not exclusive of eachother but are closely linked with the help of: (i)politics of development and identity; and (ii) claimsfor structures for participation in decision-making(e.g. local governance). Furthermore, if developmentbenefits (e.g. livelihood, literacy, health facilities,etc.) to the adivasi communities and individuals ismarginal, the right to participate in the developmentprocess is being violated, and thereby the adivasirights are under threat.678See Companion Paper for a more complete discussion on the international and academic processes of the discourse of adivasi rights.Towards a Common Understanding Among UN Agencies as agreed at the Second Interagency Workshop on Implementing A Human Rights-based Approachto Development in the Context of UN Reform held at Stamford, 5-7 May 2003, and endorsed by the UNDG Programme Group is available athttp://www.undp.org/governance/docs/HR_Guides_CommonUnderstanding.pdf, p. 2.See Companion Paper for a detailed discussion.83

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificCONTEXT AND BACKGROUNDAs per Census 2001, 8.2 percent of India’spopulation (8.08 percent in the 1991 Census) arescheduled tribes (STs), 9 whose populationcontinue to be at the margins of the developmentprocess: “Incidence of poverty was higher amongtribals in 1999-2000, at 44 percent, while among‘others’ (e.g. non-Adivasi, non-Dalit), it was 16percent. Between 1993-1994 and 1999-2000, whilethe poverty ratio among Dalits fell from 49 to 36percent, and that of ‘others’ (non-Dalit, non-Adivasi)fell even more from 31 to 21 percent, that ofadivasis fell from 51 to just 44 percent”. 10 Thus, thetribal population has recorded not only a higherrate of poverty but also a slower rate of decline inpoverty.The study and its geographicalfocusWith the creation of Jharkhand State, the questionof recognition of adivasi rights to autonomy hasbeen recognized. 11Due to intermingling of theissue of adivasi rights and a development-deficitoriented approach to the Jharkhand region, apolitics of development determines the limits ofthe framework of tribal rights in Jharkhand.Additionally, the STs are only about 27 percentof the total population of the State, severelylimiting the scope of tribal rights-oriented politicalcontestation.Methodological noteThe study has adopted a combination ofmethodological tools. Background library work anddesk research were conducted to provide a contextfor the study, but much of the research materials foraddressing the questions of adivasi rights werecollected with the help of field research in the State.An important issue in any study evaluatingthe status of adivasi rights is the absence ofcoherent and consistent data sets. Keeping this inmind, the study has tried to collate and analyzedata sets derived from a variety of sources:government publication, non-governmentalorganizations, individual scholars, activistorganizations, individuals and others.Much of qualitative assessment of the status oftribal rights in Jharkhand was made with the helpof targeted interviews, using the snowballingtechnique with informed and relevant individualsduring the field study. Special efforts were made tointerview a cross-section of tribal individuals acrossthe State, with particular attention to the inclusionof women in the sample. The interviews wereconducted in the following districts: Gulma,Latehar, West Singhbhum, Simdega, Lohardaggaand Hazaribagh. In addition, individuals in adivasigroups were interviewed in Neterhaat, Latehar(hydel project), Sikni, Latehar (mining project) andRanchi district (industrial mega-projects).9While a number of terms are used to refer to the tribal population, such as tribes, Adivasi, aborigines, or autochthones, social science has “not examinedthe term ‘tribe’ in the Indian context rigorously”, Ghanshayam Shah, Social Movements in India: A Review of Literature, New Delhi, 2004, p. 92. Hence, thediscussion about tribal population in India has largely followed the government categorization of Scheduled Tribes (STs).10 Piush Antony, Harishwar Dayal and Anup K. Karan, Poverty and Deprivation Among Scheduled Tribes in India, New Delhi, Institute for HumanDevelopment, 2003 quoted in Dev Nathan,‘The Future of Indigenous Peoples’ in Seminar, vol. 537, May 2004.11 For full details, see Amit Prakash, Jharkhand: Politics of Development and Identity, New Delhi: Orient Longman, 2001, especially chapters 2, 3 and 6.84

Adivasi rights in Jharkhand state, IndiaSTATUS OF ADIVASI RIGHTS IN JHARKHANDRight to preservation ofsocio-cultural distinctivenessJharkhand adivasi population’s claim to the right topreservation of their socio-cultural distinctivenesshas a long, complex and fluid history. While mostproponents of the Jharkhand Movement claimintellectual ancestry to the adivasi revolts of the 18thand 19th Centuries, any articulation of adivasi rightsin the modern sense (however loosely interpreted)cannot be traced beyond the early part of the 20thCentury. Through a complex series of processes, theregion was created as a separate State of the IndianUnion in 2000. 12 The new State of Jharkhand clearlydepends on the adivasi identity for legitimizing itsadministrative and legal apparatus. 13On the otherhand, with the creation of a separate State, a newexperiment in participative and deliberativedemocracy is underway. 14Whether this newarrangement contributes to the realization of adivasirights, particularly due to the developmentalcontent of such rights, is another matter.It must be pointed out that almost no respondentinterviewed in Jharkhand in February 2006stressed that there was any institutional orstructural issue in the full realization of thiscomponent of adivasi rights. Most respondentsunderlined the fact that adivasi rights regardingthe traditional utilization of local natural resourcesare under threat and constitute the mostsignificant challenge to adivasi rights in Jharkhand.Clearly, the right to development was a moreserious concern since the right to autonomy hasbeen achieved. 15Right to socio-economicdevelopmentThe status of the right to socio-economicdevelopment of the adivasi population ofJharkhand is perhaps the lynchpin in therealization of adivasi rights in Jharkhand.12 See Prakash, Op. Cit., Chapters 3, 6 & 7.13 As can be noticed in the debate involving the Jharkhand Panchayati Raj Act, whose implementation has been pending. Some actors have been arguingthat the Act in its present form violates the traditional rights of the adivasi population, and the State government does not wish to be seen asignoring the rights of the Adivasi.14 For instance, local newspapers carry these issues with a great deal of passion on a daily basis. Also noticed during the field study were public rallies of variousscales and coherence on a number of such issues, ranging from implementation of the PESA to the script that must be adopted for the adivasi languages.85

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificDEMOGRAPHYAll rights are inherently contestable politically,and, in any democracy, demographic patternsdetermine the outcome. The ST population haveshown a long-term pattern of decline, accountingfor only a little more than a quarter of the totalpopulation of the State in the 2001 Census. 16Democratic contestation for tribal rights musttherefore account for the majority of thepopulation of the region, which is not of tribalorigins, severely limiting claim for adivasi rights anddetermining the contours of re-negotiation ofadivasi rights.STs are widely dispersed over all districts of theState but are a majority in three districts: Gumla,Lohardagga and West Singhbhum (Table 1). Giventhe acute poverty in Jharkhand, 17the worstsufferers of a developmental deficit are the tribalpopulations of the State – seriously underminingthe realization of their right to development andalso affecting their socio-cultural rights.One of the standard assessments on the well-beingof the ST population of the State and the statusof realization of their right to development is tocompare the consumption levels with those of therest of the population. 18 The data on consumption(Tables 2 and 3) show that the expenditure onconsumption by the ST population in Bihar was thelowest amongst all social groups surveyed –consumption expenditure on non-food items inrural areas was about a fifth lower than the averagefor all social groups. Similarly, expenditure by STpopulations on food in urban areas was about 10percent lower than average for all social classes,except that of Scheduled Castes.LiteracyLiteracy again is a central component in realizingall the developmental as well as socio-culturalrights, which has also been legislated as a right forall citizens of India, STs included. 19While someprogress of primary education in Jharkhand can benoted, vast ground still needs to be covered as theliteracy rate in primary and secondary education isabysmal. Rural impoverishment, particularlyamongst STs, low levels of literacy and use ofnon-mother tongue (Hindi) as the medium ofinstruction constitute the central determiningfactors in perpetuating this trend. 20Overall literacy rate of the ST population inJharkhand in 2001 was a mere 40.7 percent,compared with 53.6 percent for all the populationof Jharkhand. More importantly, the literacy rate forST women in Jharkhand was only 27 percent,compared with almost 39 percent for all Jharkhandpopulation.In the three districts with largest ST populations –Gumla, Lohardagga and West Singhbhum – thereseems to be some correlation between numericalpresence of ST in the district and higher literacyattainments.16 See Prakash, Jharkhand …, Op.Cit., especially chapters 4, 5 & 6.17 Nitya Rao,‘Jharkhand: Vision 2010: Chasing Mirages’ in Economic and Political Weekly, 03 May 2003, p. 1756.18 Such data for the Jharkhand State is still to be computed but the available data for STs in undivided Bihar continues to be relevant as more than 90percent of the ST population of the undivided State of Bihar resided in the erstwhile Jharkhand region.Thus, data for ST population of Bihar can safely beprojected to apply to the majority of the ST population in the present State of Jharkhand.19 The Constitution (Eighty-Sixth Amendment) Act, 2002 inserted Article 21A into the Fundamental Rights chapter of the Constitution, which states that “TheState shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law, determine.”20 Kumar Rana and Samantak Das,‘Primary Education in Jharkhand’ in Economic and Political Weekly, 13 March 2004, p. 1,176.86

Adivasi rights in Jharkhand state, IndiaIn Gumla district, the gap between ST literacy ratesand district averages was a little narrower, as wasthe case for ST women, in which the urban-ruralgap in literacy followed the State averages. InLohardagga district, the gap in literacy amonggeneral ST populations was larger with skewagainst ST women. The same pattern with a starkerskew against STs and ST women was present inWest Singhbhum (Table 4).In such a grim picture, the availability and access toeducational infrastructure, such as schools andstaff, becomes central. The largest number ofschools was in Ranchi district, the State capital.Gumla, with the largest ST population, was ranked13th (out of 22 districts) with 1,458 schools.Furthermore, Gumla had only 780 educationguarantee schools (EGS) – about half that of thecapital, Ranchi. West Singhbhum was at theseventh place in terms of total number of schoolsbut at 13th position in terms of EGS schools, whileLohardagga had the lowest number of all schoolsand was ranked 19th in terms of EGS schools. It cantherefore be surmised that the prospects ofrealizing STs’ right to education is not very bright.Furthermore, it was noted in the field study thatmany of these schools are in a poor shape andare barely functional. 21The poor educationalinfrastructure for ST population of Jharkhand is,however, not underlined by the teacher-pupil ratioin the districts of the State (Table 6). Gumla districthas a substantially lower average pupil-teacherratio in primary schools, while at the middleand secondary school levels, the ratio was inaccordance with the State averages. Similarpatterns can be noticed for the other two districtswith STs as the majority – West Singhbhum andLohardagga.The pupil-teacher ratios for both thesedistricts were either lower than or around the Stateaverages. These averages mask certain importantissues which might undermine the right toeducation of the ST population. The betterteacher-pupil ratio averages for districts with ST asthe majority population may simply be a result oflower enrolment rate or demand for primaryeducation. It could also be that such schools arenot sufficiently dense on the ground, leading toserious problems of access for the pupils.Gulma represents a case of declining enrolmentrate among ST pupils and a rising Gross EnrolmentRate (GER), which indicates that not only fewerpupils from the ST were being enrolled, but therealso was a rising trend of pupils not joining schoolsat the right age, and/or a substantially largeproportion failing to pass their respective grades. 22Similar patterns can also be noticed forLohardagga. The rising trend for GER in WestSinghbhum district is much less steep than in theother two districts, indicating a better overalleducation profile.Overall, the realization of the right to education bythe tribal population of Jharkhand is a distant goalyet. Unless this goal is realized, the rest of the tribalrights will not bear fruit in Jharkhand.Socio-economic statusThe discursive literature on adivasi rights and theright to development stresses the importance ofachieving a higher living standard for the adivasipopulation.21 For instance, in Gumla district, it was noted that a number of schools have physical existence but are poorly maintained and run.22 The gross enrolment rate is the total enrolment in a specific level of education, regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the official school-agepopulation corresponding to the same level of education in give school-year and is widely used to show the general level of participation in a givenlevel of education. It indicates the capacity of the education system to enrol students of a particular age-group. While a high GER generally indicatesa high degree of participation, whether the pupils belong to the official age-group or not, GER can be over 100 percent due to the inclusion ofover-aged and under-aged pupils/students because of early or late entrants, and grade repetition. In this case, a rigorous interpretation of GER needsadditional information to assess the extent of repetition, late entrants, etc.87

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificEmploymentThe degree of participation of the ST community inproductive economic activity is a good proxy forboth socio-economic empowerment as well ascentral factor influencing many of the otherparameters of the right to development, such asliteracy, education, consumption (which is relatedto the issue of nutrition and well-being) and healthattainments, etc.The employment data for STs in Jharkhand did notpresent a rosy picture. While the State average forwork participation was 37 percent in 2001, thesame average for ST population in Jharkhand was46 percent, which may not necessarily indicatemore productive employment, particularly whencompared with poorer literacy and consumptionfigures as it would indicate poorly paid work orworking in the fields. The field study also indicatesthat higher work participation in rural areas wouldmean toiling in the fields with little or noinfrastructural support and/or participating inlowly remunerative traditional livelihoodstrategies, such as foraging for food or gatheringand selling non-timber forest produce. In urbanareas, the ST population report a work participationrate of 34 percent, compared with a marginallylower 32 percent for the State average. The nearequal work participation by STs and allcommunities in urban areas hide the disparitieswhere most STs are engaged in low-paid, unskilledlabour in urban areas. 23A significant gender gap in work participation isalso present, albeit such gap was smaller for the STpopulation.While the work participation rate for STwomen was almost 45 percent, the same figure forall social groups in the state was 25 percent. Thisdata presents a fallacy that ST women were moreeconomically empowered in Jharkhand. In fact, STwomen are often recorded as ‘workers’ on accountof their poor economic conditions and nototherwise – engaged as they are in hard labour,including collection of minor forest produce andmanual labour, to ensure daily food for the families.This pattern was also noted to be widespreadduring the field study and it can be confidentlyasserted that the higher work participation by STwomen is not a reflection of greater economicindependence and empowerment.ST work participation rate in Gumla at 50.5 percentwas slightly higher than the state average at about49 percent. Lohardagga showed similar patternswhile West Singhbhum’s patterns were in consonancewith the State’s averages.Overall, there are only small differences in workparticipation rates for the ST population of theState compared with the average figures. Thus,there seems to be little handicap for the ST populationas far as work participation is concerned, save thealready mentioned fact of low-level, non-skilledjobs coming to STs.Health patterns and developmentAccess to quality health facilities leads toimprovements in quality of life and well-being. Thehealth indicators, such as birth rate, infant mortalityand death rates, are another important facet of therealization of adivasi rights.Birth rate in Jharkhand closely follows the nationalaverage, although the rate of decline is lower,primarily owing to no decline in the rural birth rate.On the other hand, the death rate for Jharkhandhas risen during 2002 and 2003 due to the rise inrural death rates, while there has been a smalldecline in the national death rate figures for thesame period. Keeping in mind the fact that morethan 90 percent of the ST population reside in ruralareas, this rise in death rate would impact the STpopulation (Table 9).23 Due care should be taken while interpreting the work participation rates owing to the constantly changing definitions of ‘work’ in the censuses as wellas the low threshold level in classifying any individual as a ‘worker’. See Companion Paper.88

Adivasi rights in Jharkhand state, IndiaThe same pattern is also evident in the infantmortality patterns for Jharkhand. While thenational infant mortality figures have shown adecline over the two years, the same figures forJharkhand have been constant with a marginal risefor urban areas and a marginal decline for ruralareas. Natural growth rates for Jharkhand havetherefore shown a sharper decline than the nationalaverage, led by a decline in rural natural growthrates but a rise in the same figures for urban areas,indicating sub-optimal access to health facilities forthe STs.LAND AND FORESTSLand has been a central question in the contestationfor rights in most parts of the country, adivasi areasincluded. Besides, land has acquired an addeddimension in adivasi Jharkhand – both economicand socio-cultural. “The long association of theadivasi with the forests and their lower levels ofsocio-economic development have resulted in ahigher dependence of tribal communities on forestsfor a livelihood than other population groups”. 24 Theimportance of land in the socio-cultural conscienceof the tribal society of Jharkhand is also highlightedby the issue of acquisition of land by the state ‘inpublic interest’, which not only threatening theadivasis’ livelihood and socio-cultural autonomy, butalso creating the misery of displacement and socialfracture in Jharkhand.Alienation of adivasi land has historically beendisallowed by law since the colonial times underthe Santhal Parganas Tenancy Act and the ChotaNagpur Tenancy Act. 25However, transfers dohappen, but the informal and non-legal nature ofthese transfers makes it difficult to assess the scaleand intensity of the issue. Transfer of adivasi landbetween individuals of tribal origin is allowed,which captures the changing nature of adivasi society. 26The proportion of land area under various uses inJharkhand, which provides an overview of theutilization patterns as well as underlining thecentrality of the forest in the State. At the levelof the State, a mere 9.9 percent of total landarea was under non-agricultural use, while forestscomprised more than 29 percent of the land,and net cultivated area of the State stood at about23 percent. These figures are in consonance withthe hilly terrain of the State as well as thedependence of vast adivasi populations on forestproduce (Table 10).The dependence of adivasi communities on forestresources is also highlighted by the fact that a mere3.27 percent of the land area was cultivated morethan once. Since adivasi communities mostly residein rural areas, this poor agricultural profile of theState cannot but have a significant impact in therealization of their rights.In Gumla, only about 15 percent of total land areawas under forests, while the net cultivated area wasat about 29 percent. However, area cultivated morethan once was a mere 0.83 percent of the land area.Together, these figures describe a situation in24 Suhel Firdos, ‘Forest Degradation, Changing Workforce Structures and Population Redistribution: The Case of Birhors in Jharkhand’ in Economic andPolitical Weekly, 19 February 2005, p. 773.25 See Nandini Sundar,‘“Custom” and “Democracy” in Jharkhand’ in Economic and Political Weekly, 8 October 2005, p. 4,430-4.26 The latest published estimates available for such transfers are dated 1974, making it of little use for contemporary analysis. See Bihar StatisticalHandbook 1978, Patna: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of Bihar, n. d.: 192.89

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacificwhich the rural population, particularly tribalcommunities, have poor knowledge of carrying outproductive agriculture, which leads to greaterdependence on the forests.Lohardagga, on the other hand, roughly follows theState averages with a slightly lower land area underforests and under more than one crop but a littlehigher net cultivated area.West Singhbhum shows asubstantially larger area under forest cover, at 40.4percent, and also a higher net cultivated area ofabout 25 percent. Area cultivated more than oncewas at about three percent, which was close to theState average.The above discussion, besides highlighting therisks to the livelihood of adivasi communities inJharkhand, underlines the central role of the forests– both, in terms of the large coverage and theirimpact on livelihood.The forests, however, have also been dwindling toabout half of the State average, which seriouslycompromises the tribal communities’ ability togenerate a reasonable livelihood. The changes inforest cover in Jharkhand offer a mixed picture.While on the one hand, overall forest cover inJharkhand showed a positive change over the2001-2003 period, the total area under dense forestsshowed a small decline, from 11,787 squarekilometres to 11,035 square kilometres. This declinewill also affect the availability of forest produce,which, as was argued earlier, is central to thepreservation and realization of the socio-cultural aswell as economic rights of the tribal population. Therise of areas classified as ‘open forests’ from 10,850square kilometres in 2001 to 11,035 square kilometresin 2003 27 indicates a depletion of forest cover.Gumla showed a small net increase in forest cover ofabout 0.8 percent in 2003 when compared with thefigures for 2001. Dense forests recorded a declinefrom 1,231 square kilometres to 1,161 squarekilometres, while open forests rose from 1,255square kilometres to 1,402 square kilometres,reflecting a net decline in forest cover in thedistrict. Lohardagga, on the other hand, recorded adecline of total forest cover by 2.75 percent in theyear 2003 when compared with the 2001 figures inboth dense forests as well as open forests (Table 11).West Singhbhum followed the Guamla pattern,wherein there was a depletion of area under denseforest cover but a rise in the area under open forests.Along with commercial exploitation and increasinghuman activity, large developmental projects arealso a major cause for the depletion of forest coverin Jharkhand, which also induces large-scaledisplacement of (mostly adivasi) population.Although the proportions of displaced persons arenot unreasonably large (Table 12), two factorsshould be kept in mind when interpreting thisdata. Firstly, intensive exploitation of mineralwealth of the State has been active for at least 200years, and a large number of projects (many ofwhich involved destruction of large forest areas)were already in place by the time India gainedindependence. Secondly, many of the projectsthat saw large-scale destruction of forests anddisplacement of population were started beforethe period for which the data became available(Table 12). For instance, the Koel Karo hydel project,initiated in the 1970s, led to constant protests andactivism over environmental and social costs. Suchpatterns of change in forest cover undermine notonly the autonomy of socio-economic processes oftribal life in Jharkhand, but also seriously impactthe security of livelihood of the tribal communities.27 Classification of forest areas, with their intricate connotations of access rights for various sections of adivasi population as well as utilisation ofresources from reserved, protected, and open forests is another area of serious contestation in Jharkhand. This issue is not a focus of this study andhence, the scheme of classification used here is that developed by the Forest Survey of India is as follows: Very Dense Forest: All lands with canopydensity over 70 percent; Moderately Dense Forest: All lands with canopy density between 40 percent and 70 percent; Open Forest: All lands withcanopy density between 10 to 40 percent; Scrub: All lands with poor tree growth mainly of small or stunted trees having canopy density less than 10percent; Mangrove: Salt tolerant forest ecosystem found mainly in tropical and sub-tropical inter-tidal regions; and, Non-Forest: Any area not includedin the above classes. State of Forest Report 2003, New Delhi, n.d., Box 1.1.90

Adivasi rights in Jharkhand state, IndiaDEVELOPMENTAL INFRASTRUCTURE ANDSOCIO-ECONOMIC RIGHTSRealization of socio-economic rights is cruciallydependent on the availability of developmentalinfrastructure, such as roads, electricity and, in thecase of largely rural population, irrigation facilities.Detailed data for many of these indicators forJharkhand are not yet available, except two crucialones: village electrification and irrigation potential.The degree of village electrification in Jharkhandcontinues to be dismal. Only 31.4 percent of theinhabited villages were electrified by the end of thefiscal year 2004-2005, including those whoseelectrification was contracted out to M/S Rites.Even this meagre figure reflects a significantimprovement since the end of the fiscal year 2000-2001, when only 14 percent of the total numberof inhabited villages in Jharkhand waselectrified (Table 13). This is likely to have asignificant impact on the developmental scenario ofadivasi communities in Jharkhand.On the contrary, in the three tribal majoritydistricts, the growth in village electrification after thecreation of Jharkhand in 2000 cannot be noticed. Atthe end of the fiscal year 2004-2005, only 18.4percent of the inhabited villages had been electrifiedin Gumla district, of which about 11 percent werealready electrified by the end of the fiscal year 2000-2001. Similarly, in Lohardagga district, only 20.5percent of the inhabited villages had been electrifiedby the end of the fiscal year 2004-2005, of whichmore than 12 percent had been electrified before thenew State of Jharkhand. Compared with the Statetotals,this scenario is rather bleak.On the other hand,West Singhbhum district broadly follows thepatterns noticed at the State level.The irrigation potential for Jharkhand is central toagricultural development of a largely rural STpopulation, and perhaps the most important factorin economic empowerment. At the State level,‘other sources’ (primarily rain-fed) remain thelargest source of irrigation in Jharkhand andaccount for 21 percent of the total irrigated area.Government and private wells are second andaccount for more than a third of the total irrigatedarea in the State. Tanks and canals account forabout 15 percent and 13 percent, respectively, ofthe total irrigated area. Modern devices such astube wells (electric as well as diesel) account foronly about 12 percent of the total irrigated area. Liftirrigation, which perhaps has the best applicationin the socio-cultural as well as geographical terrainof the State, accounts for merely two percent of thetotal irrigated area (Table 14).In the district of Gumla, the dependence on rain foragricultural activities was much higher, at 47.5percent of the irrigated area, while governmentwells accounted for about 29 percent of theirrigated area. When combined, government andprivate wells irrigated more than 48 percent of theirrigated area with no significant hectare beingirrigated by modern devices such as tube wells. Liftirrigation accounted for only 0.5 percent of theirrigated area in Gumla. As far as the Lohardaggadistrict is concerned, dependence on rain waslower, with only six percent of the area beingirrigated by ‘other’ sources. The largest source ofirrigation in Lohardagga was tanks, whichaccounted for 34.6 percent of the total irrigatedarea in Lohardagga. Wells (government andprivate) accounted for 43.9 percent of the totalirrigated area of the district, with government wellsaccounting for 27.4 percent of the irrigated area.Canal irrigation in Lohardagga was also significant,at 15 percent, while tube wells and lift-irrigation91

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacifictechniques had no significant share. Irrigation inWest Singhbhum district was largely dependent oncanals (58.7 percent of the irrigated area), and therest of the area was rain-fed (almost 30 percent).Unlike Gumla and Lohardagga, well irrigation wasmarginal in West Singhbhum, while tanks accountedfor about 9 percent of the total irrigated area.Significantly, electric tube wells accounted foralmost 2 percent of the total irrigated area.Overall, the irrigation potential in Gumla andLohardagga was not very heartening while WestSinghbhum seemed to be better off, as evident inmany other indicators. Irrigation in Jharkhandseems to be very much dependent on the vagariesof rain, which does not augur well for economicempowerment of the adivasi population in thesedistricts, as they are in rural areas with lowconsumption levels and high dependence onagricultural activities.DISPLACEMENT AND REHABILITATIONThe issue of displacement (and aligned issue ofrehabilitation) is a crucial facet of much of thecritical developmental discourse, and many of theindividuals interviewed during the field studyvoiced this issue. 28Of the few scientific studies conducted on the issuein Jharkhand, the one by Alexius Ekka is noteworthy.His study estimates that more than 1,546 thousandacres of land were acquired for projects between1951 and 1995, which is about 8 percent of totalland area of Jharkhand and displaced at least1,503,017 persons, of which about 41 percent weretribal population. Only a third of these lands wereresettled, in many cases only nominally. 29 Otherauthors have estimated a much higher figure(Table 15), of which about three-quarters are yet tobe settled. The fuzziness about size of the problemnotwithstanding, there is agreement thatsufficiently large numbers of population inJharkhand, particularly tribal population, havebeen displaced without sufficient attention to theirrehabilitation, which seriously undermines theirrights. The importance of the issue lies in thefact that “the process that begins with theannouncement of the project and continues longafter the people have lost their livelihood…cannotbe limited to the narrow concept of physical ousterfrom the old habitat”. 30 Further, the benefits that arepurported to flow to the displaced populationsdue to the projects are often doubtful and oftenaccrue only to the elite in the local communities,adivasi population included. 31 More often than not,“the situation of women is worse than that of men.Adivasi women, for example, depend on the NTFP[non-timber forest produce] more than men do28 Interview with Sanjay Bosu Mulick at his offices in Ranchi on 24 February 206 and PNS Surin at his residence at Ranchi, 22 February 2006.29 Alexius Ekka and Mohammed Asif, Development Induced Displacement and Rehabilitation in Jharkhand, 1951 to 1995: A Database on its Extent and Nature,New Delhi, 2000, p. 134. See Companion Paper for full details.30 Ibid.31 Ibid., pp. 135-7.92

Adivasi rights in Jharkhand state, Indiasince it is their responsibility to ensure the regularsupply of food, fodder, fuel and water. They are lessliterate than men,” which means that the chancesfor them to find an alternate employment are quitelimited and, therefore, “continue in the informalsector that is often poorly paid and withoutinfrastructural support mechanisms.” 32The netresult of this process has been gross violationof the rights 33 of the adivasi communities, as theyhave often lost their land, liberty, livelihood and,sometimes, even their lives. 34PARTICIPATION, PANCHAYATI RAJ, PESA ANDADIVASI RIGHTSThe crucial link between the two components ofadivasi rights and their realization is participation.Political acceptance of rights and their legalcreation is of little value if they cannot be exercisedby the individuals of the group concerned, in thiscase the STs.Jharkhand has had a long tradition of customaryinstitutions of local governance, the legitimacy ofwhich was recognized by various enactments inthe pre-independence era, such as the ChotaNagpur Tenency Act 1908, Santhal Pargana TenancyAct 1949, among others. 35The introduction of theprovisions of the Panchayatis (Extension to theScheduled Areas) Act, 1996 (commonly known asthe PESA) 36was an attempt to extend moderndemocratic institutions of local governanceamongst the adivasi population in scheduledareas, while not totally replacing the traditionalinstitutions. This has created a sharp dividebetween the votaries of traditional systemspremised on customary adivasi headmen and thestatutory panchayats elected democratically – adivide noticed during the field study. To makematters more complex, the constitutional validityof Jharkhand’s enabling act, the JharkhandPanchayati Raj Act 2001, has been challengedbefore the courts, while elections for Panchayatsare yet to be held.32 Ibid., p. 139.33 See Companion paper for full discussion of the impact.34 For instance, the tribal communities of Kalinganagar, Orissa contested the government’s decision to allot 2400 acres of their land to a corporate forestablishment of a steel plant. The adivasis, protesting their displacement and fearing inadequate compensation and rehabilitation measures,assembled to prevent the bull-dozers from destroying their houses and taking over their lands on 2 January 2006. Through a contested narrative ofevents, what is clear is that police opened fire killing 12 adivasi protesters. While this particular event occurred in the neighbouring State of Orissa,countless similar incidents of a smaller and less reported nature have occurred in Jharkhand as well.35 Sundar, ‘“Custom” and “Democracy”…’. Op. cit., p. 4,430. Also see Nandini Sundar, ‘Laws, Policies and Practices In Jharkhand’ in Economic and PoliticalWeekly, 08 October 2005, p. 4,459-62 for a discussion of the tension between customary law on local governance and the statutory panchayats.36 For a full discussion of the provisions of the PESA, see Arbind Kumar, ‘Tribal Participation’ in Seminar, vol. 514, June 2002 and for a discussion of therelationship between various legal provisions for local governance in adivasi areas, see Nandini Sundar, ‘Tradition’ and ‘Democracy’ in Jharkhand: AStudy of Laws relating to Local Self-Governance’, New Delhi, n. d.93

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificCONCLUSIONS: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIESThe foregoing analysis highlights a mixed picturewith respect to the status of adivasi rights inJharkhand. As far as the question of autonomy oflocal politics and recognition of the adivasi identityare concerned, the creation of the State ofJharkhand is a positive step.The principle of adivasipolitical autonomy has been accepted, and alongwith the already extant Constitutional provisionsconcerning socio-cultural rights, there is littleformal threat to adivasi rights.However, the exercise of these rights by the adivasipopulation is another story. Formal rights are oflittle use in the absence of structural conditions fortheir enjoyment. The issues of land, water, forestsand local resources, which are central to the adivasicommunities for both preserving their livelihoodand socio-cultural identity, are under constantthreat from various quarters. There are significantthreats to the realization of the adivasi population’ssocio-economic rights. As far as their socioeconomicdevelopment and participation ineconomic activity are concerned, the adivasimembers are considered the weakest performersin the community. In such a situation, the possibilityof the adivasi population exercising their rightsappears bleak. However, what is positive is theintense and vigorous public debate that hasemerged on various aspects of adivasi rights. Thisindicates a degree of democratic contestation,which can only strengthen adivasi rights inJharkhand. 37 The announcement by the PlanningCommission that provision is being created forallocation of 25 percent of all plan funds to thedevelopment of scheduled caste/scheduledadivasi population 38is a step in the direction ofsecuring adivasi rights.Possible policy programminginitiativesThe steps taken by various agencies involved indevelopment policy at all three stages – planning,implementation and evaluation – attain centralityin realization of adivasi rights. A crucial capacitybuildingrole can and has been envisaged forinternational agencies, such as the UNDP and theUN. Such an inter-twined two-fold role wouldinclude leading the discursive change as well asactual development programming in terms ofaugmenting capacity of both the rights-holdersand duty-bearers to enable realization of adivasirights in Jharkhand.Capacity-building of the rights-holders and dutybearerswill succeed only if a partnership can be builtwith the civil society organizations working atthe grassroots. Alongside, the importance of statemachinery should not be under-estimated.Within theframework of programming initiatives set forth above,some specific suggestions and avenues are as follows:Leading discursive changeFirst and foremost, international (as well as national)development agencies, such as UNDP and thePlanning Commission, must play a central role inpushing forward the issue of adivasi rights in thepublic discourse for development planning andimplementation. Many policy tools are available forthe purpose, such as combining the issue of adivasirights within the human development framework;capacity-building of both the right-holders andduty-bearers to understand the importance offocusing on adivasi rights; technical assistance intranslating existing policy initiatives to address theissue of promoting adivasi rights, etc.37 Two examples of this new environment of public debate are the Scheduled Tribes (Recognition of Forest Rights) Bill, 2005 & a Draft National Policy onTribals.While both these documents have been severely criticised for what they fail to address, the debate and battle for the realisation of tribal rightshas been joined.38 ‘Now, 25 percent Plan funds sought for SCs & STs’ in Indian Express.94

Adivasi rights in Jharkhand state, IndiaStrengthening participationThe central link in the preservation and promotionof adivasi rights in Jharkhand is participation inboth decision-making as well as in the processes ofsocio-economic development. Such an approach isalso consistent with a HRBA, which is one of thecentral conceptual anchors in the realization ofadivasi rights. In this respect, policy programmingcan play a central role in terms of:• Offering support – technical as well as substantive– to the right-holders (the tribal population) toclaim their right to participate in all aspects ofpublic policy;• Giving support to the duty-bearers to resolveimplementation issues;• Supporting newly elected Panchayatfunctionaries, particularly women and themarginalized communities to discharge theirfunction of ensuring full and free participationof all sections of the local population;• Forming initiatives, such as trainingprogrammes for local-level elected functionaries(the rights-holders) and providing technicalsupport for development planning,implementation and infrastructural issues.Building awareness about rightsAs has been noted earlier, much of the adivasipopulation surveyed in the field study weregrossly under-informed about their rights – both ascitizens of India as well as members of the tribes.Towards this end, available policy options must:• Harness the avenues offered by civil societyorganizations and support their initiatives toraise awareness amongst the remotest ofadivasi areas of Jharkhand;• Take advantage of radio-based informationdissemination, including community radio,which is a low-cost avenue with the potentialfor highpolicy impact.Contributing to socio-economic developmentMany of these issues require small investments inlocal structures and civil society organizations – anissue which programming initiatives must look atclosely. Some avenues which may be examined are:• Support for traditional adivasi livelihoodpatterns and technical assistance to improveyields from them;• Developing potential for commercialization oftribal produce through the avenues of cooperativetribal-owned organizations;• Training programmes for tribal youth toempower them to make full utilization of theircapability (including programmes for literacyand education);• Supporting public-private partnerships forcreation and sustenance of micro-credit structures;Supporting civil society action in this area.Advocacy for policy changeThere are some other areas which require advocacyfor policy change, some of which are:• Policies governing utilization of land and forestsby adivasi communities;• Issue of realigning the development model toensure adivasi rights are upheld and promoted;• Issues of displacement/rehabilitation of adivasipopulation, the policies for which requiresubstantial re-working.95

© Mahila Samakhya ArchiveThe interface between formal and informal systems ofjustice: a study of Nari Adalats and caste Panchayats inGujarat state,IndiaSushma IyengarACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe author acknowledges the collaboration of Alka Jani, Meena Rajgor, Malshri Charaniya, Neeta Bheda andDeval Gadhvi of Kutch Mahila Vikas Sangathan, and Nupur Sinha, Anuradha, Alpa Patel and Jyoti Dhomseof the Centre for Social Justice.

INDIA

A study of Nari Adalats and caste Panchayats in Gujarat state, IndiaOVERVIEWThe concept of decentralized, local alternativedispute resolution systems in the area of socialjustice in India has evolved from the traditional andexisting forums of village Panchs and castePanchayats (hereafter referred to as Gynati Panch)to more recent platforms such as Nari Adalats,which are focused on ‘justice for women’. Theincreased participation of women in the publicarena and in political governance in India has beenaccompanied by increased entitlements to legalrights for women. It has also been accompanied byan increased rate of violence against women inboth the private and the public spheres. These twophenomena have led to interesting forms ofalternative courts, such as the Nari Adalats, whichattempt to carry constitutional rights to the poorand, in particular, to victims of gender-basedviolence. Such forms of redress have not beenconstrained by legal particularities, or by rigid rulesof evidence and procedure; they give priority toapproaches that are both practical andgender-sensitive. In this homegrown arena of‘social justice’, the propriety of the law is not reallyan issue, nor is the cost or venue. The mostcomplicated cases of fact and law are resolved in afew days, and the methods of enforcement arebuilt into settled agreements.Increased entitlements and constitutional rightsfor women, and their growing abilities andacceptance into political governance, mustnecessarily be integrated with the increase inlegislated forms of decentralized participation injudicial governance. This study, therefore, attemptsto study two forms of decentralized disputeresolution systems in tandem – the traditionalcaste/tribe/community Panchs and the Nari Adalatsof Gujarat. The study seeks to understand thefunctioning of these alternative legal mechanismsat the grassroots level, largely through the lens ofgender justice and the participation of women inboth of the systems. In addition, while the NariAdalats themselves emerged in the 1990s as aspontaneous response and reaction to domesticviolence and gender-based abuse, the study alsotries to track their legal and socio-political lineagethrough the women’s movement and within theambit of judicial reforms in India.Towards social justice:Attempts to institutionalizealternative and decentralizedforms of justice delivery anddispute resolutionIn the late 19th Century, the Indian Governmentunder British rule established the PanchayatiAdalats in rural areas to serve as decentralizedjudicial tribunals and to hear small cases at thelocal level. The formal legal and judicial systemadopted the British model of adjudication, with itsinsistence on procedural technicalities andadherence to adversarial systems of litigation. UntilIndia’s independence, the regulation of familyrelationships under the British regime wasdevolved to religious, caste and community heads.In 1950, however, the concept of a Nyay Panchayatwas revived once again to ensure a moredecentralized and locally acceptable form of justicedeliverance. Unlike the traditional Panchayats, NyayPanchayats were designed to apply statutory lawsrather than indigenous norms. Their membershipwas also chosen through elections fromgeographical constituencies rather than throughthe nomination of upper-caste men. In essence,they were meant to combine the formality ofofficial law with the political malleability of castetribunals. This combination, however, failed, and99

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacificefforts were made to set up a Legal ServiceAuthority in 1950. However, it was the sociopoliticaland legal turmoil during the Emergency,two and a half decades later, which marked adiscernible shift from legal centrism to arecognition of the merits of legal pluralism.Legal reform in the post-Emergency era led torelatively informal, conciliatory and alternativeinstitutions existing alongside the formal judicialmechanism. This in turn led to the introduction ofpublic interest litigation in the early 1980s and theestablishment of the Legal Services Authority in1987, the Lok Adalats in 1982 and Family Courts in1984.Today both the Lok Adalats and Family Courtssuffer from delays and have been reduced todispensing low-quality arbitration and conciliation.The Family Courts, in particular, have compromisedthe rights of women within marriage because oftheir need to conciliate. In the post-Emergency era,the Public Interest Litigation Act became, to a largeextent, the symbolic vehicle through which thedispossessed and oppressed began to understandthe judicial system as an instrument of socioeconomicchange, and which has also given rise toa measure of social justice.The journey towards gender justiceIt is interesting, but not surprising, that the move tointroduce judicial reforms in the late 1970s andearly 1980s was paralleled by the events that led tothe contemporary women’s movement in India.Even during the International Year of Women in1975, the subversion of justice in the now-famousMathura rape case provided further evidence ofthe need for the nascent women’s movement. Thefailure and inadequacies of the criminal justicesystem triggered the first assertive anti-rapecampaign in the country. The protests anddemands for justice that marked the yearspreceding the Emergency period saw women taketo the streets and spearhead the price-risemovement, as well as participate extensively in themovement for land reforms, peasant movements,etc. By the time the Emergency ended and theanti-rape campaign began, the women’smovement had begun to take on a more assertiveand organized form. This participation by womenin political movements led to their engaging moreactively in women’s and development issuesthrough various platforms.In 1986, the National Education Policy articulatedthis progressiveness through its policy of‘Education for Women’s Equality’. The MahilaSamakhya Programme, which began in threeIndian States in 1989, was a direct consequence ofthis policy.The concept of the Nari Adalats was firstput into action by rural women belonging to theMahila Samakhya movement in Gujarat.By the late 1980s, the feminist agenda in India wasredefined and enriched by thousands of ruralwomen who embarked on a complex journey –questioning notions of both rural developmentwithout women and feminism without ruraldevelopment. Incidents of domestic violence,marital abuse and other forms of gender-basedviolence were brought into the public eye, whichtook different forms in different Indian States. It iscritical to understand here that despite the globalinfluences of international treaties on genderbasedviolence, and the country’s own legislative,judicial and institutional reforms, little would havebeen achieved had these not been accompaniedby a huge grassroots movement to empower ruralwomen. Through the 1980s and early 1990s, thewomen’s movement’s focus moved from anemphasis on shelters, counselling and socialservice to influencing national laws againstdomestic violence, enhancing the criminal justiceresponse and raising public consciousness on theissue of violence against women.100

A study of Nari Adalats and caste Panchayats in Gujarat state, IndiaThe evolution and subsequent spread of the NariAdalat concept by rural women’s collectives thuscarries with it a vibrant socio-political legacy, aswell as a fertile socio-legal landscape within whichmarginalized rural women continue to contestestablished notions of gender justice. While ‘NariAdalat’ was the particular nomenclature given towomen’s courts, different versions of the sameconcept, with different names, were simultaneouslymushrooming in different states and throughoutthe country. In an effort to broaden and validatethe patterns in our findings in this study, we haveincluded two other women’s organizations whichhave similarly sponsored women-run ‘courts’ andlegal redress mechanism.Nari AdalatsRun entirely in a spirit of volunteerism, the NariAdalats operate as informal, conciliatory, nonadversarialcourts with lay participation, whichseek to extend constitutional rights to the poorand particularly to victims of gender-basedviolence. When assessing the extent of injustice towhich the victim has been subjected, they retaintheir emphasis on ensuring the rights of womenwithin the framework of marriage, rather thanoutside it. Their priority is on ‘finding a solution’ forthe woman within the ambit of social justice, ratherthan applying more generic principles of judicialprocedure or universal human rights. Nevertheless,it is important to question whether the NariAdalats’ attempt to mirror the values and attitudesof those they work for has led to the administrationof justice becoming a subversion of human rights,or whether they have, in fact, ‘indigenized’ theformalism of official law and justice, in the processdemystifying it and making it more easily accepted.The study undertook an analysis of all of the 3,514‘cases’ handled by six Nari Adalats in the pastdecade. First, it sought to understand who was andwho was not accessing the system. Direct meetingsand interviews with 30 clients revealed theirperceptions, expectations and experiences.The Nari Adalats are clearly petitioned mostly bywomen who have been beaten, physically andpsychologically abused and harassed in their maritalhomes. Eighty-nine percent of the cases broughtbefore the Nari Adalats in the past decade fall intothese categories. Ninety-two percent of the ‘clients’are sangh members; nearly 35 percent of the womenwhose cases are heard by the Nari Adalats of MahilaSamakhya go there after having already knocked onthe doors of the traditional Panch.By and large, women and families who areeconomically vulnerable and not bound by thecensure of the traditional Panchayat use the NariAdalat mechanism. There seems to be a directcorrelation between an increase in court use andeconomic development. While this aspect requiresa more thorough study, we found that the higherthe economic security of families/communities, themore litigious they seem to become. Inversely, inareas of extreme poverty, the hold of the GynatiPanchs over the community is decidedly higher.However, as the normative control of thecommunity falls among those communities whichare poor but upwardly mobile, or whencommunity norms become diffused due toeconomic exigencies/opportunities, the tendencyof communities and women to become litigiousappears to increase, even though the cost, time andstigma attached with going to the police or courtsremain. The Nari Adalats seem to be the mostaccessible option for women in these communities.However, it is also quite clear that economicconsiderations alone do not determine whether awoman will go to the Nari Adalat or to the courts,even though they may be a critical factor. Theshared gender identity of the ‘client’ and the ‘judge’,101

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacificthe comfort of being in an environment whichresembles your own extended family of mother,aunts, sisters, elders, and the non-intimidatingspaces and culture of fearless communication allcount for a lot more to a battered woman thaneconomic considerations. It would appear thatwomen who go to the Nari Adalats want resolutionmore than justice.The popularity of the Nari Adalats also lies in therelatively high sense of control that the petitionerexperiences there, compared with the familiartraditional Panchs and the courts. Cost, time, andvenue are critical aspects in sponsoring a sense ofcontrol in the woman. The Nari Adalats, on average,take 3-8 months to resolve a case and do notcost the petitioner more than a thousand rupees.More important to the petitioners, though, is thefact that the Nari Adalats place them at the centreof the negotiations.There are no obvious caste, class or religioushierarchies in the judicial process of the NariAdalats. Women from the privileged castes do notseem to be restrained by the fact that women fromthe underprivileged caste will preside over theircase and vice-versa. In the interest of both theclient and the judges, though, the women of theNari Adalats do make strategic alignments toensure that during the proceedings of a ‘higher’caste woman,‘higher’caste members are present inlarger numbers; a similar alignment would apply inthe cases of ‘lower’ caste women. However, itwas consistently observed that the Nari Adalatmembers were more constrained in taking harsh orobjective stands if the complainant and defendantbelonged to the same caste or the same village asthey do. Contesting their own community, at times,jeopardized their survival as members of thatcommunity. This goes back to the fact that inan attempt to strengthen their identity as awomen’s collective across caste, religious andcommunity lines, the Nari Adalats have refrainedfrom fundamentally challenging or evenquestioning basic caste, religion, or class structureswithin their society.Out of the 3,514 cases that were studied, 10percent (363) were from a minority community.This brought up a number of questions. How didthe Nari Adalats handle issues of dual minority –that of women who belong to a minority religion?How did they reconcile issues of gender justicewith personal laws? What were the contradictionsthey faced? How did they proceed with theapplication of law: did they draw on the personallaws or on constitutional law – or did they drawupon both, based on circumstances? It wasrepeatedly found that there was an absence ofstudied dialogue or public discussion among thewomen of the larger collective, or the Nari Adalats,on the various merits and drawbacks for women ofboth the personal and the common laws. It seemsthat they functioned according to what camenaturally to them, or would attract the maximumacceptance from society.Meetings with some of the Nari Adalats’ ‘clients’were enlightening and provided critical feedbackon the informality of the Nari Adalats, aspracticed within the Mahila Samakhya programmein particular. The following issues were raisedas constraints:• The lack of formal and standard legaldocumentation had posed serious problems;• The absence of a basic understanding of legalprocedures and provisions meant that theclient was not empowered with informationabout the laws, and was not fully able takeinformed choices vis-à-vis the outcome;102

A study of Nari Adalats and caste Panchayats in Gujarat state, India• The inability of the system to comprehend andinterpret revenue and legal documents – suchas property documents – held by the client, andthe absence of a support mechanism (such aslawyers) meant that the advice or resolutionsprovided by the Nari Adalat were vulnerable tolegal disputes and procedures of law;• The Nari Adalat system operates entirelythrough the will and courage of the volunteersand sangh members; this tends to give rise to apersonality-oriented system. In the absence ofany legitimate mandate, or structuredpartnership with state enforcement agencies orthe formal judicial system, the ‘fear’ induced bythe Nari Adalat is short-lived in the eyes ofthe violator.The dialectic of being ‘just’ and‘right’It is necessary to understand how, without theconstraints and rigidity of legislated proceduresand norms, the alternative ‘courts’ remainconsistent with the dual need to be both ‘just’ andprocedurally ‘correct’. How is ‘correctness’ defined ina gender context within both the Nari Adalats andthe caste Panchayats? A further question iswhether there is a gender difference in the way‘just’ and ‘right’/’correct’ are defined in thesestructures, one largely patriarchal and the otherleaning towards feminism.The formal justice system invariably adheres to thecorrect use of legal and judicial procedures.Similarly, in the Gynati Panchs, justice can only beapplied if social norms, procedures and behaviourare perceived to be ‘socially correct’. However, forthe Nari Adalats, the act of a woman seeking justiceand the circumstantial evidence of her being avictim of injustice is in themselves the ‘correct’justification to trigger a movement towards justice.Here, the need to be just, based on thecircumstances and context, precedes theconfirmation of what is ‘correct’.The Nari Adalats donot concern themselves with providing a verdictand punitive action. Instead, they are moreconcerned with being ‘just’ by making mencompensate women in a manner that protectswomen’s rights and, more importantly, facilitatesa change in their situation towards a moreviolence-free life. In deciding how violations shouldbe compensated, they concentrate on thecircumstances, rather than on a stipulated,well-laid-out norm or law. In many ways, this is amore humanitarian way of securing rights andensuring compliance.In the see-saw act between ‘being just’ and ‘beingcorrect’, however, the Nari Adalats do at times falter.Their relatively low levels of understanding of laws,legal provisions and procedures, coupled withunconscious slips into patriarchal ways of judgingand seeing – both of which were evident duringthe study – occasionally lay them open to the kindof mistakes made by both the Gynati Panchs andthe formal justice system.Nari Adalats – justice for women orwomen for gender justice?An analysis of the 3,514 cases received andhandled by six women’s courts reveals that all ofthe cases pertain to marital disputes and togender-based violence – primarily domesticviolence. The dominant image of the Nari Adalatsremains that of a forum where women facingviolence within marriage can seek support orjustice. However, while more than 89 percent of thecases pertain to marital disputes and violencewithin the marital home, the Nari Adalats no longerdeal only with women victims. In 20 percent of thecases (714 out of 3,514), men have for differentreasons approached the Nari Adalats for justice.103

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificMen who believe that the ‘errant’ ways of theirwives can be ‘sorted out’ by the women of the NariAdalats have filed complaints against their wives.The Nari Adalats look at the specificity of each case,often also taking into consideration the man’seconomic condition before deciding on amaintenance amount.The Nari Adalats do not apply the legal provisionfor maintenance or facilitate court dispensations ina uniform manner. While maintaining andprotecting the rights of women, they arrive at whatmost of their ‘clients’ perceive as a set of pragmatic,implementable solutions to the problem, often tothe satisfaction of both parties. However, this couldmean a ‘lesser’ verdict than that which the courtsmay offer through the more progressive legislatedprovisions for women. In some cases, wherewomen are more aware of the laws, and are moredetermined to seek a decision expressed in averdict rather than resolution, they do tend toapproach the courts directly. In addition, andironically, the defendant husbands approach theNari Adalats which belong to their socio-economicmilieu in the hope that they may give a moreconsiderate verdict. While this has extended their‘client base’ to men and gradually exploded thepopular perception that Nari Adalats only workin the interests of women, it does raise a morefundamental question about the reasons for theNari Adalats’ departure from the formal legalprovisions. Are the Nari Adalats fully aware of thelegal provisions, are they primarily governed bythem and do they only interpret these provisionswithin the overall context and specificities of thecase? Or are they, like Gynati Panchs, governed bya set of normative rules and laws set by theirsocio-political contexts? The answer liessomewhere in between.The Nari Adalats do use thestatutory principles but they interpret themaccording to circumstances.While all six women’s courts are embedded withina larger movement for women’s empowerment, thestudy revealed that none of them received,or proactively took up, a single case of sexualharassment, nor did they hear sex workers’ cases, orcases dealing with women’s labour contracts,female foeticide, women victims of inter-caste orcommunal violence and disputes, etc. Whileacknowledging that these forms of gender-basedviolence and exploitation were endemic, the NariAdalats had clearly developed and acquired theimage of a local informal ‘family court’, whosepredominant role is to protect the rights of thewoman within the framework of marriage.The lack of a clear institutional mandate, theabsence of well-crafted links with formal structuresand an inadequate understanding of the legal andjudicial procedures and systems have ensured thatonly five percent of the cases (169 out of 3,514) thatare heard are related to rape, homicide or sexualharassment. Similarly, while there is a demand foraction on, and awareness on the issue of, women’srights to inheritance, only four percent of the casespertain to this issue. Thus, while Nari Adalatsenjoy high levels of credibility within their owncollectives and in their geographical blocks ortalukas, they have yet to make the step towards amore comprehensive form of gender justice or tobecome a more generic social justice mechanismgoverned by women. However, it would be unfairto view this lack of development within the NariAdalats in isolation. A fairer approach is to placethese developments within the larger context ofthe women’s movement in Gujarat. While the ruralwomen’s movement has improved rural women’sabilities to organize themselves as collectives, toform pressure groups within their regions and toexpress and assert their rights within the family, themovement’s willingness to take up gender issuesoutside its ambit – be they violations of pre-natal104

A study of Nari Adalats and caste Panchayats in Gujarat state, Indiasex determination tests, the rights of sex workers,the violation of labour laws to the detriment ofwomen or the trafficking of women – have beenrelatively low. The Nari Adalats merely reflect thepattern which exists within the wider grassrootsrural women’s movement in different parts of India,including Gujarat.Interface with the traditionalPanchThe study team met with 11 traditional Panchmembers from as many communities in fourdistricts of Gujarat. Interestingly, it seems that theNari Adalats have emerged more as an alternativeto the patriarchal caste Panchayats than as adecentralized alternative to the formal judicialsystem. While the Panchayats protects thepatriarchal social order of the community, the NariAdalats by and large protect the rights of womenwithin that social order. In so doing, they haveneatly appropriated the format and ‘methods’ ofthe Gynati Panchs in more ways than one – whetherit is by using a public ‘space’ to hold ‘court’, usingthe technique of ‘naming and shaming’or involvinglay participation in the dispensation of justice. TheNari Adalats also draw their presence and powerfrom a shared ‘gender identity’ – much as theGynati Panchs derive theirs from a shared ‘caste’ orcommunity ‘identity’.As judges, the Nari Adalat respond accordingto their emotions, with responses to malecomplaints/victims being fairly gendered. In fact, itwas interesting to observe that the attitude ofthe Nari Adalats towards men was completelyadversarial when they were defendants, but whena man was the aggrieved party, his perceivedvulnerability would draw a fairly maternalresponse. This response is similar to that ofmembers of traditional Panchs, whose attempts tobe just and fair towards ‘passive’ and ‘vulnerable’women wronged by their husbands at timestranslate into patriarchal protectionism.Any similarities end there. The costs and expensesinvolved with Gynati Panchayats, which cometogether if they are appealed to or ‘moved’ by acomplainant from their caste/religion/sect, areextremely high. The mounting transaction costs ofthe Gynati Panchayats, the lack of interest or carethey increasingly display when trying to find aresolution, the speed with which a separation isexecuted for financial gains and the existence ofalternative dispute resolution systems, such as NariAdalats, Mahila Panchs etc., have all contributed tothe diminished credibility of the Gynati Panchs inGujarat. Today, even men seeking justice in maritalmatters are more willing to approach the NariAdalats, despite the perception that they are biasedtowards women, or the Family Counselling Centresrun by the State Social Welfare Board, rather thantheir caste Panchayats.The breakdown of the ability of Gynati Panchs to‘govern the community by control’ is due bothto their ineffectiveness and to the increasingurbanization of villages, the nuclearization offamilies and migration into towns. Of course, levelsof control differ between communities. We foundthat caste or tribal communities whose livelihoodscontinue to be closely linked and dependant oncommon property resources; migrant pastoralcommunities which tend to live in close proximityfor long periods in alien environments; communitieswith relatively smaller populations; or those livingin remote, marginalized geographical regions, aregoverned and controlled by the traditional Panchsto a far greater extent than others.Traditional Panchayats vary greatly in their normativeprinciples and methods for protecting the rightsof women. Those Panchs that have a betterinstitutional framework, and that seem to have105

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacificbetter procedures for protecting women, have noneed for or interest in the Nari Adalats. Despitebeing as regressive as most other Panchs onthe issue of women’s rights, they maintain theircredibility with women and men in the communitybecause of their strong emphasis on the welfare ofboth women and the poor.The Muslim communityJamaats fall into this category. However, wherethe traditional Panch is faced with a fragmentedcommunity, principally due to shifts in livelihoods,education and location, and are less able toovercome the diminishment of their role incommunity governance, we found that willingnessto accept the Nari Adalats as a credible ‘quasijudicial’system was considerably higher. Incommunities such as that of the Rathwas of ChotaUdaipur, where the Panch continues to exert asignificant hold over the community, but isdisorganized and localized, the decision-makingprocess of the Panch is hijacked by village-levelpolitical leaders from within the community orby power-holding elites. Women in thesecommunities are perhaps the most disadvantaged,in terms of their low levels of access to justice orresolution outside the community and the absenceof well-organized caring mechanisms within theirown community.The Nari Adalats have evolved different strategiesin different areas, and all of the Nari Adalats haveformally invited the traditional Panchayats to theirhearings – or at least involved some of their leadersinformally. This is partly to influence and educatethe Panchayats, and partly to keep them happy.Where the Nari Adalats are treated as a ‘highercourt’ by the women of the sanghs – who firstsuccumb to family and community pressure andtake their issues to the Gynati Panchayats, andbring their cases to the Nari Adalat when these areunresolved or the women are harassed – the GynatiPanchayats are faced with a visit by Nari Adalatmembers or are quite literally obliged to come tothe Nari Adalat court to explain their verdict.Ongoing efforts to engage and influence theGynati Panchs are therefore made by the NariAdalats, although these efforts are neitherstructured nor consistent. Interestingly, thetraditional Panchs have reciprocated in some casesby inviting sangh members into their forums whenhandling a case. Fifteen to twenty members of theMahila Samakhya sangh in all three districts, butespecially Vadodara and Rajkot districts, areregularly invited to sit in on the Panch. However, itis also evident that the invitation to Nari Adalatmembers does not extend to all cases seen by thePanchs but is limited to those where a maritaldispute or complex gender problem is involved.The Nari Adalat women seem to vacillate betweenpride in being invited to the traditional Panchayats– interpreting this as evidence of an increase intheir influence within the community – and a senseof the futility of influencing the traditionalPanchayats, which are themselves on the decline.Nevertheless, 8-10 women from the MahilaSamakhya sangh membership who are also on NariAdalat councils are also permanent membersof their caste Panchayats, and are silentlytransforming the patriarchal modes of decisionmakingwithin the Panchs from within.While all of the Nari Adalats members wereunanimous in stating that they detested thepatriarchal verdicts of their traditional Panchayat,most felt that a traditional Panchayat as acommunity system had an inherent value for thecommunity.They paradoxically observed that, in anincreasingly homogenized world, the Panchayatreflected their diversity and protected differentforms of governance.106

A study of Nari Adalats and caste Panchayats in Gujarat state, IndiaThe Nari Adalats were also clear that despite theiradversarial position vis-à-vis the caste Panchayats,they have largely chosen the path of cooperationrather than confrontation. They also admitted thatthey often accept reconciliation as the only optionbecause of the absence of a safe shelter for thevictim. In fact, our study revealed that the outcomein 49 percent of the cases relating to maritalabuse/disputes and domestic violence wasreconciliation. While the lack of safe alternativedomestic arrangements for a victim does seem tobe a predominant consideration in finalizing theoutcome of cases for all of the Nari Adalats, leadingto more reconciliations than may be appropriate,the weight given to sustaining the family andmarriage framework is equally strong.The success and limitations of the Nari Adalats thuslies in the fact that they position themselvesbetween the discriminatory norms of thetraditional Panchayats and a formalistic andantiquated justice-dispensing system. They do notchallenge the social order fundamentally, neitherdo they apply the statutory provisions fully. Rather,they interpret both to redefine a pro-women socialorder. They are more flexible in their adhesion toprocedural rules than the formal system and thecaste Panchayats – both of which have well laid outprocedural protocols – and are considerablycheaper and faster than either.An alternative justice dispensingmechanism?Is the Nari Adalat, then, a supplementary forumfocusing on pre-litigation conciliation andsettlements or is it a complementary system whichhas defined an equally just, and perhaps culturallymore acceptable, way of dealing with the issue ofwomen’s rights? Interestingly, while Nari Adalatsseem to have emerged as an alternative to thetraditional Panchs, they now judge theirachievements and failures in comparison with theformal justice system, just as the self-help ruralwomen’s groups in India, which emerged inreaction to exploitation by traditional moneylenders,today make the mainstream banks their referencepoints.In dealing with domestic violence, the formal legaland judicial system has relied primarily on thecriminal justice system, which is itself limitedwhen dealing with domestic violence cases. Thevulnerability of victims and a law enforcementsystem, which is marked by complex rules ofevidence and incomplete solutions (e.g. withregard to maintenance and custody issues), createthe need for multiple avenues through which anabused woman can seek justice. All this hasensured that the fight against injustice is overtakenby an even more painful fight for justice. To expecta physically, emotionally and economically abusedwoman to seek justice through a system in whichmost would prefer not to litigate is a travesty ofhope. The situation has also made the increasinglyprogressive provisions of law for women appearhollow. This question has vexed the women’smovement at the macro level and voluntarymovements such as the Nari Adalats at the locallevel: how can we reconcile the methods of accessand application of the progressive nature of ourlegal reforms with the regressive nature of ourjudicial system?It is now recognized and acknowledged thatvictims of domestic violence require a plurality ofsocio-legal remedies to ensure that they can live ina more secure physical, emotional, psychological,economic and social environment. They are notonly victims of crime, but also primarily victims of107

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacifictheir family milieu. Clearly, strategies to achieveviolence-free lives for women have to go beyondlegal interventions to encompass confidencebuildingmeasures, the restoration of filialrelationships, the mobilization of communitysupport and the education of the victim about herrights as an individual and within the family. Noone system can achieve all of these. Multiplesystems of support and plural forms of resolutionand justice delivery with a gender justiceperspective are necessary to address thecomplexities of domestic violence cases. The NariAdalats are in a strong position to participate fullyin this process.The Nari Adalats must make a more concertedeffort to develop and to work towards beingaccepted as a complementary system to themainstream. However, some of the above-mentioneddrawbacks of the concept and its operations needto be addressed at a broader level before the NariAdalats can be incorporated into a pluralistic legalframework in India. For the Nari Adalats to beaccepted as a parallel institution and retain theirvalues, approach and methods, they require anauthorized institutional mandate – they arepresently perceived as being too informal and‘voluntary’, which reduces the impact of their work.Clearly, they have to evolve a more standardizedform of documenting records and evidence. Theyneed a more comprehensive and systematicunderstanding of the formal legal and judicialsystem, as well as the human rights framework, soas to engage with other forms of justice delivery forwomen. For the Nari Adalat mechanism to berelevant locally and legally, members need to learnways of introducing a public discussion aboutsocial justice based on rights, rather than merely onreconciliation or responsibility.108

A study of Nari Adalats and caste Panchayats in Gujarat state, IndiaGLOSSARY OF TERMSGynati or JatiGynati PanchJamaatLok AdalatMathuraMahila SamakhyaMahila Samakhya Society(MSS)Nari AdalatNyay PanchayatPanchPanchayatPanchayati AdalatSanghTalukaCasteCaste council – its members are normally nominated and not electedCommunity Council of Muslim communitiesPeople’s courtsA town in Uttar PradeshEducation for Women’s Equality (a national government-sponsored programmewhich mobilizes grassroots rural women, raising their awareness of equity issuesand women’s equality)The official name of the organizationWomen’s courtCouncils of Justice at the village levelTraditional council of five membersJurisdiction of villages based on population and the primary level of governanceVillage (decentralized, local) courtGroup (village-level women’s groups formed by Mahila Samakhya are known asmahila (women) sanghs)Administrative block within a district109

© Courtesy of UNDP IranAccess to justice: the case of women inIranShahla MoazamiACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe author wishes to thank Hanieh Khataee, who provided editorial support for this report.

IRAN

ACRONYMSCEDAWNGOUNDPCommittee on the Elimination of Discrimination against WomenNon-governmental organizationUnited Nations Development Programme

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacific1. OVERVIEWWomen in Iran are a marginalized group. Despitethe fact that the constitution of Iran defines allindividuals as equal, the established legalframeworks have not only failed to provide womenwith equal access to justice, but have alsoperpetuated a system of inequality between thefemale and male populations. Under the legalsystem of Iran, Islamic precepts govern thedefinition of equality, rendering it conditional, andconsequently hindering the realization of theegalitarian nature of the constitution. It is withinthis context that the story of women in Iran andtheir difficulties in accessing justice unfolds.Approximately 20 percent of Iran’s population of 65million live below the poverty line; disparities runinter-provincially (CCA, 2003). While increases inliteracy rates have been achieved, highunemployment rates and a large population ofyoung people have further pushed the population,particularly women, into the poverty trap. Giventhe vulnerabilities of the daily lives of women, theiraccess to justice plays a central role in enhancingtheir ability to make informed choices, to contestand escape from private and public forms ofviolence and to feel that the justice system isaccessible and empowering.Women in Iran must have, as an inherent right, theability to exercise choice regarding the issues thatmost affect their lives. As the duty-bearer, the stateis responsible for ensuring that all social groupshave adequate information about, and easy accessto, existing legal frameworks. This entails creatingan environment that fosters proper legal literacy,information sharing, access to legal aid and, mostimportantly, a cooperative system that is not onlyaware of and responsive to the needs and interestsof the most disadvantaged, but that is also willingand able to provide sound and effective remediesto these groups’ concerns. This will enable peopleto act as full participants in their society and to findremedies to their problems and/or grievanceswithout hindrance.This case study aims to give precedence tothe lived experiences of Iranian women as amarginalized group. Specifically, the objectives ofthis study are as follows:• To examine gender discrimination in penal lawand identify the intersections among thejurisprudential, legal and social reasons for theexisting bias;• To present the ideas and experiences of womenimplicated in the judicial system – femalejudges, attorneys, offenders and claimants;• To acquire information on the activities of NGOsworking to protect women’s legal rights;• Using a human rights-based approach, toidentify ways to effect positive change anddevelop concrete approaches to programmingon inclusive governance.It is anticipated that this study will contribute tothe formation of gender-sensitive legal frameworksand programmes that will provide opportunitiesfor women to become legally empowered as activeparticipants in their society.114

Access to justice: the case of women in Iran2. ANALYSIS OF THE KEY FINDINGSAccording to the findings, minimal progress hasbeen made in terms of women’s access to justice inIran. Evidence indicates that the governing lawsdiscriminate against women.The legal inequality ofwomen, however, originates not only fromshortcomings in rules and regulations, but alsofrom the unwritten rules contained within socialnorms and customs, which are saturated withgender bias.Article 49 of the Islamic Penal Law stipulates thatjuveniles be exempt from criminal liability; however,the legal age of maturity is 15 for boys and nine forgirls. Islamic Penal Law also places greater value onthe testimony of men. For example, cases involvinglesbianism, consuming alcohol, speaking outagainst the government, larceny and murderrequire only the testimony of men. In casesrequiring proof of adultery, a man’s testimony isequivalent to the testimony of two women. 1 Thepenal system needs to reflect the realities andconcerns of women today; if no changes areintroduced, little progress could be made in termsof women’s access to justice through either theformal or informal media. Laws need to reflectcurrent social realities, or they have no meaning.Women in general have become increasinglyaware of their condition due to their exposure tohigher education, especially in the humanities andsocial sciences, to their engagement in civil society,and to increased international discussion on thesituation of women in Iran. Female claimants andoffenders have become aware of their conditionthrough their involvement with the justice system.Of the 56 female claimants participating in thestudy, 47 believed that governing laws do notadequately support women, and 29 believed thatthey did not receive proper support because theywere women. As one woman indicated:“Of course, because I am a woman, my words wentunheard.They did not even call me to court, and myhusband, because he had married another at thatpoint, simply divorced me.”The effectiveness of legislation and the success ofcivil and governmental institutions in protectingfemale claimants require legal reform, appropriatecultural transformations and awareness-raising forwomen about their rights, which will encouragethem to take a more proactive role as social actors.Since there is a deep correspondence betweenpenal law and dominant cultural ideologies, anylegal changes require equal transformations at thelevel of culture in order to change normativeprescriptions about what is deemed appropriatefor women and men in Iranian society.Female offenders, who make up 3.41 percent of allprisoners, expressed their dismay at the way inwhich women are treated in the criminal justicesystem – a system they identified as unethical andbiased. There was a common perception thatfemale offenders are treated differently based ontheir gender, offence, appearance and age. Of the54 women interviewed, 35 believed that a doublestandard existed, as women are charged withgreater severity than their male counterparts forsimilar crimes. Women in prison may also be1Many discriminatory laws have been addressed in detail in the case study.115

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacificsexually abused or tortured, especially if they areregarded as being licentious or “too sexual”. Of the54 participants, 10 affirmed that prisons are unsafe,and 24 felt that the prison environmentencouraged promiscuity and greater susceptibilityto prostitution. Of the former prisoners, 23confirmed experiencing violence in the prison, and22 affirmed that they had experienced violencecommitted by a prison guard.Committing acts of violence against femaleoffenders while they are incarcerated is not onlyinexcusable, but also a severe violation of theirhuman rights. What can we assume when suchwomen are released from prison? What can weexpect from their reintegration process? It is safe toassume that there is a probability that thesewomen will reoffend. Both the courts and theprisons need to be guided by a standard code ofethics informing them of their obligations andresponsibilities. A shift in attitude also needs totake place. There needs to be room to voiceconcerns and to encourage government andlegal institutions to take a more proactiveapproach in ensuring that human rights standardsare always upheld.Furthermore, it is difficult for women to seek safespaces for support – resources are lacking. Thegovernment has yet to create widespread andaccessible support services for women whohave been victimized. Only one governmentalorganization, Behzisti, has established several safehomes in the city; these, however, are limited innumber, and knowledge of their existence isminimal. The few non-governmental bodiesproviding support to female victims are limitedand under-funded, and while charity institutionsoffer temporary financial support to women,they do not provide any intellectual or physicalprotection from recurring harm.Female representation within the courts hasencouraged small but meaningful changes andprogress within the justice system as a whole.Female lawyers and judges advocating for legalreform within the framework of human rights havecreated slight changes in attitudes, particularlywith regard to the involvement of women indecision-making institutions. By arguing for a moreequitable and just system, women in the courtshave encouraged others to ‘think outside the box’and have energized their colleagues intoimproving their understanding of the paradoxesand double standards currently prevailing thesystem. Links have also been created betweenwomen working within the courts, providing themwith mutual support within their highly maledominatedand rigid work environment.Many of the impediments women face in attemptingto gain acceptance within the judicial system are aresult of dominant gender stereotypes thatreinforce negative attitudes and behaviour. Femalelawyers and judges have worked very hard to resistthese stereotypes and barriers, and to create areputation within the justice system as capable,trustworthy and attentive.Women need a venue in which they can breakthe silence, voice their concerns and share theirexperiences as actors and agents of change. One ofthe fundamental problems in Iran is that womenhave little permission to organize and advocatefor reform. Their authority to be proactive andinfluence the decisions that most affect them iscontingent on their increased participation innational government.116

Access to justice: the case of women in Iran3. KEY LESSONS LEARNED FROM APPLYING A HUMANRIGHTS-BASED APPROACHProtecting the rights of women is part of promoting,respecting and protecting the rights of all humanbeings. As a methodology, a human rights-basedapproach works not only to create an enablingframework in which people can exercise freedomof choice and expand their capabilities, but alsotowards developing an empowering environmentin which people are involved in both the decisionmakingand development process. Using a humanrights-based approach in the study meant that aparticipatory process was required: one that wasempowering for the women involved and thataddressed their marginality in such a way so as toprovide options for the improvement of their dailylives. It was important to seek participation fromthe women who were most exposed to the justicesystem in Iran, since the research began with thesupposition that those implicated in the system (inthe capacity of duty-bearers and rights-holders)had the experience and information to providedetails on the current challenges and needs ofwomen accessing justice.In this study, translating the experiences of womenmeant that they were acknowledged as activeparticipants and recognized as agents of positivetransformation. Although numerous legal studies onwomen’s rights have been conducted during the lastthree decades, they have not provided the spaceto hear women’s stories and make public theexperiences of women involved in accessing justice.The study applied both qualitative and quantitativeresearch methods to collect statistical data and togather experiential information from individualinterviews and focus group discussions. Desk andliterature reviews and survey assessments wereused to gather data. Individual interviews andfocus group discussions were held with the groupsrepresented in the study: female judges, attorneys,offenders and victims.To engage the participation of women within thecourts, formal letters were written to a focal personwithin the courts, which were then distributed toother judges and attorneys. Attorneys willing toparticipate in the study were met in their ownoffices, and judges were visited in the courts.Female claimants were also solicited in the courts.The research team approached the participantsand provided them with information on thebackground and purpose of the research project.All interviews with female claimants, judges andattorneys were conducted behind closed doors inthe court. Without prior notification, it would nothave been possible to meet with representativesfrom the courts. More importantly, withoutconnections it would have been impossible tomeet with the women because of the sensitivenature of the study. The research group knew keypeople in the courts, and their familiarity with ourprevious work enabled us to carry out this study.Female offenders were solicited in the Women’sPrison.Women who had been recently released butlacked shelter were staying in a centre for newlyreleased prisoners near the prison, and they werealso approached to participate in this study.Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) workingon women’s legal issues also participated andprovided information on their activities.The study aimed to ensure the participation ofboth rights-holders and duty-bearers. Although117

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacificboth groups provided meaningful insights,challenges did exist given the sensitive andpolitical nature of the topic being addressed.Contesting a system takes courage, especiallywhen that system is institutionalized and supportedat a political level. The women who were addressingtheir concerns and sharing their experiences wereengaging in a political act: one that was empoweringbut also, if dealt with unethically, could have invitedharm. Each participant had her own concernsabout engaging with the research study. Femaleattorneys had much at stake, as they openly sharedtheir views on Iran’s governing laws, justice systemand their own experiences as women in a largelymale-dominated sphere of work. In the past,women who had expressed their concerns withinthe legal system had faced serious repercussions;and in this instance, they worried that their jobswould be on the line. Ensuring confidentiality andanonymity was crucial in order to provide thenecessary confidence to participate in the study.Many of the female offenders questioned thestudy. Women in the prisons were disheartened bythe fact that this was not the first research beingconducted where their lived experiences weresurfacing on paper. Despite these studies, their fatehad not changed nor had they ever been providedaccess to the final research findings. Theyquestioned the nature of ‘participatory research’and identified it as a process that ended once datawas collected. In the light of this, the participants ofthis study were assured that they would be given acopy of the report so that they could see how theyhad contributed to the study and take note of therecommendations made for future programming.Using surveys, which respondents in the prisonscompleted at their own convenience as interviewswere prohibited, reduced the level of fear since theoffenders were submitting answers in totalanonymity. We found that this ‘neutral’ mediumcreated space for better and more detailed datagathering. While the written questionnairesprovided no room for increased engagement, theinterview process was less structured and focusedon being open-ended and sensitive to thecondition of the respondents.4. RECOMMENDATIONSThe purpose of this research was to provide theopportunity for marginalized women to voice theirlived experience and, in doing so, to exercisegreater influence over the decisions that mostaffect their lives.With the information gathered, wehope to create positive change and ultimately offerthe space for women, as rights-holders, to feel moreempowered and, while doing so, hold duty-bearersincreasingly accountable.The women in this research study were able toevaluate their condition within the existing legal,social and economic context. Their experiencesand knowledge feed into our recommendations inrelation to human rights based approachprogramming.The following recommendations areproposed:118

Access to justice: the case of women in IranHuman rights educationThere appears to be a large gap in the justicesystem vis-à-vis knowledge about and applicationof human rights. In order to stop current practicesthat deny the need for a human rights-basedapproach, capacity-building initiatives targetingthose implicated in the system are crucial.The issueof human rights needs to become more prominentwithin the courts and Iranian law. This will disrupttraditional assumptions, and possibilities forcollective learning will emerge. It will be particularlyuseful to make linkages between human rights andIslam and to integrate them within the legal context.Traditional leaders, judges, lawyers and students oflaw should engage with human rights educationand understand how to apply it effectively in theirwork. This will enable greater consistency andadherence to human rights principles and impacton the decisions they will make. Key partners in thisprocess are academic and research institutions, thejudiciary and key human rights centres in Iran.Increased involvement of non-governmentalorganizationsThere is a critical need for service programmes thatprovide women at risk with support and access toinformation. Specifically, this study identified a lackof shelters for battered women, sexual assaultsupport agencies, legal aid and information centreswhere women can seek information about theirrights. Enabling NGOs to provide such serviceswould contribute to bringing taboo subjects thathave been restricted to the private realm into thepublic domain. Developing such centres will serveto support women who have had the courage tospeak out against the various forms of violencethey have encountered and to seek support, legalaid and redress.In addition to support services for women at risk,female offenders finishing their sentences wouldalso benefit from integration services aimed atbetter preparing them as they re-enter the socialand economic world. The purpose would beto prevent further offences while also providingtherapy for any trauma they may haveencountered while incarcerated.Government backing is required for NGOs tooperate on a safe and long-term basis. So far, thissupport is minimal. UNDP needs to play a moreproactive role in building the capacity of civilsociety to meet the needs of the population, whilealso working with the government to support thecreation of social institutions and networks. Thiswould be a positive step towards strengtheningthe social response for women experiencing harm,while also acknowledging that victimized womenwho speak out provide the catalyst needed bothto create support services and to encouragelegislative change.Legal reformIt is important to acknowledge that legal reformsare necessary to bring about effective changeaimed at inculcating a stronger sense ofaccountability to gender, equity and justice in all itstrue forms. Our research indicates that certain lawsdiscriminate against women and that collectiveadvocacy and action are required to change them.While we cannot expect to see radical changes in ashort period, we can begin to inform and advocateon issues that can be changed over time. Workingwith legal practitioners, members of the judiciaryand courts as well as with educators, we can beginto address laws that overtly discriminate betweenthe sexes. Forums, high-level conferences androundtables can be held to engage in dialogue and119

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacificopen debate on the laws of concern. This will pavethe way for collective lobbying and opendiscussion on the topic.Drawing on the strengths of their experiences,women, as a disadvantaged group, can contributeto these forums and enable others to identify theneed for change, since they have been subject tothe laws that are deeply in need of transformation.Change in cultural attitudesOur research has indicated that formal systems arenot fully accountable to women, and the structurallimitations embedded in cultural and socialdiscrimination against women increase theirvulnerabilities and impede their ability to becomebetter integrated in the development process.Shifting cultural attitudes, and challenging sociallyconstructed notions of the category of ‘woman’, isnecessary to disentangle power relations andprovide women with opportunities for creatingsocial change. Many of the obstacles that womenencounter in their daily lives, and many of thereasons women do not contest their situation, arelargely due to the cultural repercussions theyexpect to face.Education on gender equality and the deconstructionof the social categories of ‘woman’ and ‘man’ atcommunity levels are important initial stepstowards changing cultural attitudes for thebetterment of all social groups – but women inparticular. Sessions which target communityleaders and other community members, and wheregender is deconstructed and linkages are madebetween the improvement of the status of womenand society in general, are essential for addressingthe current situation and for finding a way forward.UNDP can play a lead role in conducting communitytraining sessions that open up debate andchallenge dominant normative thinking on what itmeans to be a man and what it means to be awoman.Increased international engagementThere needs to be greater involvement betweenIran and the international community. Specifically,existing international measures aimed at promotingand protecting the rights of women need to beratified. This would oblige the government toimprove measures to decrease women’svulnerabilities and the discrimination theyencounter at institutional levels. This calls forincreased advocacy and dialogue between theNorth and the South. Critical engagement withboth Islam and feminism would contribute toarguments regarding the adoption of CEDAWand provide the building blocks for increasedcollaboration and effective change.Reforms in the prison systemA stronger chain of accountability needs to exist forprison workers. Prison workers need to be guidedby a code of conduct and ethics. They would alsobenefit from receiving training to enhance theirawareness of their responsibilities and the rights offemale prisoners. More effective monitoring of whatoccurs in the prisons also needs to be conducted.The practice of research and writing insistson exposing realities on the ground. It is ourresponsibility as advocates and practitioners forchange to take this work and effect positivechange through the framework of a human rightsbasedapproach. The proposed changes are notrevolutionary but provide possible alternativesthat can have a meaningful impact on the lives ofwomen in Iran and, ultimately, on all of society.120

© UNDP PhilippinesThe irony of social legislation: reflections on formal andinformal justice interfaces and indigenous peoples in thePhilippinesProf. Marvic M.V.F. LeonenACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe author appreciates the insights, input and advice received from the numerous contributors involved inthis research.

PHILIPPINES

ACRONYMSAMMEDENRICCIFMAIPIPRANCIPAsian Ministerial Meetings for the EnvironmentDepartment of Environment and Natural ResourcesIndigenous cultural communitiesIntegrated forest management agreementIndigenous peoplesIndigenous Peoples Rights ActNational Commission on Indigenous Peoples

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificINTRODUCTION: THE HEURISTICCayat, an Ibaloi 1 , was fortunate to have been foundlanguishing in the jail by a young enterprisinglawyer. He was convicted of violating Philippine ActNo. 1639.That law made it unlawful for any native ofthe Philippines who was a member of a‘non-Christian tribe’ to possess or drink intoxicatingliquor, other than native liquor. Cayat was inebriatedand possessed A-1 gin, which was liquor producedin the Philippines but not native to the Ibaloi.His lawyer challenged the discriminatory actlegally by promptly filing an original petition forhabeas corpus with the Philippine Supreme Court.The legal argument was simple. Act No. 1639violated the equal protection clause of thePhilippine Constitution. 2 Therefore, it was null andvoid ab initio. Thus, the continued detention ofCayat, albeit under warrant of a final judgment, wasreally without any legal justification.In People v. Cayat 3 the Supreme Court, recallingestablished doctrine in the Philippines and in theUnited States, concluded:“It is an established principle of constitutionallaw that the guaranty of the equal protection ofthe laws is not violated by a legislation based onreasonable classification. In resume, therefore,the Legislature and the Judiciary, inferentially,and different executive officials, specifically, joinin the proposition that the term ‘non-Christian’refers, not to religious belief, but, in a way, togeographical area, and, more directly, to nativesof the Philippine Islands of a low grade ofcivilization, usually living in tribal relationshipapart from settled communities.” 4 Theoretically,one may assert that all men are created free andequal. Practically, we know that the axiom is notprecisely accurate. The Manguianes, for instance,are not free,as civilized men are free,and they arenot the equals of their more fortunate brothers.True, indeed, they are citizens, with many but notall the rights which citizenship implies. And true,indeed, they are Filipinos. But just as surely, theManguianes are citizens of a low degree ofintelligence, and Filipinos who are a drag upon theprogress of the State” (emphasis added).The resulting discrimination was obvious. Eventhose who are uninitiated in the process of formallegal reasoning can easily unmask the decision. 5 Yetthe legal foundation for the State’s paternalisticattitude to indigenous groups persisted, affectingthe allocation of rights of individuals belonging tothese communities.The irony, however, is that the very advancedprinciple on non-discrimination enshrined in no12345The Ibaloi is an ethnoliguistic grouping composed of different communities, organized by clans and found in the lower portion of the Cordilleramountain range of Luzon, Philippines.“No person shall be deprived of life, liberty or property without due process of law; nor shall any person be denied equal protection of the law.”68 Phil 12, 18 (1939). Unless specified otherwise, citations of cases refer to reports of Philippine Supreme Court cases.Rubi v. Provincial Board, 39 Phil. 660.See for instance the statement made by noted Philippine Historian Dr. William Henry Scott, Sagada, 29 May 1986, where he says:“I have always rejectedthe term ‘cultural minorities’ because it seems to divide the Filipino people into two groups: the majority and the minority. I consider it harmful for twodifferent reasons.... In the first place, human nature being what it is, it invites exploitation of the one group by the other; and in the second place, it disguises the real division of the Filipino people into two groups: the rich and the poor, the overfed and the undernourished, those who make decisionsand those who carry them out”.124

Reflections on formal and informal justice interfaces and indigenous peoples in the Philippinesless than the Philippine Constitution wasconstrued to limit the freedoms of significantpopulations of indigenous groups.This paper examines the notions of interfacebetween formal and informal justice systems in thePhilippines, as well as the necessary trade-offs inworking these two systems with the interfaces thathave been mandated by several statutes. It ends withtentative proposals for future directions, not only forconsidering interfaces between these two systems,but also future projects that would enrich thisinterface. For obvious purposes, the goal ofthis analysis is to enrich the opportunities ofmarginalized populations in the Philippines andinvoke the coercive powers of the official nationallegal system in their favour. In order to focus theinquiry, this paper concentrates on the problems ofindigenous peoples.WHO ARE THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES INTHE PHILIPPINES?The best way to define who indigenous peoplesare would be to ask them. But then, when this isdone, the common retort, from those who considerthemselves as indigenous, would be to ask why thequestion was asked in the first place, and why theneed for an answer?The question assumes a priori that there is adifference and that the difference is significant.While this may from a certain perspective be true,development organizations need to understandsome of the dangers in categorization. As IrisMarion Young warns:“Social groups who identify one another asdifferent typically have conceived that differenceas Otherness. Where the social relation of thegroups is one of privilege and oppression, thisattribution of Otherness is asymmetrical. Whilethe privileged group is defined as active humansubject, inferiorized social groups are objectified,substantialized, reduced to a nature or essence.Whereas the priviledged groups are neutral,exhibit free,spontaneous and weighty subjectivity,the dominated groups are marked with anessence,imprisoned in a given set of possibilities.Group differences as otherness thus usuallygenerates dichotomies of mind and body,reason-emotion, civilized and primitive,developed and underdeveloped.” 6Most of the credible work on indigenous peoples inthe Philippines starts with an admission that it isdifficult to define precisely who indigenouspeoples are without admitting how peoples in thePhilippines have been divided by its colonizers orcommitting some fundamental error in identities. 7Always, the question is for what purpose we aredefining who indigenous peoples are.67Young, Iris Marion,“Together in Difference:Transforming the Logic of Group Political Conflict”, in Kymlicka, Will,The Rights of Minority Cultures (Oxford:1999), p. 158.A good discussion is found in Gatmaytan, Augusto B.,“Peoples: A View of Indigenous Peoples in the Philippines,” LRCKSK, Unpublished Policy Paper, 1999.125

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificDevelopment agencies should be aware thatdevising programmes based on continuing thecategorization of Filipinos into indigenous andnon-indigenous is a historically- and culturallyboundact; because it is used to address historicallycreated disadvantages, the distinction needs to betemporary. Because it is a cultural construct,we should always be aware of other relevantcategorization of a collective group of humanbeings. There is no universal or unambiguousdefinition of who indigenous peoples are.Whoever works for indigenous peoples should thereforecraft an operational definition, which will beheavily informed by their work agenda. Theoperational definition should not be considered as agiven and should be subject to periodic evaluation.A number of criteria, however, have been developedto recognize the identities of indigenous peoples.The National Commission on Indigenous Peoples(NCIP) 8 lists 110 ethno-linguistic groups asbelonging to its official category of indigenouspeoples, partly based on these criteria. NCIPbelieves that indigenous peoples constitute 17percent of the total population and occupy about 5million hectares from a total of 30 million hectaresof land area. 9The categorization of Filipinos, based on being‘indigenous’, continues to this day and onlytemporarily corrects the political agenda of thecolonizers. Except for those who are naturalized, allFilipino citizens and their ancestors are indigenousin a sense. Officially therefore, the view ofindigenous peoples as backward and barbaric,which had been the interpretation of the Courtsince Rubi v. Provincial Board of Mindoro, 10 has nowbeen changed. The specific use of the term‘indigenous cultural communities’ in theConstitution was a constitutional recognition ofthe intricacies and complexities of culture and itscontinuity in defining ancestral lands anddomains. 11 The choice of “Indigenous Peoples” inthe IPRA, as well as the recognition and promotionof their rights, was a departure from the negativestereotypes instilled by our colonizers.In a way, maintaining the distinction betweenindigenous and non-indigenous people allows foraffirmative action to be introduced, as an attemptto correct a historical injustice by specificallydefining more rights and entitlements to thosewho were systematically discriminated against inthe past. 12Following this tradition, indigenous peoples havebeen identified based on their general geographicorigins in the Philippines. Thus, when we speak ofindigenous peoples, we usually refer to peopleswho inhabit the Cordilleras, the CaraballoMountain Ranges, the Sierra Madre MountainRanges, Palawan, Visayas Islands and Mindanao.However, categorization based on ethno-linguisticaffiliation fails to capture discussions and debateswithin communities regarding the use ofcustomary law, the relationship of indigenouscommunities to the culture of outsiders and therole of local government institutions vis-à-vis their8Created by the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act (Rep. Act No. 8371).9NCIP, National Situationer, unpublished document presented during the 2002 budget hearing.10 39 Phil. 660 (1939). The racial slurs have been apparent in other cases such as U.S. v. de los Reyes, 34 Phil. 693 (1916), People v. Cayat, 68 Phil. 12 (1939)and Sale de Porkan v. Yatco, 70 Phil.161 (1940).11 See for instance the exchange between Regalado, Davide and Bennagen, Records of the Constitutional Commission, 33-34 (28 August 1986) duringthe Second Reading of P.R. No. 533.12 See LRCKSK, Memorandum for Intervenors, Cruz v. NCIP, 2000 in LRCKSK,“A Divided Court” 2001.126

Reflections on formal and informal justice interfaces and indigenous peoples in the Philippinesown customary political units. The cultures ofalmost all indigenous communities in thePhilippines are open to interactions with outsiders.In fact, it is possible to identify a number ofcustomary norms which pertain to rules governingthe treatment of ‘aliens’, as there has been a greatdeal of trade and other forms of contact with otherindigenous groups both inside and outside thePhilippines. As a result, cultures have beendynamic. They have evolved in various ways as aresult of interaction with outsiders and changes inthe economic, political and social system outsidetheir communities.Within their communities, there are a number ofways in which the dimensions of the interfacesbetween indigenous culture and the outside worldare discussed. Again, there is significant variationamong communities within ethno-linguistic groupsas to how this discussion takes place or whetherit takes place at all. For instance, younger datu(community leader) may debate with elder datu onhow non-formal education institutions should beset up within their community. 13 Community reactionsas to how gender issues are discussed withcommunities by outsiders (which includes NGOs)may reveal their preferences as to this interface. 14Ethno-linguistic categories identify groups but donot suggest a priori assumptions about the dynamicsof their communities and the individuals withinthese communities.Finally, the definition of what an indigenouscommunity is should not be accepted as a fixedconcept. Identities are always contested. They arealways conveniently relocated by loyalties toconstructed groups and the reasons why thesegroups become distinctive. The definition ofidentities is above all dictated by political agendas.Their exact definition can be left to the dominantgroup, if we accept the categories of the status quo,or a tool for empowerment, and if these categoriesare properly understood, deconstructed and used.A lot depends on the purposes for intervention, forthose who would want to define the basic unit thatwill receive their services or resources.TRADITIONAL INTER-PENETRATION OF FORMAL ANDINFORMAL JUSTICE SYSTEMSFormal and informal justice systems have neverbeen exclusive of each other. Although they existindependently, they have always inter-penetratedeach other’s domain.Thus, litigants in court normally communicate witheach other through their lawyer or other informalchannels to arrive at a negotiated settlement.These communication channels go beyond13 Intervention of Datu Tony Lumadnong, Higaonon, Focus Group Discussion, Cagayan de Oro, March 2003.14 Focus Group Discussion, Davao City.127

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacificopportunities for negotiation provided underCourt Rules. 15 In addition to People v. Cayat, 16 therehave also been cases where the formal adjudicatoryprocesses delivered results that recognizedcustomary informal processes. We examine, asadditional heuristics for this paper, the cases ofPit-og v. People 17 and Carino v. Insular Government. 18Erkey Pit-og, along with three other Kankanai, 19gathered sugarcane and banana trunks in areaswhich were considered to be part of their tayan.The tayan, among the Kankanai, is an area ownedby a collective grouping in their community and isused principally as a watershed. The tayan in thiscase was under the management of specificindividuals. It was shown that Erkey Pit-og was amember of that group.The municipal circuit trial court convicted Pit-og forthe crime of theft. Reading the provisions of theRevised Penal Code, it saw that all the requirementsfor the crime to have occurred were present. TheRegional Trial Court affirmed this decision, but theSupreme Court reversed it. In finding for theaccused, the Court observed:“We see this case as exemplifying a clash betweena claim of ownership founded on customs andtradition and another such claim supported bywritten evidence but nonetheless based on thesame customs and tradition. When a court is besetwith this kind of case, it can never be too careful.More so in this case, where the accused, an illiteratetribeswoman who cannot be expected to resort towritten evidence of ownership, stands to lose herliberty on account of an oversight in the court’sappreciation of the evidence.We find, that Erkey Pit-og took the sugarcane andbananas believing them to be her own. That beingthe case, she could not have had a criminal intent.It is therefore not surprising why her counselbelieves that this case is civil and not criminal innature. There are indeed legal issues that must beironed out with regard to claims of ownership overthe tayan. But those are matters which should bethreshed out in an appropriate civil action” .20Custom, as fact, was used to create a reasonabledoubt sufficient to acquit. However, the allocationof rights between the parties in the conflict wasnot clearly resolved. At the time this case wasdecided, there could not have been any way thatthe official national legal system could decideusing customary law.Carino v. Insular Government 21 provides another setof problems in the use of formal justice systems.The operative facts from which the legal issuesarose were found by the court to be as follows:“The applicant and plaintiff in error (MateoCariño) is an Igorot of the Province of Benguet,where the land lies. For more than fifty yearsbefore the Treaty of Paris, April 11, 1899, as farback as the findings go, the plaintiff and hisancestors had held the land as owners. Hisgrandfather had lived upon it, and hadmaintained fences sufficient for the holding ofcattle, according to the custom of the country,15 Rule 18, Revised Rules of Civil Procedure allows amicable settlement and alterative dispute resolution as part of pre-Trial proceedings.16 68 Phil 12, 18 (1939).17 G.R. No. 76539, 11 October 1990.18 41 Phil. 935 (1909).19 An indigenous community that lives in the Mountain Province of the Cordillera Region, Philippines.20 supra.21 41 Phil. 935, 212 U.S. 449 (1909).128

Reflections on formal and informal justice interfaces and indigenous peoples in the Philippinessome of the fences, it seems, having been ofmuch earlier date. His father had cultivatedparts and had used parts for pasturing cattle,and he had used it for pasture in turn. They allhad been recognized as owners by the Igorots,and he had inherited or received the land fromhis father, in accordance with Igorot custom. Nodocument of title, however, had issued from theSpanish crown...In 1901 the plaintiff filed apetition, alleging ownership…” 22In a paper written by the Cordillera StudiesProgramme, they point out that the Ibaloi, to whichethno-linguistic group Mateo Cariño belonged,had no concept of exclusive or alienable ownership.They did not ‘own’ land as one owned a pair of shoes.Instead, they considered themselves stewards of theland from which they obtained their livelihood.During the early part of Benguet’s history however, afew of the baknang mined gold, which wasthen exchanged for cattle. This resulted in theestablishment of pasture lands. Later, to prevent thespread of rinder pest disease, cattle owners set upfences. It was only with the erection of these fencesthat new concept of rights to land arose.The real factual circumstances, the evidence ofwhich may have not been appreciated by thecourt, are significant in that the exclusive right touse the land – ownership as we understand it – wasonly a relatively new development and which, bycustom, applied only to pasture land.The court focused only on the issue of “whetherplaintiff (Cariño) owned the land”. It did not focus onthe kind of property tenure Mateo had with respectto the kind of land involved.The law,which the judgewas implementing, was simply not equipped toassist him in realizing this important point.Cariño carved out a doctrine which is advantageousin so far as it assists in the creation of an exceptionto the Regalian Doctrine and, perhaps, recognizescertain legal rights of these peoples. Lynchobserved that “Cariño remains a landmark decision.It establishes an important precedent in Philippinejurisprudence: Igorots, and by logical extensionother tribal Filipinos with comparable customs andlong associations, have constitutionally protectednative titles to their ancestral lands.” 23The inter-penetration of formal and informal justicesystems also takes place not only through judicialdecisions, but also through enactment of legislation.Recently, Congress passed Republic Act No. 9285 orthe Alternative Dispute Resolution Act of 2004.Thislaw declared that party autonomy would be theguiding principle in determining the resolution ofdisputes. 24 The law recognized “alternative disputeresolution” methods as part of the officiallyrecognized systems. However, not all disputes arecovered by party autonomy. Thus, the law expressesits preference for adjudication for topics that itconsiders of the public interest, for example, labourdisputes, the civil status of persons, the validity ofa marriage, grounds for legal separation, thejurisdiction of courts and criminal liability. 25Being very recent, the empirical impact of theseprovisions in the law is very difficult to assess. Forindigenous peoples, however, the provisions ofthe Indigenous Peoples Rights Act (IPRA) aremore relevant.22 Id, at 936-937.23 Lynch, Owen J.“Native Title, Private Right and Tribal Land Law: An Introductory Survey,” 57 Phil. L. J. 268, 278 (1982).25 Rep. Act No. 9285, section 6.129

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificTHE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES RIGHTS ACTOn 29 October 1997, the President of the Republicof the Philippines finally passed the IndigenousPeoples Rights Act of 1997 (IPRA); the new lawcame into effect in the context of a new constitution, 26after more than 10 years of legislative advocacy byindigenous and non-governmental organizations.Formally, the law is the legislature’s interpretationof some key provisions of the constitution directlyrelating to indigenous peoples.Article II mandates that the state “recognizesand promotes the rights of indigenous culturalcommunities within the framework of nationalunity and development.” Article XII particularlycommands the state to “protect the rights ofindigenous cultural communities to their ancestrallands to ensure their economic, social and culturalwell-being.” It also authorizes Congress to providefor “the applicability of customary laws governingproperty rights or relations in determining theownership and extent of ancestral domain.”The Indigenous Peoples Rights Act of 1997implements these provisions by enumerating thecivil and political rights and the social and culturalrights of all members of indigenous culturalcommunities or indigenous peoples. It alsorecognizes a general concept of indigenousproperty right, granting title thereto, and creates aNational Commission on Indigenous Peoples(NCIP) to act as a mechanism to coordinateimplementation of this law as well as a final authoritythat has jurisdiction to issue certificates of ancestraldomain/land titles.CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTSForemost in the law is its recognition of the right tonon-discrimination of indigenous peoples. In anunfortunately verbose 27 section of the law, it states:“Equal protection and non-discrimination ofICCs/IPs 28 – Consistent with the equalprotection clause of the Constitution of theRepublic of the Philippines, the Charter of theUnited Nations, the Universal Declaration ofHuman Rights including the Convention on theElimination of Discrimination Against Womanand International Human Rights Law, the Stateshall, with due recognition of their distinctcharacteristics and identity, accord to themembers of the ICCs/IPs the rights, protectionsand privileges enjoyed by the rest of thecitizenry. It shall extend to them the sameemployment rights, opportunities, basic26 After the overthrow of the Marcos dictatorship, the government immediately moved to promulgate a constitution in 1987. The provisions of this constitution were inspired by the “people power” euphoria that was then sweeping the country.27 That the section is subject to the Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines is obvious, given the hierarchy of our rules and that this law is beingpromulgated by the same state. International law already forms part of the law of the land, so that it would have been best not to reiterate theseinternational instruments, some of which already provide jus cogens rules. Finally, that “force or coercion shall be dealt with by law” is obviouslyredundant and considered as a technical oversight.28 ICCs/IPs is the acronym for Indigenous Cultural Communities/ Indigenous Peoples.130

Reflections on formal and informal justice interfaces and indigenous peoples in the Philippinesservices, educational and other rights andprivileges available to every member of thesociety. Accordingly, the State shall likewiseensure that the employment of any form offorce or coercion against ICCs/IPs shall be dealtwith by law”. 29Clearly, ethnicity is now an unacceptable basis forclassification, unless it is in “due recognition of thecharacteristics and identity” of a member or a classof indigenous peoples. Classification now shouldbe allowed only to provide affirmative action intheir favour. Cases such as People v. Cayat, 30 wherethe Philippine Supreme Court leaned overbackwards and placed judicial imprimatur ongovernment action discriminating against a“cultural minority”, are now things of the past.Under the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act, suchnotions are not only archaic but also outlawed.Indigenous peoples are entitled to the same rightsand privileges as citizens, 31 should not bediscriminated against in any form of employment 32and should receive more appropriate forms ofbasic services. 33The IPRA, therefore, performs the traditional roleof social legislation. It corrects an otherwiseabominable judicial interpretation. The new laweven goes further to ensure the rights of women, 34children 35 and civilians caught in situations ofarmed conflict. 36The law also recognizes the right of indigenouspeoples to “self-governance”, to wit:“Self-governance – The State recognizes theinherent right of ICCs/IPs to self-governanceand self-determination and respects theintegrity of their values, practices andinstitutions. Consequently, the State shallguarantee the right of ICCs/IPs to their economic,social and cultural development.” 37In accordance with the provisions of theConstitution, 38 customary law will also be the set ofnorms that would be used in case of conflict aboutthe boundaries and the tenurial rights with respectto ancestral domains. 39 Doubt as to its applicationor interpretation will be resolved in favour of theICCs/IPs.Finally, any offended party may opt to use customaryprocesses, rather than having the offenderprosecuted in a court of law. 40 The penalty can bemore than what the law provides for so long as itdoes not amount to cruel, degrading or humanpunishment. Also, customary norms cannotlegitimately impose the death penalty or grantexcessive fines.29 Section 21, Rep. Act No. 8371 (1997).30 68 Phil. 12 (1939).31 Section 21, Rep. Act No. 8371 (1997).32 Section 23 and 24, Rep. Act No. 8371. The later provision makes it a crime to discriminate against indigenous peoples in the workplace.33 Section 25, Rep. Act No. 8371 (1997).34 Section 21, Rep. Act No. 8371 (1997).The 2nd paragraph ensures that there be no diminution of rights for women under existing laws of general application.35 Section 27, Rep. Act No. 8371 (1997).36 Section 22, Rep. Act No. 8371 (1997).37 Section 13, Rep. Act No. 8371 (1997).38 Section 5, 2nd paragraph, Art. XII, Consti.39 Section 63, Rep. Act No. 8371.40 Section 72, Rep. Act No. 8371.131

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificSOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTSSection 29 of the new law lays down state policy withrespect to indigenous culture.Pursuant to this policy,itrequires that the education system becomes relevantto the needs of “children and young people” 41 andprovide them with “cultural opportunities”. 42 Culturaldiversity is recognized. Community intellectual rights 43and indigenous knowledge systems 44 may be thesubject of special measures.The rights to religious andcultural sites and ceremonies are guaranteed. It is nowunlawful to excavate archaeological sites in order toobtain materials of cultural value as well as defacing ordestroying artifacts. The right to “repatriation ofhuman remains” is even recognized. 45 Funds forarchaeological and historical sites of indigenouspeoples earmarked by the national government maynow be turned over to the relevant communities. 46RECOGNIZING RIGHTS AND TENURE TO NATURALRESOURCESTenurial and ownership rights created under thenew law are always subject to those rights thathave been recognized under the constitution andits various interpretations.The legal concept underlying the government’sposition with regard to full ownership and controlof natural resources has been referred to as theRegalian Doctrine. 47 On the other hand, privatevested property rights are basically protected bythe due process clause 48 of the constitution.The Regalian doctrine proceeds from the premisethat all natural resources within the country’sterritory belongs to the state. 49 This dates back tothe arrival of the Spaniards in the Philippines whenthey declared all lands in the country as belongingto the King of Spain. Since then, successivegovernments have mistakenly taken this as theforemost principle underpinning its laws andprogrammes on natural resources.41 Section 28, Rep. Act No. 8371 (1997). Possible conflicts of interpretation might ensue between the concept of “young people” as used in this sectionand “youth” as used in Section 27 of the same law.42 Section 30, Rep. Act No. 8371 (1997).The section, however, does not settle whether quotas or affirmative action may be given in various levels of education.It is, however, broad enough to provide the basis for such action.43 Section 32, Rep. Act No. 8371 (1997).44 Section 34, Rep. Act No. 8371 (1997). See also Section 36 on agro-technical development.45 Section 33, Rep. Act No. 8371 (1997).46 Section 37, Rep. Act No. 8371 (1997).47 Section 2, Art. XII, provides “All lands of the public domain, waters, minerals, coal, petroleum, and other mineral oils, all forces of potential energy, fisheries,forests or timber, wildlife, flora and fauna, and other natural resources are owned by the State. With the exception of agricultural lands, all other naturalresources shall not be alienated.”48 Section 1, Art. III, provides “No person shall be deprived of life, liberty or property without due process of law...”49 See Krivenko v. Director of Lands; Gold Creek Mining v. Rodriguez, 66 Phil. 259 (1938).132

Reflections on formal and informal justice interfaces and indigenous peoples in the PhilippinesGovernments have continued to assert, throughlegislative enactments, executive issuances, judicialdecisions, as well as practice, that rights to naturalresources can only be recognized by showing agrant from the state. 50 A recent case, Cruz v. NCIP, 51provided the Supreme Court with an opportunityto correct this perspective. Unfortunately, asufficient majority was not attained to create thedoctrine. 52The constitution, however, also contains some basisfor recognizing the rights of indigenous peoplesover their lands; even without a law, as beingprivate – that is - neither the public nor thegovernment owned or controlled them.The IPRA is the source of a different concept ofownership. By legislative fiat, there are nowlegitimate ways of acquiring ownership toancestral domains and lands.Ancestral domains are defined as all areas generallybelonging to ICCs/IPs, comprising lands, inlandwaters, coastal areas, and natural resources therein,held under a claim of ownership, occupied orpossessed by ICCs/IPs, by themselves or throughtheir ancestors, communally or individually sincetime immemorial continuously to the present. 53Ancestral lands, on the other hand, are defined asland occupied, possessed and utilized by individuals,families and clans who are members of the ICCs/IPssince time immemorial, by themselves or throughtheir predecessors-in-interest, under claims ofindividual or traditional group ownership,continuously, to the present”. 54The rights of holders of ancestral domains arefound in the new law under an indigenous conceptof ownership that sustains the view that ancestraldomains and all resources found therein shall serveas the material basis of their cultural integrity. Theindigenous concept of ownership generally holdsthat ancestral domains are the ICCs/IPs privatebut community property, which belongs to allgenerations, cannot be sold, disposed of ordestroyed. It likewise covers sustainable traditionalresource rights. 55Unlike the emphasis on individual and corporateholders in the Civil Code, the Indigenous PeoplesRights Act emphasizes the “private but communityproperty” nature of ancestral domains. Aside fromnot being a proper subject of sale or any othermode of disposition, ancestral domain holders mayclaim ownership over the resources within theterritory; develop land and natural resources; stayin the territory; have rights against involuntarydisplacement; can regulate the entry of migrants;have rights to safe and clean air and water; canclaim parts of reservations; and can use customarylaws to resolve their conflicts. 56Duties are, however, imposed on the holders ofthese titles.All of these rights are subject to Section 56 of thelaw.This has been a difficult point of debate amongadvocates. The section provides that “propertyrights within the ancestral domains alreadyexisting and/or vested upon effectivity of this Actshall be recognized and respected.” 5750 See Rep. Act No. 7942 (1995) or the Philippine Mining Act; Rep. Act No. 6940 (1993); Rep. Act No. 7076 (1993) Small Scale Mining Law; Pres. Dec. No. 705(1974) as amended or the Revised Forestry Code; Director of Lands v. Funtilar, 142 SCRA 57 (1986), among others.51 December, 2000.52 Seven justices voted to declare the IPRA as constitutional, six declared it as unconstitutional, and only one dismissed the petition on proceduralgrounds. The Constitution requires a majority of justices voting to create new doctrine.53 Section 3 (a), Rep. Act No. 8371 (1997).54 Section 3 (b), Rep. Act No. 8371 (1997).55 Section 5, Rep. Act No. 8371 (1997). Sustainable traditional resource rights are defined in Section 3 (o).56 Section 7, pars. (a) to (h), Rep. Act No. 8371 (1997).57 Section 56, Rep. Act No. 8371. LRC-KSK had suggested to the bicameral committee to limit its operation to only those with torrens titles and with powers ofreview given to the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples.133

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificIRONY OF THE LAWThe weakness of the law notwithstanding,marginalized indigenous peoples’ communitiesstill need to have access or control over theirancestral domain. Insights can be gained from theconsequences suffered by communities availing ofthese provisions of the law.The growing consensus in the current literature isthat their control over their ancestral domainsprovides the material bases not only for theirphysical survival, but also for their cultural integrity.This recognition has been won in the IndigenousPeoples Rights Act. 58Section 5 of the IPRA is a milestone, as it provideslegal arguments against the prevalent notion thatall resources are still owned by the state. However,it also brings with it new issues that need to beconfronted when engaged in advocacy on behalfof indigenous peoples.POLITICAL VULNERABILITY AS A RESULT OFUNDERDEVELOPMENTAlmost all indigenous leaders assert that theremust be some interface between their concepts ofhow things are done and the technologies andinsights coming from other communities. Almostno indigenous leader advocates for some degree oficonoclasm.There is no debate, and nothing in theirhistory proves otherwise. The dynamic of localcultures is influenced by dealings with outsidecultures. There is also no debate that, whatever thearrangement, it needs to start with a degree ofpolitical autonomy given to the community, thepeoples’ organization, the family, or clans involved.There is a growing recognition that culturalprocesses should also be used in order to be ableto find the appropriate and acceptable interfacesbetween indigenous and non-indigenous cultures.However, the current economic environment ishostile to these aspirations. It also weighs heavilyagainst the ability of indigenous communities tomake truly free and autonomous choices. Therelative successes that have been made in thearena of law and policy should also be madeagainst this backdrop. Impoverished economies ofindigenous peoples experience pressure fromseveral sources. Increasing population,environmental degradation resulting from localand commercial activities coming from variedsources, expanding costs of goods and servicessuch as medicines and other health services,gasoline and transportation, groceries, etc., weighheavily on different households.To start with, manyof these communities already live at the subsistencelevel, if not below the poverty line. Many are stilldependent on agriculture or related activities.58 Section 5, Rep. Act No. 8731.134

Reflections on formal and informal justice interfaces and indigenous peoples in the PhilippinesThe infrastructure needs of communities, e.g. water,electricity, roads, etc., require large amounts ofcapital which can only come from governmentinvestment. Other needs such as educationand health may already be provided by thegovernment but are lost to corruption, culturallyinsensitive and irrelevant programmes, or simplyunexpended because of the inability of a localgovernment unit or government agency toconvince the Department of Budget andManagement to release the necessary financialresources. It also needs to be said that indigenouspeoples are not represented in these bodies.The lack of education and political experienceassured lack of representation which, in turn, keptthese economic issues hidden. The cycle repeatsitself with a deadly precision.Indigenous communities are therefore veryvulnerable to offers that are made by largecommercial interests wanting to extract naturalresources within their ancestral domains. They arealso likewise vulnerable to government projectsthat may not be acceptable culturally but providesome relief.To a certain extent, economic necessities also makemany indigenous communities very vulnerable tobecoming involved in NGO programmes whichmay not be culturally sensitive or that will simplyexploit the uniqueness of their processes. Ifcommunities had been given a genuine choice, it ispossible that they may have chosen a livelihoodor educational project, rather than a communitymapping exercise that will not result in theissuance of a title.This is not to say, however, that communitymapping has no intrinsic value in itself. It is just thatsome of the choices made by NGOs also have to bediscounted by the level of participation made byindigenous communities. Again, this is not to saythat works on community mapping, resourceplanning and official recognition of ancestral landsand domains are not important. They are, but thequestion needs to be viewed in the context ofa more expansive view of empowerment ofindigenous peoples’ communities, i.e. one thatfocuses not only on paper, legal or politicalvictories, but on the whole ethno-linguistic groupsas its base. Empowerment should be seen from theintervention’s effect on everyday communitylife, the autonomy that results from more controlof their local economies and whether there stillis political vulnerability of a local communityvis-à-vis commercial, governmental (and evenNGO) interests.Originally intended to recognize ownership ofancestral domains in 1988, 59 politicians tookadvantage of its presence to provide for a virtualmagna carta for indigenous peoples. It is,however, too broad. Concrete mechanisms for itsimplementation were not adequately spelled out,except for the process of gaining paper recognitionof ancestral lands and domains. 60 Thus, while somesocial, economic and cultural rights are mentionedbroadly, no provisions for both budget andprogrammes are mentioned in the law.This view of underdevelopment and politicalvulnerability shows that the Indigenous PeoplesRights Act may not be enough. Perhaps, laws thatinvolve commercial exploration, development andutilization of natural resources must also bereviewed. Legal recognition of indigenous processesmeans nothing if economic security/autonomy is amere afterthought.59 S.B. 909 or the Estrada bill originally drafted by the Legal Rights and Natural Resources Center-Kasama sa Kalikasan (LRCKSK).60 See Leonen, Marvic,“The IPRA: Will this bring us to a new level of Political Discourse,” in Philippine Natural Resources Law Journal (2000).135

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificCOMMUNITY STRUGGLESThe struggles of local communities to ward offencroachments into their territory, and threatentheir existence, are not new. What has becomemore pronounced in recent history has beenthe ability of peoples’ organizations to actindependently, or in concert with non-governmentalinstitutions, to coordinate the use of official nationaland international forums with determined andcreative local direct action. This has happenedwhether the encroachments came from publicor private infrastructure projects, commercialextractive natural resource industries, or even frompublic or private programmes masquerading assustainable development mechanisms.Examples of campaigns against public or privateinfrastructure projects include the concerted actionagainst the Chico River Hydroelectric Dam Project inthe 1970s; the Task Force Sandawa campaignagainst the Commercial Geothermal Power Plant inMt. Apo in the early 1990s; the coalition against theAgus River Project in Mindanao; and the present dayefforts to block the construction of the San RoqueMultipurpose Dam in Benguet.Examples of actions against commercial extractivenatural resource industries include the campaign todeclare a commercial logging ban in the 1980s; thepublic furor over tree plantations styled as integratedforest management agreements (IFMAs); and thepresent concerted efforts against the PhilippineMining Act of 1995 and its implementing rules andregulations. Projects masquerading as sustainabledevelopment projects have drawn concertedand relatively organized campaigns, includingcontract reforestation, the Community ForestryProgramme and even the National IntegratedProtected Areas Project.THE INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTPressure from international financial institutionsmattered. Funding for projects had a lot to do withthe changing attitude of the governments towardsrelinquishing control over large portions of thepublic domain and recognizing rights of uplandmigrants.In 1988, the World Bank study on forestry, fisheriesand agricultural resource management 61 made anassertion that:“The natural resource management question inthe Philippines is inextricably bound up with thepoverty problem....The issue is also closely relatedto the problem of unequal access to resources,and this study concludes that any strategies forimproving natural resource management willfounder if they do not simultaneously address theissues of impoverishment and unequal access”. 6261 This study was done by Country Department II, Asia Region. The White Cover version was distributed for comment on 16 May 1988.62 Executive Summary, WB, Ffarm, I (1988). See also p. 58, 81 which defines the core strategy.136

Reflections on formal and informal justice interfaces and indigenous peoples in the PhilippinesThe influence of Asian Development Bank waseven more specific. A technical assistance projectcarried out through Department of Environmentand Natural Resources (DENR) resulted in a MasterPlan for Forestry Development. Like the WorldBank study, it called attention to the minimalparticipation and benefits that reached uplandfarmers. 63 It recognized the claims made by culturalcommunities to their ancestral lands and goadedthe government to proceed to survey, delineateand give them privileges to manage forestresources. 64The Master Plan also proposed a policy to “recognizethe right of indigenous cultural communities to theirancestral domain” and provided for a roughtimetable for its accomplishment. 65International financial institutions, such as WorldBank and Asian Development Bank, have been thefocus of advocacy campaigns by peoples’ andnon-governmental organizations. 66 In 1994, partlyas a result of this lobby, some governments –notably the United States – refused to allow ageneral capital increase of Asian DevelopmentBank unless projects addressed social andenvironmental concerns. 67 Obvious in the policyrecommendations from these agencies werelinkages between conservation or natural resourcemanagement and indigenous peoples. Very littlehas been said about recognizing their rights simplyto correct historical injustices.As the concerns of indigenous peoples havebeen closely linked with well-funded ecologicalconcerns, it is no wonder that there has been anunfortunate prevailing view that their rights shouldbe recognized only because they would be betterecological managers. Thus, the new law providedan obligation to reforest 68 and to condition rightsrecognition to a priority for watersheds. 69 Theobligations to ensure ecological stability do notattach to any other private owner except those thatwish to hold ancestral domains. The recognition ofindigenous peoples’ rights is an aspect of humanrights advocacy more than simply an environmentalconcern. These provisions clearly reflect how muchof the environmental agenda has taken over theneed to correct historical and social injustices.63 The passage read:“There is very little participation of upland farmers and community members except as labourers in the concession or processingplant. Having very minimal or no participation at all, upland farmers do not benefit or have very little benefit from the use of the resource”.64 Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), Master Plan for Forestry Development, 324-325 (1990).65 DENR, Master Plan for Forestry Development, 331-332 (1990).Two years (1991-1992) were to be used to “clear the concept”, 1992-1993 for “piloting”themaster plan and 1993-1995 for “implementation of the plan.”66 See for instance the NGO Working Group on the Asian Development Bank which started its lobby in 1988. This is housed by the LRC-KSK. There areabout 210 NGOs from different countries that belong to this network.67 27th Board of Governors Meeting in Nice, France (May, 1994).68 Section 9, Republic Act No. 8371 (1997).69 Section 58, Republic Act No. 8371 (1997).137

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificINDIGENOUS PEOPLES, COMMERCIAL ENTERPRISES,GLOBALIZATION AND THE ENVIRONMENTIt is hardly surprising that it was the DENR thattook the responsibility of spearheading thegovernment’s efforts to attempt to recognize rightsto ancestral domains. Many of its local offices arefound in upland areas where indigenous peoplesare affected by commercial natural resourceextractive projects.This department, which represents the Philippinesin Asian Ministerial Meetings for the Environment(AMME) is also charged with finding ways to linkenvironment and developmental concerns. Thispressure comes not only from advocacy groups,but also, more importantly, from internationalconcerns, especially financial institutions thatpromise resources for ecological projects.The result is an administration that has been eagerto project its compliance with internationalenvironmental obligations, while at the same timeproceeding with privatizing its assets and utilitiesand deregulating in order to facilitate moreprivate transactions and engage in liberalizationinitiatives so that it becomes ‘competitive’ onworld markets. This agenda has proven to becontradictory, especially in the natural resourcemanagement sector.This same administration promulgated thePhilippine Agenda 21 and the National Agenda forSustainable Development in the same year. 70 Onthe other hand, the budget of the principal agencythat is supposed to carry out community-basedprogrammes, as well as its performance, reveals analtogether different record.This contradiction between policy rhetoric andperformance bodes ill for the implementation forthe challenges presented by the IndigenousPeoples Rights Act. But this should be betterunderstood if seen through the policy imperativesthat caused it to be enacted. Pressure to respond tocommunity interests and special projects ofinternational funding institutions may have beenenough for policymakers to grant theseconcessions, but the pressure of continuedcommercial exploitation provides the strongestinertia to its full implementation.RECOMMENDATIONS1. Projects and programmes involving marginalizedcultures by engaging the legal system mustfocus on those where the imminent danger isthe greatest;2. Communities that most need legal interventionare those in areas where there usually isconflicting commercial or governmentalinterest actually occupying indigenous territory70 See Memorandum Ord. No. 288, s. 1995 directing the formulation of the Philippine Agenda 21. Also, Memorandum Ord. No. 399, s. September, 1996directing the Operationalization of the Philippine Agenda 21 and Monitoring its Implementation.138

Reflections on formal and informal justice interfaces and indigenous peoples in the Philippinesor threatening to curtail use and possession.Commercial projects mostly take the form ofextractive natural resource industries (loggingand mining); power projects (mostly hydro-electricin nature); or real estate projects. Governmentinterest can be in the form of already existingreservations (forest, mining, military, education),forestry projects (community forestry programmes) or even ecological initiatives(protected areas);3. Communities that least need legal interventionare those where indigenous political and socialinstitutions are still strong and where there isno threat to curtail use or possession. Legalintervention requires the use of existing law asa whole. Many of the laws that could favourablybe applied to indigenous peoples (includingthe Indigenous Peoples Rights Act) do notentirely square with the interests of specificcommunities. Resorting to the law sometimesintroduces a host of new issues, which aretotally unnecessary for the community;4. The utility of informal justice systems is not onlyabout whether there are alternative processes.It will, to a large degree, be about whether thesubstantive norms in the official nationallegal system are relevant to the needsof marginalized communities or vulnerablesectors. Hence, studies on justice systemsshould go beyond the procedural framework. Itshould perhaps just as urgently focus on thesubstantive clarification of norms within alegal order;5. A more empirical review of the impact of thealternative systems introduced in thePhilippines is urgently needed. Time should bespent not only in documenting cases that havebeen diverted from the formal adjudicatoryprocesses, but also on whether the expectationscoming from marginalized communities areindeed addressed by the KatarungangPambarangay system, the Alternative DisputeResolution Act or the Indigenous PeoplesRights Act;6. Resources must not only be invested to allowmarginalized stakeholders to engage in andtest social legislation, but they must alsolikewise be invested to continuously examineany other legislation that may have economicor political impact. Thus, while indigenouspeoples may become involved with all theprocesses governed by the Indigenous PeoplesRights Act, they may perhaps be more severelyaffected by the Mining Act or the Forestry Code.Unfortunately, they will also most certainlysuffer from the misallocation of governmentresources.139

© UNDP PhilippinesParticipation and representation of disadvantagedgroups in parliamentary processes in thePhilippinesLedivina V. CariñoACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe author acknowledges the excellent research assistance and the case studies produced for this volumeby Dolores de Leon-Gaffud.

PHILIPPINES

ACRONYMSEDSA The Philippine Revolution of 1986ILOInternational Labour OrganizationNACFARNational Coalition of Fisherfolks for Aquatic ReformNGONon-governmental organizationSRASocial Reform AgendaUNUnited NationsUNDPUnited Nations Development Programme

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacific1. OVERVIEWThe Constitution of 1987 encourages allorganizations “to pursue and protect, within thedemocratic framework, their legitimate andcollective interests and aspirations throughpeaceful and lawful means.” This study presentshow different disadvantaged groups managed toget policy issues considered in the PhilippineCongress. A lot of information came from thedisadvantaged groups themselves, and from fivecase studies written by the groups, which wesupplemented with interviews and a focusgroup discussion of heads of Congress technicalsecretariats. We also combed through originaldocuments emanating from the groups andCongress. The number of discussions andinterviews with participants was reduced as thecountry was under a state of national emergency atthe time of the study.The cases studied are the passage of theComprehensive Agrarian Reform Law, the UrbanDevelopment and Housing Act, the Fisheries Code,the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act, the Anti-ChildLabour Law, the Anti-Rape Law of 1997, the SocialReform and Poverty Alleviation Act, and the defeatof anti-terrorism bills. The first seven affectedlandless tenants, the urban poor, fisherfolks,indigenous communities, children, women, andall disadvantaged groups, respectively. These bills,all of which became law, were originated andpursued by the most affected sectors themselves.The anti-terrorism bills were initiated by thegovernment but opposed by human rights,labour, church, corporate, professional and people’sorganizations.The cases represent most of the significant policyproposals affecting disadvantaged groups from1987 to 2003. Two peaks in the number of sociallegislation may be noted: the Eighth Congress(1987-1992), the period following the People PowerRevolution which opened up democratic spaceafter the ouster of the Marcos dictatorship, and theTenth Congress (1995-1998), which coincided withthe Social Reform Agenda (SRA), a package ofinterventions to attack poverty and attain socialjustice, equity and peace.The study extracts lessonsfrom these cases to help other disadvantagedgroups, NGOs, legislators, UNDP and otherdevelopment partners to improve human rightsprogramming by legislative means.144

Participation and representation of disadvantaged groups in parliamentary processes in the Philippines2. KEY FINDINGSThe disadvantaged groups used various avenues ofaccess and strategies for reaching parliamentarians.These are analyzed below.Avenues of accessThe People Power Revolution made the legislaturemore permeable to people outside the politicalforces, including disadvantaged groups. Theelectoral process and civil society’s ability to putnew issues into the public agenda complementaccess to the legislative mill itself.Entry through the electoral processDistrict representation of Congress, disadvantagedand marginalized groups can use the party listsystem, a constitutional innovation designedprecisely for them. Representatives of labour,women, veterans, the disabled and massorganizations have been elected through the partylist system. However, church-related, business andother groups that are not as disadvantaged havealso been accredited and have won under thatsystem.Some of the benefits of the party list systeminclude the ability to place issues of relevance tothe disadvantaged on the public agenda,as well as the recruitment of non-traditionallegislators and voting that puts a premium oncauses rather than personalities and wealth.Women’s elected party list representatives andtheir counterparts from other sectors, who wereappointed rather than elected during thetransition period, also helped disadvantagedgroups to introduce and enact their bills.However, the definition of “marginalized” is stillunclear. That has put sectors that are not clearlymarginalized in the party list and non-poorpersons as their representatives. The acceptance ofbroad categories, such as ‘organizations’ and‘political parties’, without reference todisadvantaged sectors, opens the system toeveryone. The general lack of information andknowledge of the populace about the party listsystem suggests that the causes they represent arealso not known or appreciated by the voters.Disadvantaged groups have also been able to getthe support of regular legislators for their bills,especially if the latter joined the disadvantaged intheir protests against the dictatorship.Unfortunately, leaders of the disadvantaged rarelyget elected through the regular system. Their lackof funding made them unable to muster thefinances required by the very expensive electoralprocess. Thus, many of them joined any partythat would accommodate them, and this affectedtheir credibility in the eyes of their naturalconstituencies.Entry through setting the public agendaThis refers to the idea of disadvantaged groupsgetting considered in legislation through theirability to incorporate themselves into thepublic agenda, even before the bills werethemselves filed. Their respective agenda wereusually forged in consultations, many involving notonly a large number of people, but also a widespectrum of groups. Their views then becamethe point of departure in the deliberations. Theindigenous communities put ancestral domainand indigenous peoples’ rights into publicconsciousness. The way agrarian reform childlabour, and rape were discussed in Congress, wasbased on how the disadvantaged groups wanted145

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacificto define them. The point of departure for thediscussions on fisheries development and urbanhousing was what the government had on itsagenda. Disadvantaged groups, joined by middleclassallies, even forced the State to withdraw theirdraconian views on how to deal with terrorism.Access to the legislative millTable 1 presents the possible access routes andintervention activities of groups at each step of thelegislative process. In capital letters inthe first column are the formal parts of thelegislative process. The second column lists theformally accepted ways outsiders may intervene inthat process. The third column shows how thegroups have been allowed to intervene in the caseswe have discussed, suggesting many moreacceptable means of access. Please note that theactivities listed here are only those in the legislativetrack. Mass actions are not shown and may takeplace simultaneously with any step in the process.Table 1: Formal and informal access routes and activities of disadvantaged groups to CongressLegislative processPutting issue into public agendaDrafting of billFormal accessroutes and activitiesWrite position papers; presentideas for billInformal accessroutes and activitiesUndertake consultations withconstituencies; convince legislators of the needfor billDraft bill; choose sponsor; preparesponsorship speechFirst reading Attend in gallery Prepare strategy with sponsor; get the Presidentto certify billAssignment to and study byCommittee in chargeCommittee on rules forcalendaringDiscuss bill with the Chair,members and sponsorsSuggest issues to be tackled, people to be invitedto hearing, calendar convenient for constituency;learn committee priorities; befriend committeesecretariat and technical people in respectiveHouse; get the Chair to invite group’srepresentatives into technical working groupSuggest a convenient calendar for constituencySecond reading Attend in gallery Lobby for non-negotiables with sponsor orcommittee in charge; in floor deliberations, slipquestions to interpellations to legislator, as neededNew Committee draft withamendments as proposed inplenary or by committeeSuggest wording of amendments and form ofrevised bill146

Participation and representation of disadvantaged groups in parliamentary processes in the PhilippinesTable 1: Formal and informal access routes and activities of disadvantaged groups to Congress (continued)Legislative processFormal accessroutes and activitiesInformal accessroutes and activitiesThird reading Attend in gallery If vote is to be explained, prepare legislator’sstatementLegislative process in thesecond houseSame close-guarding as in first houseDeliberations of ConferenceCommittee on reconciledversion of Senate/House billsMay be permitted as part oftechnical working group or asobserver, depending onbicameral agreementsIf not allowed in, may prompt a person ortechnical working group to work out provisionsto get committee out of impasse (during breaksor between committee meetings)Approval of reconciled version Attend in gallery Help committee draft final version; make suresponsors and allies are present to voteApproval by the PresidentLobby the President to sign billIn addition to being aware of possible acceptableactivities, we have learned from the cases theneed to emphasize the following:• The importance of strategic thinking andaction;• Confrontation with negotiation andcompromise;• Parallel informal interventions;• The importance of access to the secondhouse;• The importance of access to the conferencecommittee;• Recognition of the role of the executive inthe legislative process.1. The importance of strategic thinking andactionOther things being equal, the groups thatthought out their moves ahead of time,especially those that integrated them into theoverall strategy, would come out ahead of thegame. For example, indigenous peoples andfisherfolks failed to get their proposals enactedin the Eighth Congress, but both weresuccessful in the Tenth. It was easier forindigenous peoples to work in the later periodbecause they would by then have a coalitionand leadership to guide the impressivetwo-stage (regional and national) consultationsand adoption into the Social Reform Agenda.The National Coalition of Fisherfolks for AquaticReform (NACFAR) was more mature and hadmore resources the second time around. Inaddition, its strategy included choosing themain sponsors and triangulating Congress withtwo “Unity” bills, as well as getting into SRA andorchestrating media coverage and mass actionat strategic time periods. The government-NGOstrategy, coupled with perceptible pressurefrom ILO and UN, was the secret behind theAnti-Child Labour Law’s smooth sailing throughthe legislative process.147

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacific2. The role of negotiation and compromiseIn facing off with strong opponents, the groupsarmed themselves with negotiation skills, and,in turn, their list of priorities had greaterchances of winning a bill they could live with.A no-compromise stand only solidifies theopposition, especially from congresspersonsknown to be representatives of the advantaged.3. The parallel informal interventionsInformal interventions can follow one of twotracks: legislative and mass action. In thelegislative track, informal interventions can takeplace at all stages of the legislative process.From our cases, we saw that these couldinclude: inclusion of representatives ofdisadvantaged groups in the work of thetechnical committees, meetings with individuallegislators, and intervention by prominent civilsociety leaders.The mass action track includes marches anddemonstrations, which are the staple modes ofcivil society activities. These actions keep theissues in the streets and on the media agendawhile congressional deliberations are going on,and add to their salience and urgency. Thegroups have also added the use of tent cities,complete with exhibits and workshops toattract the attention of legislators and theirstaffs who became “educated” on the demandsof the groups on the spot. Another innovation isthe “express”rallies, with demonstrators startingfrom different points in the countryside andconverging in the House or the Senate.Meanwhile, to fight the anti-terrorism bills, thegroups packaged terrorism with other issueswhich are easier for the masses to grasp andshowed power through paralysing transportstrikes and large demonstrations.4. Access to the Second HouseThe Philippine Congress is a bicameral one.Although some groups strategically choosewhich house to penetrate, they learn in duetime that they need to show their interest inboth houses and, if time and resources permit,lobby in both simultaneously. A method thathas worked well is maintaining friendlyrelations with committee secretariats, sincethey could alert the lobby groups aboutbreaking developments.5. The Role of the Bicameral ConferenceCommitteeThe conference committee (usually known asthe ‘bicam’) is supposed to reconcile the billsthat passed in the two Houses. Where the billshave markedly different provisions, however,the committee members, as agents of theirrespective chambers, hammer out compromiseprovisions thought to be acceptable to theirprincipals. In several cases, this process spelledthe victory or doom of a measure.This study found that the bicam, formallyregarded as a closed-door session, can bepenetrated by non-legislators. Involvementin the bicameral committee shows theclose-guarding that disadvantaged groupshave to maintain to get their bills approved.6. The role of the Executive in the legislativeprocessUnder the Philippine Constitution, theExecutive has formal roles in the legislativeprocess: to certify certain bills as urgent and toapprove or veto a bill approved by both Houses,in whole or in part.The Executive may also draft“administration bills,” that is a bill emanatingfrom a government agency (not just the Officeof the President) and sponsored by a friendly148

Participation and representation of disadvantaged groups in parliamentary processes in the Philippineslegislator. These bills, like the certified ones,have the force of the presidency behindthem. In addition, executive agencies mayparticipate in public hearings, respond to thequestion hour and be called upon to testifyin investigations undertaken by Congress inaid of legislation.Designating a bill as urgent will guarantee thatit will be considered as a priority. It also impliesthat the President is likely to approve it, makingits journey through the legislative mill rougheror smoother depending on whether or not it isan opposition congress. Presidential approval isan important step in the process, since otherforces can intervene after Congress has spoken.QUALITIES FOR SUCCESSFUL POLICY ADVOCACYSuccess in legislative intervention consists of thequalities the active forces bring to the endeavour.These include, from the disadvantaged groups aswell as their protagonists, their internal capacityand external linkages.Internal capacityThe first quality of disadvantaged groups iscommitment to their cause. These are evident intheir level of knowledge of the issue, in theirpre-legislation experience and history, and in theirwillingness to devote time and resources to unpaidwork, even staying in the heat of streets to proclaimtheir allegiances. Part of the passion comes fromthe fact that the groups were immersed in thesocial realities of the constituencies they wererepresenting, or were in fact members of thoseconstituencies. Most have experience of communitymovements and have also been veterans of massactions that helped them both internalize theissues and bond them to the larger affectedcommunity. That bonding was also shown by thebeneficiaries who showed up in the consultativemeetings, mass actions and formal public hearings.But passion has to be channelled, and the groupsdid this through strategic visioning and planning(already discussed above), organization andinstitutionalization, capacity-building and othermanagement processes. All the groups involved inour cases worked in coalitions or were part of ateam. Most had secretariats for the time of thecampaign, including some borrowed from theparent organizations. Some had funds from anexternal organization, usually international.However, some organizations faced the commonproblems of coalitions, such as twin loyalties to thecoalition and to their parent-organizations, givingrise to suspicion and breaks of unity. Not being aseparate organization, it becomes a disbandedproject after passage of the law. On the other hand,separate organizations do continue to representthe sector for its other concerns.The roles of each of the organizations put togetherfor lobbying purposes must be delineated forsmoother relations and flow of work.149

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificExternal linkagesFour potential partners regularly made theirappearance in our cases: the Church, internationalorganizations, the government and citizensat large. These add to the strength of adisadvantaged group but may also be the cause ofother problems.The prominence of the Roman Catholic Church inthese bills underscored its pronouncement of apreferential option for the poor and was welcomedby the disadvantaged groups. However, it has notlent its voice to progressive views on women’sissues.Also, an international push is not an unmixedblessing. It may facilitate the passage of a bill, butit might also cause resentment when somelegislators see their presence as the country’s ‘blindobedience’ to international standards instead ofanswering our own peculiar needs.Another role played by international organizationsis the resources they give for nation-wideconsultations, advocacy and training in lobbyingand other capacities. This involvement by‘outsiders’ needs to be better understood andinvestigated.Collaboration with the government wouldnormally strengthen a measure, since the Executiveis an active constituency in legislation. Ramos’Social Reform Agenda (SRA) made the failed bills ofthe Eighth Congress come alive in the Tenth. Evenhere, however, there were problems in the details,since so many claimed the SRA banner but wereconflicting in their provisions.Last but not least is the linkage of the groups to thepeople at large. This may be carried out throughmass action and the media. There is a perceptibledecrease of reliance on the mass action track afterthe Eighth Congress. Perhaps this is due to thegrowth of knowledge about how the legislativeprocess works and the organizations’ subsequentattempts to professionalize their approach.However, as the mobilization against the antiterrorismbills showed, it can still be impressive andeffective when used.Mass action is usually thought of as a way to unitea group’s constituency and show Congress thestrength of its forces. It can also be used to connectwith the people at large and to convince them thattheir agenda is the public’s interest and notonly their own. As in the EDSA revolutions 1 ,their mass actions would have remained simpledemonstrations if the people outside theirmembership did not join in.This is also why havingfavourable media coverages and understanding bythe people at large have strengthened the forces ofthe disadvantaged.The opposing forcesWhile the passion of the opposing forces for theircause cannot be gainsaid, they in fact used fewpublic venues. They did not have to do muchmore. More than the disadvantaged groups, theopposing forces had natural allies, if not actualmembers, in both Houses. They could becounted on to vote against a bill or to water downa proposal considerably.1EDSA is also referred to as the People Power Revolution and the Philippine Revolution of 1986.150

Participation and representation of disadvantaged groups in parliamentary processes in the PhilippinesCONCLUSIONS: DISADVANTAGED GROUPS AND THE STATEDominance of the elite in Congress is stillmarked, not only in their numbers, but also in theirpositions. The compromises the disadvantagedmade ate into their non-negotiables. They had toaccept backing so far down to grasp at that firststart at reform.Was social legislation, then, simply a show-windowexercise? We cannot assume insincerity among theofficials of the State, just because they did notaccept the poor’s demands. However, therewere instances when even those who seemed tohave lined up with the disadvantaged virtuallyabandoned them in the difficult stages. To supporta disadvantaged group’s demands plays well in themedia and the masses; that could translate tovotes. But in the less public arena of the legislativeprocess, the poorer groups, not having legislatorswho are one of them, can still be left in the lurch.So, how were these bills passed at all? Aside fromthe determination of disadvantaged groups, creditmust go to the political environment and officialsof the State who risked political capital to supporttheir demands. The Eighth Congress began withthe glow of the EDSA Revolution, when thePhilippines basked in the international limelight asthe leader in concretizing the power of thepeople. The poor had clearly voted on the side ofparliamentary processes, rather than armedstruggle, and had acted on their belief that ademocratic space had been opened. Thecommission that drafted the Constitution of 1987also acted on that premise and put provisionssupporting the disadvantaged groups and civilsociety into it. The expectations translated into apolitical opportunity that could be harnessed andmatched by efforts of those seeking new benefits.Many congressional leaders regarded as‘progressives’ kept their alliance with the peoplewho suffered during the dictatorship.However, disappointments came early. PresidentAquino did not dissociate herself from her classand hardly lifted a finger to bolster the agrarianreform that the Coalition for a People’s AgrarianReform wanted. Later, her recognition of thestaunch support of civil society in the face of coupsagainst her brought her back to their side with anurban housing act that, however, was watereddown from a proposal for urban land reform. Thegovernment bureaucracy did not help much either.Instead of giving support, the bureaucracytended to insist on provisions that strengthenedthe hand of the richer constituents vis-à-vis thedisadvantaged.With the Ninth Congress, it seemed the euphoria ofEDSA would completely dissipate. However,President Ramos had campaigned on a platform of‘people empowerment’ and inaugurated the SocialReform Agenda (SRA) in the second half of his term.A strategy to fight poverty put new impetus to thestruggle of difficult bills of the disadvantagedgroups. Certification by the President puturgency on them and got even the congressionalleadership to support them. However, no group gottheir demands approved outright as some detailsremained unresolved, including the benefitsthat would be dispensed. Who was going to beaffected? Who was going to participate? Also, theSRA was a policy forged in the context ofthe embrace of globalization and economicliberalization. So, instead of leading the chargein transforming the nation, the bills of thedisadvantaged became the equivalent of safetynets, given because the other policies were surelygoing to hurt them. With rising criminal activities151

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacificand a resurgence of communist violence, theenactment of these bills could come close toplacating the poor. Not quite, because there weregenuine advances won by fishers, indigenouspeoples and suffering women. Besides, thegovernment did back down from its anti-terrorismbills. But questions can also be raised as to whycommercial fishers got what they wanted fromthe bicameral, or why mining advocates wontheir bids immediately after the passage ofthe Indigenous People’s Rights Act, which hadstringent requirements.Still, a lesson to be learned from the cases is thatthe State is not a monolith that is programmedonly for certain kinds of decisions. If nothingelse, the cases show that the State is now an activeparticipant in the struggle and that there areofficials with similar vision and values as thedisadvantaged. Perhaps more than that, there areleaders who listen to technical arguments and arewilling to act on new ideas.It is incontrovertible that laws favoured bydisadvantaged groups have been enacted. Whilethese may leave much to be desired, their passagealone shows that the opposing forces arenot omnipotent and can be challenged. Thedisadvantaged have numbers and passion on theirside, enhanced by capacity, strategic thinkingand alliances. Also, glimpses of problems inimplementation suggest the necessity for keepingone’s constant and untiring interest on the measure.RECOMMENDATIONSIn light of the foregoing, several recommendationsfor action and research may be advanced.Disadvantaged groups1. Prepare your policy agenda to promote thecauses you stand for and your rights.Continuously study how your causes have beenor can be translated into policy. In this and mostof the measures enumerated below, undertakedeliberative consultations with as many of yourmembers as possible. The democracy youpractice in your organization strengthensyour advocacies;2. Arm yourselves with the knowledge oflegislative processes and the points of accessand activities other disadvantaged groups havealready used. This can be provided by the moreexperienced among your group, by supportgroups and by research institutions. We hopethis work can provide assistance toorganizations starting out on their ownadvocacy paths;3. Prepare a strategy for legislative engagement,taking into account your goals for the sector,your non-negotiables, your capacities and theopponents you will face;4. Couple your passion and commitment to acause with deeper knowledge about itsramifications. This can help you to understandopposition to your stance, with the possibility of152

Participation and representation of disadvantaged groups in parliamentary processes in the Philippineswinning over some antagonists by identifyinghow their problems can be met by your proposal;5. Take advantage of your nature as anorganization in civil society by using acomplementary set of legislative and massactions in advocacy campaigns;6. Learn the art of compromise, as well as its moralhazards. Treat your antagonists with respectand assume they have the same commitmentto the public interest as you. When innegotiations, recognize that you are fighting foryour welfare and that of your constituents, astheir opponents are fighting for theirs.Therefore, conduct negotiations with duerespect for the humanity of the other. Thisshould hold true whether the negotiations arewith other civil society groups, with opposingforces or with the State;7. Improve your internal capacity for advocacythrough:• Enhanced management of coalitions;• Focused professional staff. They may bevolunteers who are willing to be identifiedonly with the coalition or organizationpushing for a bill for the duration of thatstruggle. This would minimize questions ofloyalty and conflict of interest in the periodof the campaign;• Specialization and division of labour,whenever appropriate. This will minimizeduplications and inefficiencies, and increasethe overall effectiveness of the team;• Conduct of research on the issue itself, yourgroup’s possible allies and adherents, andways to convince or neutralize knownopponents;• Development of a stronger resource base,including funding. Diversified sources offunding would be preferred, since relianceon only one may lead to the possibility ofbeing driven by the fund and the agenda ofthe donor, rather than by the agenda of yourown disadvantaged sector;8. In dealing with Congress, recognize the valuenot only of the elected officials, but also oftechnical secretariats that can assist youthrough the legislative maze;9. Strengthen the links with external forces, suchas the Church, international organizations andthe people, but be aware of the dangers ofexclusive reliance on one external partner.Learn from your external allies, develop yourown platform and eschew ‘blind obedience’ toany one particular force;10. Find out how the State can be an ally or partner.Many parts of the government apparatus havepolicies and personnel sympathetic to causes ofthe disadvantaged. They should be befriended,rather than alienated, and shown insights intothe groups’ experiences rather than ignoredand left to the ministrations of opposing forces;11. Broaden the base of your organization byrecruiting more sector members and allyingwith like-minded NGOs, both local andinternational. Never neglect the support of thepeople and the media in undertakingyour activities.153

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificRecommendations for NGOs andother support groups of thedisadvantaged1. Assist in building capacity of the disadvantagedgroups for advocacy, research, negotiations,strategic planning and coalition management;2. Provide links to national and internationalorganizations that can provide disadvantagedgroups with resources for capacity-building,strategic planning and managementdevelopment;3. Help to strengthen the party list system.Disseminate information about how it worksand how disadvantaged groups mayparticipate in them. However, do not dilute itspurpose by becoming a party list organizationyourself, since participation of intermediaryorganizations of the middle class or elite wouldtake away votes for genuine and directrepresentatives of the marginalized;4. Support politicians who stand by the causes ofdisadvantaged groups. Engage in votereducation so that more citizens will learn toconnect their votes with the accountability ofthe elected officials to them.Recommendations for the State1. Recognize that social legislation is vital to theeconomy and the nation, and is not charity tothe poor;2. Strengthen the party list system by reinforcingits original concept as an avenue fordisadvantaged groups and ensuring that it isnot a backdoor for elite interests. Study how itcan continue to function within the proposal ofa constitutional change towards a parliamentarysystem;3. Make the legislative process more accessibleand transparent to all groups, not only to theelite, or those who are experienced in advocacycampaigns.Recommendations for UNDP andother development partners1. Disseminate findings of this and similar studiesto disadvantaged groups who need toadvocate for legislation to protect their rightsand improve their social situation;2. Support disadvantaged groups through thelegislative mill and capacity-building in theareas discussed above;3. Encourage parliamentary bodies to learn moreabout the policy advocacy of disadvantagedgroups and the demands for inclusivegovernance. This would include, but not belimited to, sponsorship of appreciationseminars on those topics; consultativedialogues between parliamentarians anddisadvantaged groups, probably by sectoralthemes; capacity-building for technicalsecretariats on understanding and promotingthe policy agenda of these groups, etc.;4. Support research in the areas listed in the nextsection;5. Continue to promote inclusive governancethrough the promotion of human rights-basedapproach to all sectors.154

Participation and representation of disadvantaged groups in parliamentary processes in the PhilippinesRecommendations for research1. Continue to study management-related issuesof advocacy groups, including coalitionbuilding,recruitment of leaders and members,resource generation, and capacity-building;2. Deepen this study by investigating howpro-poor laws have been implemented andhow they have improved the lot of thedisadvantaged. This could be fed back into theState to reinforce the national significance ofthe social legislation that the disadvantagedgroups had already won;3. Study how progressive legislators havemanaged (not) to be eaten up by the system.This would be instructive in developing thecountry’s next generation of political leaders.155

© UNDP Sri Lanka Post-Tsunami Recovery ProgrammePromoting inclusive governance in tsunami recovery inSri LankaAparna Basnyat, Dilrukshi Fonseka and Radhika HettiarachchiACKNOWLEDGMENTSWe would like to acknowledge the research teams that conducted the field research and produced twoin-depth case studies on inclusive governance in tsunami recovery in Ampara and Hambantota. Dr. LionelSiriwardene led the research in Hambantota with assistance from Kelum Thalahadhthadhige andChandrika Kosaghadurage. Chandrika Karunaratne finalized and edited the Hambantota case study. TheAmpara study was conducted by Dr. Amarasiri de Silva with support from his research team. We alsoacknowledge the comments and support from colleagues at UNDP Sri Lanka Tsunami Recovery Unit andCountry Office in completing the case studies and abstract.

SRI LANKA

ACRONYMSCBOCHACIRCCSOFAOHICINGOJICALTTEMWRAFNGOOCHAOIMTROUNDPUNHCRUNICEFUSAIDWFPYMCACommunity-based organizationConsortium of Humanitarian AgenciesInternational Committee of the Red CrossCivil society organizationFood and Agriculture OrganizationHumanitarian Information CentreInternational non-governmental organizationJapan International Cooperation AgencyLiberation Tigers of Tamil EelamMuslim Women Research and Action FoundationNon-governmental organizationOffice for the Coordination of Humanitarian AffairsInternational Organization for MigrationTamil Relief OrganizationUnited Nations Development ProgrammeUnited Nations High Commissioner for RefugeesUnited Nations Children FundsUnited States Agency for International DevelopmentWorld Food ProgrammeYoung Men’s Christian Association

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacific1. OVERVIEWThe main objective of this case study is to look atthe issue of inclusive governance in the context ofthe recovery efforts deployed after the tsunami inSri Lanka. It will also look at disadvantaged groupsamong the tsunami-affected population in twodistricts, in order to highlight some of the broaderissues related to inclusive governance. The studyidentifies and analyzes the capacity of the affectedcommunities to participate meaningfully in localgovernance processes related to tsunami recovery;it also examines whether these communities wereconsulted, informed, involved in decisions relatedto the flow, allocation and management ofresources, and if they had adequate capacity toclaim the right to information, accountability andtransparency from state and non-state actors. Italso seeks to establish whether they had adequatecapacity to access redress in the event of exclusion,and the degree and nature of participation indecision-making processes, particularly womenwithin the tsunami-affected areas and those whohad been affected by the conflict. Finally, the casestudy will look at the role and capacity of dutybearersin service-delivery, especially with regard toidentifying and acknowledging the disadvantagedand vulnerable within the affected groups.The tsunami disaster that struck the Island of SriLanka on 26 December 2005 took no heed ofgeography, ethnicity, gender, class, caste or religionand affected all alike. Although the emotionalrhetoric contained in this statement is appealing, itis also erroneous and misleading. Admittedly, thetsunami disaster left no single identitygroup unscathed. However, its impact wasdisproportionately distributed among these sameidentity groups. Those affected populations werenot homogenous groups to begin with, but ratherlay claim to deep disparities along geographic,ethno-political, socio-economic, gender and agedifferences. Depending on the extent and degreeof these differences, as well as the intersectionsbetween them, some identity groups were moredisadvantaged or more vulnerable than otherseven before the tsunami. In Sri Lanka, this is true ofmany groups, including populations affected bywar in the north and the east and populationsliving below the poverty line in all parts of thecountry, including women, children and thedisabled. The first task of this case study was toidentify pre-existing vulnerabilities in theSri Lankan context and to highlight how thesevulnerable categories were more susceptible to thetsunami disaster and its aftermath.The context of disaster recovery is unique for manyreasons. More often than not, countries andcommunities that face natural disasters are caughtoff-guard and are ill-equipped to cope with thesheer magnitude of the recovery process. Theresultant scenario is one where those concerned,be they the national government, local authorities,donor agencies, relief efforts and developmentwork, are under stringent timelines to delivera package of interventions across a host ofcompeting needs and priorities. In such contexts,little thought is given to rights-based approaches,and little attention is paid to developing systemsand processes to include affected populations intheir own recovery, or give them opportunities toshape the decisions being made on their behalf.While this affects their rights and their needs, it isthose already disadvantaged and those that havebeen further ‘disadvantaged’ by the disaster thatare the most affected. As the case studies bear out,the failure to build inclusive governance into thetsunami recovery process in Sri Lanka has hadvery particular and serious implications on the160

Promoting inclusive governance in tsunami recovery in Sri Lankaconflict-affected population as well as certainethnic groups and women, etc. It has likewisecontributed to skewing the delivery of recovery infavour of certain groups over others and has evencontributed to deepening divides betweenidentity groups in the country.The first case studies the impact of the tsunamidisaster on the eastern District of Ampara. Ithighlights the disproportionate impact of thedisaster on the different ethnic groups in Amparaas well as on other disadvantaged groups, such asthe economically and politically-disadvantagedsegments of society and women.The study goes onto identify how the absence of inclusivegovernance structures in the period following thetsunami had several serious implications, includingthe delivery of recovery along ethnic, ethnopoliticaland political lines, and the resultanterosion of faith and escalation of animositiesbetween various groups in Ampara. The secondcase study examines the impact of the disaster onthe southern District of Hambantota. Here, thefocus is on issues of exclusion based on socioeconomiccleavages and the politicization oftsunami recovery, which led to certain groupsgaining benefits at the expense of others. It alsolooks at the dimensions of poverty and gender atthe household level within the context of tsunamiaid delivery mechanisms. Together, the studiesare a commentary on the absence of inclusivegovernance structures in Sri Lanka; the systemicgaps in capacity and information; the interplaybetween the political and social constraints, withinwhich the disadvantaged manoeuvre, and how thisimplicates and complicates disaster recovery.2. KEY FINDINGS OF THE CASE STUDIESIn the two case studies of Ampara and Hambantotadistricts, four groups of actors interactedsimultaneously in the tsunami aid deliverymechanism: the government through the DistrictSecretariats down to the village level GramaNiladari; the INGOs/NGOs where local communitymembers were involved but the main actorsusually came from outside the region; thepoliticians and powerful members of the politicalpatronage hierarchy, i.e. politicians who workeddirectly with communities or military groupsforming part of a political process; and thecommunities themselves.Trends and practices identified inthe Hambantota and Ampara casestudiesExclusion agentsThe rise of ‘exclusion agents’ and individuals/groups with vested interests: The interaction of thefour groups of actors worked well in the reliefphase, especially with the aid delivery mechanismworking through formal government channels, andthe working relationship established betweengovernment institutions and the Liberation Tigersof Tamil Eelam (LTTE) in the north and the east, as161

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacificwell as through the influx of NGOs (and largeamounts of funding) into tsunami-affecteddistricts. However, in the long-term developmentphase, the aid delivery system was sustained in atense and uneasy balance between these groups ofactors and new groups/individuals that emergedas ‘liaison persons’ within and between thesegroups. These ‘liaison persons’ were mostlymembers of the communities, local civic leadersboth established (e.g. religious leaders/respectedpersons in society) and emerging (e.g. leaderswithin refugee camps) who presented themselvesas community leaders, speaking on behalf of thepeople or gained power/political leverageacquired from the specific channels of access thatthey had with affected communities. These‘exclusion agents’ became funding gatekeepers tothe community and succeeded in gaining powerand control over who has access to aid from thecommunity.These ‘interlinking’ personalities became part ofthe larger system, speaking on behalf of thepeople, and thus leaving room for solutions tobottleneck as well as avenues for corruption. 1Because of the lack of organized civil society andstrong community-based organizations (CBOs) atthe grassroots level, as well as the influx of NGOsand politicians 2 with vested interest, theseindividuals/civic leaders became the natural choicefor people to see in order to mobilize/reach theaffected communities.Politicization of tsunami aid-deliveryThe political influence of individuals to enhancetheir popularity, or ignore clandestine/corruptpractices of associates in their constituencies, wasidentified in both studies as a serious hindrance toan effective and fair aid-distribution system. It isalso identified as a reason for the diminishedcapacity of the administrative systems, aspoliticians influence decision-making processesand/or work outside established administrativestructures to manipulate aid delivery. In somecases, these gave rise to the ethnicization andpolitical isolation of disadvantaged groups whohad little access to people with influence.Ethnic polarizationThe influx of NGOs, and the additionaladministrative burden placed on governmentinstitutions in the post-tsunami recovery process,contributed to a fragmentation of civil societygroups and communities. This, in turn, led topolarization along ethnic lines, especially in thecontext of tsunami recovery assistance related toland and livelihoods. The intervention of ‘exclusionagents’ introduced an element of ethnicization inthe tsunami aid-delivery process which waspremised, in some cases, on affirmativelyaddressing inequalities while exploiting alreadyexisting ethnic divisions in others. Otherinterventions that indirectly led to ethnic divisionwere for practical purposes (Muslim widows/communities prefer to be separated due toreligious/cultural practices) and ease ofadministration.The tense post-conflict situation in the countryplayed out differently in the east and the south, asmany actors (the government, LTTE, STF, variouspolitical parties and politicians operating on the12The claim often made is that the leaders identified as ‘exclusion agents’ had the power to identify beneficiaries, negotiate with agencies and thus hadimmense power to exclude those who were eligible for aid from the ‘lists’ if their authority was challenged or if complaints were made against them.The influence of politicians or their actions are not being wholly criticized. In both studies, the political climate is identified as a ‘heady’ environment,penetrating into the aid-delivery process beyond the parameters allowed for political personalities or parties. There are positive and negativestatements made by the focus groups on the extent of political influence on the aid-delivery process.162

Promoting inclusive governance in tsunami recovery in Sri Lankabasis of their ethnic identities) were involved inpost-tsunami aid distributions. This marginalizedthose affected by the tsunami, fragmenting themeven further along ethnic lines. In the highlypoliticized post-tsunami setting, the actorsinvolved had much higher stakes, as the entireethno-political balance of the peace process in thenorth, the east and the south could be altered withland allocations and intentional polarization alongethnic lines of Muslims, Tamils and Sinhalese. 3Ethnic selectivity of aid delivery mechanismsThe exploitation of the most disadvantaged groupswithin the ethno-political setting of each district bythose with vested interests led to the intentionalselection of one group over another and specifictargeting. The studies illustrate incidents wheretargeting, to the point of diverting aid to certaingroups, served as the affirmative action tocompensate the disparities suffered by the mostmarginalized. However, the study also highlightscases where the systematic prioritization of certaingroups, especially ethnic groups, were aimed atexploiting the favour (votes) or prejudices/aspirations of a particular group for political gain.The powerlessness and marginalization ofvarious ethnic groups meant that they were easilymanipulated by ‘individuals/exclusion agents’ intousing their ethnicity to gain advantages in theaid-delivery mechanism. However, the ensuingconflict and tension in such short-sighted actionswere not conclusive as the ploys employed by theexclusion agents were not effective and could notbe seen as a sustainable solution to the problem.They were, as in this case, simply efforts byindividuals to gain power, prestige and wealththrough manipulation and corruption.Diminished collective bargainingThe studies concluded that the collectivebargaining power of tsunami-affectedcommunities had been undermined by, amongothers, the fragmentation of civil society and ethnicpolarization. The ineffectiveness of collectiveaction against corruption is due to the generalapathy of the groups concerned, that ‘collectivebargaining’ would not result in governmentintervention or solutions/redress to the problemsat hand. 4However, collective bargaining was encouragedand produced results when practical problems,such as the distribution of houses constructed byNGOs, were disputed and changed according tothe needs of the beneficiaries, or when acommunity had refused to be moved from theiroriginal location. 5 A notable fact here is that bothstudies identify the effectiveness of collectivebargaining when something affects the wholecommunity at large and does not include financialgains/loans/grants that allow space for intrusion bygroups/people with vested interests or corruptpractices.345For example, there has always been a hegemonic struggle between the northern and eastern Tamil politicians in eastern Sri Lanka. This was reflectedin the internal dynamics of the LTTE, when Colonel Karuna (commanding the Eastern forces) broke away from the LTTE in pursuit of a separatepolitical identify for the East away from the traditional dominance of the North. However, in the East, especially in Ampara, the majority are Muslim.Thus, ethnic fragmentation and polarization based on unequal access to tsunami aid can be exploited easily for political gain by those with vestedinterests.The Human Rights Commission later set up help desks in the tsunami-affected districts and are systematically documenting/addressing claims ofmisconduct. However, the political climate of the districts allows very little actual progress on issues of corruption and aid mismanagement.Ampara case study – the Muslim Camp refused to relocate and stood firm in asking to be returned to their tsunami-affected plots of land close to thesea in the town of Kirinda. The bargaining continued for months but was successful in the end.163

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificCivil society organizations at the grassrootslevel are erodedThe strength to speak/act and organize on behalfof communities most often rests with CBOs thathave a working knowledge of the communitieswith which they have worked long-term. Theprimary point of entry/organization of aid, forlarger organizations, should be through thegrassroots CSOs that are part and parcel ofthe affected communities. The governmentmechanism can also benefit from using CBOs aspartners and information sources at the grassrootslevel. However, the CSOs were largely by-passedand presented no resistance to external influences,while also opening up room for exclusion agentsand corruption. Although there were clearexamples of inter-ethnic and inter-partycooperation in the immediate aftermath of thedisaster, unfortunately, there was no mechanismintroduced at the grassroots to cement thisparticipatory experience and to take it forth intomedium and long-term recovery efforts; a strongCSO base at the grassroots would have added thecommunities to the aid-delivery process.The limited capacity of duty-bearersThe lack of government awareness of HRBApractices, and when to hold people’s consultations,participatory assessments and inclusive practices,has greatly hindered the process of people’sinvolvement in the aid-delivery processes. The factthat most institutions are not able to engage ineffective information-sharing with thecommunities they work with, and educating themon their rights and supporting grievance-redressmechanisms, stems from the fact that mostgovernment institutions are ill-prepared fordisaster response of this nature and do not have a‘cross-sectional’ view of the aid-delivery processes.The lack of a clear, coherent policy for coordinationof aid in the government and NGOs is alsoattributed to a lack of institutional experience andhuman resources. Both studies indicate that a moreeffective government administrative structurecould have better coordinated aid-delivery withinthe districts and could have helped mitigate theadverse effects suffered by disadvantaged groups.The lack of an assured justice-redress mechanism,which was wholly independent from thegovernment authorities who were heavilypatronized by political interests of various politicalparties/personalities, hindered the process ofbeneficiary participation in the aid-deliveryprocess, or any recourse to justice in the failure ofsuch a system.Both studies indicate that the capacity of theadministrative structures to ensure fairness andwithstand efforts by outside groups with vestedinterests in preventing the misappropriation of aidwas severely lacking. The protracted conflict, forexample, had reduced the capacity of thegovernment mechanisms in the north and the eastat the time of the tsunami, making it vulnerable tooutside influences, as well as severely lacking inbasic resources to function effectively. The lack ofindependence between the government’sadministrative structures from politicalinterference undermines the strength and will ofthe administrative structures to address issues ofinclusive governance, even in relation to NGOcoordination. The resistance within thegovernment structures or on the part ofgovernment officials, in recognizing andencouraging the need for collective bargaining as aviable feature of the democratic process throughthe provision of space for civil society engagementin tsunami recovery, reflects negatively on aiddelivery in both districts.164

Promoting inclusive governance in tsunami recovery in Sri LankaLimitations in data collectionThe scarcity of data and human resources and skillscapacity for rapid assessments and data collectionthwarts the effective delivery of aid. 6 The lack ofgood data and rapid assessment skills can leavespace for corruption and for the possibility of‘exclusion agents’ to hijack aid-delivery processesthrough their presumed ‘proximity andcommitment’ to the affected communities.Gender dimensionsAlthough the studies do not venture deep into thegender dimensions of poverty, and how thisaffected the tsunami aid-distribution, it does brieflyexplore the particularly vulnerable conditionwomen face and how they are often additionallydisadvantaged from accessing aid, especially whenthey are also part of an ethnic minority, are poor, orare part of a politically marginalized segment ofsociety. The studies indicate that the feminizationof poverty was very severe in the case of tsunamiaid-delivery, as it did not allow the space for activeand constructive engagement of women at thehousehold and civic levels.3. KEY LESSONS LEARNED IN APPLYING HRBAFrom a rights-based perspective, this research is anattempt to see how duty-bearers (both in thegovernment and NGOs) delivering aid could beheld accountable by the communities to ensurethat they follow the principles of nondiscriminationand promote the inclusion ofvulnerable and marginalized groups.In order to promote HRBA in the research process,it is important to first ensure that the research teamitself is aware of rights-based approaches and ismade up of both men and women.There should beat least one member of the team from the areawhere the research is being conducted and who isfamiliar with the communities. It is also necessaryto have at least one member of the team whospeaks the language of the communities where theresearch is being undertaken.For these case studies, each research team wasconsisted of a research coordinator and tworesearch assistants. 7 The teams began with deskresearch, in which background information on thecommunities was gathered from published work,reports and secondary sources. Newspaper reportsand reports from various aid agencies were ofparticular relevance to the gathering of informationon the consequences of the tsunami and the impacton people directly or indirectly affected by it.67A data collection mechanism should be developed at the district level in order to track the needs of the affected individuals as well as the distributionand progress of aid. This innovation could serve to avoid duplication, corruption and delays associated with the ad hoc nature of aid delivery.The Hambantota research team was led by Lionel Siriwardena, with one female and one male researchers – Kelum Thalahadhthadhige and ChandrikaKosgahadurage. The Ampara research team was led by Amarasiri de Silva and two male researchers – one who is Tamil and the other Muslim – Mr. S.Majeed and Mr. Weerasingham Sudesahan165

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificIn addition to the background research, it wasimportant to hold community consultations inseveral locations to identify the research site.Interviews were held with key informants,including community leaders; NGOs workingamong the affected communities; other field levelworkers/activists of local NGOs; developmentofficers of banks/microfinance institutions;government district officers, including GramaNiladaries and Divisional Secretaries; teachers; andtraders to document their views and experience onthe impact of aid-delivery mechanism ontsunami-affected marginalized groups and rankthem based on vulnerability.Based on the background and initial field research,a mapping and ranking of disadvantaged andmarginalized groups and communities could beconducted, and sample could be selected for anin-depth study, where qualitative and quantitativemethods of data collection were used to compile athorough documentation.Hambantota studyAn assessment was carried out in Hambantota toidentify the most marginalized areas. Based on thebackground research and interviews, the town ofKirinda was selected for the study partly becauseof its isolated location and its mixed Muslim-Sinhalese ethnic population.Both Muslim and Singhalese families are equallyrepresented in the study. Two temporaryshelter camps were selected for the focus groupdiscussions – one which was predominantlyName of campTotalfamiliesMuslimfamiliesShramabhimanava 99 90 9Small-scale 49 2 47fisheries/ CBOsSinhalesefamiliesMuslim and the other which was predominantlySinhalese.In order to be transparent about the research, theteam explained to the focus groups the purpose ofthe discussion and how it would feed into a studyon the effectiveness of the recovery process.Questions were posed to the group according totheir concerns and experiences of the recoveryprocess.The entire group was encouraged to participate,and the forum was open to anyone to speak up.After the initial group discussions, individualin-depth interviews were conducted with all thegroup members.The researchers then went back tothe families several times and interviewedthe entire household. In this way, they were ableto ensure that everyone within the householdparticipated.During the course of the study, the researchersvisited the community several times to clarifyand cross-check the interviews with othercommunity members. They also raised the issueswith relevant duty-bearers in the course of severalsubsequent interviews. 8Duty-bearers and rights-holders were both givenequal space to participate in this study. The groupdiscussion and the in-depth individual/family8The researchers interviewed the following officials: the Principal of the Kirinda Muslim College, the Grama Niladari of Kirinda (local government officer), aSamurdhi official, Grama Niladari of Andaragasyaya division, a government agent in Hambantota District, NGOs staff, village leaders, members of theJVP/‘Rathu Tharu’ organization, Divisional Secretaries, local traders and leaders of local institutions.166

Promoting inclusive governance in tsunami recovery in Sri Lankainterviews provided the rights-holders with anopportunity to air their complaints, concerns andgrievances. In some cases, allegations were madeagainst certain officials. The research team heldinterviews with these officials to obtain theirperspective on the situation and to address anycomplaints that had been made. During this phaseof the study, the researchers served as anintermediary between the rights-holders and theduty-bearers, where they were able to channel thecommunities’ concerns to the duty-bearers andencourage them to be more transparent andaccountable directly to the community.The next phase of the study saw the researchersconducting a second round of discussion with thefocus groups. During the discussions, informationobtained by the officials was discussed with thegroup, including responses to questions andconcerns expressed by the group in the previoussession. Additionally, some of the policies/measures and entitlements were also explainedto them. It must be noted that in the event ofcontradiction, the researchers engaged in dialoguewith several persons in order to assess thecredibility of any claims.The researchers also encouraged the communityto act collectively in order to enhance theirbargaining power with the authorities. Forexample, they tried to encourage the women toform a group that discusses problems and takesthe concern of the whole group to the relevantauthorities.The research coordinator also promisedto link the communities to a bank and establish aself-help group. 9 By encouraging the community tomobilize themselves and to engage directly withthe duty-bearers, the research team attempted notonly to gather information for the study, but also toconstructively contribute to building the capacitiesof the community to claim their rights.While the researchers were successful in servingas a means of communication between theduty-bearers and rights-holders for the duration ofthe study, it would have been beneficial andappropriate, from a rights-based perspective, tospend some time during the study to explain to thecommunities their rights and the various redressmechanisms available when their rights areviolated. While this was done in a limited mannerwhen some policies were explained, theresearchers could have additionally referred thecommunities to the National Human RightsCommission or other bodies, from where theycould have received additional information.Ampara studyIn Ampara, data for the study were collectedlargely through interviews and focus groupdiscussions with tsunami-affected people andfamilies, beneficiaries of tsunami aid, agenciesproviding aid to affected people, key informants inthe communities and political leaders, andmembers of the armed forces. Three focus groupdiscussions were held with affected fishermen inthe villages of Komari, Panama and inMarathamunai. One discussion was held on thebeach where the fishermen mended their nets,while the other was held in a house in the fishingcommunity of Komari where some women alsoparticipated. Interviewees were selected from thetsunami-affected population using a snowballingmethod, in which once a person was selected for aninterview, the next person selected was an entirely9It is important that while encouraging the communities to assert their rights and encouraging them to form groups, the research team must becareful not to put the community at risk of abuse from more powerful authorities as the little protection they may have been offered will no longerexist once they leave. Additionally, the team needs to be careful not to make promises or raise expectations they cannot meet.167

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-Pacificdifferent one to the first person in social standing,employment, issues raised etc., so that diverseperspectives could be captured in the study.Additionally, the research assistants maintainedclose links with two of the key informants – onefrom a Tamil background and the other from aMuslim community. The author also maintainedclose relationship with a member from the Muslimcommunity with whom the findings werediscussed. These frequent discussions withindividuals from the community allowedthe research team to verify and authenticatetheir findings.The authors and research assistants also benefitedfrom discussing their findings with two armedforces officers, who verified information from thecommunity and provided additional informationon specific incidents. In conflict situations, it isimportant to use as many different sources aspossible to verify information being provided,as propaganda and misinformation is usuallya concern.A total of 35 interviews were conductedthroughout the study. These interviews were moreexploratory and unstructured in the beginning ofthe study but took on more form and becamefocussed, semi-structured interviews towards thelatter half of the study. 10Discussions were also held with aid agencies,INGOs and government departments toexplore the various aid delivery programmes andmechanisms. Aid agencies were initially identifiedthrough a list produced by the Consortium ofHumanitarian Agencies (CHA) Ampara 11 and inconsultation with United Nations personnel inAmpara; a search was also made to find the exactwhereabouts of the offices of the agencies andINGOs that were present in the district. 12Secondary information obtained through aidagencies, newspapers and media reports werehelpful in understanding the context. Face-to-faceinformal discussions and direct observations withaffected families were also very useful.Triangulations employed in the study helped toverify and establish the authenticity, validity andreproducibility of the data.The most effective methods of data collection werediscussions in the focus group, ad hoc meetings10 The following is a list of people who participated in unstructured and semi-structured interviews: The president of the East Lanka social servicecentre; a resident of Islamabad running a small boutique next to a refugee camp; a teacher attached to the Sinhala Maha Vidyalaya; the president of arehabilitation centre for tsunami-affected people who is also a member of Ampara NGO consortium; a Sinhala resident in Amman Kovil Road; theManaging Director of Village of Home Community and Samuel Boys Home; a representative from the Seventh Day Adventist Church situated close toKalmunai; a landowner in Addaippallam village; a member of the Rosy refugee camp near Kannaki Amman Hindu Kovil in Addaippallam; an officer inthe Nintavur Divisional Education Office; a Muslim villager in Malikaikkadu, Karaithivu; the president of Maruthamunai Baithul Tsunami; a member ofthe construction committee of Maruthamunai Shams Central College; a Tamil resident in the refugee cap near the Kovil at Periyaneelavanai; theManager of the Samuel Boys and Girls Home situated in Neelavani; Grama Niladhari of Periyaneelavanai (a Tamil); a young woman in Arasady ThoddamWelfare Camp, Nintavur; someone from the Maruthamunai relief good collecting centre; a tsunami victim from Periyaneelavanai; affected fisherfolk livingin Sainthamaruthu, Kalmunai; someone who works for the Muslim Women Research and Action Foundation (MWRAF); members of the armed forcesand militant organizations; two politicians from the area (one a Muslim national level politician), both of whom prefer anonymity; the president of theKomari fisheries cooperative; a member of the Panama Fisheries Cooperative; and the president of the Digamadulla YMCA.11 Additional information on INGOs and agencies were collected from the Contacts Directory (Version 3.3, 2005) prepared and maintained by the UnitedNations Humanitarian Information Centre (HIC).12 INGOs and agencies that were interviewed and spoken to in Ampara during the study are the following: UNDP, CHA, FAO, RADA, OCHA, HIC, USAID,UNICEF, WFP, JICA, ActionAid, ICRC, Mercy Corps, Solidarites, and UNHCR. The following organizations involved in tsunami related activities were alsointerviewed for the study: IOM, GRC, Oxfam, Cordaid, World Vision, SOND/SWOAD, ZOA, Care, EHED, East Lanka Social Service and Digamadulla YMCA.The information provided through the District Livelihood Coordination meeting was a useful source. The various fisheries cooperative societiesprovided valuable information.168

Promoting inclusive governance in tsunami recovery in Sri Lankaand face-to-face interviews. People were eager totalk to the research assistants and were willing toprovide detailed information under conditions ofanonymity. It was important, however, to makeclear that names would not be divulged andthat anonymity would be maintained so thatpeople did not feel that their security would bejeopardized by the information they provided.Team members came from different ethnicbackgrounds, but this did not affect internal teamdynamics; it was rather a bonus as it was importantthat the research assistant conducting theinterviews in a specific community was of the sameethnic background as the community in order tobuild trust – this was especially important as theresearch touched upon several sensitive issuesrelated to ethnicity and the conflict.The Ampara case study, while rich in detail on theMuslim perspective, is quite limited on the Tamilperspective, since the security situation made itdifficult for the research team to obtain adequateinformation from tsunami-affected Tamil villages.Even though one of the research assistants wasTamil and came from Ampara, the heightenedsecurity imposed by government forces while theinterviews were taking place made it difficultfor him to travel to tsunami-affected areas. Theinterview data gathered from other accessibleTamil areas (eight interviews in all), and later fromthe areas where the researcher could not circulate,were used in the paper. However, it was notpossible to verify the validity of some of thestatements with the Tamil Relief Organization(TRO) or the LTTE because access to theseorganizations is very limited. Along with thesecurity situation, which limited accessibility to theareas (e.g. road blocks, acts of civil disobedience,strikes, etc.), another obstacle was that since thecommunities along the coast were predominantlyMuslim, access to women was limited, and it wastherefore impossible to gain their perspective onthe issues. The fact that the research team were allmale was also a significant drawback.4. LESSONS LEARNED/RECOMMENDATIONSDevelop post-disaster recovery interventionsthat are sensitive to both existing identitybasedvulnerabilities and identity-baseddynamicsAs the case studies bear out, recovery interventionscannot be identity-blind; in the event that they are,they bring with them the danger of accentuatingexisting vulnerabilities. In Sri Lanka, this carries afurther implication where identity-blind recoveryinterventions can lead to perceptions ofdiscrimination along ethno-political lines and can,inter alia, contribute to worsening relations amongthe already hostile (and warring) groups. Inclusivegovernance in the context of disaster recoverymust take into account the existing discrepanciesand ensure sensitivity to these issues.169

Towards Inclusive Governance: Promoting the Participation of Disadvantaged Groups in Asia-PacificContextualize concepts such as ‘vulnerability’and ‘inclusive governance’ in the light ofrealities on the groundThere is often a tendency to make interventionsarmed with a list of assumed vulnerabilities and tocater inclusive governance processes to such apre-ordained list. For example, it is quite commonto assume that women, children and the disabledare ‘naturally’ vulnerable categories in mostsituations and to go about developing policies andprogrammes geared only to these groups.Vulnerability, however, is highly contextual, evenwithin two neighbouring districts of the samecountry; it is clear how the interplay of factorscould contribute to making certain groups morevulnerable than others. In Hambantota, forexample, it is quite clear how issues of class, caste,political favouritism and party political affiliationsrendered some groups more disadvantaged thanothers. On the other hand, in Ampara, the dynamicswere more in relation to issues of ethnicity andmajoritarianism. Undoubtedly in both districts,traditional factors, such as gender, age, disability,etc., were still exerting greater impact and need tobe accounted for; yet, it is important to assess howindividuals within these groups are differentiallyaffected based on their intersections with otheridentities, such as class, caste and ethnicity.Inclusive governance in the context of disasterrecovery must necessarily assess vulnerability on acase-by-case basis and develop processes andmechanisms based on realities on the ground.Strengthen capacities for decentralized andlocalized governance processes inpost-disaster recoveryBoth case studies identify the negativeimplications of centrally-based disaster recoveryinterventions. These include the discrepanciesbetween recovery efforts and their correspondingneeds on the ground; the underutilization andwaste of resources; potential for corruption; thesense of isolation and exclusion felt by the affectedcommunities; and the ensuing erosion of faith inthe democratic process. Both case studiesreveal how more decentralized and localizedinterventions are better placed to cater to thedynamics on the ground, particularly with respectto being sensitive to the needs of disadvantagedgroups in each locality. One of the means,therefore, of strengthening capacities for inclusivegovernance would be to strengthen capacities fordecentralized and localized governance in disasterrecovery contexts.Develop checks and balances even withinlocalized governance structuresIn the Sri Lankan case, it would be convenient toassume that localized delivery mechanismswould, in and of themselves, be inclusive andparticipatory. For example, the authority of theGrama Niladari as the lowest denominatedrepresentative of the village in determiningcommunity needs should, in an ideal situation, lendto disaster recovery interventions that areinclusive, participatory and sensitive to vulnerablegroups. However, as the studies bear out,decentralized governance structures alone donot guarantee the rights and interests ofdisadvantaged groups. This is particularly the casewhen local government structures are notequipped with the necessary checks and balancesthat enable communities to hold officialsaccountable for their work. Inclusive governance inthe context of disaster recovery must necessarilyassess the viability of decentralized delivery incatering to the needs of disadvantaged groupsand, where necessary, put in place checks andbalances for holding the lowest levels ofgovernment accountable for their work.170

Promoting inclusive governance in tsunami recovery in Sri LankaDevelop capacities for sustainable processes ofinclusive governanceIn post-disaster interventions, it is quite commonto put in place one-off interventions forstrengthening inclusive governance. For example,in Sri Lanka, UNDP supported a comprehensiveprogramme of people’s consultations which aimedat channelling the voices of the people intothe official recovery process. As useful as suchinterventions are, it might be more advisable to usethe window of opportunity provided by postdisastersituations to put in place longer-term,more sustainable mechanisms and processes forchannelling the voices of the communities intoofficial development processes. For example, in SriLanka, one idea that was frequently mooted butnever followed through was on the feasibility ofreviving the Village Rehabilitation Committees(small representative collectives at the village levelwith linkages to decision makers at the provincialand district levels) as a permanent mechanism forinclusive and participatory decision-making.Wherever possible, it is important to developsustainable inclusive governance processes thatare adaptable to post-disaster situations and alsooutlive and outlast the crisis contexts.171