Leadership in Schools - ITARI

Chapter 11: Leadership in Schools•Leadership is often regarded as the singlemost important factor in the success orfailure of schools (Bass 1990)

Leadership Defined• Bennis (1989): like beauty, (or pornography), leadership ishard to define, but you know it when you see it• Chemers (1997:1): “…a process of social influence inwhich one person is able to enlist the aid and suppoer ofothers in the accomplishment of a common task”• Most definitions agree that leadership involves a socialinfluence process; beyond that, scholars dispute whatleadership is

Controversy #1: Individuals or Roles and Processes?• Yukl (1998): all groups have a specialized leadership role withfunctions and responsibilities that can’t be shared without cost to theeffectiveness of the group• Individual with most influence is the leader; everybody else follows• Alternative view: leadership is a social process, shared among groupmembers• Ogawa & Bossert (1995): leadership is a quality of school organizations,flowing through social networks and roles• Smylie & Hart (1999): leadership as an organizational property of schools• Spillane, Halverson & Diamond (2003): leadership distributed acrossleaders and followers, according to situations• Katz & Kahn (1978): 3 major components of leadership:• 1. the attribute of an office or position• 2. characteristic of a person• 3. category of actual behavior

Controversy #2: Influence• Disagreement over how to define influence behaviors• By kind? By outcome?• Some theorists only consider strategies that produce willingcommitments by followers, and exclude neutral or reluctantresponses• Some theorists restrict definition of influence processes to taskgoals and group maintenance, and exclude influence attempts withother motives or beneficiaries• Traditional definitions emphasize rational processes: leadersinfluence followers to believe it is in their best interests tocooperate• Transformational and charismatic leaders: key on importance ofemotions—convince followers to subordinate self-interest to largercause

Controversy #3: Leader or administrator?• Administrator: emphasizes stability and efficiency• Plan and budget, organize and staff, and control and solve problems• Leader: emphasizes adaptive change, consensus building• Establish direction, align people, motivate and inspire• Both terms refer to individuals who occupy positions in which they areexpected to exert leadership for subordinates or followersLeadership defined broadly: a social process in which a member ormembers of a group influence the interpretation of events, choice ofgoals/outcomes, organization of work activities, motivation, abilities,power relations, and shared orientations.• As a social influence process and a specialized role, leadership iscomprised of both rational and emotional elements

Life as an Administrator• Structured observation studies reveal similarcharacteristics of administrative jobs across countries andorganizational settings:• School administrators work long hours at a physically exhaustingpace• School leaders rely on verbal media, and spend much time walkingthrough the building and talking to individuals and groups• Administration requires the ability to change gears and tasksfrequently• Span of concentration for school administrators is short—the job isfragmented and discontinuity is prevalent• How does this leave room for leadership? Look totheoretical approaches to leadership for answer

Are leaders born or made?• Trait approach to leadership: key factors in determining leadership areinherited• Aristotle thought individuals were born with the qualities that wouldmake them good leaders• Bass (1990) chronicles historical approaches to leadership qualities inthe US• Early 20 th Century: ;eaders regarded as superior individuals whobenefitted from inheritance or fortunate social circumstances to stand outamong peers• Researchers attempted to isolate these traits, such as physicalcharacteristics, personality factors, needs , values, energy and activitylevels, task and interpersonal competence, intelligence, and charisma• This type of study dominated research until the 1950’s

Repudiation of the pure trait approach• Stogdill (1948) reviews 124 trait studies of leadership• Personal factors associated with leadership fell into 5 generalcategories• Capacity: intelligence, alertness, verbal facility, originality, judgment• Achievement: scholarship, knowledge, athletic accomplishments• Responsibility: dependability, initiative, persistence, aggressiveness, selfconfidence,drive• Participation: activity, sociability, cooperation, adaptability, humor• Status: socioeconomic position, popularity• Stogdill’s meta-analysis casts dim view on pure trait research: impactof traits varies widely from situation to situation, so a person doesn’tbecome a leader based on the possession of traits alone• Stogdill adds sixth component: situational factors, such as followersand goals

Modern trait approaches to leadership• Shift in approach, from comparing leaders to non-leaders to comparing effective leadersto ineffective ones• Trait studies now look at traits and leadership effectiveness in specific organizationaltypes and settings• Stogdill, part II: in 1970, he reviewed 163 new trait studies• New meta-analysis found that leaders are characterized by the following traits:• Drive for responsibility, task completion• Persistent pursuit of goals• Originality in problem-solving• Initiative in social situations• Self-confidence, sense of personal identity• Willingness to accept consequences of decision and action• Readiness to absorb stress and tolerate frustration and delay• Ability to influence behavior of others• Capacity to structure interactions for a purpose• Immegard (1988): traits of intelligence, dominance, self-confidence, and high energy arecommon to leaders• Bottom line: both traits and situations are important influences on whether a leader willbe effective

Personality, motivation, and skills• Trait and skill variables associated with effective leadership can bebroken into three groups• Personality• Motivation• SkillsPersonality: relatively stable dispositions to behave in a particular way(Yukl, 2002)• Long list associated with effective leadership• 4 in particular worth noting:• Self-confident leaders: more likely to set high goals and persist• Stress-tolerant leaders: make good decisions, stay calm, provide decisivedirections under stress• Emotionally mature leaders: have accurate awareness of strengths andweaknesses, are oriented toward self-improvement• Leaders with integrity: behaviors are consistent with stated values—theseleaders are seen as honest, ethical, responsible, and trustworthy

Motivational traits• Motivation: set of energetic forces from both within and beyond anindividual to initiate work-related behavior and determine its form,direction, intensity, and duration• Four motivational traits key for effective leaders:• Task and interpersonal needs: effective leaders have drive for the task andconcern for people• Power needs: effective leaders seek positions of authority and arecomfortable exercising influence over others• Achievement orientation: effective leaders have a desire to excel, a driveto succeed, willingness to assume responsibility• High expectations for success: effective leaders believe they can do thejob and will receive valued outcomes for their efforts• Physical traits, such as energy and activity, allow individuals to showtheir competence through active engagement

Skills• Too many skills to list, but some models group sets of skills that makefor effective leadership• Problem-solving skills, social judgment skills, & knowledge(Mumford et al, 2000)• Yukl (2002) and Northouse (2004): three important categories of skillsfor effective leadership• Technical: specialized knowledge about a specific type of work, activity,procedure, or technique• Interpersonal: understanding of feelings and attitudes of others, knowinghow to work with people in individual and cooperative work relationships• Conceptual or cognitive: ability to conceptualize, think logically, reasonanalytically, deductively and inductively• Effective leaders need all three, but priority depends upon level ofadministration

Situational approach to leadership• Response to trait approach: researchers identify setting characteristicsthat influence leader’s success• Possible situational determinants of leadership:• Structural properties of organization—size, hierarchy, formalization,technology• Role characteristics—type and difficulty of task, rules, content,performance expectations, power• Subordinate characteristics—education, age, knowledge, experience,tolerance for ambiguity, responsibility, power• Internal environment—climate, culture, openness, participation levels,group atmosphere, values, norms• External environment—complexity, stability, uncertainty, resourcedependency, institutionalization• Situational approach and trait approach come into balance: situationalfactors and personal factors have strong reciprocal associations

Major findings of OSU studies• Four major findings of LBDQ studies (Halpin, 1966)• Initiating structure and consideration are fundamental dimensionsof leader behavior• Effective leaders exhibit frequent behaviors on both dimensions• Superiors and subordinates attribute success to behaviors inopposite dimensions: superiors tend to credit initiating structurebehaviors; subordinates tend to credit consideration behaviors• Thin relationship between leaders’ expressed beliefs on how theyshould behave, and subordinates’ descriptions of how leaders dobehave

Recent takes on leader behavior• Yukl (2002): Same style of leader behavior not optimal across allsituations• Blake and Mouton (1985): Most effective leaders high on bothproduction (task or initiating structure) and people (relationship orconsideration) concerns• Yukl (2002): three category framework of leader behavior• Task-oriented behaviors: clarifying roles, planning and organizingoperations, monitoring organizational functions• Relations-oriented behaviors: supporting, developing, recognizing,consulting, and managing conflict• Change-oriented behaviors: scanning and interpreting external events,articulating an attractive vision, proposing innovative programs, appealingfor change, creating a coalition to support and implement changes• Leaders typically engage in all three types of behavior• External environment plays important role in determining best mix

Judging leadership effectiveness• Both objective and subjective dimensions to judgingleadership effectiveness• Accomplishment of organizational goals (objective)• Perceptual evaluations of significant reference groups (subjective)• Overall job satisfaction of subordinates (subjective)• Contingency models of leadership: hit peak in 1970’s• Four sets of concepts: traits of leaders, situational characteristics,leader behavior, and effectiveness• Two basic hypotheses:• H 1: Traits and skills of leaders and situational characteristicscombine to produce leader behavior and effectiveness• H 2: Situational factors directly influence effectiveness

Examples of contingency models• Bossert, Dwyer, Rowan, and Lee (1982): on instructional leadership ofprincipals• Personal, district, and external environment characteristics influencemanagement behaviors of principals• These behaviors in turn influence climate and instructional organization• Climate and organization shape teachers’ behavior and students’ learningexperiences to produce student learning• Heck, Larsen, and Marcoulides (1990) tested the model empirically andfound support• Three other general contingency models:• Least-preferred co-worker• Substitutes for leadership• Path-goal theories

Least preferred co-worker theory• Fiedler (1967): first major theory to propose specific contingencyrelationships• Named for the indicator of leadership style, the least-preferred coworkerscale (LPC)• Respondent selects person with whom he/she works least well, and usesthe scale to describe him/her• High LPC score indicates a positive description of least preferred coworker;low LPC score describes that co-worker negatively• LPC score indicates extent to which individual sets higher priority on taskaccomplishment or on interpersonal relationships• Situational control: power and influence leaders have to implementplans, decisions, and strategies (Fiedler and Garcia, 1987)• Determined by three factors:• Position power• Task structure• Leader-member relations• Effectiveness: extent to which group accomplishes primary goal

Fiedler’s three propositions• 1. In high-control situations, task-oriented leaders are more effectivethan relationship-oriented leaders• 2. In moderate-control situations, relationship-oriented leaders aremore effective than task-oriented leaders• 3. In low-control situations, task-oriented leaders are more effectivethan relationship-oriented leaders• Model tested rigorously, with mixed but mainly supportive results• Criticisms:• LPC has been a moving target: first measured emotional reaction todifficult subordinates, then relationship orientation, then the leader’smotivational hierarchy

Substitutes for Leadership Model• Kerr and Jermier (1977) question basic assumption that formal leadership isnecessary; this model is their alternative• Substitutes: situational elements that replace or reduce a leader’s ability to influenceattitudes, perceptions, or behaviors of followers• Neutralizers: situational factors that prevent leader from acting in a particular wayor that nullify effect of leader’s actions• Three categories of situational variables have these influences:• Characteristics of subordinates: abilities, training, experience, and knowledge,professional orientation, and indifference toward rewards• Task characteristics: structured routine tasks, intrinsically satisfying tasks, andfeedback• Organizational characteristics: formalization of roles and procedures, flexibility ofrules and policies, work group cohesiveness, spatial distance between administratorand followers• Performance depends on these variables more than on behavior of leader

Path-Goal theory of leadership• Defined and redefined by House (1971, 1973, 1996) and House and Mitchell (1974).• Core assumption: followers will be motivated if they feel capable of doing the work, they believeefforts will produce desired outcomes, and rewards will be worthwhile• Leaders complement task environments, subordinates’ abilities, and compensate for deficiencies• Five basic leader behaviors related to situational factors• Path-goal clarifying behaviors: make subordinates’ needs and preferences contingent on effective performance.When task demands are satisfying but ambiguous, path-goal clarifying behaviors will motivate.• Achievement-oriented leader behavior: encourage excellent performance, set challenging goals, seekimprovements, show confidence. Will be effective when subordinates have individual responsibility and controlover work.• Supportive leader behavior: show concern for welfare, create psychologically supportive environment, andconsider subordinates’ needs and preferences. Will be most necessary when situation is dangerous, monotonous,stressful, frustrating. Will have limited effect when tasks are intrinsically satisfying or situation is not stressful.• Value-based leader behavior: appeal to followers’ values, enhance self-efficacy, and tie self-worth tocontributing to leader’s mission. Define the vision for the group and support with symbolic behaviors. Willproduce intergroup conflict when values in the leader’s vision conflict with dominant coalition or prevailingculture.• Shared leadership: share leader behaviors with members of the work group. Will enhance cohesiveness andperformance when work is interdependent within the work unit.

Transformational leadership model• Pioneers: Burns (1978), Bass (1985)• Three main types of leadership• Laissez-Faire leadership: absence of transactions with followers.These leaders avoid expressing views or taking action, avoid or delaydecisions, ignore responsibility, provide little feedback. Most passive,least effective of three types.• Transactional leadership: motivate followers by exchanging rewardsfor services. Leaders identify what followers want and try to provide itas reward for effort. Respond to followers’ immediate self-interest.Exchanges are economic: pursued on basis of cost-benefit.• Contingent reward leadership: leader behaviors focus on role and taskrequirements, provide rewards contingent on performance• Active management-by-exception: leaders maintain high levels ofvigilance to esure standards are met, take corrective action quickly• Passive management-by-exception: leaders fail to intervene until problemsare serious.

Transformational Leadership• Third of 3 main types on continuum• Expansion of transactional leadership, goes beyond simple exchanges• Four I’s: idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectualstimulation, individualized consideration• Idealized influence: builds trust, respect in followers, thus formingbasis for acceptance of big changes• Leaders display conviction and high standards of conduct, share risks,consider needs of others first, and never use power for personal gain.Followers admire and trust leader and thus buy into mission, even if itrequires radical changes in the organization.• Attributed idealized influence: followers perceive leader as beingcharismatic, confident, powerful, and focused on higher-order ideals• Idealized influence as behavior: charismatic actions of leaders thatfocus on values, beliefs, and sense of mission

Inspirational motivation• Inspirational motivation: changes expectations of groupmembers: problems CAN be solved• Develops appealing vision to guide development oforganizational goals and operating procedures• Leader behaviors provide meaning, challenge for followers• Project attractive and optimistic future• Emphasize ambitious goals• Create idealized visions for organizations• Clearly communicate that vision is obtainable• Results: team spirit, enthusiasm, optimism, goal commitment,shared vision within the work group

Intellectual Stimulation• Intellectual stimulation: encourage followers’ creativity—question old assumptions, traditions & beliefs, reframeproblems• Encourage followers to design new procedures and programs andsolve problems• Encourage unlearning—eliminate fixation on “way we’ve alwaysdone it”• Insist on constant open examination of procedures, receptivity tochange• Nothing is sacred: any procedure, policy, or operation can becontested on the merits

Individualized consideration• Individualized consideration: leaders pay particularattention to each individual’s needs for growth andachievement• Leaders act as mentors—help followers and colleagues developpotential and take responsibility for own development• Create new learning opportunities in supportive climate• Recognize and accept individual differences in needs and values• Use two-way communication, and interact personally with others

Situational considerations for transformationalleadership• Yukl (1999): model explains much about leadershipprocesses and outcomes, but more attention to situationalfactors needed• Bass (1997): model is valid across situations and cultures• Most important in crisis situations, where only transformationalleaders can clarify goals to transcend immediate self-interests offollowers• Acknowledges situational factors will influence emergence andsuccess of transactional and transformational leadership• In particular, follower gender, level of environmental risk, andleader hierarchical level will have important influences

Research findings• Research on transformational leadership clarifies thesegeneralizations:• Idealized influence and inspirational leadership most satisfying andeffective (Avolio, 1999; Bass, 1990)• Transformational leaders receive higher ratings, are perceived to leadmore effective organizations, and have subordinates that exert greatereffort than transactional leaders (Yukl, 1998; Bass, 1998)• Transformational leadership in schools directly influences teacherperceptions of student goal achievement, and student grades(Leithwood 1994)• Influences three psychological characteristics of staff: perception ofschool characteristics, commitment to change, and organizational learning• Depends upon attending to all four “I’s”, with individualizedconsideration as a base• Support for Leithwood’s claims from other studies: Silins (1992), Marks& Printy (2003)

Distributed leadership• Distributed leadership models challenge the assumption that one person has tobe in charge to make change happen• Multiple sources across the organization provide leadership in numerous tasks,such as budgets, evaluations, emergency management, and change processes• Proponents say it’s necessary because school organizations are so complexand tasks so wide-ranging that no one person can manage all• Ogawa & Bossert (1995): leadership is an organizational quality—flowsthrough the networks of roles, and varies over time and across schools• Spillane et al (2001, 2003): leadership defined around the technical core-- “theidentification, acquisition, allocation, coordination, and use of social, material,cultural resources necessary to establish the conditions for…teaching andlearning”• School reform initiatives focus on shared or distributed leadership, as inAccelerated Schools, America’s Choice, and Success for All, which have moreleadership positions than comparison schools (Camburn, Rowan and Taylor,2003)