ICAR briefing - The Somali Refugee Community in the UK

ICAR Briefing – July 2007The Somali Refugee Community in the UKSomalia’s internal crisis has intensified over thepast 12 months creating widespread populationdisplacement. Significant events have includedJune 2006, when the Union of Islamic Courts(UIC) took control of the capital, Mogadishu; therecapturing of Mogadishu by Ethiopian-backedSomali forces opposing the UIC 1 in December2006; the US bombardment of suspected AlQaeda targets in the South of the country inJanuary 2007 2 ; and the deployment of AfricanUnion troops and clashes between insurgents andEthiopian troops particularly in Mogadishu 3 . Thefighting has added to the official IDP populationwhich currently stands at 400,000 according tothe Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre 4formation of an interim government in 2000 andagain in 2004. 6Given the current media attention, and in light ofthe country’s long historical association with theUnited Kingdom, an ICAR briefing on Somalia andthe Somali community within the UK is timely.HistoryThe Republic of Somalia was created in 1960when both the British Protectorate of Somalilandand the UN-established, Italian TrusteeshipAdministration merged. 5Early independence was marred by territorialdisputes with both Kenya and Ethiopia. Followingthe assassination of Ali Rashid Ali Shermarke in1969, General Mohamed Siad Barre assumedpower in a coup. He was deposed in 1991 by agroup of clans long excluded from participation ingovernment in favour of General Barre’s ownclan. A protracted civil war ensued, whichcontinued unabated notwithstanding the1BBC (28 December 2006) Islamists abandon Somali capitalhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6213499.stm2BBC (9 January 2007) US targets Al Qaeda in Somaliahttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6245943.stm3BBC (22 March 2007) Battles resume in Somali Capitalhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6478677.stm4 http://www.internaldisplacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/(httpCountries)/02EE5A59E76049F5802570A7004B80AB?OpenDocument5Foreign and Commonwealth Office - Somalia HistoricalBackgroundhttp://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1007029394365&a=KCountryProfile&aid=1019744993170Source: CIA World FactbookThe Somali peopleClans play a central role in Somaili society andpolitics. The four main clans: Darod, Isaq, Hawiyeand Dir are commonly referred to as ‘Noble’clans whose members are believed to share acommon Somali ancestry. 7 The clan system inSomali society forms not only the basis of thetraditional Somali political structure, but alsoprovides both a system of rights and a socialsupport structure. The Digil and Mirifle clans aredescribed as occupying the middle groundbetween the ‘Noble’ clans and Somali minoritygroups. 8 Members of ‘lower’ clans or minoritygroups are frequently the targets of persecutionand relatively disasdvantaged. 96 Home Office (January 2007) Country of Origin InformationReport- Somaliahttp://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs07/somalia-150107.doc7Danish Immigration Group (September 2000) Report onMinority Groups in Somaliahttp://www.unhcr.org/home/RSDCOI/3ae6a5fa0.pdf8Home Office (January 2007) Country of Origin InformationReport- Somaliahttp://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs07/somalia-150107.doc9US Dept of State (March 2006) Country Report on HumanRights PracticesICAR BRIEFING – The Somali Refugee Community in the UK © ICAR 2007 1

other minority groups, known as ‘occupationalcastes’ with few or no clan affiliations that havehistorically faced societal discrimination, includingexclusion from employment and the denial ofownership of property or livestock. 20Historical perspectivesPortCities- London: The Somali Community inthe Port of Londonhttp://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConNarrative.109/chapterId/2309/The-Somali-Community-in-the-Port-of-London.htmlSomalis - their history and cultureCOR Refugee Factsheet No.9http://www.cal.org/co/somali/stoc.htmlStatistics on the Somalicommunity in the UKAlthough there are no definite figures reflectingthe current size of the overall Somali populationin the UK, the 2001 Census recorded apopulation of 43,473. 21 Somali communityorganisations however, have suggested that thenumber is more likely to be in the region of90,000. 22Asylum applicationsIn 2006 there were 1,845 asylum applicationsreceived from Somali nationals, a small increasefrom the 1,760 applications in 2005 but less thanthe 2,585 received in 2004. Overall the numberof Somali nationals applying for asylum in the UKhas fallen since 1999 when there were 7,495applications. 23 Trends in asylum numbers havegenerally reflected the course of insecurity andconflict in Somalia.20Home Office (2007) Country of Origin InformationService, Country Reports- Somaliahttp://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/country_reports.html#countries21This figure includes Somalis living in the UK who are notrefugees, e.g. those arriving via family reunion.22Hopkins, G. (August 2006) ‘Somali communityorganisations in London and Toronto’ Journal of RefugeeStudies, August 2006, Vol 19 No.3http://jrs.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/19/3/36123The 2006 figures reflect the cumulative figures for all fourquarters in 2006. However, it should be noted that thesefigures may be revised by the Home Office at a later date.All figures have been aggregated to the nearest 5 and excludedependants.Initial decisionsIn 2006 there were 1,735 initial decisions madeby the Home Office on Somali asylumapplications. As a result, 660 applicants wererecognised as refugees and granted asylum and afurther 160 were granted Discretionary Leave.915 applicants were refused asylum; of these 695were refused after consideration of the case, afurther 165 were refused on the grounds thatthey had passed through a third safe country and50 were refused on non compliance grounds. 24Unaccompanied Somali childrenThere were 255 asylum applications fromunaccompanied Somali children in 2006 25(excluding dependants and where there is no agedispute) from a total of 2855 applications byunaccompanied children. 26 This figure is slightlyabove the 225 applications in 2005, from a totalof 2720 applications by unaccompanied children. 27Applications from unaccompanied Somali childrenranked fifth in the last quarter of 2006. Therewere more applications for asylum fromunaccompanied minors from Afghanistan, China,Eritrea and Iran. 28Somali nationals in detentionOn the 30 th of December 2006 there were a totalof 45 Somalis in detention at one of the UK’s tenImmigration Removal Centres or four ShortTerm Holding Facilities. 29 Of the 45 detainedSomalis, 30 were asylum seekers detained underImmigration Act powers who were recorded ashaving sought asylum at some stage. 30 This is anincrease from the 25 Somalis in detention on the24Home Office (February 2007) Asylum Statistics: 4 th Quarter2006 United Kingdomhttp://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs07/asylumq406.pdf25An unaccompanied asylum seeking child (UASC) is definedas an applicant who at the time of application is, or (if there isno proof) is determined to be under 18 and is applying forasylum on his own right and has no relative or guardian in theUK.26These statistics reflect the cumulative figures for all fourquarters in 2006. However, it should be noted that thesefigures may be revised by the Home Office at a later date.27 Home Office (February 2007) Asylum Statistics: 4 th Quarter2006 United Kingdomhttp://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs07/asylumq406.pdf28Home Office (February 2007) Asylum Statistics: 4 th Quarter2006 United Kingdomhttp://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs07/asylumq406.pdf29This figure does not include all persons detained in PrisonService Establishments. As a result, figures are not directlycomparable with those prior to ‘Quarter 2’ 2006.30Home Office (February 2007) Asylum Statistics: 4 th Quarter2006 United Kingdomhttp://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs07/asylumq406.pdfICAR BRIEFING – The Somali Refugee Community in the UK © ICAR 2007 3

31 st of December 2005, of whom 15 were asylumseekers. 31Useful Statistical ResourcesHome Office Research and DevelopmentStatisticsImmigration and Asylum statistics:http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/immigration1.htmlStatistics on local populationshttp://www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov.ukRemovals, voluntary departures andassisted returnsThe number of Somali asylum seekers who leftthe UK through enforced removals, voluntarydepartures and assisted returns programmes hasfluctuated over the past three years. 32 In 2006 33there were 210 removals of Somalis from theUK 34 , from a total of 3595 removals to Africa and18,235 to all countries. This is an increase from110 in 2005 35 and 150 in 2004. 36Somalis acquiring British CitizenshipThe most recent figures indicate that in 2005,8,305 Somali nationals were granted Britishcitizenship in the UK (a decrease from 11,185 in2004). This constituted 5% of all persons grantedcitizenship in 2005 (out of a total of 161,755).More Somali nationals became British citizensthan the nationals of any other African country,placing Somalia behind only India, Pakistan andSerbia Montenegro. 37Of the 8,305 Somalis granted citizenship in 2005,4,585 became naturalised as citizens by virtue ofresidence in the UK. 1,150 of the grants were tochildren who were registered as citizens whenone of his/her parents had become a Britishcitizen or settled in the UK. A further 2,160children were entitled to discretionaryregistration as British citizens. 38Census data on the Somali populationin LondonThe 2001 census recorded 43,515 Somalis in theUK, with 78% (33,831) living in London. Othercities and regions with notable Somali populationsinclude 1,306 Somalis in Sheffield, 872 inLeicester, 819 in Birmingham, 788 in Cardiff and678 in Liverpool. 39 The exact figures in differentcities are disputed, with several reportsestimating the population to be much larger thanshown in the census figures. 40Of the 33,831 Somalis living in London 14,921(44.1%) were male, 18,910 (55.9%) were femaleand 47% were between 16-44 years of age. Therewere 6,697 (29%) economically active adultscompared with a 67.6% average in London. 24%of economically active Somalis were in full-timeemployment compared with a 63.1% average forLondon. 70.4% of Somali adults wereeconomically inactive compared with an averagefor London of 32.4%. There was an aboveaverage number of adults (over 16 years of age)who were students (29.4%) in comparison withthe London average (9.5%) 41 .31Heath, T., Jeffries, R. and Pearce, S. (August 2006)Asylum Statistics United Kingdom 2005http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs06/hosb1406.pdf32This includes persons departing voluntarily followingenforcement action initiated against persons leaving underAssisted Voluntary Return programs run by the InternationalOrganisation for Migration and those who it had establishedhad left the UK without informing immigration authorities.33Home Office (February 2007) Asylum Statistics: 4 th Quarter2006 United Kingdomhttp://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs07/asylumq406.pdf34The 2006 figures reflect the cumulative figures for all fourquarters in 2006. However, it should be noted that thesefigures may be revised by the Home Office at a later date.35Home Office (2006) Asylum Statistics: 4 th Quarter 2005United Kingdomhttp://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs06/asylumq405.pdf36Home Office (2005) Asylum Statistics: 4 th Quarter 2004United Kingdom.http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/asylumq404.pdf37Home Office (2006) Persons Granted British CitizenshipUnited Kingdom 2005http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs06/hosb0906.pdf38Home Office (2006) Persons Granted British Citizenship inthe United Kingdom 2005http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs06/hosb0906.pdf39The 2001 census provides statistics for the Somalipopulation in the UK by England and Wales, areas, countries,cities and London Boroughs:http://neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk40In 1995 Margret McCarthy (‘Elders in Exile’ NorthernRefugee Centre: 15) estimated the Somali population inSheffield to be over 2,000 and in 2003 Ian Cole and DavidRobinson (‘Somali housing experiences in England;, Centre forRegional Economic and Social Research) estimated theSheffield Somali population to be between 1,400-10,000. PeterStokes (2000) estimated the number of Somalis living inLiverpool to be between 3,000 and 5,000.41Greater London Authority (2005) London Country ofBirth Profiles: An analysis of Census data,. Data Management andAnalysis Group briefing 2005/2,ICAR BRIEFING – The Somali Refugee Community in the UK © ICAR 2007 4

Legal and Policy DevelopmentsConditions of entry and transitSomalis have been required to obtain a visa toenter the UK since January 1 1973. Somalinationals seeking to enter the UK for thepurposes of asylum have embarked onclandestine forms of entry, often placingthemselves in the hands of people smugglers andtraffickers to secure entry. 42 Somali nationals arealso required to obtain a ‘direct airside transitvisa’ (DATV) in order to carry out an airsidetransfer through a UK airport. There arecurrently 48 countries requiring a DATV totransit through the UK. 43 DATV was introducedby the UK Home Office in October 2003 as ameans of reducing the number of asylum claimsbeing made on transit arrival in the UK. TheHome Office states that the numbers of onarrivalclaims have fallen by 58% since theintroduction of DATV. 44In January 1991 the British Embassy in Mogadishuwas closed after Siad Barre’s administration wasoverthrown. Somali nationals may only makeapplications for UK tourist/visitor visas at postsdesignated to provide a full entry clearanceservice. All other types of entry-clearanceapplications must be made at the BritishEmbassies in Nairobi, Kenya or Addis Ababa,Ethiopia. Responsibility for those applying fromSomaliland is provided by the British Embassy inAddis Ababa and responsibility for coverage ofthe rest of Somalia is provided by the British HighCommission in Nairobi.Somali refugee community in the UKAtubo, M. and Batterbury, S. (2001) LSEWorking Papers No.01-11: Coping withenvironmental change - the experience of Somalirefugee women in a west London housing estatehttp://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/DESTIN/pdf/WP11.pdfSomali refugee community in the UKBloch, A and Atfield, G. (2002) The ProfessionalCapacity of nationals from the Somali region in Britainhttp://fmo.qeh.ox.ac.uk/Repository/getPdf.asp?Path=Oxford1/1604/05/02&PageNo=1The Guardian (23/01/2006): Somalis in Cardiffhttp://www.guardian.co.uk/britain/article/0,,1692747,00.htmlHopkins, G. (2006) Somali CommunityOrganizations in London and Toronto: collaboration andeffectivenesshttp://jrs.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/19/3/361.pdfOlden, A. (1999) Somali refugees in London: oralculture in a western environmenthttp://www.librijournal.org/pdf/1999-4pp212-224.pdfInvoluntary ReturnsIn light of the ongoing insecurity in the country,the Home Office policy of returning failed asylumseekers to Somalia remains a contentious oneand conflicts with current advice from the UnitedNations High Commissioner for Refugees(UNHCR). UNHCR’s position on the involuntaryreturn of failed asylum seekers set out in 2004and revalidated in November 2005 underlinesthat there is no safe internal flight alternative inSomalia, and advises against all returns of failedasylum seekers to regions other than their regionof origin. 45 In relation to these, it advises againstforced return if the region of origin is SouthernSomalia, and against ‘indiscriminate’ involuntaryreturn to the autonomous regions of Somalilandand Puntland, 46 in the far North of Somalia. 47The UK Home Office position is that there is nopolicy precluding the return of failed Somaliasylum seekers to any region of Somalia. Theydo not accept current UNHCR advice in relationto Somalia on the grounds that it relates only to42Morrison, J. and Crosland, B. (2001) The Trafficking andSmuggling of Refugees: the End Game in European Asylum Policy?UNHCR Working Paper 39http://www.unhcr.org/research/RESEARCH/3af66c9b4.pdf43Home Office (2006) The UK’s DATV Regime - RevisedFebruary 2007http://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/6353/14809/directairsidetransiyvisafeb1.pdf44 Home Office, Asylum Fact sheethttp://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/applying/asylum/asylumfactsheet45UNHCR (2005) Advisory on the return of nationals toSomaliahttp://www.unhcr.org/publ/RSDLEGAL/437082c04.pdf46For more information on Somaliland and Puntland refer to:http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1007029394365&a=KCountryProfile&aid=101974499317047UNHCR (2004) Position on the return of rejected asylumseekers to Somaliahttp://www.unhcr.org/cgibin/texis/vtx/home/opendoc.pdf?tbl=RSDLEGAL&id=4020dc864ICAR BRIEFING – The Somali Refugee Community in the UK © ICAR 2007 5

the general situation in the country, and not to anindividual’s particular circumstances. 48In relation to the autonomous regions ofSomaliland and Puntland, although the UK HomeOffice consider these regions as ‘generally’ safe toreturn failed asylum seekers, they nonethelessacknowledge that both Somaliland and Puntland’sregional authorities will not permit entry tominority groups with no connection to clanswithin their region. 49In relation to the returning of individuals fromminority clans, recent European case law hassuccessfully challenged assertions of their safetyin the autonomous regions (see below for furtherdetails).Changes to refugee statusSince August 2005, Refugee Status is granted for aperiod of 5 years and may be revoked at any timeduring this period. Refugees must then apply foran extension, which, provided certain criteria aremet, will lead to Indefinite Leave to Remain.These criteria are that during the 5 years:• the conditions in the country of origin have notimproved significantly;• the applicant has not been involved in actionswhich are against the Refugee Conventionprinciples; and• that s/he passes an English language and UKsociety test. 50In light of the high number of Somalis grantedRefugee Status, the changes will have aconsiderable impact on the Somali Refugeecommunity in the UK. There may be importantrepercussions on issues of integration and accessto employment and services. 51 These changesmay lead to some interesting legal challengesfrom 2010, when the first of the extensionapplications are submitted.48 Home Office (2006) Operational Guidance Notes -Somaliahttp://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/documents/countryspecificasylumpolicyogns/somaliaogn?view=Binary49Ibid50Home Office (October 2006) Asylum Policy Instructions-Refugee Leavehttp://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/documents/asylumpolicyinstructions/apis/refugeeleave.pdf?view=Binary51Refugee Council (January 2006) Briefing on Immigration,Asylum and Nationality Billhttp://www.refugeecouncil.org.uk/policy/briefings/2006/ian2006.htmFunding for legal assistanceProposed changes to the manner in whichAsylum and Immigration cases are funded will beof concern to Somali asylum applicants unable tocover the costs of their legal representation. Theproposed changes entail a ‘fixed fee’ for cases,irrespective of their complexity. 52 The fees willnot include interpreter or travel charges. Thereare concerns that the changes will impact on theavailability and quality of legal representation. 53These changes are not due to be implementeduntil October 2007. 54Further changes are also proposed for thefunding of asylum applications that progress tothe appeal stage. In order to fulfil therequirements of their Legal Services Commissioncontracts, legal representatives will have to reacha target of 40% success rate in the asylum appealsthey take on. The Refugee Council estimates thatthis will require legal service providers doublingtheir current success rate of 19%. 55Family reunionAsylum applicants who have been recognised asrefugees are able to apply to the Home Office tobe joined in the UK by their immediate family.At the time of writing, the Home Office isreviewing its family reunion policy. Oncecompleted, this will be available from the Borderand Immigration Agency’s (BIA) Asylum PolicyInstructions. These can be found on the BIAwebsite. 56Recent noteworthy Somali case lawThe case of NM and Others (Somalia) CG[2005] UKIAT 00076 57 addressed issues of52ILPA (January 2006) Briefing on future of Legal Aidhttp://www.ilpa.org.uk/53Refugee Council (October 2006) Policy Response - LegalAid: a sustainable futurehttp://www.refugeecouncil.org.uk/policy/responses/2006/legal_aid.htm54ILPA (January 2006) Briefing on future of Legal Aidhttp://www.ilpa.org.uk/55Refugee Council and Refugee Action (March 2006)Joint Response to the General Civil Contract relating toImmigration and Asylum workhttp://www.refugeecouncil.org.uk/OneStopCMS/Core/CrawlerResourceServer.aspx?resource=96250B46-5348-49A7-949C-E7BB511855F1&mode=link&guid=07f4c3abb84a410ca11caf22e331284456Home Office Asylum Policy Instructions: Family Reunionhttp://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/documents/asylumpolicyinstructions/apis/familyreunion.pdf?view=Binary57http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKIAT/2005/00076.htmlICAR BRIEFING – The Somali Refugee Community in the UK © ICAR 2007 6

clan protection on return. The Asylum andImmigration Tribunal found in favour of theappellant, a lone Ashraf (a minority clan) woman.The determination notes that where a claimant isfrom Southern Somalia and of a minority clanwith no majority clan patronage, then they maybe at risk of breaches of their rights under theEuropean Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)within Southern Somalia upon return. TheTribunal also noted however, that should theclaimant be from a majority clan, then therewould likely be an area of Southern Somaliawhere the clan could provide enough protectionfor neither the Refugee Convention nor theECHR to apply.The case of MA (Galgale- Sab clan) CG[2006] UKAIT 00073 58 found that theappellant, a member of the low caste Galgale clan,would have less expectation of protection thanother low caste clans. This is because it wasfound that there are no designated areas in whichthe Galgale may live.In the recent case of Salah Sheekh Vs theNetherlands (Application no. 1948/04)[11/01/2007] 59 it was found that the appellant,who was of a minority clan and originated fromSouthern Somalia, would not be safe, even ifreturned to Somaliland or Puntland. These areasare considered ‘relatively safe’ for enforcedreturns within European (including UK) caselaw.Of particular note is the following section of Para.139:The Court has been provided with and has obtained aconsiderable amount of information relating to thesituation in both Somaliland and Puntland, from whichit undoubtedly appears that those territories aregenerally more stable and peaceful than south andcentral Somalia. Nevertheless, there is a markeddifference between the position of, on the one hand,individuals who originate from those areas and haveclan and/or family links there and, on the other hand,individuals who hail from elsewhere in Somalia and donot have such links in Somaliland or Puntland. On thebasis of the available information, the Court isprepared to accept that the expulsion to Somalilandor Puntland of a failed asylum seeker belonging to the58 http://www.ait.gov.uk/Public/Upload/j1934/00073_ukait_2006_ma_somalia _cg.doc59 http://jurrit.jur.kun.nl/cmr/docs/SALAH.SHEEKH.THE.NETHERLANDS.pdffirst group would not generally expose the personconcerned to a real risk of being subjected totreatment in violation of Article 3. As far as thesecond group is concerned, however, the Court is notpersuaded that the relevance of clan protection in the“relatively safe” areas has diminished to the extent assuggested by the Government.At the time of writing, the impact of thisdetermination has yet to be tested in the UKcourts.International initiativesIn addition to ever-evolving UK and EuropeanJurisprudence in response to the Somali crisis,wider efforts are being made to tackle the rootcauses of forced displacement and refugeemovements in the region. Currently, the securitysituation in Somalia (and the Horn of Africa ingeneral) is of major concern for the EuropeanUnion. In October 2006, the EuropeanCommission agreed a ‘partnership for peace,security and development in the Horn of Africa’.Comprehensive conflict prevention as a means oftackling the root cause of regional instability isthe partnership’s main area of focus. On the 20 thOctober 2006, Louis Michel, the EUCommissioner for Development, made a point ofhighlighting the international ramifications ofcontinued insecurity in the region, which henoted as being “the source of many of Europe’sasylum seekers.” 60Currently the ‘partnership for peace, security anddevelopment in the Horn of Africa’ is a politicalframework only. It is hoped that it will lead to anumber of regional initiatives and dialogue. 61 Itmay be some time however, before its impact canbe measured by a change in the numbers ofSomalis seeking protection in the UK, Europe andbeyond.60ECRE (27 October 2006) Commissioner Michel Proposes toAssist the Horn of Africa With the Management of Migratory Flowsand Refugeeshttp://www.ecre.org/resources/ecran_weekly_update_27_10_200661EU (20 October 2006) European Commission proposes an EUstrategy for peace, security and development in the Horn of Africahttp://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/06/1441&format=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en.ICAR BRIEFING – The Somali Refugee Community in the UK © ICAR 2007 7

Key Issues 62HealthAccording to research conducted for the LondonBorough of Camden, post-traumatic stressdisorder (PTSD), depression and anxietydisorders are the most common mental healthproblems presented by members of the Somalicommunity seeking healthcare. 63 Research by theCentre for Psychiatry found that 14% of a sampleof 143 Somali refugees recruited from GPregisters and community sites were sufferingfrom PTSD. 64 It has been noted that Somalirefugees have a relatively high level of need forhealthcare but a low level of service use. 65Explanatory factors for barriers to access includedistrust of the healthcare system, languagedifficulties, housing problems or anxieties overimmigration status. Those that suffer from mentalhealth disorders might not publicly acknowledgetheir problems because of fear of beingstigmatised by the community and a commonperception that mental health problems areincurable. 66Recently arrived refugees may be affected by highlevels of trauma as a result of their pre-migrationexperiences. A 2005 Amnesty report notesincreasing incidents of torture in Somaliland 67 anda number of clients at a Somali mental healthproject in East London had been the victims oftorture. 68A number of mental and physical health issues arelinked by some commentators to the use of62It is recognised that many of the key issues raised in thissection are not solely limited to the Somali community andare relevant to other refugee communities and other minorityethnic groups.63Alemu, E and Palmer, D. (March 2006) Imperfectprescription: the mental health perceptions, experiences andchallenges faced by the Somali Community in the London Boroughof Camden and service responses to them.www.uel.ac.uk/ssmcs/research/fmsc/papers/palmeralemu.pdf64Bhui, K; Craig, T; Mohamud, S; Warfa, N; Stansfeld,S; Thornicroft, G; Curtis, S and McCrone, P (March,2006) Mental disorders amongst Somali refugees: Developingculturally appropriate measures and assessing socio-cultural riskfactors. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 2006Vol 41, Pt 565Ibid66Gabriel, J and Ritchie, H. (February 2002) ‘DaryeelkaMaanka’: An evaluation of a Somali mental health project in EastLondon.67Amnesty International (2005) Somalia Report 2005http://web.amnesty.org/report2005/som-summary-eng68Gabriel, J and Ritchie, H. (February 2002) ‘DaryeelkaMaanka’: An evaluation of a Somali mental health project in EastLondon.khat 69 (a green leafed shrub, chewed for itsstimulant effects), which is used widely in theHorn of Africa and Yemen and by ex-patriatecommunities in the UK. Mental and physicalhealth issues resulting from excessive andprolonged khat use are thought to includedepression, anxiety disorders, sleep disturbanceand dental problems. 70One research report argues that there is a strongperception amongst Somalis, particularly men,that GP’s know little about the effects of khat andmight therefore misdiagnose health problems andthat khat users are unlikely to access treatmentservices. 71EmploymentAccording to a study conducted on theprofessional capacity of Somali nationals in theUK, 72 those in work are more likely to havebetter proficiency in English, have been residentin the UK for a longer period of time and weremore secure in their immigration status. Havingreceived education in the UK also increased thelikelihood of employment. A higher proportion ofmen are employed than women, for whomlooking after the home and the family wereprimary responsibilities. Studies have found thatwomen are more willing to work in low-skilledmenial work in the care and service sector.Barriers to employment for Somali refugeesinclude the non-recognition of pre-migrationqualifications, employer discrimination, insufficientcontacts in the UK and a lack of transferableskills. 73The majority of Somalis employed before comingto the UK are not employed in the same orsimilar occupations in the UK. Work in retail orprivate security, are also common occupations. Itis not uncommon to find highly skilled Somalis inmenial work. 7469‘Khat’ has a number of spellings including ‘qat’ and ‘quat’.70Havell, C. (May 2004) Khat use in Somali, Ethiopian andYemeni communities in England: issues and solutions, TurningPoint: Turning lives aroundwww.drugs.gov.uk/publication-search/diversity/khat-usereport?view=Binary71Ibid72Bloch, A and Atfield, G. (2002) The professional capacityof nationals, from the Somali regions in Britain. A report toRefugee Action and International Organisation of Migration73Ibid74Olden, A. (1999) Somali Refugees in London: Oral culture ina western format and environmentwww.librijournal.org/pdf/1999-4pp212-224.pdfICAR BRIEFING – The Somali Refugee Community in the UK © ICAR 2007 8

There is concern that many young Somalis leavecollege without the English language skills tocompete in the job market and this iscompounded by an expectation that they will notfind work. 75 Young Somalis often do not have thenecessary practical experience to enhance theirchances of employment.Useful ResourcesHarris, H. (2004) The Somali Community in the UK:What we know and how we know ithttp://www.icar.org.uk/?lid=4855Cole, I. and Robinson, D. (2003) Somali HousingExperiences in Englandhttp://www.shu.ac.uk/cresr/downloads/publications/10-SOMALI%20Housing.pdfAli, E. and Jones, L. (April 2000) Meeting theEducational needs of Somali pupils in Camden schoolshttp://www.camden.gov.uk/ccm/content/education/services-for-children-and-parents/camden-la-supportservices/file-storage/meeting-needs-of-somaliresearch.en;jsessionid=ajgrxAQ04dY-HousingSomali communities tend to be clustered in thoseinner city neighbourhoods with high than averagelevels of deprivation, crime, unemployment andminimal services and amenities. Many Somalihouseholds live in extremely overcrowdedconditions, which is detrimental to physical,mental and emotional well-being. Housingconditions are generally poor, with damp andcondensation problems, insufficient heating andinadequate security measures. 76The same research report notes that many of therespondents reported incidents of harassmentand racial discrimination. 77 Despite this,discrimination and harassment often goesunreported due to the language barrier and LocalAuthorities not providing adequate translationand interpretation provisions. There is littleawareness of available support and assistanceprovided and a perception that reports will go75Stokes, P. (2000) The Somali Community in Liverpool76Cole, I and Robinson, D. (2003) Somali HousingExperiences in Englandwww.shu.ac.uk/cresr/downloads/publications/10-SOMALI%20Housing.pdf77Ibidunheeded or lead to further discrimination orharassment.The benefits of living among other Somalis in aparticular neighbourhood include an increasedsense of security, advice and support from friendor family networks and access to local servicesand shops run by Somalis for the Somalicommunity.Somalis face a number of constraints inattempting to access social housing. These includeinsufficient knowledge and awareness of housingprovision and poor understanding of the routesinto obtaining social housing, particularly whenapproaching landlords. Due to a lack of availablesocial housing in cities such as Liverpool andSheffield, some Somalis are restricted fromaccessing housing where there is an alreadyestablished Somali community. The type ofaccommodation available is limited, with largefamilies allocated homes with insufficient room ora lack of sheltered accommodation for elderlyrelatives, for example. 78Homelessness has been noted as an issue withinthe Somali community; the most commonhomeless groups are those who are ‘statutoryhomeless’ and the ‘homeless and living with familyor friends’. In many cases Somali households arenot categorised as homeless because they do notapproach the local authority to help and areunaware of the statutory obligations of localauthorities to the homeless. 79Community relationsDivision and cohesion within the Somalicommunity, along clan-based lines are significantin constructing identity. However they arecomplex and should not be overstated orgeneralised. 80 Clan groups share a commonancestry through male descent, with lineage oftengoing back generations. Griffiths’ study of Somalirefugees in London highlights the factors whichaffect the role of clanship in individual lives suchas gender, age and class along with experience ofwar and education. 81In the UK, clan members may feel obliged toassist a newly arrived refugee from their clan and78Ibid79Ibid80Stokes, P. (2000) The Somali Community in Liverpool81Grifiths, D. (2002).Somali and Kurdish refugees in LondonICAR BRIEFING – The Somali Refugee Community in the UK © ICAR 2007 9

can act as a pre-existing support network.However, older generations with experience ofinter-clan hostilities and factionalism may bemore reluctant to co-operate with members ofcertain other clans. Despite this, it is morecommonly the clan elders who take apeacemaking role in disputes. Often successfulsettlement in the UK will weaken links withSomalia, an emphasis on clan affiliations andencourage identities based on local connectionsin the UK. 82There have been recent reports in the mediaabout young Somalis being involved in gangs andviolent crime. Some of these incidents have beenhigh profile and may influence the way Somalicommunities are perceived in the UK. 83ResourcesAlemu, E. and Palmer, D. (2006) Imperfectprescription: the mental health perceptions,experiences and challenges faced by the SomaliCommunity in the London Borough of Camden andservice response to themwww.uel.ac.uk//ssmcs/research/fmsc/papers/palmeralemu.pdfAli, E. and Jones, L. (2000) Meeting theEducational Needs of Somali Pupils in CamdenSchoolshttp://www.camden.gov.uk/ccm/content/education/services-for-children-and-parents/camden-lasupport-services/file-storage/meeting-needs-ofsomali-research.en;jsessionid=ajgrxAQ04dY-El- Solh and Fawzi, C. (1993) ‘Be true to yourculture: Gender tensions among Somali Muslimsin Britain’ Immigrants and Minorities,. Vol.12, No. 1BBC (28 December 2006) Islamists abandonSomali capitalhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6213499.stmBBC (30 May 2006) Somali’s struggle in the UKhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/5029390.stmBBC (9 January 2007) US targets Al Qaeda inSomali82Ibid83BBC (30 May 2006) Somali’s struggle in the UKhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/5029390.stmhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6245943.stmBBC (6 March 2007) Country Profile- Somali:http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1072592.stmBBC (22 March 2007) Battles resume in SomaliCapitalhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6478677.stmBhui, K; Craig, T: Curtis, S; McCrone,P;Mohamud, S; Stansfeld, S A; Thornicroft,G; Warfa, N. (2005) ‘Mental Health needs,service use and costs among Somali Refugees inthe UK’. Acta Scandinavica, Vol 111. Pt. 5:www.blackwellpublishing.com/journal.asp?ref=0001-690xBloch, A. and Atfield G (2002) The ProfessionalCapacity of Nationals from the Somali Regions inBritain, Report to Refugee Action and IOM.Cole, I. and Robinson, D. (2003) SomaliHousing Experiences in Englandwww.shu.ac.uk/cresr/downloads/publications/10-SOMALI%20Housing.pdfDanish Immigration Group (September 2000)Report on Minority Groups in Somaliahttp://www.unhcr.org/home/RSDCOI/3ae6a5fa0.pdfECRE (27 October 2006) Commissioner MichelProposes to Assist the Horn of Africa With theManagement of Migratory Flows and Refugeeshttp://www.ecre.org/resources/ecran_weekly_update_27_10_2006El- Solh and Fawzi, C. (1993) ‘Be true to yourculture: Gender tensions among Somali Muslimsin Britain’. Immigrants and Minorities, Vol.12, No. 1Department for InternationalDevelopment, Somalia Country Profilehttp://www.dfid.gov.uk/countries/africa/somalia.aspEU (20 October 2006) European Commissionproposes an EU strategy for peace, security anddevelopment in the Horn of Africahttp://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/06/1441&format=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=enICAR BRIEFING – The Somali Refugee Community in the UK © ICAR 2007 10

Foreign and Commonwealth Office, SomaliaHistorical Backgroundhttp://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1007029394365&a=KCountryProfile&aid=1019744993170Gabriel, J. and Ritchie, H. (2002) ‘DaryeelkaMaanka’: An evaluation of a Somali mental healthproject in East London. Centre for Social andEvaluation Research, Guildhall, UniversityGreater London Authority (2005) LondonCountry of Birth Profiles: An analysis of census data.Data Management and Analysis Group briefing2005/2Griffiths, D. (2002) Somali and Kurdish refugees inLondon, AshgateHarris, H. (2004) The Somali community in theUK: What we know and how we know, InformationCentre about Asylum and Refugeeshttp://www.icar.org.uk/?lid=4855Havell, C. (2004) Khat use in Somali, Ethiopianand Yemeni communities in England: issues andsolutions, Turning Pointwww.drugs.gov.uk/publicationsearch/diversity/khat-use-report?view=BinaryHeath, T., Jeffries, R. and Pearce, S. (August2006) Asylum Statistics United Kingdom 2005http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs06/hosb1406.pdfHolman, C. and Holman, H. (2003) First stepsin a new country: baseline indicators for the Somalicommunity in LB Hackney, Sahil HousingAssociationHome Office (February 2007) Asylum Statistics:4 th Quarter 2006 United Kingdomhttp://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs07/asylumq406.pdfHome Office (2007) Country of Origin InformationService: Country Reports- Somaliahttp://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/country_reports.html#countriesHome Office (October 2006) Asylum PolicyInstructions- Refugee Leavehttp://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/documents/asylumpolicyinstructions/apis/refugeeleave.pdf?view=BinaryHome Office (2006) Persons Granted BritishCitizenship United Kingdom 2005http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs06/hosb0906.pdfHome Office (2006) The UK’s DATV Regime(Revised March 2006)http://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/applying/asylum/asylumfactsheet/howisbiareducingthenumberHome Office (2006) Operational Guidance Notes-Somaliahttp://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/documents/countryspecificasylumpolicyogns/somaliaogn?view=BinaryHome Office (2005) Persons Granted BritishCitizenship United Kingdom 2004http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/hosb0805.pdfHome Office (June 2003) An Assessment of theImpact of Asylum Policies in Europehttp://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs2/hors259.pdfHome Office, Asylum Policy Instructions: FamilyReunionhttp://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/documents/asylumpolicyinstructions/apis/familyreunion.pdf?view=BinaryHome Office, Asylum Fact sheethttp://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/applying/asylum/asylumfactsheetHopkins, G. (August 2006) ‘Somali communityorganisations in London and Toronto’ Journal ofRefugee Studies, Vol.19 No.3http://jrs.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/19/3/361ILPA (January 2006) Briefing on future of Legal Aidhttp://www.ilpa.org.uk/Immigration and Refugee BoardDocumentation Centre (June 1991) TheNomadic Clans of Somalia: History, Culture andSocial Structurehttp://fmo.qeh.ox.ac.uk/Repository/getPdf.asp?Path=Oxford4/1601/08/01&PageNo=1ICAR BRIEFING – The Somali Refugee Community in the UK © ICAR 2007 11

Kahin, M. (2003) Educating Somali children inBritain Trentham BooksKHCM Associates (2004) Developing goodpractice in service delivery for Somali communities,Government Office for LondonMorrison, J. and Crosland, B. (2001) TheTrafficking and Smuggling of Refugees: the End Gamein European Asylum Policy? UNHCR WorkingPaper 39http://www.unhcr.org/research/RESEARCH/3af66c9b4.pdfMorrinson, L; Dirir, A; Elmi, S; Warsame, J;Dirir, S. (2004) How experiences and attitudesrelating to female circumcision vary according to ageon arrival in Britain: A study among young Somaliswww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retriev&db=PubMed&list_uids=15203466&dopt=AbstractNielsen, K. (March 2004) Next stop Britain: Theinfluence of transnational networks on the secondarymovement of Danish Somalis, Sussex MigrationWorking Paper no. 22http://www.sussex.ac.uk/migration/documents/mwp22.pdfRefugee Council (2005) ‘Asylum Statistics steadyfor this year but down from 2004’http://www.refugeecouncil.org.uk/news/press/2005/november/20051128asylu.htmRefugee Council (January 2006) Briefing onImmigration, Asylum and Nationality Billhttp://www.refugeecouncil.org.uk/policy/briefings/2006/ian2006.htmRefugee Council (October 2006) PolicyResponse- Legal Aid: a sustainable futurehttp://www.refugeecouncil.org.uk/policy/responses/2006/legal_aid.htmRefugee Council and Refugee Action (March2006) Joint Response to the General Civil Contractrelating to Immigration and Asylum workhttp://www.refugeecouncil.org.uk/OneStopCMS/Core/CrawlerResourceServer.aspx?resource=96250B46-5348-49A7-949C-E7BB511855F1&mode=link&guid=07f4c3abb84a410ca11caf22e3312844Rutter, J. (2004) Somali children’s educationalprogress and Life experiences Teacher TrainingResource Bank:http://www.ttrb.ac.uk/viewarticle.aspx?contentId=386Somalia Map (August 2006):http://www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/4538d5074.pdfStokes, P. (2000) The Somali Community inLiverpool Foundation for Civil SocietyUNHCR (2005) Advisory on the return of nationalsto Somaliahttp://www.unhcr.org/publ/RSDLEGAL/437082c04.pdfUNHCR (2004) Position on the return of rejectedasylum seekers to Somaliahttp://www.unhcr.org/cgibin/texis/vtx/home/opendoc.pdf?tbl=RSDLEGAL&id=4020dc864US Dept of State Country Report on HumanRights Practices- Somaliahttp://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2005/61592.htmCase lawSSHD Vs NM: UKIAT [2005] 00076:http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKIAT/2005/00076.htmlMA Vs SSHD MA (Galgale – Sab clan)Somalia CG [2006] UKIAT 00073http://www.ait.gov.uk/Public/Upload/j1934/00073_ukait_2006_ma_somalia _cg.docSalah Sheekh Vs TheNetherlands(Application no. 1948/04)[11/01/2007]http://jurrit.jur.kun.nl/cmr/docs/SALAH.SHEEKH.THE.NETHERLANDS.pdfLegalAsylum and Immigration TribunalCountry Guidelines Determinationshttp://www.ait.gov.uk/practice_directions/case_law.htmIAS, Analysis of case of NM, covering Benadir andReer Hamar clan issueshttp://www.iasuk.org/module_images/0511%20ANALYSIS%20Somalia%20Benadiri,%20Reer%20Faqi0206.pdfBy Ben Harvey and John McGeachyICAR BRIEFING – The Somali Refugee Community in the UK © ICAR 2007 12