Bison-Rewilding-Plan-2014

BisonRewilding Plan2014–2024Rewilding Europe’s contribution tothe comeback of the European bisonAdvised by the Zoological Society of London

Rewilding EuropeBison Rewilding Plan, 2014–2024AuthorJoep van de Vlasakker, Rewilding EuropeThis report was made possible by generous grantsby the Swedish Postcode Lottery (Sweden) and theLiberty Wildlife Fund (The Netherlands).Advised byDr Jennifer Crees, Zoological Society of LondonDr Monika Böhm, Zoological Society of LondonPeer-reviewed byProf Jens-Christian Svenning, Aarhus University, DenmarkDr Rafal Kowalczyk, Director Mammal Research Institute / Polish Academy of Sciences / BialowiezaA report byRewilding EuropeToernooiveld 16525 ED NijmegenThe Netherlandswww.rewildingeurope.comAbout Rewilding EuropeFounded in 2011, Rewilding Europe (RE) wants to make Europe a wilder place, with much more space forwildlife, wilderness and natural processes, by bringing back a variety of wildlife for all to enjoy and exploringnew ways for people to earn a fair living from the wild. RE aims to rewild one million hectares of land by2022, creating 10 magnificent wildlife and wilderness areas, which together reflect a wide selection ofEuropean regions and ecosystems, flora and fauna. Further information: www.rewildingeurope.comAbout ZSLFounded in 1826, the Zoological Society of London (ZSL) is an international scientific, conservation andeducational charity whose vision is a world where animals are valued, and their conservation assured. Ourmission, to promote and achieve the worldwide conservation of animals and their habitats, is realisedthrough our groundbreaking science, our active conservation projects in more than 50 countries and ourtwo Zoos, ZSL London Zoo and ZSL Whipsnade Zoo. Further information: www.zsl.orgCover photogrpaphStaffan Widstrand / Rewilding EuropePhotogrpaphersSandra Bartocha / Wild Wonders of Europe, JozefFiala, Grzegorz Leśniewski / Wild Wonders of Europe,Ruud Maaskant / ARK Nature, Florian Möllers / WildWonders of Europe, Stefano Unterthiner / WildWonders of Europe, Joep van de Vlasakker, StaffanWidstrand / Rewilding EuropeISBN978-90-822514-0-1Suggested citationVlasakker, J. van de (2014). Rewilding Europe Bison Rewilding Plan, 2014–2024.Publication by Rewilding Europe, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.© 2014 All texts: Rewilding Europe© 2014 All photographs: the respective photographersDrawingsChris Eisenga / Flaxfield Nature Consultancy,Esther LinnartzGraphic designKristjan Jung / Rewilding EuropeLayoutKristjan Jung, Holger VagaPrintEcoprint

STAFFAN WIDSTRAND / REWILDING EUROPE2

ForewordA symbol for EuropeThere is no species that better symbolises thestate of nature conservation in Europe than theEuropean bison. Nearly extinct in the last century,it was rescued by passionate conservationistsfrom the last animals in captivity, and although itis now benefiting from a growing environmentalawareness, the European bison is still not out ofdanger and remains virtually unknown to thegeneral public. There are fewer individuals of ourlargest European land mammal in the wild thanthere are black rhino in Africa!Europe is at a turning point in its history.For the first time in many centuries people arewithdrawing from rural areas; young peopleare leaving the countryside and seeking theirfuture in cities or coastal areas. In addition, astronger legislative framework, dedicated speciesprotection programmes, a large protected areasnetwork across the continent and a growing publicinterest in wildlife, are the main drivers behind aspectacular wildlife comeback that is taking placeon our continent. A report published in 2013 by theZoological Society of London, European Bird CensusCouncil and BirdLife International demonstratedthis phenomenon for selected, often iconic, andkeystone species in our ecosystems.However, most species are recovering from anall-time low in the first half of the 20th century (forsome species even earlier), and are still far fromtheir potential natural numbers or distribution.From a historical perspective, this wildlife comebackin Europe has just begun, and there is a long wayto go to ensure that some of these species have along-term future on our continent.The European bison is a clear example of thisphenomenon; we therefore need a continued andstrong effort to build viable populations of thisspecies to ultimately down-list it on the IUCN RedList where it still has a ‘Vulnerable’ status.With this Bison Rewilding Plan, RewildingEurope demonstrates its planned contribution tothe conservation of the European bison. In 10 yearstime, we aim to establish five new, free roamingand completely wild-living bison populations, eachcomprising at least 100 animals. In one area (theCarpathians) we will work towards a meta-populationof at least 500 animals by 2025. In addition,our approach aims to ensure that the return of theEuropean bison is embedded in the socio-economiccontext and perspective of the areas concerned. Thelocal economy of an area can benefit tremendouslyfrom the comeback of this iconic species in additionto the natural environment.With a vast protected area network, Natura 2000and Emerald networks, there seem to be amplepossibilities for building viable meta-populationsfor the species in Europe.Thanks to the work of the European BisonConservation Centre, IUCN, European zoos andmany other organizations, institutions andindividuals, the bison is preserved in Europe. Incollaboration with these parties and using the newtools that are at our disposal, Rewilding Europewants to help bring the European bison out of thedanger zone, raise awareness of the species in thegeneral public and welcome this fantastic animalback to as a familiar inhabitant of Europe’s naturallandscape once more.Frans SchepersManaging DirectorRewilding Europe3

Table of contentsForeword 3Executive summary 51. Introduction 71.1 European bison conservation: the challenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71.2 European landscapes: the opportunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82. European bison 112.1 Taxonomy and past distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112.2 Ecology of the European bison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122.3 Current conservation status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182.4 European bison conservation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203. Rewilding Europe’s guiding principles for bison conservation 273.1 Genetic management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273.2 The reference: historic distribution or suitable habitat? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283.3 European bison as a keystone and umbrella species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .303.4 European bison management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323.5 Research and training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343.6 Human-bison conflict. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353.7 Bison conservation as a socio-economic tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364. Bison Strategy and Actions 2014–2024 41Annex: European bison reintroduction and management guidelines 47Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471. Planning the reintroduction and release infrastructure 481.1 Habitat criteria and site selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481.2 Public involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491.3 ‘Soft-release’ infrastructure development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492. The founder group 512.1 Further additions to the founder group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523. Bison pre-release management in the acclimatisation zone and semi-wild reserve 533.1 Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533.2 Tranquilisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543.3 Veterinary care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573.4 Supplemental feeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594. Bison released into populations living in the wild 605. Other activities important to bison management and reintroduction 605.1 Bison management and monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .605.2 Bison grazing projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615.3 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61Attachment: European bison body condition index 62Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62European bison body condition index 1 to 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644

Executive summaryThe European bison, the largest terrestrial mammalin Europe, became extinct in the wild in the early20th century, but was brought back from the brinkthrough reintroductions of (semi-) wild-livingpopulations across Central and Eastern Europe.Despite successful conservation actions for thisspecies, European bison conservation still lacks aninternationally coordinated hands-on approachand reintroductions continue to rely mostly onlocal initiatives. Yet many opportunities exist forconservation efforts, since in many regions of ruralEurope, large areas of land are becoming abandonedand Europe has a huge network of protected areaswith good bison habitat, including Natura 2000 andEmerald Networks.The European bison is currently listed on theIUCN Red List of Threatened Species as Vulnerabledue to its small population size, with its two distinctbreeding lines listed as Vulnerable (Lowland line)and Endangered (Lowland-Caucasian line), respectively.The species is currently primarily threateneddue to insufficient habitat, small population size,disease and low acceptance by people in someareas. Improving the status of the species requirescombating these threats as well as effective conservationmanagement which takes into account thebiology and ecology of the species, such as groupcomposition and behaviour, feeding ecology,ecological niche, reproduction, as well as genetics.Apart from its important ecological role inEuropean nature, Rewilding Europe believes thatEuropean bison can make a positive change forrural development in the remote corners of Europeexperiencing land abandonment, and has chosenthe bison as one of the flagship species for itsrewilding activities. This document presents theguiding principles and specific actions proposedby Rewilding Europe to contribute to bison conservationin Europe within this initiative, and drawson the best available knowledge on bison biologyand ecology, and lessons learned from previous andongoing reintroduction efforts across Europe.This Bison Rewilding Plan 2014–2024 describesRewilding Europe’s vision of achieving its goal ofviable populations of free-ranging herds of bisonbeing established and restored across Europe andintegrated into Europe’s landscapes alongsidehuman populations. A vision which will enable thelong-term conservation status of the species to beimproved across Europe.Specific objectives are set out to achieve thetwo vital goals in European bison conservation: a)to establish viable and self-sustaining populationsof bison across Europe in rewilded and connectedhabitat and b) to achieve long-term protection andsupport for free-ranging European bison by meansof improved legislation, community outreach,education and the establishment of wildlifetourism; thus creating economic development aswell as establishing large wild landscapes in thoseareas of Europe which are currently suffering landabandonment and economic stagnation.5

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1. IntroductionEuropean bison conservation: the challenge1.1The European bison is Europe’s largest nativeterrestrial mammal. It became extinct in the wildin 1927 but successful conservation efforts haveseen the species recover due to the introductions of(semi-) wild-living populations across Central andEastern Europe. However, its global conservationstatus remains ‘Vulnerable’ on the IUCN Red Listof Threatened Species, partly on the basis of smallpopulation size, and further action is required torestore viable, healthy and self-sustaining populationsacross Europe.The IUCN Status Survey and Conservation ActionPlan (Pucek et al. 2004) outlined the agreed actionsneeded to improve the status of European bison,primarily focussing on continuing captive breedingefforts and reintroductions. Since its publication,several bison reintroductions have been madeand an international network of interested partiesand bison specialists has been developed, firstthrough the Large Herbivore Foundation, andsubsequently through the European Bison ConservationCentre (EBCC). However, many of the recommendationsfrom the action plan have still notbeen sufficiently implemented 10 years later andimpetus is lacking to push the species out of thedanger zone. Population growth remains slowand populations are fragmented. Only two recentprojects (Vanatori Neamt Nature Park, Romaniaand Western Pomerania, Poland) have the potentialto grow to a population of over 100 individuals inthe next 10 years; Western Pomerania already hastwo sub-populations of 78 (Miroslawiec herd) andaround 54 (Drawsko herd) individuals (unpublisheddata, Zachodniopomorskie Towarzystwo Przyrodnicze).Most reintroductions lack the opportunityor ambition to establish large metapopulationsof (at least) many hundreds of animals. In someareas culling is even used to keep populationswithin numbers accepted by farmers and foresters.Densities of European bison in the landscape aretherefore falling short of what is needed to significantlyimprove its conservation status and to restoreits ecological role in wider ecosystems, exacerbatedby intensive management.Despite the fact that the EBCC has taken on acoordination role, European bison conservationstill lacks an internationally coordinated hands-onapproach and reintroductions continue to relymostly on local initiatives. Governments within therange states of European bison have also so far failedto take adequate action to improve the status of thespecies or develop nationwide action plans, withthe exception of Russia, Poland and Romania, whohave written a national conservation strategy forthe European bison (in 2002, 2007 and 2008 respectively).This is despite its inclusion in a number oflegislative instruments, for example in the EuropeanUnion’s Habitat Directive (as a priority species inAppendix II and IV) and the Council of Europe’sBern Convention on the conservation of Europeanwildlife and natural habitats (Appendix III).European bison remains an enigmatic andlargely unknown species to most people in Europeand due to lack of awareness it does not receivethe public, institutional or financial support that itrequires.7

1.2European landscapes: the opportunityIn many regions in rural Europe large areas ofland are becoming abandoned. The current trendis towards city growth and intensification offarming and forestry in the most fertile areas.Extensive farming and pastoral livelihoods areno longer economically viable and many youngpeople are leaving the countryside, changingthe demographic make-up of many areas. Localeconomies are subsequently being depressed inmany rural regions.EU subsidies to farmers also mean that fields inmany regions are kept open for cutting hay, despitethe hay not being used and left to rot. Every yearabout one million hectares of land are left fallowwithin the EU (IEEP 2010). This is not only a disadvantageoussituation economically, but also leaveslarge areas depleted socially and ecologically.Thereby it is important to note that the protectedareas network in Europe (including Natura 2000and Emerald Network) is one of the most extensivein the world, which provides a huge opportunity forthe bison.There is therefore a space – ecological, socialand economic – for new initiatives to step in andcreate opportunities for conservation, restorationof land and re-building of local economies. Besidesthat, bison can profit from the growing network ofprotected areas in Europe, in particular the Natura2000 Network and the Emerald Network (EEA2013). Rewilding Europe has a particular interestin establishing rewilding areas across Europe andreintroducing regionally extinct species, using8

STAFFAN WIDSTRAND / REWILDING EUROPEEuropean bison as one of the flagship species withwhich to achieve this objective. The aim is to enableecosystems to recover and flourish once morewithout intensive management, and moreoverto use this initiative to create economic opportunitiesin rural areas through ecotourism and (other)related business developments. Rewilding Europerecognises that the key to long-term, sustainableland use in Europe is not only a vision that benefitswildlife but also one that supports people.Rewilding Europe is convinced that the Europeanbison can make a positive change for rural developmentin the remote corners of Europe experiencingland abandonment, and has chosen thebison as one of the flagship species for rewilding. Inthis rewilding plan we present:1. Relevant background on European bison,including its ecology and current conservationstatus.2. Rewilding Europe’s guiding principles on bisonconservation, encompassing current knowledgeon bison, bison management and social andeconomic factors affecting potential bison areas.3. Rewilding Europe’s strategy on bison conservationin Europe, including a detailed rewildingplan of immediate, mid-term and long-termactions to help improve the European bison’sconservation status, and to create viable andhealthy populations across Europe.Abandoned grazinglands in the Velebitmountains, Croatia9

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2. European bisonTaxonomy and past distribution2.1The European bison, Bison bonasus (Linnaeus 1758),belongs to the genus Bison, which first appeared inCentral Asia during the Late Pliocene-Early Pleistoceneand eventually spread across Eurasia andthe Bering Straits into North America (Verkaar etal. 2004). This genus includes the extant Americanbison, B. bison (Linnaeus 1758), and a number ofextinct species including ancestors of B. bonasus.Although much of the history of bison evolutionremains unclear, current evidence suggests thatthe longhorn steppe bison, B. priscus, appearedaround the Early Pleistocene and was widelydistributed throughout the temperate zones ofAsia and Europe (Benecke 2005), featuring heavilyin Late Pleistocene European cave art. There isalso some indication of a second species of bisonoutside Europe during the Late Pleistocene thatwas distinct from B. priscus and a sister taxa toB. bonasus but this research is still ongoing (Dr.Alan Cooper and Dr. Julien Soubrier, personalcommunication, 19 February 2014). Followingthe end of the ice age glaciation, the steppebison disappeared and was replaced in Europeby the more diminutive short-horned Europeanbison, B. bonasus. The ancestry of B. bonasus hasstill not been resolved; however, this ecologicaltransition from a larger, cold-adapted form ofbison to a smaller, temperate form is consistentwith Bergmann’s rule (Bergmann 1847). There areonly two extant species of bison, the Europeanand American bison. They share several morphologicalcharacteristics and can breed to producefertile offspring. Genetic research indicates a closeassociation between the two species (Verkaar et al.2004). However, on the basis of distinct morphotypesand disjunctive distributions they aregenerally treated as separate species (Pucek et al.2004).The earliest records of B. bonasus are from earlyHolocene sites in Northern-Central Europe andsouthern Scandinavia, and by the mid-Holocene itsmaximum range extended from France in the westto Belarus and Ukraine in Eastern Europe (Benecke2005). There is also zooarchaeological and historicalevidence of European bison across parts of centraland northern Russia to the Urals, and from sitesin the forest steppe of western Siberia (Kosintcev1999; Sipko 2009) and eastern Siberia (Boeskorov2006). Within the European bison, two well-knownsubspecies are recognised, B. bonasus bonasusand B. b. caucasicus, with the latter native to theCaucasus region (Mejlumian 1988) and possiblyranging into the Middle East (Uerpmann 1987),although its historical distribution in these areasrequires further research (Flint et al. 2002; Puceket al. 2004). A third, less-recognised subspecies isB. b. hungarorum (Perzanowski and Olech, personalcommunication, 2014).Pucek et al. (2004) provided a historical accountof the disappearance of European bison acrossEurope, with the species probably becomingextinct in western Europe first and then centraland eastern Europe. By the end of the 19 th century,only two wild populations remained, one in theBiałowieża forest in Poland, which was exterminatedin 1919, and the other in the Caucasus, whichbecame extinct in 1927.________Distribution ofEuropean bison(Bison bonasus)and the extinctPleistocene steppebison (Bison priscus)in the Pleistocene,1890, 1971 and 2011.Stars denote smallerextant populations.Please note thatonly free-livingpopulations areshown(Deinet et al. 2013)11

RUUD MAASKANT / ARK NATURE2.2 Ecology of the European bisonThe European bison is one of the largest terrestrialmammals in Europe; the weight of adultmales ranges from 530–840 kg in the wild (RafalKowalczyk, personal communication, 2014). Femalesare smaller, weighing 320–540 kg (Krasinska,2007, 2008; Stachurski 2003). They are sexuallydimorphic, with the bulls having heavier heads andbigger humps than cows. Both males and femaleshave horns and use them for fighting, although thebull’s horns are thicker and wider and set furtherapart.2.2.1 Social structure andreproductionFree-living bison are known to form larger herds inwinter when they are fed through feeding stationsand so congregate around this artificial foodsource. Groups of bison do not form family unitsand mixed groups are the basic units for a bisonpopulation, comprising cows, juvenile males andfemales aged two to three, calves and occasionallyadult bulls. The average group size is 20 individuals.These herds stay together until spring when thefirst grasses and herbs appear, usually towards theend of April. The large winter herds then split intosmaller ones of 12 animals on average, comprisingcows with their calves and subadult males andfemales. Adult males become either solitary (60%of males) or form small groups of two to three bullsand only during the rutting season from August toOctober do they join the larger groups. Such groupsgraze and browse all day long in the area of theirchoice, but do not appear to want to defend it. Thisis why such mixed groups frequently meet eachother and animals can transfer from one group toanother. The composition of the group is thus notfirmly defended. In the summer there is plenty ofnatural food, so the bison do not compete for food(Stachurski 2003).The size and structure of mixed groups arechangeable, some changes being seasonal (calving,joining of bulls in the rutting period), whileothers are behavioural. Groups meet frequently,combine and then quickly split, exchanging some12

individuals. Young bulls exchange most frequently(Krasinska et al. 1999). A cow is the leader of a mixedgroup, usually a female with a calf. It has not beenestablished whether leadership is permanent,although marked cows have been observed to beleaders up to the age of 20. However, since changesin the structure and size of groups are frequent, newarrangements in the hierarchy may occur (Krasinskaet al. 1999).According to the data from the Pedigree Book,European bison bulls living in captivity begin tomature sexually in the second year of life. Bisonliving in free-ranging populations and large reservesbegin to sexually mature slightly later at the age ofthree, although they do not participate in reproductionuntil the age of six to seven. The reproductiveperiod in males is short, usually lastingfrom six to 12 years of age. Ecological observationssuggest limited participation of old bulls in reproduction(Krasinska et al. 1999).Female bison usually become sexually mature inthe third year of their life, giving birth to the first calfin the fourth year, although this can vary. In general,females breed every second year and produce onlyone calf at a time. Females can breed until the endof their life; the limit in a free-ranging population isusually around 20 years of age although in captivitycows older than 20 years have been known to givebirth. A cow will have approximately nine calvesthroughout its breeding life.The rutting season in a free-ranging populationlasts from August to October. During the ruttingseason a larger number of solitary bulls areobserved due to the increased mobility of malessearching for rutting cows. The average time a malemight stay with a group is six days; one marked bullin the Bialowieza forest visited six groups duringone rutting season. The same study revealed thatduring the rutting period cows remained in thesame territory and did not move to search for bulls(Krasinksa et al. 1999).During the rut bulls become aggressive, especiallytowards younger adult bulls. They demonstratetheir strength by breaking young trees, pawingthe ground with their forefeet and wallowing.Although wallowing can be observed in animalsof both sexes throughout the year as a groomingbehaviour, in the rutting period it also forms partof the sexual behaviour of bulls. The bison choosesandy hills, gravel-pits, sandy roads, and roadsidesfor wallowing. When a female is in heat bulls mayengage in brief but intense fights. Often even theRUUD MAASKANT / ARK NATURE13

winner secludes himself from the herd and rests inisolation for a few hours. However, such fights areonly sporadically observed in free-ranging herds as‘lower ranking’ bulls will avoid the ‘higher ranking’bulls. Once a female displays mating behaviour, thebull begins to isolate the cow from the herd, withbonding occurring for two to three days.The gestation period of a cow lasts on average254–277 days and calves are usually born in Mayor June, although 20–30% of births have beenobserved as late as August-October (Krasinska etal. 1999). For the period of parturition the cowseparates from the rest of the herd and gives birthin a secluded place. Newborn calves usually weighbetween 25 and 30 kg. The cow instantly defendsthe calf against any danger and after a few days theyrejoin the herd. Calves will suckle for around a year,or longer if another calf is not born, although simultaneoussuckling of two calves has been observed.A young calf is closely bonded with its mother butthis bond seems to disappear in the second or thirdyear (Krasinska et al. 1999, Stachurski 2003, Puceket al. 2004).2.2.2 Diet and habitat useDue to uncertainty regarding the evolutionaryhistory of bison, it is not possible to reconstructits ancestral niche. However, there have beennumerous studies of its current habitat use anddietary preferences.European bison do not show strong food selectivityand as ruminants they can consume grassand fibrous food, similar to domestic cattle andAmerican bison. However their digestive systemrequires a regular food supply, which is reflectedin the activity cycle of European bison, as theyroam in search of food, with breaks for rest andrumination. The amount of fresh food consumedby European bison over 24 hours has been establishedexperimentally. Calves up to one year oldeat 8.5 kg of fresh food every day, two to three yearolds consume 19.5 to 28.5 kg and adults 23 to 32 kg(Krasinska et al. 1999). Other authors have reportedthat an adult bull consumes 30 to 60 kg of freshfood a day. In captivity an adult bison eats about 40kg of hay or silage per day (Etienne Brunelle, RainerGlunz and Fred Zenner, personal communication,2013).More than 200 different plant species are knownto be part of the European bison’s diet. Bison areso-called intermediate grazers, which means that asubstantial part of their diet (between 20 and 65%)consists of browse material; bark, branches, leavesand seeds such as acorns, with the proportionchanging depending on the season (Hofman-Kaminska 2012). For this reason they can surviveonly in an environment that guarantees abundantand varying food throughout the year.There are several limiting factors that areknown to determine a bison range which include:overly wet conditions; heat and lack of water; steepslopes; unfavourable grazing/browsing conditions;extended periods of snow cover/frost; and deepsnow. According to Heptner et al. (1966) the depth ofsnow cover determines the northern border of thespecies range and drives bison from the mountainsto the valleys during wintertime. In many parts ofthe bison’s historical distribution winter snow coverexceeded 50 cm, which could have hindered speciessurvival across parts of its range (Pucek et al. 2004).However, the effect of snow cover on bison is notalways clear, with some authors considering lowsnow cover (below 30 cm) in the first half of winteras an important factor for the survival of bison,whilst others argue that deep snow (up to 65–95cm) does not noticeably disturb them, as they areeffective at using their hooves and muzzles to movealong trails and dig out food (Flint et al. 2002).Research in Eastern Poland has found that bisonprefer deciduous and mixed/deciduous forests, withalderwoods and coniferous forests visited morerarely, although habitat use did vary seasonally(Krasinska and Krasinski 2007). Kuemmerle etal. (2011) modelled the Holocene distribution ofEuropean bison based on known zooarchaeologicaland historical records using a species distributionmodelling approach, the results of which suggestedthat European bison predominantly inhabitedbroad leaf and deciduous forest and that thespecies’ distribution may therefore have been largerthan direct faunal evidence suggested. However,this paper has been challenged on the grounds thatforest habitat possibly never constituted optimalhabitat for European bison, rather it was marginalhabitat away from human activity (Cromsigt et al.2012).2.2.3. Ecological nicheThe natural (mid- to late-Holocene) guild oflarge herbivores in Europe comprises Europeanbison; aurochs (Bos primigenius), now globallyextinct as a wild species; wild horse (Equus ferus),now globally extinct as a wild species; Eurasianelk (Alces alces), also known as moose; red deer(Cervus elaphus); roe deer (Capreolus capreolus);fallow deer (Dama dama); reindeer (Rangifertarandus); wild boar (Sus scrofa); muskox (Ovibosmoschatus); mouflon (Ovis orientalis); chamois(Rupicapra rupicapra); and ibex (Capra sp.). Whilsttheir Holocene geographical ranges have generally14

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een well established (Benecke 1999), theirrespective ecological niches and any overlap is stillunclear, particularly as many have been removedfrom European ecosystems for centuries or evenmillennia in some regions.However, recent ecological research has providedsome insight into inter-species competition.Solitary species such as elk and roe deer generallyavoid herd animals, although under predationpressure they have been known to seek protectionclose to herds of other large herbivores (WouterHelmer, personal communication, 2013). Ecologicalstudies have also suggested that in resource-richareas species will overlap, whereas in resource-poorareas species such as red deer and bison, as closeecological competitors, will demonstrate avoidancebehaviour (van de Vlasakker 2008). There arerecorded events of fighting between red deer andbison in the autumn during the rutting season(Catanoiu 2012), although these are rare. There mayalso be some resource competition between wildboar and bison during the autumn when acornsbecome readily available.Domestic cattle are used for grazingmanagement on many nature reserves acrossEurope, and it is often assumed that cattle and bisonare interchangeable in terms of their ecological role.However, although they are both generalist herbivores,their ecology does differ in several importantfeatures. Bison browse more than cattle and aremore selective in their forage choice (Heijn 2012),consuming more herbs, forbs, browse and bark. Astudy of a herd of bison in the Netherlands with noadditional feeding year-round showed four feedingpeaks (increased feeding activity) in contrast tocattle which have two (Leo Linnartz, personalcommunication, 2012). Bison can break throughvegetation and open up scrubland to reach theirfavoured food (Leo Linnartz, personal communication,2012), and also display a higher seasonalbehavioural variation than cattle, including rutting,migration and exploitation of seasonal variationin vegetation, which produces a higher degree ofspatial heterogeneity in the landscape. In terms ofhabitat, cattle seem to prefer open, wet environmentssuch as grasslands, whereas European bisontend to be found in open, dry areas (Heijn 2012). Therelative ecological impact of the presence of bothcattle and bison in the European landscape underno human management is unknown; however asEurope’s other large bovid, aurochs, was present inHolocene landscapes alongside European bison for16RUUD MAASKANT / ARK NATURE

GRZEGORZ LEŚNIEWSKI / WILD WONDERS OF EUROPEmany millennia, it is likely that they have distinctniches. Furthermore as domestic cattle rely onhumans they lack a role in the ecosystem as prey forpredators and scavengers.Recent accounts of predation on Europeanbison have generally been few and sporadic due tothe small numbers of large predators in areas suchas the Bialowieza forest. Following reintroductionof bison into the Polish Carpathians during the1960s, accounts of wolf (Canis lupus) and brownbear (Ursus arctos) eating bison began to appear,although it was not clear whether they had activelyhunted bison or were scavenging. There werereports in the Ukraine of four bison killed by bear,but due to the lack of evidence elsewhere for suchbehaviour, these incidents most likely involvedisolated, sick or injured bison (Cantanoiu 2012).Previous studies have shown that in areas withsufficient alternative prey, wolves will generallyavoid large herbivores, whereas in areas wherebison is the predominant herbivore, wolves canspecialise in hunting bison by forming largepacks, as is also known from North America e.g.Wood Buffalo National Park (Carbyn et al. 1993;van de Vlasakker 2008). Therefore, if wolf andbison numbers increase sufficiently, this couldbecome a possibility in Europe. In the Bialowiezaforest research showed that bison carcasses weremainly scavenged by ravens (Corvus corax), red fox(Vulpus vulpes), wolf and common buzzard (Buteobuteo) (Selva et al. 2003). Avian scavengers morefrequently visited bison carcasses placed in gladesthan those located in the forest (Selva et al. 2003;Catanoiu 2012), probably to avoid attacks fromother predators (e.g. goshawk (Accipiter gentilis),Eurasian eagle owl (Bubo bubo)).17

2.3Current conservation statusRecent globalpopulation estimatesfor free-ranging(un-fenced) Europeanbison (Bison bonasus)2.3.1 Global conservation assessmentThe IUCN Red List of Threatened Species currentlylists the European bison as Vulnerable. In additionto this, it distinguishes between the two geneticlines: the Lowland line (B. b. bonasus) and theLowland-Caucasian line (B. b. bonasus and B. b.caucasicus). The Lowland bison line is consideredVulnerable based on data from 2000, when thetotal population was 931 individuals. Although thepopulation declined between the early 1990s and2000, it is currently increasing. The Lowland-Caucasianline is considered Endangered based ondata from 2000, when the total population was714 individuals. The population decreased by 20%between 1990 and 2000, and has continued todecline since 2000.A population estimate from 2011, withadditional information from 2013, put thepopulation of free-ranging European bison at2,371 individuals. At the country level, strongholdsfor the species exist in Poland (36%), Belarus(34%) and Russia (17%), with smaller populationsin Ukraine (9%), Lithuania (2%), Romania (< 1%),Germany (< 1%), Slovakia (< 1%) and Latvia (< 1%)(Table 1).The current pedigree book (EBPB 2012) reportsthe global population of European bison as 4,987individuals. However, data on European bisonpopulations as of 31 December 2012 were publishedin 2014 and in accordance with data obtainedfrom personal communication with breeders thisnumber now stands at 5,046, with the numberof individuals living in captivity at 1,643 and thenumber of individuals from free and semi-freeherds at 3,403 (Magda Trzeciak, personal communication,2014).EstimatedpopulationYearassessedReferenceGlobal/Europe 3,230 2013 EBPB 2012; EBCC 2013, 2014Belarus (Lowland) 1,146 2013 EBPB 2012; EBCC 2013Germany (Lowland-Caucasian) 10 2013 Van de Vlasakker 2013Latvia (Lowland) 12 2013 EBPB 2012Lithuania (Lowland) 82 2013 EBPB 2012; EBCC 2013Poland (Lowland Caucasianin Bieszczady)1,138 2014 EBPB 2014; EBCC 2014Romania (Lowland-Caucasian) 21 2013 Deju 2013; EBPB 2012Russia (Lowland-Caucasian) 556 2013 EBPB 2012; EBCC 2013Slovakia (Lowland-Caucasian) 15 2013 EBPB 2012; EBCC 2013Ukraine (Lowland-Caucasian) 250 2013 EBPB 2012; EBCC 20132.3.2 Current threats to EuropeanbisonInsufficient habitatEuropean bison continue to lack the space requiredfor viable populations. Most conservation effortsare still focussing outside the species’ optimumrange and are mainly concentrated in forestedand mountainous habitats (see section 3.2). This islargely because across Europe, suitable habitat forEuropean bison generally coincides with regionsthat support high human populations, e.g. rivervalleys and lowland areas with productive soils.Small population sizeSmall population size is also a major threat to thelong-term viability of European bison populations.Most contain fewer than 50 individuals, despite thefact that the minimum viable population size hasbeen estimated at 1,000 individuals (Perzanowskiet al. 2004; Pucek et al. 2004). The species has lowgenetic diversity due to all modern populationsbeing descended from only 12 founder individuals(Olech and Perzanowski 2002; Pucek et al. 2004) andthe genetic contribution of the 12 founders is alsouneven, highly dominated by one pair. The mixingof both Lowland and Lowland-Caucasian lines ofEuropean bison has also locally led to the loss offounder genes specific to the Lowland-Caucasianline.DiseaseThe limited genetic heterogeneity, low numbers andlack of natural selection might all have contributedto the species’ weak resistance to diseases (Pucek2004, van de Vlasakker 2008). An important disease,balanoposthitis, affects the male reproductiveorgans and is manifested in the inflammation ofthe penis and prepuce. Despite years of study, itspathogenesis has not yet been clarified (Pucek et al.2004). Parasitic diseases remain a serious threat tothe present population. Bison that receive supplementaryfeeding show higher parasite infestationdue to concentration of bison and subsequentdefecation at fixed feeding locations, combinedwith more sedentary behaviour encouraged bysupplementary feeding (Radwan et al. 2010; Pyziel etal. 2011). Viral (foot and mouth disease) and bacterialdiseases (tuberculosis) can also be transferred fromdomestic cattle to bison, and it is these diseaseswhich are the most dangerous for the bison. Lownumbers of bison in combination with additionalstress factors such as climate change are also18

likely to increase chances of vulnerability to ‘alien’bovine diseases, as was visible with the bluetongueoutbreak a few years ago.Low acceptance of European bisonDue to agricultural crop and forestry damage causedby European bison (see section 3.6), the presence ofbison is not always fully accepted by local communities.For example, despite a compensationscheme, local concern over bison presence hasbeen documented in Poland (Hofman-Kaminska2012). If this occurs across Europe, this may make itmore difficult to gain acceptance for further bisonreintroduction projects, thus limiting the abilityto increase overall numbers of bison in order toimprove its conservation status.Hybridisation with cattleOver time, the release of bison has fuelled fears ofpossible hybridisation between European bisonand domestic cattle (Catanoiu 2012); a HumanDimension study in the Rothaargebirge in Germanyshowed that this was the number one fear of thelocal farmers (Decker 2006). Although there werefree-ranging European bison in Bialowieza until1919, and historical accounts from 1780 mentionthe constant presence of a great number of cattle(7,000–10,000), there were no reports of breedingbetween bison and cattle. In Lithuania, bisonrange overlaps with agricultural land, yet despitenumerous complaints about the presence of bisonmales around domestic cattle, there was only onerecord of them mating (Linas Balčiauskas, personalcommunication, 2004). A hybridisation attemptbetween the two species was carried out duringthe Communist era, in order to develop hybridsthat could resist harsh environmental conditionsand provide more meat. Both domestic bulls bredwith bison females and bison bulls with domesticfemales in enclosures, but due to lack of interestor active aggression only 14% of attempts wererecorded as mating. Approximately 30% of theseresulted in miscarriages and calving had to beassisted to a degree that offspring would not havesurvived in the wild. Therefore hybridisation in thewild between the two species is a low to non-existentthreat (Krasinska 2008).2.3.3 European conservationinitiatives relating to EuropeanbisonIn Europe, the bison is included in Appendix III(Protected Fauna Species) of the Bern Conventionon the Conservation of European Wildlife andNatural Habitats (Council of Europe 1979). TheEuropean bison is also included in Appendix II andIV of the Habitat Directive of the European Unionas a priority species. ‘The Status Survey and ConservationAction Plan: European Bison’ created by theIUCN/SSC Bison Specialist Group (Pucek et al. 2004)contains an overview of European bison conservationand sets the main direction for its conservationand management. It has been adopted by theBern Convention/Council of Europe and thereforeshould be guiding and binding for member states.However, national governments have not taken onthe responsibility and have failed to either createnational bison rewilding plans and/or implementa national strategy for bison conservation, withthe exception of Russia, Poland and Romania. Eventhough the bison is a habitat directive priorityspecies, nature reserve managers often do notengage with the rewilding/reintroducing of native,extinct species such as the European bison initiatives,for apparent fear of losing other habitatdirective target species.19

2.4European bison conservation2.4.1 The European Bison Pedigree BookThe idea of restoring the European bison usingcaptive animals was publicly presented for thefirst time by Polish zoologist J. Sztolcman at the1st International Congress of Nature Protectionin Paris, 1923. In that same year, the InternationalSociety for the Protection of the European Bison(Internationale Gesellschaft zur Erhaltung desWisents) was founded in Frankfurt am Main. Thestatute of the Society included the maintenanceof the European bison by planned breeding anddistribution, followed by introductions to largeforest complexes (Pucek et al. 2004).A particular accomplishment of the societywas the maintenance of the species’ geneticpurity, especially in the early period when therewere numerous hybrids with American bison andcattle produced in various zoos. For this purpose, astudbook was created, the European Bison PedigreeBook (EBPB). The first register of all European bisonliving in the world (at first also their hybrids) waspublished in Germany. With great effort by thefirst editors of the EBPB, all crossbred animalswere eliminated from breeding with pure-bloodEuropean bison. After World War II, the EBPB wasedited in Poland, under the auspices of the StateCouncil of Nature Protection. Since 1993 BialowiezaNational Park, Poland, has published the EBPB(Pucek et al. 2004). It remains an important sourceof data on the numbers of European bison indifferent locations (Pucek et al. 2004).After World War I European bison only survivedin a few European zoological gardens. In 1924 therewere only 54 European bison (29 males, 25 females)originating from 23 founders. However, 11 of thesedid not have pure progenies and so were excludedfrom the pedigree book. The number of foundersof the current population is therefore 12 (WandaOlech, personal communication, 2014). Eleven ofthe 12 founder animals (all B. b. bonasus) originatedsolely from the Bialowieza Primeval Forest, from20

Caption????????????????????????????STEFANO UNTERTHINER / WILD WONDERS OF EUROPEthe Berlin and Budapest zoos and Pszczyna. Onebull of B. b. caucasicus, born in 1907 in the CaucasusMountains, was brought to Germany in 1908.Two genetic lines have been distinguished inrecent populations of the species:• The Lowland line (LB) originates from onlyseven founders (four males; three females)and includes pure animals of B. b. bonasussubspecies.• The Lowland-Caucasian line (LC), (B. b. bonasus xB. b. caucasicus) originates from all 12 founders(five males; seven females), including the bull ofthe Caucasian subspecies.Data sources for the EBPB indicate that the worldpopulation of European bison is highly inbred. Asfound during the 1980s, the average inbreedingcoefficient for live animals in the world populationwas equal to 20.2%. The average inbreeding coefficientfor live animals with full pedigree in the late1990s was equal to 43.98% for the Lowland line,and was much smaller and equal to 26.28% for theLowland Caucasian line (Olech 1998, Pucek et al.2004). Therefore it appears that genetic variationin the European bison has been severely reducedby the historical population bottleneck.In addition to the free-ranging populationsof European bison, there are around 1,200individuals managed in captivity (around 30%of the total global population), which play akey role in maintaining genetic diversity in thespecies.More than 200 breeding centres exist in Europeand about 60 of those participate in the EuropeanEndangered Species Programme (EEP) under theEAZA (European Aquarium and Zoo Association)umbrella. The larger bison breeding centres areunited under the European Bison ConservationCenter (EBCC), which has a coordinating role inbison breeding.2.4.2 reintroductions: the story so farDuring the process of European bison restitution,two periods can be distinguished. Thefirst, lasting until 1952, involved the intensivebreeding of European bison in zoos, wildlife parksand specially created bison breeding centres. Asecond period commenced with the creation offree-living herds.The first reintroduction of European bison to21

forest ecosystems started in Bialowieza Forest (1 onthe map) in 1952. From about 1960, a reproducingpopulation was established (Krasinski 1983).Similar attempts were also made in the Belarusianpart of Bialowieza Forest (Korochkina and Kochko1983) (2). During the following period, free-rangingherds were formed in Poland, Lithuania, Belarus,Ukraine and Russia. There were further initiativesto create free-ranging herds but these wereunsuccessful, mainly due to the lack of protection,resulting in poaching and the extinction of herdsin the Caucasus (Russia, Azerbaijan). Nearly allfree-ranging bison are distributed within theeastern part of the historical range of the species.As a result of reintroductions, the Lowland line (LB)bison now generally occupy the northern part ofthis range, whereas the Lowland-Caucasian (LC)animals occupy the southern and eastern part.The following section briefly summarisessome of the key bison reintroductions acrossEurope so far, following a chronological order asmuch as possible. As many new initiatives havetaken place, it is not possible to include them all,therefore only projects with introductions in areasover 100 ha and with a strong conservation themeare discussed, with smaller projects only brieflysummarised to highlight some ‘lessons learned’.PolandReintroduction began in the Bieszczady Mountains(part of the Carpathian Mountain range) (3) in 1963,in a wooded region near the border with Ukraine.Between 1963-1964 eleven males and eight femalesof the LC line were brought from the Niepolomiceand Pszczyna Reserves and new releases occurredin 1971 (80 animals), 1975 (four males, eight females)and 1976 (one male, five females). These animalslocated in the Stuposiany forest district are knownas the ‘Eastern herd’ (Perzanowski and Marszalek2012). In 1974, a group of five animals (one male,four females) from Pszczyna were brought intoan enclosure in the release area of Komancza.The group was supplemented with another 10individuals (five males, five females) from Pszczynaand in 1980 all 15 individuals were released into thewild. This group is known as the ‘Western herd’.The ‘Eastern herd’ was divided into smallergroups that migrated north and the ‘Westernherd’ generally remained a single herd. As all thereleased bison came from Polish breeding centres,it was decided to supplement the herds with newindividuals to compensate for underrepresentedfounders. With the help of genetics expert WandaOlech, several animals from Western Europeanzoos/bison breeding centres (Sweden, Denmark,Czech Republic, Ireland and Germany) were selectedand added to the population from 2003. Growth ofthe Biesczcady population has been positive with 97individuals recorded in 1990, 271 in 2007 and 304 in2010. Although it declined to 256 in 2012/2013 as aresult of TB, it increased again to 270 by 2013/2014(Perzanowski and Marszalek 2012).Several other initiatives have taken place inPoland. The European bison initiative in WestPomerania (4) has the potential to grow to a newmetapopulation. In 1980 eight European bisonwere brought to the Forest District of Walcz fromBialowieza National Park. From 1980 to 2005the population reached a total of 24 individuals,although in the 1990s there were reports of morethan 30 individuals. During this period there wereno protective measures with regards to the bison.Since 2005 the herd has been supplemented withunrelated animals to support the population’s genepool, they have been fed over winter and telemetrymonitoring has been carried out. As a result, thesize of the population began growing rapidly andin just eight years tripled in size. The populationnow comprises 132 individuals. It is known as theMiroslawiec herd and inhabits approximately 15,000ha of field-forest area in the counties of Miroslawiec,T`uczno, Walcz and Wierzchowo Pomorskie.A second herd, the Drawsko Herd (5), was alsocreated in 2008 by the West Pomeranian NaturalSociety and has increased from an initial 16individuals to 54 today. The herd inhabits approximately8,000 hectares in the Forest district ofDrawsko, which is the largest military trainingzone within Poland.The West Pomeranian herds are in excellentcondition and rapidly increasing and, as such,several tourist activities based on watching themin the wild have been established.There are also two further populations inPoland comprising nearly 100 individuals eachand there are additional plans for a reintroductionin Augustowska forest (Wanda Olech, personalcommunication, 2014.)UkraineThe first bison reintroduction was in 1965 inMaydan Forestry, Skolyvski Beskyd mountains(6) (Perzanowski, personal communication, 2014),followed by a reintroduction in the Bukovynska area(7), near Cernauti, in 1970. Belarusian and Russianbreeding centres initially supplied a total of 19 (eightmales, eleven females) individuals and then anotherfour (one male, three females) individuals in 1977.Herds increased in the early 1990s until the endof the Communist era, after which a sharp declineoccurred due to poaching and a lack of management.The population has been in decline for the past 15years due to lack of sufficient protection. In 1994 thewild bison population numbered 656 individuals,22

STAFFAN WIDSTRAND / REWILDING EUROPEKey lessons learnedRomaniaSince the spring of 2012, five animals have beenreleased into Vanatori Neamt Nature Park (15), amajor achievement for the conservation efforts ofthis species in Romania. The reintroduction wascarefully prepared, with the establishment of aninformation centre and a broad educational projectfor the local communities. Bison were selectedthroughout Europe and kept in a fenced acclimatisation/breedingarea for the first few years. Fromthere the animals were released into an isolatedforested area of around 5,000 ha, with deciduousand mixed forests and an altitude of between800 and 1,000 m, with low human presence. Thereleased animals were monitored using radiotelemetryand initial conclusions indicated thatthe selected area was suitable for a free-rangingpopulation. In March 2013 a second group of fiveanimals was released in the same area and alsoappeared to adapt well to their new home range.The two groups joined and two calves were born,increasing the total to 12 animals in the wild in 2013(Razvan Deju, personal communication, 2013).• A big effort is needed to bring European bisonout of the danger zone.• More releases of bison are needed in areaswhere they can build up viable populations.• Bison can potentially thrive in open landscapesas well as forested areas.• Pre-release infrastructure must be secure.• Protection of bison and anti-poaching initiativesare vital for the long-term success of bisonreintroductions.• Herds need to be carefully managed in the earlystages to promote survival and populationgrowth.• Relationships with local/national governmentsneed to be established early on in order to gainsupport.• Stakeholders e.g. landowners, forestry,government, should be brought together forconsultation during the planning process.• Local people need to be consulted and includedfrom the outset in the planning process.• Human-bison conflict must be acknowledgedand tackled early on.17 bison were releasedin the SouthernCarpathians, Romaniain May 2014. Withmillions of hectaresof land available forthe animals plusstrong support fromthe local communityand authorities, theTarcu mountains herdcan potentially growinto the largest wildbison population inEurope. RewildingEurope will continueto release animalsthere annually, withthe aim to grow thepopulation to morethan 500 animals by2024.25

26STAFFAN WIDSTRAND / REWILDING EUROPE

3. Rewilding Europe’s guiding principlesfor bison conservationThe three pillars of Rewilding Europe’s initiativeare rewilding, communication and business developmentbased on wild values. Based on these,and taking best available knowledge on Europeanbison and lessons learned from bison conservationelsewhere into account, Rewilding Europe hasdeveloped guiding principles underpinning thisBison Rewilding Plan.Genetic management3.1Current bison conservation is still focused on theseparation of the two genetic lines (LB and LC) tostrengthen genetics both in captivity and (semi-)wild populations. Due to the strict separationof the two lines, surplus bison cannot always berelocated and are regularly culled, despite overalllow numbers in the wild. European bison remainrelatively highly inbred.The IUCN Bison Specialist Group favours theseparation of the two genetic lines, especially forthe LC line (the only line containing the genesof the male B. b. caucasicus and the other elevenfounders). The genetic contribution of the B. b.caucasicus male and of the four females (whichwere originally LC) is decreasing due to theinfluence of individuals of the LB line, while thecontribution of the seven common founders toboth lines is increasing (Olech 2008).If the total number of individuals of each lineis approximately 2,722 for the LB line and 2,373 forthe LC line, the situation is completely reversedin the case of the numbers in captivity (527 for LBand 1,115 for LC) and in (semi-) freedom (2,195 for LBand 1,258 for LC) (Olech, personal communication,2014; EBCC 2014). The LC line has a greater geneticvariability than the LB line and the genetic pool ofthe LC populations in captivity is better than thatof the free populations. Therefore the importanceof reintroduction using captive individuals fromthe LC line in order to maintain genetic variabilityof the entire species is of great importance.Bison genetics expert Wanda Olech considers thatif the free population of the LC line has grown to3,000 individuals or more and the LB line to 3,000individuals or more, this would ensure the sustainabilityof the species.In consultation with Wanda Olech it wasdecided that exceptions may be made for isolatedherds where connections with other herds are notforeseen e.g. in Croatia. In these instances, reintroductionsmay start with LB animals but then besupplemented with animals from the same line.However in case this is not possible, isolated herdscan be supplemented using animals from any oneline in order to avoid any culling of young animalssurplus to the breeder. For those projects where ithas been decided to establish a population of theLB line, free-living animals from the Bialowiezaforest will be preferred due to the optimal geneticstatus of this population within the LB line, itslarge size and the active culling as a managementaction in this region.Guiding principles:• Given the small number of LC bison in thewild, Rewilding Europe will focus theirreintroductions primarily on the LC line inaccordance with the proposed distributionof the lines by the EBCC (North Europe LBline, Carpathians LC line).• However, decisions on the use of differentgenetic lines may need to be made ona case-by-case basis, depending on thereintroduction context.• Support adding surplus animals withinthe same line in existing populations forgenetic refreshing.27

3.2The reference:historic distribution or suitable habitat?There is some debate concerning the Holocenedistribution of the European bison due to theincomplete reconstruction of its Holocene rangein the western Palaearctic. There is no evidenceyet for either B. bonasus having inhabited WesternEurope into the Iberian Peninsula or southernEurope into the Italian Peninsula. There is alsono direct evidence for its distribution in mostof the Balkan Peninsula, although the fact that itinhabited Eastern Europe and areas further southand east into the Caucasus makes it more likelythat it could have been present in this region.However, bones of European bison are notoriouslydifficult to distinguish from those of Europe’sother large bovid, the aurochs, making it possiblethat remains of European bison could have beenmisidentified as those of aurochs in some regions(Benecke 2005). Aurochs appeared to be morewidely distributed than European bison, with boneevidence found in the Iberian, Italian and Balkanpeninsulas and also further north in Britain (VanVuure 2005). Therefore it may be worth re-examiningthe zooarchaeological record of proposedreintroduction areas that lack past evidence forbison. Although very well preserved and completeremains are needed to morphologically distinguishthe two species, genetic analysis could beused to determine species status.There has also been a vigorous debate in theliterature around whether the European bisonwas a forest-adapted species or whether its forestdistribution represented marginal habitat dueto avoidance of areas of high human activity.Kuemmerle et al. (2011) took a species distributionmodelling approach to reconstruct the past distributionof European bison. Based on known occurrencepoints and associated habitat, they usedcomputer modelling to make predictions aboutother areas of suitable habitat that the speciescould have potentially inhabited and areas where itmight have been extirpated from. They concludedthat bison thrived in broadleaved and coniferousforests and that it might have had a more northerlyand easterly distribution than previously reported.However, Cromsigt et al. (2012) disagreed withtheir interpretation of the results and argued thatforest never constituted optimal bison habitat. Theyquoted recent studies regarding the European bison’sevolutionary background (Shapiro et al. 2004), dentalmorphology (Mendoz and Palmqvist 2008) and dietand microhabitat selection (Kerley et al. 2012) thatall suggested that it is a species of open or half-openhabitats, and that purely forested areas representedmarginal habitat. Given the current absence ofclear evidence for the ancestral niche of B. bonasus,it might be reasonable to assume a wider inter-28

JOZEF FIALApretation of its potential optimal habitat than thecurrent approach, which focuses almost exclusivelyon forest habitat. This discussion must also take intoaccount the on-going scientific debate regarding thestate of the primeval landscape of lowland Europe,and whether this comprised closed canopy forestversus more open park-like landscapes (Vera 1997and Sandom et al. 2014), and the role bison and otherlarge herbivores play in shaping the landscape.Furthermore, there is a danger that conservationmanagers actively confine the bison tosuboptimal habitat (Cromsigt et al. 2012). Optimalhabitat for establishing meta-populations of bisonhas so far focused on mountainous areas of easternand central Europe, in particular the Carpathians.However, this type of mountainous forest habitatcould in fact represent marginal habitat that isonly appropriate for bison due to associated lowhuman densities in these areas and therefore lowpotential for human-wildlife conflict.There is no long-term experience of releasingbison into semi-open habitats in unfenced conditions.Therefore large-scale, potentially experimental(re)introductions in diverse habitats andunder different climate conditions throughout itsnatural range are essential, not only for conservationpurposes but also to gain a better understandingof the ecology of the species. Abandonedopen habitat such as fields, pastures, meadows and(former) military areas may become importantfor European bison in such areas, because theyprovide more and better quality forage than theforest herb layer (Pucek et al. 2004).Whilst we appreciate the scientific basis onwhich current management is based, due to thehigh degree of uncertainty that remains aroundbison management, Rewilding Europe advocatesa hands-on conservation and a ‘learning bydoing’ approach. We will then disseminate lessonslearned from experimental reintroductions backinto the scientific community to inform futurereintroductions and conservation efforts.Guiding principles:• Rewilding Europe will strive to work torestore bison not only in forested regions,but will also consider reintroducingthem into areas of more open forests andsemi-open habitats with abundant grassand herb vegetations.• Rewilding Europe will work to link differentecosystems across eastern and westernEurope, for example the mountainousCarpathians and the surrounding rivervalleys.• Rewilding Europe will interpret theEuropean bison range in relation to itsecological requirements and futureclimate change, rather than solely as itshistorical Holocene distribution.• Rewilding Europe will use and apply theGuidelines for Reintroductions and OtherConservation Translocations (IUNCN 2012)for bison reintroductions and re-stockings.29

3.3European bison as a keystoneand umbrella speciesA two-part definition of keystone species adaptedfrom R. Paine’s (1969) original work is often usedas a standard. The first part of this definition isthat the presence of keystone species ‘is crucialin maintaining the organization and diversity oftheir ecological communities’ (Mills et al. 1993).The second part of Paine’s standard keystonespecies definition deals with the relative importanceof the species. According to Mills et al. (1993),a keystone species must be ‘exceptional, relative tothe rest of the community, in their importance’.As the bison has been extinct for many decadesin Europe and now exists at reduced densities inoften managed populations, it is very difficultto infer the potential impact of bison on widercommunities of flora and fauna and thus defineit as a ‘keystone species’. However, several lines ofevidence do suggest that the species would have avital ecosystem-level function.Large herbivores are widely recognised tostrongly influence soil processes and the structureand diversity of plant communities. They canaffect vegetation directly by grazing or indirectlyby changing the turnover rates of nutrients. Herbivoresplay a key role in nitrogen turnover; theyrecycle nitrogen by eating plants and redistributingit through faeces and urine (Hobbs 1996),thus increasing the patchiness of nitrogen availability,plant distribution and growth. It has beenargued that plant species diversity has declineddue to an increase in fires following removal ofgrazing and so one of the goals of reintroducingbison to northern Spain, for example, is to preventfires and increase biodiversity (Fernando Moran,personal communication, 2010).On death, a large herbivore carcass also releasesa local and highly concentrated pulse of nutrientsinto the soil (Melis et al. 2007). Thus a EuropeanRUUD MAASKANT / ARK NATUREThe European Wildlife BankRewilding Europe founded a ‘wildlife bank’ to stimulate thebreeding of well adapted bison for rewilding projects. It is a toolfor Rewilding Europe to provide rewilding areas and initiativeswith bison and other large herbivores, by making so-calledcontracts with third parties, mostly land managers and owners inthe rewilding areas. On the expiration of the contract, individualanimals will be returned to the bank, where they may be usedfor a new contract. If animals are released fully into the wild (theultimate goal) they will not be returned to the bank. This will allowfor some control over herds and maintain a high quality/standardof bison reintroductions. Investors (partners) in the EuropeanWildlife Bank can expect a return on their investment based onthe animals’ reproduction rate. In Rewilding Europe areas wherebison cannot (yet) be released, the (semi-wild) enclosure facilitieswill provide breeding opportunities, as these ‘surplus’ animals willbe put in the wildlife bank. As these bison would be accustomedto living in semi-wild conditions they would be suitable forestablishing founder groups for other reintroductions.30

ison carcass, with its large body mass, couldpotentially provide a significant source of nutrientenrichment, which influences the heterogeneityand diversity of plant communities. Carcasses arealso an important source of food for many species.A recent study identified more than 596 species ofinvertebrates and mammals that visited carcassesin Europe (Poelarends et al. 2012). Scavenging onbison carcasses has also been witnessed (Selvaet al. 2003; Catanoiu 2012) and so could providean important food source in the ecosystem, forexample in countries such as Spain, Bulgaria andthe Balkans where vultures depend entirely oncarrion but are at risk of extinction due to EUrules that prohibit abandoning domestic animalcarcasses. The restoration of European bison inthese regions would therefore be of significantecological benefit.Finally, Rewilding Europe also considersEuropean bison to be an umbrella species, as byprotecting the European bison and the large areasof habitat that it requires, many other plant andanimal species would benefit. Around 50% of theplants consumed by the bison rely on animalslike the bison for seed dispersal (Jaroszewicz &Piroznikow 2008)As a large, charismatic mammal it also has thepotential to be an iconic species both for natureconservation as well as for regional/rural development.The European bison could represent therestoration of a natural ecosystem or the establishmentof a protected area. It could be a strongsymbol not only for nature conservation projectsbut also for a region, local businesses or specificproducts/brands.Guiding principles:• The bison plays a vital role in severalEuropean ecosystems and is thereforeone of the main conservation prioritiesin a number of rewilding areas whereRewilding Europe is working.• The European bison should be used as asymbol for promoting wider ecologicalrestoration of European landscapes.Bartosz Pirga, wildlife biologist at Bieszczady NationalPark, Poland, taking a faeces sample from Europeanbison for DNA and parasitic analysisFLORIAN MÖLLERS / WILD WONDERS OF EUROPE

STAFFAN WIDSTRAND / REWILDING EUROPEbased tourism makes a much higher contribution.Carcasses of bison that died from natural causesand were left in the wild would make a morepositive contribution to the overall ecosystem,feeding other species in the area, a particularlyimportant source of food throughout winterand early spring. Furthermore natural selectionis preferred above human selection in order tostrengthen the genetic basis of the population.Bison culled in 2004-2013 in theBialowieza Forest (PL):2004 36 (19 males, 17 females)2005 38 (15, 23)2006 30 (16, 14)2007 28 (11, 17)2008 23 (12, 11)2009 30 (20, 10)2010 18 (13, 5)2011 18 (10, 8)2012 20 (13, 7)2013 21 (14, 7)Total: 262 (143, 119)Guiding principles:• For Rewilding Europe it is vital to createconservation partnerships with otherorganisations involved in the managementof bison reintroductions in order to ensurea coordinated approach.• Rewilding Europe advocates an approachwhereby wild bison populations are allowedto grow to natural densities with minimalhuman management where possible; thusestablishing wild human-independent andself-regulating populations. Stimulatinghigh numbers of bison through settingtargets for annual growth rates in each ofthe rewilding areas (a minimum of five) isa crucial strategy to safeguard the species.• Rewilding Europe believes that culling isan unacceptable part of current Europeanbison management and it will not formpart of our approach. Instead a strong effortis needed to identify and prepare areaswhere these bison can be used for buildingnew or additional wild populations.33

FLORIAN MÖLLERS / WILD WONDERS OF EUROPE3.5Research and trainingResearchersAleksandraWoloszyn-Galeza andMaciej Januszczakfrom the CarpathianWildlife ResearchStation displayingripe apples, afavourite food sourcefor bison in autumnThe bison is a very well-researched animal; however,many of these studies have been carried out incommercial forests or on managed populationsthat are supplementary fed e.g. in the Bialowiezaforest in Poland. The ecology of the species istherefore still not fully understood. The numbers ofreviewed scientific publications is growing rapidly,yet only 20% of these papers are relevant to theconservation of European bison (Kerley and Knight2010). Rewilding Europe understands the importanceof cooperation with scientific institutes anduniversities and would like to offer the opportunityfor students to research European bisonecology in rewilding areas. As Rewilding Europewill reintroduce bison both inside and outside itsfamiliar forest habitats and in different ecoregionswithin its natural range, monitoring and researchare essential to guide Rewilding Europe bisonconservation activities. It will also help RewildingEurope’s bison projects serve as pilot projects forother bison reintroduction initiatives.It is also important to have a clear understandingof health risks that threaten the species,as well as of the potential risk of spreading diseasesto domestic livestock and vice versa. On-goingresearch is therefore needed concerning diseasesincluding parasites that affect European bison.Guiding principles:• Wildlife management strategies, includingreintroductions of bison, should be accompaniedwith sound science, research andadaptive management.• Rewilding Europe will work with the scientificcommunity in Europe – throughpartnerships with local scientific institutionsand universities – to study andmonitor the population dynamics of bisonpopulations and support scientific publicationsthereof.34

Human-bison conflict3.6Current-day conflict between bison and humansgenerally relates to crop and forestry damage.Agricultural crop damage in Lithuania, where aherd of 61 bison live in a highly anthropogeniclandscape, is indicated to be around severalthousand euros annually (Linas Balčiauskas,personal communication, 2011). A recent studyanalysed depredation of farm crops by bison andother factors influencing the level of damagein the vicinity of two forest areas inhabited bybison in Bialowieza Forest and Knyszyn Forest(Hofman-Kaminska and Kowalczyk 2012). Themajority of the crops damaged by bison werecereals (61%) in addition to hay (20%) and rape(13%). When compared to the availability ofcrops, bison strongly selected rape and rye inboth regions (Hofman-Kaminska and Kowalczyk2012). Between 2000 and 2010, the total compensationwas €196,200. In 2011, 2012 and 2013 theyearly compensation was around €100,000 (RafalKowalczyk, personal communication, 2014). Thelevel of damage and amount of compensationincreased from year to year in both forests andwas correlated with the number of bison. Themajority of damage (57% of cases) was recordedin winter (December-March) but snow depth andtemperature did not influence the frequencyof damage. Incidences of damage were highestclosest to woodland patches, with 69% of casesin Bialowieza Forest and 80% in Knyszyn Forestrecorded closer than 0.5 km from the nearestwoodland patch. Bison usually rest and ruminatein forested areas and select more dense standswith low visibility (Schneider et al. 2013). Bisontherefore appear to prefer more diverse habitats,preferably using a mixture of open and forestedareas. This should be taken into account whendeveloping conservation management plans forEuropean bison.North-eastern Poland, which is inhabited bythree bison populations (over 700 individualsin total), constitutes the core of the global bisonpopulation. Although the amount of compensationpaid to farmers for bison damage in thisarea is increasing from year to year, in 2010 it costaround €90,000 out of an overall €13.7 million paidfor crop damage by wild ungulates (mainly wildboar and red deer). Part of the reason for humanbisonconflict was Poland’s accession to theEuropean Union, after which associated agriculturalsubsidies caused intensification of farmlandactivities in previously abandoned or less intensivelyutilised fields and meadows adjacent tothose occupied by bison (Hofman-Kaminska andKowalczyk 2012).In order to reduce damage to tree stands andfarm crops, and to reduce migration out of theforest, bison in Bialowieza forest are regularlyfed with hay and silage at several winter-feedingsites within the forest. However, 15-20% of bisonstill spend the winter outside of the forest inthe neighbouring agricultural areas (Hofman-Kaminska and Kowalczyk 2012). In Knyszyn Forest,supplementary feeding is limited and bison onlyoccasionally utilise one winter feeding site createdin the forest. In late autumn, 90-100% of bisonmigrate out of the forest and utilise agriculturalareas until spring, only occasionally returning tothe forest (Krasinska and Krasinski 2007). Exactdata on European bison damage to forestry arenot available, although damage is usually concentratedaround feeding places and considered lowacross forests as a whole (Hofman-Kaminska andKowalczyk 2012).With an increasing and expanding Europeanpopulation, instances of human-wildlife conflictare likely to increase and therefore carefulmanagement decisions must be taken, based onan understanding of the source of the conflict.Protective measures, such as electric wiresaround vulnerable crops, could be part of thisstrategy.Guiding principles:• The mix of open and forest habitat in bisonrelease areas should be carefully plannedin a way to reduce human-bison conflicte.g. providing open areas that are notlocated near agricultural areas.• If mitigation measures have been sufficientlyapplied and conflict still happens,compensation may be needed to mitigateor eliminate human-bison conflict.• A robust insurance scheme is preferredover a compensation scheme.35

3.7 Bison conservation as a socio-economic tool3.7.1 New local economiesBison rangers,recruited among thelocal community, aretrained in ecology,bison managementand guiding touristsRewilding Europe aims to help create new jobs,income and business for the people who live inrewilding areas. Helping to establish strong andinnovative nature-based (including bison-based)businesses across rewilding areas is therefore acore tenet of the initiative.Economic development is often seen as athreat to nature, but if designed in a responsibleway, it could offer new finance mechanisms fornature conservation. Rewilding Europe seeks tohelp develop a bold new economy based on usingwildlife, wilderness and wild lands in new, creativeways, in which the European bison will play acrucial role. Rewilding Europe wants to explorerapidly evolving new markets such as nature-basedtourism, which is growing at three times the rate ofconventional tourism. For example, whilst farmingin the Bialowieza Forest has nearly collapsed asan economic activity, eco-tourism is flourishing,with visitor numbers rising year on year, currentlyaround 140,000 visitors, which is contributingmillions of euros to the local economy.Bison reintroductions could also create work andjobs directly. Within the European bison projectsof Rewilding Europe for example, local farmers willproduce hay for the bison during their pre-releasein the acclimatisation zone. Local tour operatorscould offer bison safaris and bison rangers could berecruited among local people. Local people couldalso be offered opportunities to run visitor-orientedbusinesses, including selling local productsand guiding visitors. Rewilding Europe recognisesthat many wildlife and wilderness entrepreneursin the rewilding areas will need investment andfinance to grow and sustain their businesses.Rewilding Europe has therefore developed aninvestment fund (Rewilding Europe Capital) thatallows for cheap loans and small grants for entrepreneursthat are willing to invest in rewildingenterprises across Europe’s rewilding areas.36STAFFAN WIDSTRAND / REWILDING EUROPE

JOEP VAN DE VLASAKKERHowever, not all people in the community canprofit from the bison through ecotourism andin some regions the opportunities and/or infrastructureare not sufficient to develop eco-tourism.Although hunting is an integral part of societyin many regions, Rewilding Europe does notrecommend hunting of bison as a game species,for a number of reasons. First of all, the number ofbison does not, in our view, allow for hunting of thespecies at this stage, where it is still considered asVulnerable by the IUCN Red List. Rewilding Europeprefers to use all available bison for building viablepopulations in Europe, and increasing the distributionrange of the species. At a certain point,which is far beyond the scope of this RewildingPlan, when the European bison may be down-listedto a lower extinction risk, and has thus entered asafer and more favourable conservation status,bison hunting could be considered under strictregulations, e.g. only the culling of older bulls thatno longer contribute towards reproduction. Meatcould then be sold locally or left for scavenging.Rewilding Europe will only support bisonhunting if it is needed from a human-bison conflict/acceptance point of view. The EBCC accepts controlledculling as a conservation method. Rewilding Europedoes see culling of older animals as a zootechnicalaction and does not see an ecological need toeliminate old animals as they have the same right tolive in the rewilding areas as younger ones.A very important negative effect of hunting is thatit changes bison behaviour, altering the spatial distributionof the species, and strongly reducing theirvisibility for wildlife-watching tourists. Radio collaringwill help bison rangers to track individuals and protectbison against poaching and illegal hunting.Guiding principles:• Local people must benefit from bison conservationon the basis that if bison provideeconomic benefits, there should be moresupport for reintroducing them to the wild.• Local people should receive training inorder to be able to take part in monitoringand guided tours of bison.• Rewilding Europe does not regard hunting ofbison as opportune at this stage. Focus shouldbe on improving the conservation status ofthe species through setting targets in growthrates and population size, as well as increasingits distribution range by establishing viablepopulations in different parts of Europe.The Tarcu mountainsare one of the mostscenic locationsin Europe to viewbison in their naturalsurroundings, withthe potential to growinto a major touristattraction to supportthe local, ruraleconomy37

3.7.2 Visitor managementOffering people the opportunity to viewfree-ranging European bison should be an integralpart of the rewilding project. Depending on thelocal circumstances, the acclimatisation zoneand semi-wild reserve (re-wilding enclosure/zone) 1 could function as a visitor attraction, whereguided tours could be developed, creating jobs andgenerating a direct income from the bison for localpeople. Due to the flight behaviour of bison and inorder to avoid stress, visits to the acclimatisationzone and rewilding zone must be managed andcontrolled (e.g. safe distances of 50 m will be keptat all times) 2 . As long as infrastructure is appropriatelymanaged, visitors could experience truewilderness. Rewilding Europe therefore advocatesa light weight design of bison infrastructure, outof the visitors’ line of sight in order to enhance thewilderness aspect of bison viewing.It is recommended that dominant femaleindividuals in each bison group should beradio-collared prior to release into the wild inorder to monitor the behaviour of the releasedanimals and to support commercial ‘wild’ bisonviewing. With guidance, bison can be viewed in away that avoids disturbance, but still offers highquality observation experiences. Special dawnand dusk excursions could be organised, as wellas snow tracking. Special bison hides could also bebuilt at locations favoured by bison to offer wildlifephotographers the opportunity to take photos ofbison in a natural setting.Guiding principle:• Wildlife tourism and other visitor activitiesshould contribute towards bison conservationand not constitute a new threat,and must therefore be organised in a waythat does not disturb bison or alter theirbehaviour in ways that are detrimental totheir sustainable existence.3.7.3 Public engagement, educationand communicationPublic involvement is essential for effective wildlifemanagement efforts. Establishing the beliefs,perceptions, attitudes and values of stakeholdersand interest groups is the first step in efforts togain an understanding about the opinions andknowledge of different interest groups, and consequentlyto be able to integrate this informationinto management, communication, and educationstrategies. Stakeholders and public groups increasinglyseek participation in resource and wildlifemanagement decisions (Chase, Siemer and Decker2002; Chase, Decker and Lauber 2004; Raik, Deckerand Siemer 2006). In many areas around the world,and failure to properly address the views andvalues of the full diversity of relevant stakeholdergroups and members of the public has resulted1 The acclimatisation zone is a 5–20 ha enclosure that bison will stay in immediately following arrival at a new site and thesemi-wild reserve is the first proper ‘release’ area of at least 100 ha.2 Critical range for bison attacks is 1–40 m (Kowalczyk, in prep.)STEFANO UNTERTHINER / WILD WONDERS OF EUROPE38

in opposition to important resource and wildlifemanagement efforts (Miller and McGee 2001).Wildlife managers, for their part, acknowledge therights and influence of concerned and affectedmembers of the public and also recognise thatsuccessful public involvement efforts can reduceconflict, build trust and credibility betweenmanagers and the public (Bath and Enck 2003;Lafon et al. 2004), and forestall litigation by thosewho wish their voice to be heard (Lawrence andDeagen 2001).European bison are currently only livingin the Rewilding Europe project area in theEastern Carpathians; in all other project areaspeople are (as in the rest of Europe) unfamiliarwith living near bison. Educating people aboutthe ecology and role of the European bison inEuropean ecosystems is a key element of bisonconservation. Many methods are available to dothis, and the specific approach will depend onthe local context. However, these should ideallyembrace social-media and new technologiesin order to obtain a wide reach and appeal to awide audience. Co-operation with schools shouldalso be sought and field visits should become anintegral part of the biology curriculum of localschools. Part of working with schools shouldtherefore involve the development and provisionof special learning material on the Europeanbison and rewilding.Local communication regarding bison conservationwill be an integral part of supportingeducation and outreach elements of the project.Wider methods of advertising bison reintroductionprojects will also be vital in attracting internationalvisitors to the project areas. Release eventsshould be an opportunity to involve local peoplein bison conservation. Concerns of local peopletowards bison must be directly addressed in orderfor communities to feel engaged and supportive ofrewilding initiatives.Rewilding Europe will use different methods ofcommunicating to different stakeholders/targetaudiences, which should be carried out by theappropriate partners. The majority of Europeans,especially in Western Europe, have never heard ofthe European bison, and therefore one of RewildingEurope’s aims will be to make the European bisonan important conservation flagship species inEurope, and to encourage its partners to do thesame.Guiding principles:• Local people must be engaged from theoutset in order for reintroductions to beaccepted and sustained in the long term.• It is important to educate children at anearly stage about European bison andthe importance of maintaining viableecosystems for wildlife.• Local ownership over bison reintroductionprojects needs to be felt and valued.• It is important to promote the species andits role in the ecosystem.39

40RUUD MAASKANT / ARK NATURE

Objective Action Result7. Bison protection 7.1 Encourage range states to ensure legal protectionfor European bison, with effective sanctions in place todeter illegal poaching.7.2 Encourage range states to ensure protection of largecarnivores (wolves, lynx, bear) is in place in all bisonreintroduction areasWorkshop on development of effectiveprotection held by 2020, involvingrepresentatives of all European bison rangestates.Protection of large carnivores improved in fiverewilding areas to allow natural predation.7.3 Rewilding Europe to develop formalised responsein the case of poaching of bison in any of its rewildingareas.Anti-poaching strategy available in 2015.7.4 Bison rangers to be recruited in all bisonreintroduction areas, preferably from local people.First wave of rangers recruited in SouthernCarpathians (2014), Eastern Carpathians (2014),Velebit (2014–2015), Rhodope Mountains (2014–2015) and Oder Delta (2015–2016).8. Internationaland national policy8.1 Rewilding Europe to strengthen their links with theIUCN Bison Specialist Group.Annual meetings held with the IUCN BisonSpecialist Group to align European bisonprotection and rewilding activities.8.2 Encourage all governments within the natural rangeof European bison to develop bison rewilding plans by2020.National Bison Rewilding Plans operational inRomania (2015), Poland (2016), Bulgaria (2017),Germany (2018) and Croatia (2019).9. Publicengagement andeducation9.1 Organise field trips for local schools to visit bisonrewilding areas.At least five school classes per year visiting thebison projects in Southern Carpathians (as of2014), Eastern Carpathians (as of 2015), Velebit(as of 2015–2016), Thracian Mountains (as of2015) and Odra Delta (as of 2015–2016).9.2. Education on European bison and rewilding builtinto the curriculum of local schools.Integration into curriculum, with tailor-madematerials, ready and disseminated in SouthernCarpathians (2014), Eastern Carpathians (2015),Velebit (2015–2016), Thracian Mountains (2015)and Odra Delta (2015–2016).9.3 Develop educational materials for and with localschools on European bison and rewilding.Local schools actively using bison and rewildingeducation materials.9.4 Train teachers in European bison ecology andrewilding.First wave of teacher training completedin Southern Carpathians (2014), EasternCarpathians (2015), Velebit (2015–2016), ThracianMountains (2015) and Odra Delta (2015–2016).9.5 Participation of local community in all bison releaseevents.At least one press release and one local radio PRpublicising release events in local area.9.6 Establish annual ‘Bison day’ in all rewilding areas topromote conservation work with local communities.Bison day established in Southern Carpathians(2014), Eastern Carpathians (2015), Velebit(2015–2016), Thracian Mountains (2015) andOdra Delta (2015–2016).9.7. Develop a communication strategy for bisonrewilding.Communication strategy, with special attentionto communication with local people, availablein Southern Carpathians (2014), EasternCarpathians (2015), Velebit (2015–2016), ThracianMountains (2015) and Odra Delta (2015–2016).44

Objective Action Result10. Economicdevelopment10.1 Develop Rewilding Europe Capital (REC) to investin conservation-based businesses across Europe’srewilding bison areas.REC supporting at least one bison relatedbusiness case/area in Southern Carpathians(2014), Eastern Carpathians (2015), Velebit(2015–2016), Rhodope Mountains (2015) andOder Delta (2015–2016).10.2 Work with local tour operators to establish paidguided tours of rewilding bison areas, recruiting localpeople.Minimum of one paid guided tour outfitoperational in Southern Carpathians (2014),Eastern Carpathians (2015), Velebit (2015–2016),Rhodope Mountains (2015) and Oder Delta(2015–2016).10.3 Promote bison-related tourism in rewilding areas. At least 500 extra tourists/year coming to thebison projects in Southern Carpathians (as of2014), Eastern Carpathians (2015), Velebit (2015–2016), Rhodope Mountains (2015) and OderDelta (2015–2016).10.4 Develop training materials for e.g. rangers, tourguides that are being employed as part of the bisonrewilding team in a local area.Minimum of three rangers to be trained perrewilding area. First wave of rangers and tourguides trained, with tailor-made materials,in Southern Carpathians (2014), EasternCarpathians (2015), Velebit (2015–2016),Rhodope Mountains (2015) and Oder Delta(2015–2016).10.5 Train bison rangers and tour guides in all localrewilding areas.Minimum of two bison rangers and two tourguides trained and active in each rewilding area.10.6 Investigate potential for limited trophy hunting ofEuropean bison.Study on hunting available at the latest in 2018.11. Europeanawareness11.1 Make wider audience in Europe aware of thevulnerable position of European bison and of thestrategy of Rewilding Europe to improve this.As of 2014, at least 10 media outlets per yearrelated to the rewilding of European bison, withan outreach of at least 10 million people peryear.12. ReviewRewilding Plan12.1 Review and update Rewilding Europe’s BisonRewilding Plan.Progress towards achieving rewilding plan to bereviewed annually, with a major five-year reviewin 2019.Rewilding plan to be updated and republishedby 2025.45

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Annex: European bison reintroductionand management guidelinesIntroductionThe challenge for Rewilding Europe is to ensurethe return and survival of European bison inhuman-dominated landscapes. Since these animalsare large, visible and can cause damage, their re-introductionis perceived, in general, as controversial.Despite the on-going land abandonment the ruralareas remain human dominated. Much land isprivately owned and there remains a lot of localinterest for use of the land besides agriculture e.g.hunting, use of summer houses, mushroom pickingetc. Therefore, the success of a bison reintroductiondepends very much on the acceptance of the localpeople, an element that has been neglected in the past.In the past, bison conservation planning hasfocused predominantly on forest habitat. This wasrelated to ecological knowledge at the time but alsostrongly influenced by landownership. Forests areusually under state administration while open areasare either private or communal land and grazed bydomestic livestock. Given the evidence availablefor a wider tolerance of habitats, other habitats forbison should be considered. The overall quality ofthe habitat, especially the diversity of habitats andecosystems at new planned re-introduction sitesmust also be scoped. Finally good preparation anda roadmap for the release itself are of great importancein ensuring a successful reintroduction andevery reintroduction should be accompanied witha well-planned monitoring programme.The local bison reintroduction team, in cooperationwith the local people and/or local authorities,should look for opportunities to find a suitablesite that best fits the parameters of the project;is available, and has support, both from the localcommunity and the local authorities.The following reintroduction guidelines arefounded on the guiding principles which areoutlined in the ‘Bison Rewilding Plan’.47RUUD MAASKANT / ARK NATURE

1. Planning the reintroduction andrelease infrastructure1.1Habitat criteria and site selectionEuropean bison are not highly specialist withregards to habitat; they thrive almost anywhereas long as they can graze and browse, with someexceptions e.g. raised bogs, marshlands, alpinezones etc. Close co-operation with forest servicescan help keep tree damage to a minimum. In theRothaargebirge project in Germany for example,some trees were felled when browsing wasobserved. It reduced the browsing of the standingtrees as the bison preferred the felled, horizontaltrees compared to the standing, vertical trees.(Röhl 2013, personal communication). Good siteselection should also minimise the risks of damageto agriculture. As in most rewilding areas whereagriculture is marginal, adaptive managemente.g. establishing a compensation system or usingmovable or permanent fences can prevent damage.Arable fields can be easily protected against bisonwith electric fences. Prior to selection of reintroductionsites, protocols should be established forthe event of bison damage to agricultural, forestry.The following factors should be consideredwhen selecting sites for bison reintroductions:• As an animal with a large home range, the size ofthe habitat is a key element. On average the homerange for a bison population is 10,000 ha andshould thus be considered as minimum area fora ‘true’ reintroduction for bison living in the wild.• Topography: because of their physical buildand weight bison cannot handle wet conditionsor gradients that are too steep. The exactmaximum gradient is not known, howeverinRussia bison occur at high altitudes, up to2,700 m (pers. communication, Sipko 2014).The position of the slope is also importantespecially in winter, when northern slopes havemuch higher snow fall then southern slopes.• Bison are large animals with thick fur, evenin summer, and for those reasons cannotcope with heat very well. Therefore areas thatbecome too hot in the summer for long periods(several months > 30˚C) are not suitable.• Bison can cope quite well with deep snow cover,even though some authors claim that > 50 cm isthe maximum snow cover (Heptner et al. 1966). Ithas been observed that bison can find food underdeeper snow layers. However, snow cover andespecially its duration can be a limiting factor,as well as long periods of frozen conditions whengrasses are not available and bison must be ableto switch to browsing. Thus, snow cover is relatedto the vegetation and its availability.• If the topographical and climatic conditionsare appropriate for the European bison, thenthe vegetation in natural circumstances willgenerally be favourable too, particularly sincebison have no specific requirements providedthere are sufficient grasses, herbs, bushes andtrees for grazing and browsing. Several studieshave shown that European bison eat more than200 plant species. The area should contain sufficientnatural meadows and deciduous forestwith a good and varied vertical and horizontalstructure.• As a species that appears to prefer mosaichabitat in forested and open areas, connectivitybetween different habitat types will beimportant to consider.• As a bovine that is susceptible to all bovinediseases, the presence of livestock does put thebison at extra risk, particularly where livestockis known to carry bovine diseases. This risk ishigher in areas bordering non-EU countriesdue to national veterinary regulations or thelack thereof. Having said this, recent bovinedisease outbreaks have occurred in WesternEurope where, despite health regulations,factory farming and the large scale of domesticanimal movements can cause risks to the bison.Releasing substitutes for the aurochs in thesame area as European bison should not causeextra risks if the founder animals have all beentested for bovine diseases.• Land ownership and land-use relates to theconflict potential. Large state-owned areas arepreferable, especially if they include protectedareas. It is important to note that crops suchas cereals, hay and rape may be particularlyvulnerable to bison grazing.• Hunting is not a limiting activity in areas forbison reintroduction as long as bison are notactively hunted themselves. However, huntingshould not disrupt bison behaviour, which mayaffect its habitat use and visibility for tourists.• Illegal hunting and poaching are serious threatsfor the European bison and should be prevented.48

Public involvement1.2A reintroduction project always deals with a speciesand a human component. The species componentis generally the ‘easy’ component to assess andmanage. The human component is generally muchharder to manage. In the past, people were rarelyconsidered an important part of the success ofa reintroduction and were therefore excludedfrom feasibility studies. We now understand thatpublic involvement and understanding of thesocial-economic aspects and attitudes should be akey element of any feasibility study for a re-introductionthat might affect local people.Human Dimensions of Wildlife Management(HDWM) studies provide an excellent method togather information in a scientific way in order tounderstand the attitudes of stakeholders (from politiciansto local people) towards the re-introductionof bison (Bath and Decker 2010; Decker 2013). It isalso useful for understanding the socio-economiccontext of the project area, including local people’sneeds and motivations. This information can thenbe integrated in developing the socio-economicelements of the reintroduction such as communication,education and economic development.It is very important to involve authorities ona national and local level in the early planningprocess in order to gain support and understandpossible restrictions, particularly as each countryhas different requirements regarding re-introductions.Some countries are familiar with bisonre-introductions e.g. Romania, Germany, Slovakiawhich should help new applications in thesecountries.After the site selection and an HDWM study,communication should start as soon as possibleand will be a key element for project success.Both the content and delivery of communicationare important. The communicators should speakthe ‘same language’ and should be perceived asreliable. The Rothaargebirge is a good examplewhere a local major, a local politician and alocal farmer all played an important role ingaining confidence and support from the localcommunity for the project. Conversely, inPoloniny NP in Slovakia the government wasthe main communicator but was perceived asunreliable related to an earlier land expropriation.‘Soft-release’ infrastructure development1.3Rewilding Europe will use the method of ‘soft-release’for restocking and introductions, whereanimals are first given time to acclimatise to a newarea (instead of ‘hard-release’ in which animalsare directly released into the wild). In the wild,animals have their first contact with predators inthe presence of parents, which provide them withprotection and survival skills. Individuals bred incaptivity lack these survival skills, so ‘soft’ releasemethods are important for enabling animals toadapt to the local circumstances and to acquire thenecessary survival skills before they are releasedinto the wild.Even from captive situations, bison can undergoenormous amounts of stress following movementfrom one location to another. They often dropweight and become immunosuppressed and needextra veterinary care. The stress factors include:• Social stress, from being taken out of their ‘safe’social structure;• Tranquilization stress: the body takes a longtime to recover from tranquilisation;• Transport stress: bison are unfamiliar withbeing transported and this can cause a lot ofstress;• Habitat stress: the animals arrive in a differenthabitat, especially animals that come fromsmall enclosures;• Food stress: the diet of the bison will change sothe bacterial flora in their intestines will needto adapt;• Climatic stress: the climate may be quitedifferent from their original location.It can take animals more than several months torecover and adapt to new conditions, and theyshould be allowed to fully recover before beingreleased into the wild. Animals should therefore bebrought to the acclimatisation zone several monthsprior to release, preferably at the beginning of thegrowing season. The ‘soft’ strategy leads to a higherrate of success as it allows the animals to recoverfrom the above stress factors under supervisedconditions, it provides access to additional food,protection from poaching and, if needed, extraveterinary care.The disadvantage of the ‘soft’ release methodis that pre-release infrastructure needs to bebuilt (ideally in the preparatory phase), whichinvolves additional costs. However, it is likely to49

Electric wires forareas with highsnowcoverbe used over several years as new founder groupsof around ten animals per year will be broughtin for a soft release to broaden the gene pooland to increase bison numbers, meaning thefacilities for the acclimatisation zone/semi-wildreserve will be used for a minimum period often years. By giving it an additional function asa tourist attraction, costs can be lowered andeven additional income generated. Within theRewilding Europe programme the followingrelease system will be utilised to guarantee thewell-being of the bison.After its journey to the release site, the bisonwill first be released into a so-called acclimatisationzone. This area is 10–15 ha and includes ahandling area in which the animals can safelybe tranquilised. The handling area consists of aflat area of approximately 40 x 20 m, with a solidsurface. Two gates provide easy access to the area,both for bison as well as vehicles/tractors. Thewhole handling area will have a 2m high woodenfence. All pre-release infrastructure must bebuilt inside the release area and be accessibleby truck. In the acclimatisation zone the bisoncan recover from stress and adapt to their newsurroundings. They can also be brought into thehandling area when they need treatment. Theacclimatisation zone will also have an important‘training’ function as bison may have come froma diverse range of environments and enclosures.The acclimatisation zone will be fencedwith electric fencing (two wires and if needed anadditional ground wire or three electric wires,independently charged in area with high snowcover) with a ‘back-up’ of a ‘deer fence’ of 2m high,in order to help prepare bison for the subsequentsemi-wild reserve (of at least 100 ha) which will besurrounded by only electric fencing.50

2. The founder groupA good social and organisational structure isimportant prior to the release into the wild forsecuring protection against predators and establishingdominance and position in the herd. Forthis reason young animals should always beaccompanied by adult animals in releases. Thisprovides social stability to the herd, gives theyoung animals survival skills and helps protectthem from predators. In turn this will help reducestress levels, increase reproductive success andenable survival behaviours to be passed on. Socialinteractions also affect foraging behaviour, whichmay influence how bison use landscapes.It is also important that the founder populationrepresents the maximum genetic variabilitypossible. The individuals that form the foundergroup will therefore come from different institutions.Following Frankham et al. (1998) a minimumof 50 animals is needed to avoid inbreedingdepression and > 500 are required to retain evolutionarypotential and ensure overall genetic variability.Decreased genetic variability resultingfrom inbreeding depression can lead to negativeconsequences such as lowered fecundity, reducedgrowth, lower breeding success and greatersusceptibility to disease. Ideally 50 unrelatedbison should be used to form the founding group.However in the case of the bison it is unlikely thiscan be achieved due to the history of the speciesand also for practical reasons within an acceptablefinancial budget. For practical reasons an effectivealternative is to introduce several young unrelatedbulls instead of one dominant adult male. If thefounder group of animals has to be small forpractical reasons (e.g. due to limited size of theacclimatisation zone /semi-wild reserve area) andthere is only one dominant bull, this individualcan be replaced every generation to preventinbreeding.Rewilding Europe wants to start with an initialfounder group of 10–20 animals, followed withyearly herd supplementations, with a minimumof 10 animals on average per year over a 10 yearperiod. Rewilding Europe will primarily makeSTAFFAN WIDSTRAND / REWILDING EUROPE51

use of young animals two to four years of agebecause of their easier availability, greater ease inhandling and managing them and their ability toadapt to the local circumstances. It is also easierto introduce younger animals to the releasesite. Several adult animals (females) will be keptwith the younger individuals for ‘social stability’and to teach them survival skills. Individualbehaviour will be monitored and based on this itwill be decided if the founder adult animals willbe released with the young animals, which willby that time have reached an adult age and will be‘experienced’ and have formed a good social bond.The male to female ratio of the founder group willdepend on the availability of animals, but will notexceed 50% in favour of males. A ratio in favour ofmore females is preferred as it results in a greaterrate of population increase. Although an evengender ratio is closest to that of wild populations,it can often be slightly in favour of females dueto higher mortality among males. If the ratio isuneven in favour of males, this risks small groupssplitting off and migrating for large distances,which would make monitoring and managementmore complex.The preferred (minimum) composition of thefounder group is therefore three young males(under four years old) and six females, of whicha minimum of two are adults that can take on aleading role and add stability and experience tothe group.The mixed group will first be released in theacclimatisation zone at the same time or with aminimum as possible time (< 10 days) in betweeneach release. Due to the large size it is possible touse the semi-wild release areas (rewilding zone) inmixed-species settings, to combine with reintroductionof other large herbivores, e.g. red deer, asthere is adequate space for animals to voluntarilyseparate themselves when desired or necessary.However, extra hayfeeders need to be provided toavoid competition for food.In the wild, bison are both gregarious andnon-territorial. Male reproductive success isbased on dominance over other males rather thandominance at a particular site. Therefore adultand sub-adult bulls should not be placed in theacclimatisation zone as adult bulls may drive outor attack young males when they begin to exhibitsecondary sexual characteristics.2.1Further additions to the founder groupDuring the reintroduction project new groups willbe added to the founder group. This founder groupwill gradually establish and form bonds. New herdmembers should, preferably, be given a period oftime, generally several weeks, that allows them togradually familiarise themselves with the existinggroup before progressing to full physical contact.Animals can be separated between the acclimatisationzone and semi-wild reserve, with the‘newcomers’ in the former and the ‘old-timers’ inthe latter area. New Animals should never be addedto the group in the acclimatisation zone. With theabove exception if there is maximum 10 days inbetween when the social hierarchy has not beenestablished yet between the members of the firstgroup.Several years after the first releases, when youngbulls have reached adulthood, adult males can alsobe added to the herd to further broaden the genepool. Rewilding Europe wants to avoid furtherculling of bison and therefore males, young andold, will be accepted for re-introduction, if adequatefunding can be found for their transportation.It is estimated that roughly ten animals per yearwill be available for each bison reintroduction area.With an annual re-stock of ten animals and anexpected annual growth of 20% (based on severalassumptions, age of founder animals, annualdeaths etc.) this should result in a population ofover 175 animals after ten years over a minimum offive sites. This is the minimum population growththat Rewilding Europe is striving for. Additionalstocking could also be increased if more animalsbecome available, there are sufficient financialresources, the initial population is healthy andthere is continued local support. This would inturn further increase the annual populationgrowth rate.52

3. Bison pre-release management in theacclimatisation zone and semi-wild reserveDuring the acclimatisation period, the animals aregiven the opportunity, under close surveillance, torecover from the stress of capture and transportand adjust to their new surroundings. They shouldbe allowed to enter the handling area at their ownpace and should not be forced into it, as this maycause unnecessary stress. The gates of the handlingarea should be regularly closed to habituate theanimals to this procedure.In general, the European bison, as a herbivore,herd and prey species, does not present a risk topeople. However, it is a large, powerful animal and ifit is in a stressful situation and unable to take flight,it will defend itself; like almost every animal. Greatcare must therefore be taken with handling bison incaptivity, especially in small areas e.g. the handlingarea. Although bison can become quite habituatedto human presence and can give the appearanceof being docile, it should be noted that they canbecome aggressive and dangerous when stressed.Although Rewilding Europe will aim tominimise interactions with bison at all stages of arelease, there will be a certain amount of handlingin the pre-release phases (during transportationand in the acclimatisation zone and semi-wildreserve) which will be unavoidable, but for whichwe have therefore established the following guidelines.Transport3.1Transportation of European bison traditionallytakes place using wooden boxes; however, thesehave a few disadvantages:• Each box needs to be made individually to fit theanimal, as it cannot be too small, but likewise,if the box is too big the animal can turn, whichcan be fatal as it can get stuck.• The bison can easily become overheated in the box.• The boxes do not provide the animal with muchspace, and therefore it is unsuitable for longjourneys. Animals can remain in the box for amaximum of two days.• The boxes are expensive to produce.• It is difficult to observe the animal once in the box.Due to the size of the European bison, the use ofa crate is generally not recommended for transportingbison; rather, a trailer is preferable. Whentransporting bison in a trailer, animals shouldbe single-stalled and compartments should beportioned in such a way that the animal hasenough room to lie down, stand up and turnaround easily. Too much space allows the animalto produce speed, potentially injuring itself as wellas being thrown though the compartment duringextreme breaking of the truck etc.Food and water must be provided for animalsduring transit. Because animals are likely to beexcitable or even aggressive, it is best to affix awater container in the compartment ahead of time.Bedding, ideally straw, should be placed in thetrailer in order to provide traction, warmth duringcold weather, absorption of urine and faeces, andto reduce abrasions. Transport of bison in eitherhot or cold extremes is not recommended. While itis possible to improve cold conditions by providingample bedding in a trailer, the transport of bisonshould not be undertaken at prolonged temperaturesbelow 0ºC. Journeys should also not beundertaken at ambient temperatures above 25ºCas the temperature inside a trailer can be severaldegrees warmer and rapidly increase if the traileris stationary. As such, trailers should never be leftimmobile for prolonged periods of time in directsunlight. A darkened trailer is most appropriatefor transport of bison, as this reduces the effects ofvisual stimuli. Because capture and transport arestressful events, ambient noise during transportshould be minimised.Although in general, bison should be in singlestalls within a trailer, it is possible to place a cowand its calf in the same compartment, dependingon their size and temperament. Young animalsunder two years of age and from the same herdmay also be transported in one compartment,however single stalls are preferred. It is importantto consider the accessibility for a handler/veterinarianduring transport and for personnel to beable to clearly see the animal during transport inorder to check its condition. A handler will need tohave access to a small opening in order to replenishwater and/or food, as well as to administer drugs(narcotic, reversal agents, tranquillisers, etc.) ormedical treatment while the animal is confined.53

JOEP VAN DE VLASAKKERBison are besttransportedin individualcompartments,instead of woodenboxesBison can tolerate a cross-country trip in atransport trailer of up to five days, but of courseshorter transportation durations are preferred.Bison tend to lie down during transport and candevelop lameness after lying for extended periodsso it is important to encourage them to theirfeet two (minimum) to three times a day withregular feeding and watering intervals. Followingtransport, the bison will be released into the acclimatisationzone by giving them the time to stepout of the transporter under calm conditions.Bedding material (e.g straw) should be placed onthe ramp, to avoid the bison from seeing it as abarrier.3.2TranquilisationCapture and restraint of European bison is generallyundertaken using chemical immobilisation, whichshould be done by an experienced veterinarianwith experience on bison tranquilisation. If theveterinarian associated to the project is not experiencedwith bison he or she should receive trainingfirst. The particular drug combination will dependon availability and preference of the veterinarian.Some drugs include extremely potent semi-syntheticmorphine derivatives and must be handledwith extreme caution. Human exposure to evensmall amounts of these drugs can result in the veryrapid onset of respiratory arrest. These drugs canbe absorbed through mucous membranes, such asthe mouth and eyes, as well as by accidental needlepuncture. Personnel must therefore be adequatelyprotected during dart preparation and handlingof the animal after the administration of the dart,potentially including latex or rubber gloves, safetyglasses or full-face shields, long sleeves and otherprecautions as appropriate. Every project shouldhave an accidental narcotic exposure responseprotocol in place and staff should be well trainedin its execution.There can be a great deal of variation in the drugdose required to immobilise a bison, dependingon an animal’s sex, weight and temperament,individual drug sensitivity, excitability, current54

condition and whether or not they are captive orfree ranging. Required drug doses are also affectedby the space available for the animal to move aboutafter drug injection, and the amount of animalstimulation that occurs prior to or after druginjection. As precise drug doses cannot always bepredicted, experience of the veterinarian and alow-stress environment are important factors inimmobilisation events.Rewilding Europe will make use of the handlingarea where bison can be closely observed,tranquilised in a safe surrounding and treated in anarea that is easily accessible. Tranquilisation outsidethe handling area should be avoided to avoid therisk that the animal flees and cannot be foundimmediately and/or injures itself. The handling areamust be flat, not slippery and with no obstacles andthe surface must be solid so that access is possibleall year round, regardless of weather conditions. Itis advisable to construct a handling area in which itis possible to separate the animals if needed, as thetranquilised animal may be vulnerable to attacksfrom other members of the herd.A team, including a veterinarian, a veterinarytechnician and approximately six supportstaff, should ideally be present to assist with theimmobilisation and to move the animal once itis down, if needed. Although the veterinarian hasprimary responsibility for the immobilisation,safe positioning of the animal, monitoring of theanimal’s vital signs (respiratory rate, heart rate,temperature, percentage oxygenation of the bloodetc.) and duration and dosage of the anaesthesia, he/she requires the cooperation of all team members.Safe immobilisation also depends on constantcommunication of important information. As withall large bovids (ruminants), the risks of regurgitationand inhalation pneumonia are high duringimmobilisations. A bison must never be ‘turnedaround’ as its stomach contents can becomecaught in the lungs and cause serious, often fatal,infections. Bison should not be immobilised whenambient temperatures are above 25ºC due to the riskof hyperthermia and muscle myopathy. Tranquilisationduring extreme cold conditions should beavoided but if needed preventive measures againsthypothermia should be taken.After the individual becomes recumbent, it canbe safely managed in either a lateral or upright(sternal) position; right lateral recumbency isgenerally preferable. Eyes could be covered byfabric cloth to ease the sleeping modus as well asSTAFFAN WIDSTRAND / REWILDING EUROPE55

Use of pulka totransport and loadbison in Swedenprotect the eyes from dust etc. During the wholeimmobilisation process, loud noises should beavoided as much as possible. The muzzle shouldalways be directed towards the ground to allowany ingesta to flow out of the mouth and avoidchoking. Individual pads may be placed around themetatarsal areas on each rear leg. Separate ropescan then be tied around each rear leg over the padsand secured to a solid object behind the animal (e.g.a pole or tree). The front legs can be tied togetherand similarly secured in front of the animal. Ifthere is nothing to secure them to, the rear legs canbe tied together to reduce the likelihood of injurydue to kicking.The duration of anaesthesia for bison shouldbe no more than 60 minutes due to the risk ofpressure necrosis. Animals should be observedclosely for evidence of bloat throughout all procedures.Once all necessary procedures have beencompleted, any restraining ropes should beremoved from the animal’s legs and non-essentialpersonnel should leave the area. The immobilisingdrug is then reversed with naltrexone or otherantagonist as appropriate. An animal should be lefton its own while awakening.Animals should be monitored for up to 48 hourspost-immobilisation for signs of renarcotisation. Thisoccurs when the immobilising drug is still present inan animal’s system while the reversal drug is beingcleared to a level where it is no longer effective. Ananimal may exhibit signs similar to those of narcoticinduction, including sedation, pacing, vocalizing,atraxia, head-pressing or even sternal recumbency.If the animal is being transported a long working(up to 10 days) sedative should be administered toreduce stress levels. The animals should be fullyrecovered and standing before the transport ationcan start.It is best to construct the bison infrastructureat the handling zone in such a way that animalscan be loaded into a trailer without tranquilisation.This can be achieved by constructingdivisions and a hallway in which the animals canbe gradually ‘forced’ forward on to the trailer. Theconstruction must be save (for handlers and bison),well constructed.If the bison need to be bison tranquilised a specialtransportation ‘blanket’ or pulka can be used.Use of forklifts and other mechanical equipmentshould be kept to a minimum and be used withgreat care to avoid risks of wounding the animal.56STAFFAN WIDSTRAND / REWILDING EUROPE

Veterinary care3.3Extra veterinary care might be needed during theacclimatisation period to help the survival rate ofthe bison and to ensure they are fit and healthyprior to release into the wild.Broadly speaking, the baseline knowledge ofmedical and husbandry information for domesticcattle applies to bison. This includes non-infectiousas well as infectious domestic and wildanimal diseases. Bison are known or are assumedto be susceptible to all domestic bovid diseases.These susceptibilities include:Black legNecrobacillisisRinderpestParatuberculosisLeptospirosisRift valley feverTuberculosisAnaplasmosisFoot and mouth diseaseBrucellosisVibriosisVesicular stomatitisHaemophilus somnusActinobadllosisMalignant catarrhal feverInfectious bovinerhinotracheitisActinomycosisPasteurellosisParainfluenzaSalmonellosisBlue tongueBovine viral diarrheaListeriosisAnthraxEnterotoxemiaContagious bovinepleuropneumoniaFrom a regulatory perspective, tuberculosis andbrucellosis are of primary importance. EU memberstates generally require tuberculosis and brucellosistests prior to entry, with most acceptingstandard tail-fold tests and serology. The requiredtests needs always to be checked with the veterinaryauthorities prior to transport. Time for bloodtestingneeds to be calculated in the planning. Ifthe animals have had the required test and testednegatively an export paper, the so-called Tracesdocument will be provided for travel within the EU.The animals selected for the re-introduction inthe rewilding projects will be intensively screenedfor all bovine diseases prior to transport, regardlessof origin. If the test is positive they will be excludedfrom the re-introduction. This will keep the risk ofa disease outbreak coming from the bison and alsoensures that diseases are not spread to domesticlivestock. However, there is still a risk that bisonwill be infected with diseases from domesticcattle, as has previously been observed (Flint et al.2002). Local domestic stock should therefore alsobe screened prior to bison release (ideally as partof the feasibility study) to assess the risk of diseasetransfer to bison and to take appropriate measuresif necessary. Any vaccinations of bison requiredwill only be done in consultation with the veterinaryofficer.Bison are susceptible to both internal andexternal parasites. Commercially available cattlewormers (injectable, oral, and topical) work wellin this species. However, at times when supplementaryfeeding has to be provided, cleanfeeding areas should prevent a heavy parasiteload and regular faecal analysis can determine ifCondition scoring ofbisonScore 1. Emaciated 2. Thin 3. Good 4. FatOutlineDepictionsNeck &SchouldersWithersLoin & BackTailhead &HipsRibs• Emaciated• Bone structure is easily visible• No fat• Emaciated• Bone structure is easily visible• No fat• Emaciated• Spinous processes are easilyindividually identifiable• Pelvic bones are veryprominant• Emaciated• Rib spacing appears wide anddepressed• Neck is thin• Decreased girth• Thin• Bone structure is evident• Spinous processes are notindividually identifiable, butspine is still prominant• Transverse processes faintlydiscernable• Pelvic bones at the point ofthe hip are rounded, but stillevident• Pelvic bones at rump may beslightly discernable• Neck is thick• Shoulders are flat• Withers have fat deposits• Decreasing visibility of bonestructure• Back is sloped to withers• Fat is present around tailhead• Pelvic bones appear flat• Neck is thick• Fat deposits evident• Shoulders slightly rounded• Fat deposits are evident• Fat deposits are present• Back appears flatter• Hips are rounded• Ribs still discernable • Ribs are not visible • Ribs are not visible• Fat deposits may be evident57

de-worming is appropriate. As wormers can havenegative impacts on the environment, particularlyinvertebrate diversity, they should only beused if needed and only in the pre-release phase.The handling area should have an easy to cleansubstrate, preferably sand, that allows bison towallow which helps the bison to battle (skin)parasites. Faeces from the handling area andaround the hay feeders should be removed on adaily basis. It is particularly important to removefaecal material from feeding areas in order to breakthe faecal-oral contamination cycle common tomost endoparasites. This is also why a mobile hayfeeder, in which the hay is elevated, is preferred tohay on the ground.Experienced veterinarians need to be linkedto reintroduction projects early on and, if needed,receive special training for European bison andtheir tranquilisation. Bison rangers, who willpreferably have experience with cattle, willmonitor the condition status of each individual,initially on a daily and then a weekly basis and willconsult veterinarians when required. RewildingEurope also proposes a weekly health check bythe veterinarian whilst bison are in the acclimatisationzone. Following consultation and agreementbetween the local and central Rewilding Europeteams and the veterinarian that all individualsare healthy, bison will be released in the semi-wildreserve. Two week assessments by the veterinarianare then proposed in addition to daily checks bythe bison ranger. The veterinarian will submit awritten report to the local team following eachcheck and the local team will report the healthstatus of all bison on a monthly basis directly tothe wildlife advisor and the conservation managerof Rewilding Europe. It is advisable to link up witha veterinary faculty of a university for the healthmonitoring.Where an animal dies of unknown causesin a pre-release area, a thorough necropsy(post-mortem protocol) must be undertaken bothto provide information on the cause of deathfor that individual, and also to report on otherconcurrent medical problems that could affect theherd. A review of necropsy records can uncovertrends in mortality and morbidity that mayprompt management changes.58STAFFAN WIDSTRAND / REWILDING EUROPE

Supplemental feeding3.4Rewilding Europe aims to prepare the Europeanbison for an independent life in the wild as muchas possible. In the pre-release phase of the re-introductionadditional food will be provided inthe acclimatisation zone as a transition fromthe previous diet to a natural diet. In generalthe animals will not be additionally fed in there-wilding zone and once released into the wild.During extreme winter conditions (snow) orextreme summer conditions (drought) additionalfeeding might be necessary if not enough naturalfood is available and the animal’s health are at risk.After release into the wild, supplemental feedingcan be used to enable animal counts to be made,individuals to be checked and as a managementtool against poaching and crop damage. However,additional feeding of bison in the wild should beavoided as much as possible.In the acclimatisation zone bison will be givenfood that resembles the diet at their place of origin,or as close to this as possible if this differs withinthe founder group. In nature, bison are intermediategrazer-browsers and their digestive systemrelies on a continuous intake of food material. Thebison should therefore be able to feed 24 hours aday. A diet of good hay/dry silage, supplementedwith commercial herbivore concentrate pelletswill provide adequate nutrition. A high fibre,low protein pellet should be selected, in consultationwith the veterinarian, but only provided innecessary quantities. Mineral imbalances shouldbe avoided and should be monitored by the veterinarian.Trace mineral and salt blocks shouldalways be available. The trace minerals should beput together based on the local circumstances inconsultation with a local veterinarian. Overfeedingand obesity may significantly reduce reproductiveability. Fruits with significant sugar content, suchas apples, can be provided to lure the animals e.g.in the handling area, but not be a regular part ofthe diet as they can contribute to rumen acidosis.Hay or hay silage can be provided by localfarmers to strengthen the relationship with thelocal people and support the local economy.During acclimatisation in the pre-release phasethe diet of the bison should ideally mimic foodintake as received in the previous bison locationand during the different seasons and consist ofas much natural food as possible. The largestpercentage of the diet should contain hay and orsilage that should be harvested locally by localfarmers. Silage should resemble hay and thuscontain little water, in order to avoid diarrhea, socalled hay-silage. This means that the grass shoulddry for at least several days before being wrappedand should be from the first cut (farmers wouldgenerally use the second cut for cattle).Within the handling area, granulates, mineralsand additional food (e.g. apples in low quantities,carrots etc. depending on the season) will beprovided to enhance the diet and to habituate theanimals to the handling area in case treatmentneeds to be provided. The diet should be composedin close consultation with the wildlife advisor ofRewilding EuropeHay should be provided in special mobilehay feeders. To minimize parasite loads the hayfeeders will be moved throughout the enclosureon a regular basis and hay will be provided inquantities sufficient for approximately threedays. This also guarantees that lower rankinganimals will receive sufficient food and that allfood provided is eaten. Rotten food that is left outprovides health risks. Browsing material in theform of branches and stems of (young) preferredtrees should be provided on a daily basis, e.g. Salixspecies, poplar species, especially aspen (Populustremula), hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), birch(Betula pubescens), ash (Fraxinus excelsior), lime(Tilia cordata), hazel (Corylus avellana) etc.; thiswill also help prevent excessive browsing in theenclosure. Bison prefer horizontal lying stems tovertical stems, as generally more young brancheswill be available. Bison that are supplementaryfed generally debark around feeding sites out ofboredom. Depending on the available natural foodin the enclosure and the season; an adult bisonneeds up to of 40kg of additional food per day.In general the bison will be prepared for lifein the wild, and therefore it will be preferable forthe animals to be released at the beginning of thevegetation season so they can adapt graduallyto a life in the wild, independent from additionalfeeding.Bison are also water dependent. In the captiveenvironment, clean, drinkable water should beavailable 24 hours a day. The acclimatisation zoneand semi-wild reserve should preferably containa stream or water source with easy access to goodquality water all year round.59

4. Bison released into populationsliving in the wildDuring the pre-release phase the bison are monitoredclosely. Initially the monitoring is focused mainlyon the acclimatisation to the local environment, thenew social structure, the food intake and generalhealth status. Once released into the rewildingzone additionally the bison will be monitored onits behaviour among its herd members but alsotowards humans. If one or more of the bison showsunwanted behaviour (e.g. no flight behaviourtowards humans), has problems with adapting to thewild conditions, has a poor health status or does notfit socially in the herd then this or these bison will beexcluded for release into the wild.The decision to release the bison into the wildbased on these criteria will be taken by the localteam in consultation with the wildlife advisor ofRewilding Europe.If animals become ill during the whole pre-releasephase they will be treated accordingly andmaximum effort will be taken to cure the animals.Therefore the handling area is constructed.The herd is fit to be released into the wild, if theherd has well recovered and adapted to the localconditions, has a strong herd bonding, show goodnatural behaviour and the animals are all in goodhealth. Usually, the expected adaptation time will be± 6 months. Once released into the wild, the animalswill, in general, no longer be veterinary treated.5. Other activities important to bisonmanagement and reintroduction5.1Bison management and monitoringThe optimum time to release bison into thesemi-wild reserve or into the wild is at the beginningof the growing season so that there is maximumfood available, although some prefer to releasebison in the winter (personal communicationPerzanowski, 2003), as this can limit bison distributiondue to snow cover. However, when using thesoft release method release into the wild is best donein the late summer/early autumn as this has giventhe animals the whole summer to adapt and fattenup under controlled conditions and gives themenough time to adapt to the local conditions, andliving without human support, before the wintersets in. With this method high management costs,to feed the animals through the winter are avoided.Monitoring will be an essential componentof bison releases from the outset, not only tocheck the overall health of the population, butalso to ensure social bonding and cohesion ofthe group, particularly as individuals may havediverse origins and be unfamiliar with one otheron arrival to the overall rewilding area. Bisonshould therefore first be monitored in the acclimatisationzone and only when they are deemedto have recovered from transport stress, adaptedto their surroundings (including electric fencing),and display good social bonding will the group bereleased into the semi-wild reserve.In the semi-wild reserve area it will then beimportant to monitor the animals selected forrelease into the wild. Direct observations will beused to study the behaviour of the herds, and thefinal release strategy can be adapted based onthis information. As direct observation is likely tobe time-consuming, close co-operative workingwith will be achieved with universities offeringstudents the opportunity to work closely withbison. Involving many people with monitoringand research not only offers the opportunity toclosely monitor the bison but also involves manyothers in bison conservation. Several individualswithin the first release groups will be equippedwith transmitters or transponders for satelliteand/or radio-telemetry. This will help keep track ofthe bison and will help collect information on howthe bison adapt to their new environment.Poaching and illegal hunting may also be an issuein wild areas and therefore monitoring systemswill be important for effective anti-poachingmanagement. As such, recruiting bison rangersfrom among local people is preferred. The ability tolocate individual bison can also aid wildlife tourism.60

Bison grazing projects5.2There may be rewilding areas that meet thecriteria for suitable habitat but not for the appropriatesocio-economic environment. This mightbe due to national legislation not (yet) supportingthe re-introduction, a lack of support or evenstrong opposition from the local community,insufficient anti-poaching control, risk of agriculturaldamage without an adequate prevention/compensation system in place etc. Releasingbison into the wild must then be postponed to atime when these issues are resolved. Under thesecircumstances keeping bison in large fenced(semi-wild) areas could be an alternative. It canhelp increase overall population numbers thatcan be put in the wildlife bank. Importantly localpeople will also have the opportunity to familiarisethemselves with bison. Bison presencecan also be beneficial to the biodiversity of thegrazed area, which at the same time could attracttourists and thus generate income for the localcommunity. These bison would then be accustomedto living in semi-wild conditions andwould therefore be very suitable for establishingfounder groups for other re-introductions.Nevertheless, the rewilding area around thissemi-wild bison reserve/grazing area should havesufficient suitable habitat for a viable populationof bison in the future and this strategy is onlyadvised within the Rewilding Europe context if itcan function as a stepping-stone to a future re-introductionand if Rewilding Europe is workingwith governments and communities to eliminateobstacles to rewilding, as recommended andguided by the rewilding plan.Training5.3In most re-introduction areas people are no longerfamiliar with bison. As it is best to recruit peoplefrom the local community for the management ofthe bison to create ‘ownership’ over the bison it isneeded to train these people, (preferably farmerswith experience with cattle or people experiencedwith wildlife), how to manage bison but also totrain them on bison behaviour and ecology. Thesetraining sessions should take place on locationoffering the bison rangers to gain first handexperience with bison.The same holds for the veterinarian(s) linked tothe project who will receive first-hand experience, ifneeded, on bison. Specifically training on tranquillizationand handling is of great importance.As these so called bison rangers may alsohave a guiding task, in this case they will betrained together with other people from the localcommunity interested in tourism about visitorhospitality, and interpretative guiding. This isparticularly important, as most of these peoplehave no experience with working with tourist andneed to have an understanding of tourist expectations,values and hospitalityAll training session should take place beforearrival of the first bison.61

Attachment: European bison bodycondition indexExplanationIn the wild, animals such as European bison buildup their body fat reserves during the growingseason. These reserves are accessed in winter. TheBody Condition Index (see below) is a tool usedto determine its condition, and the index determinesthe amount of fat and muscle coverage onthe animal. Each animal’s score tells us somethingabout its well-being, and is determined by itsbehaviour. The following behaviours are takeninto account: foraging, social, alertness and coatcondition. Both the body condition index and theanimal’s score are determined on a scale from 1 to5, where 1 refers to skinny and 5 to fat. The score ofan animal is always the same, regardless of age ortime of year. For example, a score of 2 in April looksthe same as a score of 2 in November. The aim isto score as many animals in the herd as possible.The whole herd receives a number by averaging thetotal of the indiviuals’ results, and the individualanimals also each receive a separate number.Body condition index:1 Poor, emaciated, severe undercondition2 Moderate, skeleton obvious3 Good, frame and covering well balanced4 Excellent, frame not as visible as covering5 Too fat, severe overconditionIn general it can be said that animals have thehighest body condition in the fall and the lowestat the end of winter/beginning of spring. Thisdecrease in condition is gradual. A score of 1 or 2does not say everything in itself. What time of yearis it? How is the behavior of the animal, ie what isthe animal score? It may well be that an animalscores a 1 or 2 for its body condition, but the animalscore is 4 or 5.Factors that play a role in determining the bodycondition are:• Age: Older animals are generally in a lessercondition than animals in the prime of theirlife. Often older animals are tougher: despitetheir poorer body condition they can have ahigh animal score• Gender: Males are often in a better conditionthan females. For females in general it canbe said that those who are not lactating orpregnant have a better body condition than theanimals who are, for they don’t have to invest intheir offspring.Example 1: a cow scores body condition 1–2 butkeeps joining the herd, the coat still shines andshe continues to actively seek food and respondsalertly to her environment (animal score of 5).This body condition score does not mean thereisan immediate reason to intervene. It can be atougher or older animal that survives in spite ofeverything.Example 2: a cow scores body condition 1–2 buthas separated from the herd, has no vital physicalappearance and has a apathetic response (animalscore 1). Intervention is required because of theduty of care. The cow must not suffer or die fromhunger or a complication caused by decreasedresistance which can be indirectly caused bymalnutrition.62

Rating body condition:(Source basic table: management report OVP 2011–2015, adjusted for European bison)1Poor, emaciated, severeundercondition2Moderate, frame obvious3Good, frame and coveringwell balanced4Excellent, frame not asvisible as coveringBack bone like teeth of a saw (attention: this is often not visible due to coat covering)• coverage between hip bone and pin bone severely sunken, no muscle coverage• pin bone very prominent and angular, with deep V-shaped cavity under the tailBack bone clearly visible• coverage between hip bone and pin bone clearly sunken, little muscle coverage• pin bone very prominent and angular, with deep cavity under the tailFrame and covering well balanced• coverage between hip bone and pin bone slightly sunken, slight muscle coverage• pin bone rounded, shallow cavity under the tailFrame not as visible as covering• coverage between hip bone and pin bone light to good• pin bone rounded, no shallow cavity under the tail5Too fat, severe overconditionCovering prevails, too fat• coverage between hip bone and pin bone good• pin bone embedded in fat, cavity filled with fatRating animal score:(Source basic table: management report OVP 2011–2015, adjusted for European bison)1 • movement behavior: very slow irregular movements, often stumbling, not fixed on the legs, difficulty getting up• exploring behavior: disoriented, apathetic• social behavior: separated*• foraging behavior: none2 • movement behavior: slow, stiff, less fixed on legs• exploring behavior: disoriented, not alert, passive• social behavior: follows the herd delayed3 • movement behavior: less powerful movements, stiff• exploring behavior: slightly passive• social behavior: less interactive, close to the herd, takingcare of itself• foraging behavior: searching for food, feeding and ruminating4 • movement behavior: powerful movements• exploring behavior: active• social behavior: moderate interactive, close to or in the herd, care of itself• foraging behavior: searching for food, feeding and ruminating5 • movement behavior: good, coordinated, powerful• exploring behavior: alert, responsive to the presence of people or other animals• social behavior: interactive, in the herd, care of itself• foraging behavior: matching the environment, feeding and ruminating* separation can also occur when a cow is giving birth or when an adult bull is living solitary, this is normal social behaviorOther considerations:• Dung: what is the state of the dung in relation to the diet (solid at a high fiber diet and thin with youngregrowth), and compared with the rest of the herdN .B.This is a living document which is consequently incomplete and requires regular review and updating.Experience will be gained in the field by scoring the animals. If necessary, the descriptions and drawings inthis document will be adjusted.63

European bison body condition index 1 to 5Measuring points:A Space between hip bone – pin boneAt score 1 a clear depression visible, at score 5 allspace coveredB Depression between hip bone – ribsAt score 1 depression clearly visible, at score 5hardly visibleC Muscle hind legMuscle is always visible, but at score 1 clearlyconcave and 5 filledD Covering back boneAt score 1 back bone very sharp, at score 5covered in fat. Measuring point at pelvisE Cavity under tailAt score 1 cavity clearly visible, at 5 not visibleN.B.With reproducing cows the cavity is moreprominent than with bulls.Score 1 2 3 4 5A / Cvisibilityhip bone– pin boneand musclehind legBdepressionbetweenhip bone –ribsDcoveringback boneEcavityunder tailbackview

Rewilding Europe is working to make Europea wilder PlaceWith much more space for wildlife, wildernessand natural processes. Bringing back the varietyof life for all of us to enjoy, and exploring newways for people to earn a fair living from the wild.Any initiative aiming to rewild a continent willneed a lot of support. We need your support inthis effort. We would love if you, in one way oranother, would like to become part of thisgroundbreaking initiative.You are invited to be a part of Making Europea Wilder Place!www.rewildingeurope.comRewilding Europe • Toernooiveld 1, 6525 ED Nijmegen, The Netherlands • info@rewildingeurope.com