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{ELEMENTARY)BYJOHN LORD BACONInstructor in Forge-work, Lewis Institute, ChicagoJunior Member, American SocietyofMechanicalEngineersSECOND EDITION, ENLARGEDFIRSTTHOUSANDNEWYORKJOHN WILEY " SONS

11 1909Co mg JUfttte,WITHOUT WHOSE ASSISTANCE IT WOULDNEVER HAVE BEEN WRITTEN,THIS LITTLE VOLUME ISDEDICATED.

1,-Z'^f(/r6fPREFACE.slittlevolumeis the outgrowth of a seriesmegiveninto the students at Lewis Institute from timconnection with shop work of the characterbed.is not the author's purpose toattempt to putforng which willinany way take the place of actuawork,butrather to givesomeexplanation which win the production of workin an intelligent manner.examples citedare not necessarily givenintinwhich they could most advantageouslybemadeseries of exercises,but aregrouped under generags insuch a way as to be moreconvenientnce.originaldrawings fromwhich the engravingsmade were drawn by L. S. B.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.Theauthorbelieves that the text bookshouldbeused to explain principles and give examples,not to give minute explicitdirections formakinga set of exercises.This necesitatesan independent set ofdrawingsfor the work to be done.It is for this purpose that the set ofdrawingsis given.The authorhas felt the need andlackdrawings in the text-book as usedbefore,to remedy this defect that the additionofandhassucitbeenmade.Theexercisesare suchas have been found usefuin the shop, andan efforthas also been madetogivedrawings of such tools as axeordinarilyusedin the forge and machine shops.J.L. B.March, 1908.""Vll

CONTENTS.CHAPTERGeneral Description of Forge and ToolsIPAOCHAPTERII.WeldingCHAPTERIII.Calculation of Stock for Bent Shapes" ","CHAPTERIVUpsetting, Drawing Out, and BendingCHAPTER V.Simple Forged WorkCHAPTERVI.Calculation of Stock; and Making of General Forgings....CHAPTERVn.Steam-hammerWorkCHAPTERVIII.uplicateWorkIX

CONTENTS.CHAPTERIX.urgy op Iron and SteelPCHAPTER X.steel Work..CHAPTERXI.Forging and TemperingCHAPTERXII.laneousWores.*.e of Exercises in Forge Work

TheFORGE-PRACTICE,CHAPTER I.GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS.Forge. "principal part of the forge as generallymadenow issimplyacast-irona bowl, or depression, in the centerhearthwitfor the fiIn the bottom of this bowl is an opening throughwhich the blast is forced. This blast-openingis known as the tuyere. Tuyeres aremadevariousshapes;buttheobject is the same inathat is, to provideanopening,or a numberopenings, of such ashapeas to easily allow tblast to pass through, and at the same time,muchas possible, to prevent the cindersfromdropping into the blast-pipe.Thereshouldbe some means of opening thblast-pipe beneath the tuyere and cleaning outhe cinders which work through the tuyere-openings,as somecindersare bound to do thismatter how carefully the tuyere is designed.When a long fire is wanted, sometimes several

Ones areplacedin a line;andfor some specithe tuyeres take the formof nozzles pr jinwardly from the side of the forge.oal."Thecoalusedforforge-workshouldthebestqualitybituminous, or soft, coal.d coke easily; that is,whendampenedaon the fire it should cake up,formbreak intosmall pieces.Itshouldcoke,abe as fsulphuras possible, and make verylitkerwhenburned.oodforge-coalshouldbeof even structuregh the lumps,and the lumpsshouldcrumbleyin the hand. The lumpsshouldcrumbler than split upintolayers,and the brokensshouldlookbrightand glossy on allfacetlikeblackglass, and show no dull-lookingks.rdinarysoft coal, such as isfor "steam-usedmakesa dirty firewith much clinkeroal,"aming-coal"whenbroken is liable to splayers, some of which are brightandglossothers are dullandslaty-looking.ire."the fire, to avery great extent, dependssuccess or failureofallforgingoperations,cularly work with tool-steel and welding.n building a new fire the ashes, cinders, etldbecleanedawayfrom the center ofdown to the tuyere. Do not clean outtop of the forge, butonly the part whernew fire iswanted,leaving,afterthe

hearthof the forge isgenerallykeptfillcinders, etc., evenwith the top of the rim.vings,oily waste, or some lightedother easilyal shouldbeplaced on top of the tuyereset on fire.soon as the shavingsare welllighted,thshouldichisbe turned on and coke (more or lealwaysleft over from the last firon top and outside of the burningshavings.this the "greencoal" shouldbespread.enis freshcoalcoaldampenedwith water.using the forge-coal itshouldbe brokensmall pieces and thoroughly wet with water.isnecessary,as it holds together betterwhen, makingbettercoke andkeeping in thof the fire better. It is also easierto preventfireededges,fromspreading out too much, as thicoal can bepackeddown hardaroundkeeping the blast from blowing through.fireshould not beused until all the coalhas beencoked.As the fire burns outin ththe coke, whichhas been formingaroundisedge,pushedinto the middle, and morecoal added around the outside.might say the fire is made up of three partscenter where the cokeis formingand the irog; aring around and next to this centercokeisforming;and, outside of this, a rinreencoal.s is the ordinary method of makingasmall

LargerWhenIt can beusedforaboutan hour or twothe end of which time itshouldbecleaned.welding, the cleaning shouldbe donemucher.arge Fires."fires are sometimes madefollows:Enoughal hours bynewlystartedcokeisfirstmade to lastmounding up green coal ovefireandcoke thoroughly. Thisone side and the fireagainletting it burncokestartedslowlis then shoveledin the follow ingway : A large block, the size of the intendedis placed on top of the tuyere and green copackeddown hard oneach side,formingts of closely packed coal.The blockout. and the firestartedin the hole betweentwo mounds, cokebeingaddedasnecessary.sort ofa fire is sometimes calleda fstockwilllast for some time. Thekeemoundsfire together andhelp to hold in the heat.orlargerwork,orwherea great many pieceto be heated at once, or awhen very evenlong-continued heat isa furnacewanted,.For furnace use, and oftenfor large forgs, the cokeis boughtready-made." anking Fires.ld alwaysa forge-fire is leftbe banked. Thecoke shouldraked up together into amound and thred with green coal.Thiswillkeep theefor some time andinsureplenty of gooforstartinganewwhenit does die out.better to follow, it is desire

Whenoodin the center of the firewhenbankingit.dizing Fire. "athe blast issuppliedpowerfan, or blower, the beginnergenerallyto use toomuch air andblow the fire too hardlrequires acertain amount of air to burnly, and as it burns it consumes the oxygentheair.Whentoomuchblastisusedtis not allburned out of the air and withe heated iron in the fire. Wheneverofhot iron comes incontact with the air tof the air attacks the ironandformsoxide.oxideis the scale which*is seen on the outsideon. The higher the temperature tois heated, the moreeasily the oxidewelding, particularly, there shouldwhich tis formed.bescale, or oxide, as possible, and to prevention the ironshould not be heated in contacwith any more air than necessary.ordinaryforging this scaleay the least, as it must beEvenis a disadvantage,cleaned off, anthen is liable to leave the surface of the workandrough.from the ironIf it were possible to keepentirely,no traceormed, even at a high heat.of scale wouldjust enough air is blown into the fire to makearnproperly, all the oxygen willbeburnedandverylittle,ifany, scale willbeformedheating. On the other hand, if too muchisused, the oxygen will not allbeconsumediro

ot Cold Chisels."Twokindsis, when too much airis admittedto the fsurplus oxygen will attack the iron, forminge," orscale. This sort ofa fire is known"oxidizing*'fire andhas a tendency to"oxidize'" Theing heated in it.vil.ordinary anvil,Fig. i, has a bodycast iron,wroughtiron, or soft steel, withsteel faceweldedon andhardened.Thnedsteel covers jus* the top face, leavinghornand the smallblock next the horn of trmaterial.Fig. i.he anvil shouldhefaces it the hornsquarebe so placed that as the work manwill point toward his lehardie-hole in the right-hand endface is to receive and hold the stems ofhardiess, etc.orsmall work the anvil should weigh aboulbs.

it is to temper a hostock, and the otherarecalled cold andforcutting red-hot metal.hotchisels.cold chiselis generally made a little thickere blade than the hotchisel, whichis forgedto a thin edge.. 2shows common shapesforcold ands,as wellas a hardie,another tool usedhofg.HARDIECOLDCHISELHOTCHISELFig. 2.thchiselsshouldbe tempered alike whenewithcoldhotchiselholds its temper ; but, from contacmetal, the hotchiselsoon hassoftened.For these reasons the two chiselneverbeusedinplace of each other,forthe cold chiselon hotwork the temperand the edgeleft too forsoftcutting colwhile the hotchiselsoon becomes so soif usedinplace of the itcold willhaveturned and ruined.

in contact, so soon draws the temper. WhenItchiselis tempered, however, the steelis leftchbetterconditioneven after beingaffectedhotmetal onwhichit isused than itwouldif the chisel were made untempered.rinding Chisels."isveryimportant to havullyhechisels, particularly cold chisels, ground co reand the following directionsfollowed.sides ofacold chisel shouldanangle of aboutinFig.3.This6o"beshouldgroundwith each other,makes anangleblunFig.3.hto wear well, and also sharp enoughwell.hecutting edge shouldbegroundconvex,curving outward,as at B. Thisprevents tfrom breakingoff.When the edge of t

e central part of the tool. If the edge wereconcave, like C, the strain would tendthe corners outward and snap them off.ThonBand C indicate the directionofthes.chisels shouldbeground sharper.Thshouldbeground at an angle of about 3dof 6o".ther tool forusedcuttingis the hardie. Thithe place of the cold or hotchisel.It hasfitted to the squarehole in the right-hand ene anvilface, this stem holding the hardie"wheninting Stock.use.Whensoft steel and wrought-ironare cut withacold chisel the method shouldboutas follows: First cut about one-fourthhe way through the bar on one side; thea cut acrosseach edge at the ends of tcut; turn the bar over and cut across tside about one-fourth the way through;the barslightly, with the cut restingon te corner of the anvil, andbystrikingasharpwith the sledge on theprojecting end, tcangenerallybeeasilybrokenoff.isels should alwaysbe keptcarefully groundsharp.much easier way of cutting stockis to usshears,but these are not always at hand.e edge of a chisel shouldneverunder any circumstancesbedrivenclear through the stock and allowed

he large is forentto cut clear through the piece;intthe cutting shouldbedoneeitheron the horsoftshouldblock next the horn, or the stock tobe backedup with some soft metaleasy way to do this is to cut awide stripabout two inches longer than the widthfaceof the anvil, andbend the endsdownover the sides of the anvil. Thecuttingmadone on this without injury to the edge ofl.It is very convenient to have one of thes always at hand for usewhen trimming thwitha hotchisel.heauthorhas seen acopperblockusedthis same purpose.Theblocwas formed like Fig. 4, the stebeingholeshaped to fit -intothe hardieof the anvil.This block wdesigned for use principally whenFig. 4. trimming thin parts ofheatewitha hotchisel.areshould alwaysbe taken to see thatrests flat on the anvil or blockwheng.Thework shouldbesupporteddirectlneath the point where the cuttingis toand the solider the support, the easierng.ammers."Variousshapes and sizes ofhammersused,but the commonest, and most convenientordinary use, is the ball pene-hammer shown5-

edgesVeryTheseuphammersvaryinweightto several pounds. Forfrom a feordinaryusai"- or 2 -poundveral other types inhammer is used.ordinary use are illustrated5.ig. 6. A is a straight-pene ; J5, a cross-pene;C, a riveting-hammer.dges. "lightsledgesaresometimes madesame shapeas ball-pene hammers. They arfor light tool-work andboilerwork.. 7illustrates a commonshapeforsledges.is a double-faced sledge.Fig.7. Fig. 8.

TongsFor ordinary workasledge should weigh abou10 or 12 lbs.; for heavy work,from16to 20.Sledges for lightwork weigh about 5 or 6 lbsTongs. "aremadein awide varietyshapes and sizes, depending upon the work theare intended to hold. Three of the more ordinaryshapesare illustrated.The ordinary straight-] awed tongs are shownFig. 9. They areusedfor holding flat iron. Fholding roundiron the jaws are grooved or* bento the shape of the piece to be held.Fig. 10showsa pair of bolt- tongs. These tongareusedfor holding bolts or pieces whichare largon the end than through the body,andshaped that the tongs do not touch the enlarged ewhen the jaws grip the body of the work.areFig. 9.Fig. 10.36.Fig. 11.Pick-up tongs, Fig. 11, areusedforhandlingsmall pieces, tempering, etc., but arevery seldomforusedholding work whileforging.

the are being fitted, atting Tongs to Work. Tongs"should alwaysullyfitted to the work they are intendedngswhichfit the workin the manner shownig. 12 should not beused until morecarefullyd. In the first case shown, the jaws are ttogether;andin the second case, too.Fig. 12.Fig.13.enproperlywork the entireWithproperlyfitted, the jaws should touchlength, as illustrated in Fifitted tongs the work mayfirmly, but if fitted as shownin Fig. 12 therlways a very"wobbly"actionbetweentand the work.fit a pair of tongs to a piece of work, the jaddbe heated red-hot, the piece to be helbetween them, and the jaws closedaround the piece witha hammer. Todownpr vethe handles from being brought too clo

Set-hammerSwageFuller"of the jaws. If the handles are too farw blows just backof the eye will close themaparatter """Swage-block.mong the commonest tools usedinforge-workthe onesmentioned above.he flatter, Fig. 14, as its name implies, is usflatteninghe faceinches3and smoothing straight surfaces.of the flatter is generallyfrom 2 inchesquare, and shouldbe keptperfectlyh with the edges slightly rounding.Fig.14.Fig.15.ig.hinger,face15 shows a set-hammer.upparts which cannotbeThisreachedisusedwithinto corners, and work of that character.of this tool also shouldwith the corners more or lesson the workberounded,it is intended to do.smoothadependinget-hammersforsmall work should1 J inches square on the face.beabouSet-hammer''is a namewhichissometimesto almost any tool provided witha handle,ertool in use is held inplace and struck withammer. Thus, flatters,swages,fuller

forllers, Fig. 16, are usedforfinishingupfilleteforminggrooves,andfor numerous pur poswhichwillbegiven more in detail later.ey aremadein avariety of sizes, the sidetermined by the shape of the edgeAa \ inch fuller this edge wouldbe a half-circlh in diameter ; on a \ inch it wouldbe " incameter,etc.llers aremade"top"and"bottom/'Theshown witha handle is a "top" fuller,anlower one in the illustration is a "bottom"andhas the stemforged to fit into the square-holeof the anvil.This stem shouldbefit in the hardie-hole. Toolsof this characterneverbeusedon ananvil where theyightly, that it isnecessary to drive them inttopandbottomswageisshowninFig.1swages shown here are for.finishingroundm"x5Pig.16.Fig.17.Fig.18.

wages aresized according to the shape they ato fit. Ai-inch round swage,forinstance,ade to fit a circlei inch in diameter, and wouldusedfor finishingwork of that size.llof the above tools aremade of low-carbonsteel.swage-blockis shownin Fig.18.These blocksmadein avariety of shapes; the illustrationinga common form for general use. Thik ismade of castironandis about 3^inchesk. It has awide range of uses andis verenientforgeneral work, whereit takes te ofa good many special tools.

CHAPTERII.WELDING.ding-heat. A"piece of wroughtiron or milwhenheated, as the temperature increasesssofter and softer until at last a heatd at which the iron is so soft that if anotherofiron heated to the same point touchestwo will stick together. The heat at whichtwo pieces will stick together is known as tg-heat.point,the sense inwhenIf the iron is heatedit willburn. Allheated,muchmetals cannot bebeyondweldedwhich the term is ordinarily used)remaintheir initial hardnessverydenseanduntilacertainached, when a very slight rise of temperaturescause them to either crumbleor melt.retainmetals which,as the temperature is increased,gradually softer, passing slowlyto the liquid state, can beof this kind just beforeandmore or lesspasty,andthat they are most weldable.weldedmeltingfromheaOnlyteasilybecomeit is in this conditThegreaterrange of temperature through which the metalns pasty the more easily mayitbewelded.nearly all welding the greatest trouble isng the metal properly.The fire must be17clea

ight or the result willbea"dirty''heais, small pieces of cinder and otherdirtwkto the metal, getin between the two piecemake a badweld.oomuch care cannot beusedinwelding ; ifes are toocold they will not stick, andtofhammeringwill weld them. Onr hand, if they are kept in the fire too loheated to too high a temperature they wburned,andburned iron is absolutely worthless.he heating must be doneslowly enoughre the workheatingevenly all the way through.heated too rapidly, the outside maybe atrheatwhile the interior metal is much colderas soon as taken from the fire, this cooleon the insideand the air almostinstantlythe surface to beweldedbelow the weldingrature,anditwillbe too cold to weldtime anv work can be done on it.f the pieces are properly heated (when weldinghthenbroughtisiron ormild steel), they willwelding,readyincontact.feelstickit is best to be sure that every thingbefore the iron is taken fromAll the tools shouldbe so placed that thbepicked uplooking towithoutsee whereare. The faceof the anvil shouldbeperfectly, and the hammer insucha position thatnot be knocked out of the way when the worlaced on the anvilforwelding.ll being in iron brought

Theaway that the pieces can beeasily placedonforwelding without changing the gripggo of them ; then, when everythingis ready,lastshouldbeshut off, the pieces taken fromfire,placed together on the anvil, and weldedr with rapidblowsof the hammer,weldingr the pieces are oncestuck together) thpartsfirst, as these are the parts whichlly cool the quickest.ing Iron or Steel."statement that irobe burned seems to the beginner to beratherrated.The truth of this can, however, beasily shown.If a barofiron be heated in thblastand considerableturned on, the barwihotter andhotter,until at lastsparks willbfromcomingthe fire. Thesesparks, whicharunlike the ordinary ones from the fire, arand seem to explode andform littlewhitese sparks are small particles ofburningirohave been blownsame sparks mayupward out of the fire.bemadeby dropping fiilings into a gas-flame, or by burning a piecly waste whichhasbeenusedforwipinguilings.the bar ofiron be taken from the fire at ththese sparks appear, the end of the barwiwhite and sparkling, with sparks,like starr to those in the fire,comingfrom it. If thg becontinuedlongenough, the end of th

o burn iron two things are necessary: a hiWhenghheat,and the presence of oxygen.snotedbefore,when welding, care mustn not to have too much air going through; inother words, not to have an oxidizingff the fire is not anoxidizing one, there is notdanger of injury to the iron by burningaformingof scale.ronhas beenwhichoverheated and partiallyed has a rough, spongy appearance andtleandcrumbly.se of Fluxes in Welding."a piece ofiesteelironisis heated forthewhichtheoxideformedair.outsidewelding under ordinary co diis oxidized; that is, a thin fis formed. This oxideis the blais continuallyfalling from heated iwhena very high heat,,henheated iron is brought in contactThis oxide ofand,will prevent a good weld.iron is not fluidif allowed to stay onexcepwelding withouta flux the iron is broughta high enoughheat to melt the oxide, whiched from between the welding piecesbyshisnaryof the hammer.heatmayiron; buteasilybe taken when weldingwhen working withsome ma cand particularly tool-steel, the metatbe heated to a highenoughtemperaturemelt the oxide withoutburning the steel.rom the aboveit be heatedit wouldseem impossible towe

tool-steel,difficultymaybe overcome and the oxideat a lower temperature.flux (sand andborax are the most common)thebesprinkledon the part of the piece to bwhenit hasreached about a yellowheat,heatingcontinued until the metalis attemperature to besoft enough to weld,bushouldparts to betbe taken to see that the flux, coversweldedtogether.flux has a double action; in the firstmeltsit flows over the piece andformsplace,ting covering which prevents oxidation,also when raised to the properoxide that has alreadyoxide melts at amuchformed.lowered with the flux than withouttheandwhendinarywithoutoxideheatedheatheatit,dissolvesandwhenis the principal use of the flux. Theincontact with the flux becomes"weldable" at a lower temperature thanit.boraxbble up when,raxcontains water which causesheated. If the heating is continat a high temperature, the boraxruns like water; this meltedtheniscalledforpowderedweldingborax-glass.isforsometimesuse.borax,meltswhenfused as abovel ammoniac mixed withborax seems tosurfacebetter than boraxalone.A fluxne part of sal ammoniac andfourpartscleamadeborax

"Whenostpatented welding compoundshaveboraxabasis,andareverylittle,ifany,bettethe ordinary mixture given above.he flux does not inany way stick the piecether or act as a cement or glue.Itsusecipally to helpmelt the oxide alreadyto prevent the formationofmore.ron filings aresometimes mixed withas a flux.boraxformedahenusinga flux the work should alwaysfed the same aswhenno flux isused.Thes can bewelded,however, at a lowe.agot or Pile Welding. "a large forgingtobemade of wroughtiron,smallpiecesrap''iron (old horseshoes, bolts, nuts, etplaced together in a square or rectangularon a board, bound together with wire, heatedweldingheat in a furnace,and welded togetheronelump,solidand the forgingmad.efro. If there is not enough metalin one lumpralaremadeeachotherin this way and afterward weldedmakingone largepiece. Thisknown as fagot or pile welding.Sand is usedfor fluxing tolarge extent onwork of this kinSometimes asmallfagotwe/\ is madeby laying two or more) pieces together and welding thetheirentirelength, or one piebe doubled together

IninFig.19, which shows the piecebeforeg and also afterrfing."a fagoted or shapedforer and welded,beingwelded and shaped.weld the piecesare noeach other,beingsimplylabut formost welding thof the pieces to be joined shouldbe so shapedthey willfit together andform asmoothwhen welded.This iscalled scarfing.importanterythat the scarfingbe properlyas a badlyshaped scarf will probably spoiFor instance, if anweld.attempt bemadetwoeldbars together simplybyoverlappingends,as in Fig. 20, the weld whenfinishedbesomethinglike Fig. 21. Each barwouldFig. 20.Fig. 2z.orged into the other andleave asmall crackthe endcame. On the otherhand, if thof the bars were properly scarfedor pointed,couldbewelded together andasmooth joint.leave nomarkp-welds aresometimes made without scarf ingbu

Th^lap-weldin Fig. thep-weld Scarf."Inpreparingfor the lap-weld,ends of the pieces to beweldedshouldbefiuntil they areconsiderably thicker than tof the bar. This is done to allowfortwhichburnsoff, or is lost byscaling, ato allow for the hammeringwhich mustwhen welding the pieces together. Tomakeoper weld the joint shouldbewellhammeredher, andas this reduces the size of the irthat point the pieces must bethis reductioninsizeinordersamesizeas the bar.upsetto alloto have the welf the endsare not upset enoughin the fi,itrequires considerablehardwork to upseweld after they are joined together. Toupsettingdoes no harm,and the extris very easily workedintoshape.To besafe sideit is better to upset a little more tha"bsolutely necessaryitmay saveconsiderableafterwards.f more than one heatingwillbenecessaryaweld, the ironshouldbeupset just thmore to allowfor the extra waste duesecondor third heating.at Lap-weld."is the weld ordinarilyto join flat or roundbarsofirontogethertoend.ollowing is a descriptionofa flat lap-weld:ends of the piecesto be joined must be fiWhen.heating forheatupsettingonly

heonly the extreme end of the bar in the firheatwill not run back too far. Theenbeupset untilit looksaboutlike Fig. 2Fig. 22.Fig.23.en starting to shape the scarfuse the roundne end of the hammer. Do not strikedirectlyon the work,but let the blows come atof aboutdegrees45andinsucha way asthe metalback toward the base as shownin FigFig.24. Fig.25.This drives the metalridge at the beginningbacking the scarf, use the flat^faceand makesa sortof the scarf.of the hammer,bring the piece to the very edge of the anviln this way a hard blow mayproperofhitting the anvilpositione scarfs shouldisbeshownbeinsteadinFig.struckshapedas in Fig.withoutof the work.25.26,leav ing

he reason for this is that if the scarfed endse when the two pieces are put together,Fig.26.Fig.27.l pocket or hollowwillbe left between themscarfs touching only the edges.Whenis hammered together, these, edgesbeingct will naturally weldfirst,closingupet to the pocket.As the surface of the scamore or lesscovered with melted scale arimpurities, some of this willbe held inet and makea badplacein the weld.otherfirsthand, if the scarfsare convex, the metastickin the very center of the scarf,out the melted scale at the sides of the jofor ingthehammeringcontinues.helengthof the scarf shouldbeabout i" timethickness of the bar; thus on a bar "" thiscarf shouldbeabout f " long.hewidth of the endAshouldbeslightlylthe widthBof the bar. Inwelding the tes together, the firstpiece shouldbeplacef side upon the anvil, and the second pieon top, scarf sidedown, insucha way ththin edges of the second piecelapwillovethick28.ridgeTheC on the firstpiece asshownpieceiswhichlaid on top should

helper should place his pieceinpositionheanvilpiecefirst. As it is rather hard to lay thdirectly on top of this and placeyin the right position,it is better to ressecond pieceon the corner of the anvilFig.28.Fig.29.at A, Fi^.29, and thus guideit intoposition.his way the piece maybesteadied and placedtheofothertime.in the right position without anen heating for a lap-weld, or for that matterweldcarewhereshouldtwo piecesare joined together,be taken to bring bothpiecehe same heat at the same time. If one piecfaster than the itother,shouldbe takenthe firetoand allowedcool until the othe"catchesit. Itup" withrequiresice to so place the piecesin the fire that thebe heateduniformly and equally.The ticularly must bewatched, anditmaysaryto cool them from time to time in t-bucketto prevent the extreme endsfrongoff.e fire must beclean, and the heatingshouldin to insure its being donesome

Thethedbe turned scarf sidee sure that the surfacesdown for a short timeto be joined willbe hooreeblastshouldbeused at the lastmomentwhen starting to heat.only way to know how this heating is goinis to take the piecesfrom the fire from timtime andlook at them. Thecolor growslightethe temperature increases,untilfinally,whenweldingheat isreached, the ironwilltThewhite.exact heat can onlybe learnedexperience;but the workman should recognizeftera littlepractice as soon as he sees it.getan indicationof the heat,which willheimes, watch the sparks that come from tWhen the little,white, explosive sparksthey show that some of the iron has beeseemdhotenoughto bemelted off in small particlesis burning. This serves as aroughindicationthe iron is somewherenear the weldingheashouldnever berelied onentirely, as ttion of the fire hasmuch to dowith the*rance.und Lap-weld. "roundlap-weld"welto join roundbarsend to"endismadethe same way as the ordinary or flat laThedirections^^^givenformaking the fweld apply to the roundlapIG'3"'\^"well, excepting that the scaTv. isslightlydifferent inshapeTheproper shape of scarf

forstraight, the other three sides taperingeet it in a point. The lengthof the scadbeabout oneand one-half times tterof the bar. Always be sure, particularlysmall work, that the pieces arescarfedto, and not merelyflattened out. The greatestcultywith this weldis to have the pointspieces well welded,as they cool very rapidlyleaving the fire. The first blows,afterstic ingthe pieces together, should cover the pointsweldshouldbemade square at first ; and theed. The weldis not so apt to split whilhammered if welded square and then worked,as it wouldbe if hammeredround at firthe scarf weremade wideon the endliordinarylap-weld, itwouldbe necessaryrclear around the bar inordertoclothe weld;butwith the pointed scarf,onon each point will stick the workinplaceitgmuch morequicklyhandled.ng Weld, Round Stock. Aringformed frostock maybemade jfi two ways; thatscarfingbefore orafterbending intoshape.scarfed before bending, the lengthof stocdbecarefully calculated,a small amountFig.31.

-shouldbe taken to see that the scarfs comeopposite sides of the piece.ig.ng.31 showsa piece of stock scarfed readyter scarfing, the piece shouldbe bent inaring and welded, carbeing taken whenbend ingto see that the pointof the scarflie as ind catat A, Fig.32, anot as shown at B.When the pointsthe scarfsare lappedshown at Ay most of tweldingmaywhile the ringbeliesflatdonthe anvil, the shapingbeing finished over tFig.32. horn. If the points ad the other way,B, the welding also mustdone over the horn,makingit much more awk wartohandle.esecond way of welding the ringis practicallysame as that of makingachainlink,and tdescriptionof scarfing willanswer for bothstockbeing cut andbent into aring, with ta little distance apart; these endsare theed the same as described below for a liand weldedinexactly the same mannerdescribed formaking the other ring.ain-making. The first in li

alll to keep the legsof the Uexactly. Thepiece shouldbegripped at the lowerof the U, the two endsbrought to a high heatd,bent intoshape together, reheated, an.scarf the piece place oneend of the U on thaseveninshownFig.33, and strikeone blowmove it a shortdistance in the directionshownthe arrowand strike another blow. Thipiecebecontinued until the edge or cornerisreached, moving itafter eachblow.Fig. 33.Fig.34.soperationleaves aseries oflittlestepsoend of the piece, and worksit out in a moreesspointed shape,asshownin Fig. 34.sscarf maybe finished by being broughtto a pointby a few blows over the hornanvil.Theends should then be bent togetherwelded.Fig.35 shows the stepsinmakinglinkandtwo views of the finished link. Theis sometimesleftslightly thicker throughAlink iseld.secondmade"open, and the first linkgain, and welded.but "weldingput on it,closedA third is joined to this

scarfedbut bent together and weldedin.r7BWv_y"JFig.35.ing, or Band. "Amethod of makingaringfroFig.36.iron is in Fig.

asInestockiscut to the correctlength,upset,scarfed exactly the same as for a flat lap-weld.pieceis bent intoshape and weldedover thof the anvil. Thering must be heated fg very carefullyor the outsidelapwibefore the inside is hotenoughto weld.scarfing this"in"making other ringscarebe taken to have the scarfs come on oppositeof the tock.sher, or Flat Ring."sedbentedgewisethis weldflatstocinto a ring without anation. The corners of the endsare trimmedparallel after the stockis bent as shown37-Fig.37.Fig.38.er trimming the endsarescarfed withor pene end ofa hammerandlappedreadywelding (Fig. 38).n heating forwelding, the ring shouldover several times to insureuniformityg.theworkisparticular, the ends of the stocbe before bending int

hammeringThistoutt-weld."is aweld where the piecbutted together without any slanting scarfing a square joint through the weld.hen two pieces are sowelded the ends shoulslightly rounded, simillar to Fig.39, whicstwo pieces readyforwelding.If the enconvex asshown, the scale and otherimpurityking to the metalis forced out of the joithe endswere concave this matter wouldDC=rr*Fig.39.Fig. 40.between the pieces and makea poor welpieces areweldedbybeingstruckon the endriven together. This, of course, upsetsnear the weld andleaves the piece somethingFig. 40, showinga slight seam whereded edges of the ends join. Thisupsetpaworkeddowntosize at a weldingheat,leavinbarsmooth.butt-weld is not as safe or as strong as a l.hen the pieces are longenough they mayedrightin the fire. This is done byplacinpiecesin the fire in the proper positioning;a heavyweightisheldagainst the pjend ofonepiece""back itup""aweldismadeby driving the pieces together

AnotherdependingcanVeryaken from the fireandfinished on thmp Weld."formof butt-weld, Fig. 4the "jump" weld, which,r, is a formwhichshouldvoided as muchas possible,t isveryliable to beweak.makingaweldlike this, thewhichis to be "jumped,""butted," on to the otherFlG- 41.shouldhaveitsendupsetinsuchawaylare out andform a sort offlange the widerbetter. When the weldis made, this flangeted by the arrow"beweldeddown, orset-hammers, and makea fairlywithstrongit Weld; Weld forissometimesveryThin Steel."thidifficult to join with the ordi narylap-weld for the reason that the stockthat if the piecesare taken from the fire at thisheat they willbetoocoldtoweldbeforecan be properly placed together on the anvil.s difficulty issomewhatovercome byscarfingends, similar to Fig.42.Theendsare taperedFig. 42.blunt edge and splitdown the center for half a

In the the; the endsare pushed tightly together asplit parts closeddown oneach other,asshownFig.43.Fig.43.The joint may then be heated aed.his is a weld sometimes usedforweldingsprinl,or iron to steel.plit Weld; Heavier Stock. "AsplitweldierstockisshownreadyforweldinginFFig.45.Fig.46.Fig. 44 showing the two piecesbeforethey

andshapedinto a Y,while the otherhasibrought to a point with the sides of the baback of the point bulging out slightlyasshownand B. This bulge is to prevent the twofromslipping apart.nproperly shaped the twopiecesare drivener and the sides,or lips,of the Y-shapedclosedThedown over the pointed end of the otherlipsof the Yshouldbe longenoughover the bulge on the end of the other piecthus present the two piecesfromslipping apart.pieces are then heated and welded.Care mustken to heatslowly, that the pointed part mayought to aweldingheatwithoutburning the piece.Borax,sand,or some otherflubeused. (Sometimes the facesof the scarfsoughenedor notched withachisel,asshown46,to prevent the piecesfromslippingapart.)s is the weld that is often used when weldingteel to iron or mild steel.etimes the pieces are heatedseparately tog heat before beingplaced together. Goods maybeobtained this way when tool-steelto iron or mild steel,as the tool-steel weldsmuchlower temperature than either wroughtormild steel, andif the two pieces are heatedtely, the other metal mayberaised to amuchtemperature than the tool-steel.le Weld. "Inallweldingitshouldberememberedthat theobject ofisscarfingto soshape thto be that they together

A for "Trequently there areseveral equally good methodsscarfingfor the same sort ofitweld, andshoulremembered that the method given here isnsarily the onlyinwaywhich the particularcanbemade.Fig.47 shows onewayscarfingfor aright-angle welmade offlat iron. Botharescarfed exactly alike.pieceThscarfingisdonewith the penend of the hammer. If necessarythe ends of the piecemaybeupsetbeforescarfing.Asinall other welds, carmust be taken to so shape tFig. 47.scarfs that when they are placetogether they will touch in tr, and not around the edges, thus leavingngforforcingout the impuritieswhichcollecthe surfaces to bewelded.Fig.48.

"canblow the hammer cause it tostem, A,shouldbeplaced on the bar,weldinginabout the position shownbytline on B.Weld, Round Stock. "Twomethodsngfor a "T"weldmadefromround stock arinFig.49.Fig.49.scarfsare formedmostly with the pene enhammer.illustrationwillexplainitself.Thestocbewellupsetineithermethod.dingTool-steel."Thegeneralmethodngis the same inall welding ; butwhentoolis to bewelded, either to itself or towroughtor mild steel, more care must beusedintg than when working with the softer metalsproperheatforwelding tool -steel"aboutyellowonlybe learned byexperiment.e tool-steel is heateduntil the sparksfly,

henwelding mild steel orwroughtiron to to, the tool-steel shouldbe at a lower heat thother metal, which shouldbe heated to its ruheweldingfluxheat.usedshouldsal ammoniac andool-steelofhighbe a mixture of about ofourpartsborax.carbon, and such as is used, smalllathe tools, etc., canseldomf in asatisfactorymanner. Whatafirst-classworkbeupmachinedintoweldsigns of the weldmaybeshape and seem perfect"and" butfinishedbeweldedappearsmade, and the stwithoutwhen the workmay,showingishard enedtheweldis almost certain tocrackopen.pringsteel,a lowercarbon steel, maybesati factweldedif great care beused.

ItCHAPTERIII.CALCULATION OF STOCK FOR BENT SHAPES.Calculating for Angles and Simple Bends. "isoften necessary to cut the stockfor a forging asnearlyas possibleto the exact length needed. Thislength can generallybeeasily obtained by measmentorcalculation.About the simplest case for calculationis a plainright-angle bend, of which the piecein Fig. 50 willserve as anexample.This piece asshownis a simple right-anglebendmadefromstock1" through, 8" long on the outsideof eachleg.Fig. 50. Fiq. 51.Suppose this to bemade of woodin place ofiron.It is easilyseen that a piece of stock 1" thick and15" long would make the anglebycutting off 7"

which"isoneend andfastening this piece to the end8"piece, asshownin Fig. 51.his is practically whatis donenhonofiron"only,the bar is bentinandwhen the angleplace of cutting andhammeredintoshape.other words, any method which will givefasten ing,of stock required to makeashape of uniforminwood,if no allowanceis madeforwaste, will also give the lengthsameshape withiron.cuttingrequired to makenhseasier way"of all bent shapeswillserve forcalculatingto measure the lengtan imaginary line drawn through the centerstock.Thus, if a dotted lineshouldbe drawngh the center ofinstockFig. 50, the lengthlegof this linewouldbe 7 J", and the lengthrequired 15",as found before.o matter what the shape when the stockisluniform width through its length, this lengthght stock may alwayslengthmaybeof the centerclearlyshownbe found byline on the bentby the followingmeasuringshapeexperi ment.periment to Determine Partof Stockns Constant in Length while Bending. "whicSu poabarironstraightofwith square endsandbent into the shape shownin Fig.52.the lengthof the barmeasuredon the insiedge of the bendand thFlG- 5 2- the it

the outside ; and not only this, but the insideline 00, the the bar, does nobewillshorter than the originalbe longer. Thebar,metal must thereforee together orupset on the insideandh or draw out on the outside.If this is thas it is, there must be some part of the barit iswhenbentneither squeezes together norout, butretainsitsoriginallength,and thiof the bar liesalmost exactlyin the center,by the dotted line. It is on this lineof thbar that the measuring must be done inorderetermine the originallengthof the straightfor this is the only part of the stock whichs unalteredin lengthwhen the bar is bent.make the explanationa littleclearer, supposeofiron is taken, polished on oneside, andlinehed upon the surface, asshownin the lowergofFig. 53, and this bar then bent into thshownin the upper drawing. Now if thof eachone of these lines bemeasuredmeasurements compared with the lengthlines before the bar was bent, itwouldthat the line A A, on the outside of the barlengthened considerably; the line BBomewhatCCwouldofandwouldlengthened, but not as much as AAbe lengthened less than BB. The00, through the center of the bar,wouldwhile the outsidemeasurealmost exactly the same as when the bar wasthThe line DDht.r than 00andFFwouldbe found toshorter than any other

ly,to determine the lengthof straight stocredto bend intoany shape,measure tIE -5*- 1BBL*___.**Fig.53. Fig. 54.hof the line following the center of the stothebentshape.sanotherexampleFig.54 will serve.uppose a center line be drawn, as shownbyed line. As the stockis 1" thick, the lengthcenterlineof the partAwillbe5", at B5",D 2", E3^", and the total lengthofstoired2i"".convenientformformakingcalculationsisows :^4 = 5""=8"C=5"ttTotal...2 1 i" =lengthof stock required.urves. Circles. Methods of Measuring. "Onand curves there areseveraldifferentmethodsbe in determining the lengt

thefromny case"centerlinelength must bemeasuredof the stock.eway of measuringis to layoff the workfullalongsizthis full-size drawing lay astringor thin, easilwireinsucha way that it follows the shapehe bend through itsentirelength, beingcarefulthe stringis laidalong the center of the stock.estring or wire may then bestraightened anlengthmeasureddirectly.regularshapes or scrollsareeasily measuredway.othermethod of measuring stockforscrollsis to step aroundascroll withapair of dividersthe points ashortdistanceapart, and then lhe same number of spacesin astraightlineanthe lengthof that line. This is of morein the drawing-room than in the shop.asuring-wheel."Stillanother way of measuringtly from the drawing is to use ameasuring-wheel,similartooneshownin Fig. 55, mountedme sort of a handle. This is alightwheel generally madeacircumference of aboutTheside of the rimis soiriegraduatedin inches byhs.To use it, the wheelisdlightly incontact with theorobject whichit iswishedeasure, with the zero-markonFlG- 55-

d along the surfacefollowing the line tored, with just pressure enough to makeve.Bycounting the revolutions made ang the pointer or making amark on the wheecorrespond to the end of the linewhenited,raightit is an easy matter to push the wheeloveline for the same number of revolutionspart ofarevolutionasshownby the pointermeasure the length. If the wheelthe length run over can of course betly from the figures on the side of the wheel.alculating Stock for Circles. "circles, the lengthandinthemayOnbeisrecircles and partcalculatedgraduated,mathematicamajority of cases this is prob ablythe easiest and most accurate method.one in the followingnce around acircle,pliedbyway : Theisequalcircumference,Thto the diameter3} (or more accurately, 3. 141 6).s an illustration, the lengthup the ringe inside diameterin Fig. 56of stock requiredis calculatedas follows:of the ringis 6"1" in diameter. The length must, of course,andtbemeasured along the centerof the stock, asshownthe dotted line. It is tdiameterof this circle, madeby the dotted line, thatusedlengthforcalculatingof stock; andtconvenience this mayFig." '

Theforlengthof this calculatingdiameterisequale inside diameterof the ring with one-half thess of stock added at each end, andinthwouldbe 4" + 6" + 4" =7".lengthof stock required tomake the rinbe 7" X=3^ 22"; or, inlengthof stock requiredtoother words, to finmake aring, multiplythediameterof the ring, measuredfromcenternter of the stock,by34.culating Stock for "U's.""Someshapesmayividedupintostraightlinesand parts of circlethen easily calculated.ThusUshapein Fig. 57 maybed into two straight sides andf-circle end.Theendis halfofrclehaving anoutsidediameter""Ms4".circleThewouldcalculatingbediameter3", and theofof stock requiredfor anentireFig. 57.this size 3X3|=for9|, whichconvenienceay callas this is9"",near enoughforordinaryAs the forgingcallsforonly half acirclelengthneededwouldbe9f"-^4=4H"-thecircleis 34" outside diameter, halfofthier,orif", must be taken from the totaof the U togive the lengthof the straightof the sides ; in other words, the distance fromline A to the extreme end of the U is half therof the circle,orif".This leaves thht sides each 4f " long, or a total length f

Thedecimals as thLengthstockforsides8 \"11 "end 4H"Total"" -lforging13-jV".ink. "Asanother example, take the linkshownFig. 58. This maybe divided into the twoat the ends andsem cirtwo straight sides.Calcu latinas always throughthe center of the stocthere are the twostraighsides2" long, or 4", and58- two semicircular ends,completecirclefor the two ends.Thelengtiredfor these twoends would=41", or, nearly- enough, 4}i".be\\f ,X3^,iThe total lengthe stock wouldbe4" +=4*"" 8:4",tobeaddedaslight amount for the weld.whicouble Link. "double link in Fig. 59 isexample of stock calculation.Herethetwo complete circles eachFlG-havingan inside diameterof $", and,they aremade of \" stock,alculating''diameterof1 " .Thethof stock requiredfor one sidedbe3.1416" X 1" =3.1416",the total length fors 3.i4i6"X2" =6.2832",completewhichFlG- 59-is about 6^"..s a general ruleit is much easierto make

of Tables. To"aidinreductiona tablelisequivalentsgivenon p.By249.-usintable it is only necessary to find the decimaland select the nearest sixteenthin the tablesgenerally sufficiently accurate to take tsixteenth.table of circumferences of circlesis also given;byferencelookingillustrate,mayup the diametersupposebeof stock requiredfoundopposite.of any circle tit is necessaryto find tto makearinger out of "" round stock.Thiscalculatingdiameterof the ring 6f.would6" insidmakethe table of circumferences and areasof circlete a diameter 6$ is found the circumference.eng..206;thatIn the table ofThisdecimalequivalents-^ is the nearest sixteenth to the deci malthus the amount of stock requiredowance for Welding."rybemadeofcourse makesno allowanceforwelding,Someallowanceitbut the exact amountwimusthard to determine, as it depends on howlly the iron is heatedtaken to make the weld.eedonly stock whichisandreallyhowlostconsequently the only waste whichinfor, is the amount whichscale when heating the iron.ismanyinburnedhasfheatswelding,tooffcourse when preparingfor the weld the ends

overlapping the inendsmaking the bweld;this materialis afterwardhammered back iso that no loss occurs here at all, exceptthe loss fromscaling.skilled workman requiresa very small allow anceforwasteinwelding,infactsometimesnoneall;but by the beginners an allowance shoulsbemade.orules can begiven;but as a rough guidework,a lengthof stock equal to from oneh to three-fourths the thickness of the barwblybeabout rightfor waste on rings, emaking straight welds, when possibleitr to allowa little more than is necessary aoff the extra stockfrom the end of the finishe.orkof this kindshouldbewatched very closethe stock measuredbeforeand after weldingto determineexactlyhowmuch stockis lwelding.In this wayan accurate knowledgeobtained of the proper allowancefor waste.

WhenCHAPTERIV.SETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING."ing Out.eitherbyapiece of metalis workedpounding or otherwise,insuchawaythe length is increased,and either the widthess reduced, we say that the metalis beingn out," and the operationis known as"drawingut."isalwaysbestwhendrawing out to heat thto as high a heat as itwill stand withouty. Work can sometimesbe drawn out muchbyworkingover the hornof the anvil than oface, the reason being this: whenapieceis laid flat on the anvilfaceammer, it flattens out and spreadsand hit a blowbothwithlengthwiseand crosswise, making the pieceThe pieceis not wanted wider,longerhowever,andonlystrikeinlonger, so it is necessaryto turn it on edgeit in this position, whenlengthandalsothinned out again.toeitheris not wantedit will againicin thickness, and willAgooddealhaveof work thusincreasing the width or thickness,increased;and the work requiredare lost. Inon the faceother words, whenof the anvil the forceconsequentlythito again thin the forg ingdrawingof the blow51ou

ig. 61 illustrates the different in drawinginndedforcing the ironsidewiseaswellthwise,and the in forcingwork usedthe iis lost. Thusewiseonly aboutone halfeof the blow isreally usedto do the wored.uppose the iron beplacedon the hornofFig. 60.l,asshownin Fig. 60, andhitwith the hammelbefore. The ironwill still spread out sidewisele, but not nearly asmuchas before and wthen out very much more. The horn in tlacts as sort ofa bluntforcingwedge,outin the directionof the arrow, and the forceblow is used almost entirelyin lengthening.ullersworkmayheldbeforusedthe same purpose, aeitheron the horn or the faceofl.rawingOutandPointing Round Stock. "Whening out or pointing round stockit should alwayfirst forged downsquare to the required size a, in as few blows aspossible, rounded up.

e for is follows: SupposeB is the firststep, C is the next, when the irogedoctagonal, and the laststepis shown atFig. 6i.the iron is finishedup round.In drawinga piece of roundiron it shouldfirst be forgedB, then like C,andlastly finished like D.anexample:Suppose part ofa barof "is tostockbe drawn down to f " in diameter.dof poundingit downround and round untif " diameter is reached, the part to be drawn oubeforgedperfectly square and this drawnto |", keeping it asnearly square aspossiblehetime.corners of the square are forgedoff, makingctagon, and,lastof all, the isworkrounded upprevents the frommetalsplitting, as it is veryto do if worked round and round.Fig. 63.

Athatin Fig. 65,it is being hit on the upper side.Thearrowscate the flowther at A Aof the metal"turned and the hammeringdmetalatlast,isis, it is forgeand apart at BB. Now, as the bforcedtime the bar isprobablyawaygive way andlookcontinued, the ou sifrom the center, whicform acrack; andof the required size,somethingiflike Fig. 63.he same precaution must be taken whencut,forgindedshapedpointupstockdown to around orconical poinmustfirst bemade square and thby the method given above.If thisdone the pointis almost sure tosplit.quaring Up Work."common difficulty meinbealldrawing out, or in fact inhammeredupto forge into a diamondsquare,all work whicis the liabilityshape, or to haveprojecting out too far. If asectionugh a barmisshapedits length, insteadofofbein this way, at right anglebeing asquare or rectangle,shape will appear something like one of the ou lin Fig. 64.jn.Fig. 64. Fig. 65.oremedy this and square up the bad corners,the bar across the anvil and strike upon

Whenbodytheof the bar,gradually squaring it off. Justhammerstrikes the metalit shouldbegivensort ofa sliding motion, as indicated by the arrow.Noattempt shouldbemade to square up a cornerof this kind bysimply striking squarelydownuponthe work.The hammering should all be donesucha way as to force the metal back into the baand away from the corner.Upsetting."apiece of metalisworkedsuch away that its length is shortened, and eitheor both its thickness and widthincreased, the piecis said to beupset ; and the operationisknownupsetting.There are several ways of upsetting, the methoddepending mostly on the shape the workis in.Withshort pieces the workis generally stoodonendthe anvil and the blowstruckdirectly on the upperend.Thework should always be keptstraight;aftera few blows it will probably start to bendanmust then bestraightenedbefore moreupsettingdone.If one part only of a pieceis to beupset, then thheat must beconfinedto that part, as the partthe work whichis hottestwill be upset the most.Whenupsettingashort piecefor its entirelength,it will sometimes work uplike Fig. 66. Thismaybe due to two causes: either the ends were hotterthan the center or the blowsof the hammer weretoo light. To bring a piece of this sort touniformsize throughout, it shouldbe heated to a higher heain the center and upset withheavy blows. If tworkis very short it is not always convenient

ne the heat to the central part ; in such a casepiece maybe heatedall over, seizedby the tonghe middle and the ends cooled,one at a time,water-bucket.Fig. 66. Fig. 67.hen light blows areused the effect of the blonot reach the middle of the work, and consequenthetheupsettingeffect of goodis onlydone on the ends.heatingand heavy blowsin Fig. 67. With a heavy blow the workmore in the middle andless on the ends.o bring a piece of this kind toghout, oneend shouldbe heateduniformandsupsethen the other end treated in the samewayning the heateach time asmuch as possiblehe ends.ong work maybeupsetby laying it across tof the anvil,letting the heatedend extend twthree inches over the edge, the upsettingbeinbystriking against this end with the hammersledge.If the workis heavy the weight wenough resistance to the blow to prevent tfromlighterslidingpiecesback too far at eachblow; bitmaybenecessary to "back

ther way of upsetting the ends of a heavyTheretheisanviltoby"ram"theheatedswinging the workend against the sidebackandforthhori zontandstrikingit against the side of the anvilweight of the piecein this case takes the place hammer anddoes the upsetting.avypieces aresometimes upsetby lifting themnddropping or driving them down on the face anvilor against a heavy blockofironrestinghe floor. Heavycast-iron plates aresometimesin the floor for this purpose, and are calletting-plates .''. 68shows the effect of the blowswhenthe end ofa bar. The lowerpiecehasupsettingbeenlyheated and upset withblows,while the othershows the effect oflightThis lastshape may alsoausedby having the extremeching."makingare two kindsof punches usedholes in hot"metalstraighthand-and the punchused witha hand-hammer,at a higher heat than the reste part to beFlG- 68-upset.from heavierstock and provided with,used witha sledge-hammer.nchesshould, of course, bemade of tool-steel.rpunchingsmallholes in thin iron a handisordinarily used.This is simplya baror octagonal steel, eightor ten inches long

iswhichto bepunched.Such a punchinnFig. 69. Thepunch should taper ufand the extreme end shouldbeperfectlyreacross, not in the leastrounding.d 1Fig. 69. Fig.76.horheavierandlike Fig. 70fasterwork witha helper,is used.This is driven intowitha sledge-hammer., B,andC, in Fig. 71, show the differentsteunchingacleanhole through a piece ofhot irFig.71.punchis first drivenbarwhile the workcompresses the metalabouthalf-way throughis lying flat on the anvidirectlyunderneathand raises aslightbulge on the opposite she bar bywhich the hole can bereadilylocated.pieceis then turned over and the punchingfrom"A",

hole ; while"curvesInif the punching were allgenerallydone froside,a burr, orprojection, wouldberaisedside where the punch came through.andE (Fig. 71) illustrate the effects of properimproperpunching.Ifstartedfrom one sifinished from the other the holebewillcleasharpon bothsides of the work;but if tingis done from oneside only a burrwilld, as shown at E, on the side opposite to thwhich the punchingisdone.the pieceis thick the punch shouldbestarted,alittlepowdered coal putin the hole,and ting continued.Thecoal prevents the punchassticking much as it would withoutit.nding."Bendsmay bedividedroughlyinto twesgles."aryand angles.bendinganglesit isnearlytomake the bend at some definitealwayspoinheAsstock.the measurements aremuch easiewhile the stockis cold than whenhot, itto "layoff" the stockbefore heating-.e point at which the bend is to bemade shouldarked witha center punch"on tof the instock, preference to the side.rkingawith cold chisel should not be donsdoneverylightly on the edge of stock.Ift nickbemadeon the side ofapiece of stockbent,and the stockbent at this point with toutside, the small nick will expand andleavacrack.badIf the nickbe on the inside, it is a

heneverconvenient,it isin a vise, as the piece maygenerally easierbegripped at tpoint where the bend is wanted.hendmaking a bend over the anvil the stocbe laid flat on the face,with the pointFig.72.the bend is wanted almost,but not quite,he outside edge of the anvil.hebarshouldbe held down firmly on the anvibearing down on it with asledge, soplaced thaoutside edge of the sledgeoutside edge of the anvil.is aboutin linewitismakesit possible tomake ashortbendwithammering than when the sledgeis nat used.Brackets"e barwill pull over the edge of the anvitly whenbending.nd with Forged Corner. and otheryforgings are sometimes made wit1 the outsidecorner of the bendforgedup square, asshownFig. 73.There areseveral waysbending a piece to finish in thFig.

let bend it becomesandbend the angle,forging the corner squaret is bent ; anotherboththicker than the finished forgingendsto the requiredfinishedanddrawthickness,ng a thin-pointed ridgeacross the bar at twhere the bendwill come, this ridgeformingeoutside or square corner of the angle where tis bent ; or this ridge maybeforeprocessbending.indetailis as follows : The firsthat it formsof the firststepnearlyaright angle,be formed bymethodis to bend the bkeepingas sharp as possible,asshown at A (Fig. 74tBFig.74.shouldheat the easierbe done at a high heat, as the higherthe sharper the bend.it is to bend the ironandis to start with stock considerablyupsettingmentionconsequentlrking the iron at a goodhigh heat, as before,outside of the bendshouldbe forged intocorner, letting the blows come insuchawayo force the metal outit iswherewanted,being

forgedB,shows the proper way to strike.Thearrowsate the directionof the blows.hework should rest on top of the anvil whilis being done,not over one corner. If workedthe corner, the stock willbe hammered theobjectin keeping the angle obtuseis thimetal at the corner of the bend is reallybein, and the actionissomewhat as follows:75is shown the bentpieceon the anvil.Wsuppose the blows come on the partA in ttion indicated by the heavy arrow. Th,being heated to a highsoftheat at C,upsets,ofit forming the sharp outside corner anflowing asshownby the smallarrow at CanFig.76ga sort offillet on the inside corner. Ifof having the angle greater than 90 degreesbeen an acute angle (Fig. 76),the metalforcedard by the blows on Awould carry withof the metalon the insideof the pieceB"anld shutorcrack wouldbe formed on the insidtheangle.To form asoundbend the corner

is heated. This half is bent the samethelaststepis to square up the bend overcorner, oredge, of the anvil.second way of making the aboveis to forgceasshownin Fig. 77,the size of the originalinThispieceisthensuchaway that theC, forms the outsidethe dotted lines indicateFlG-77'corner of the angle.isridgeissometimesupsetinplaceofbeingout.efirstmethoddescribed is the most satisfactory.ng-bending."Inmakinga ring the firststeourseis tocalculate and cutfrom the bar thamount of stock.The bendshould alwaystartedfrom the end of the piece.Forordinaryupheatedto 4" or 5"foraboutin diameter the stock shouldone-halfits length. To starng, the extreme end of the piece shoulddbent over the hornof the anvil, and the babe fed across the hornof the anvil andbentdown as it is pushedforward. D^Z^-S!j~^Dnot strikedirectly on top of thC J wayhorn, but let the blows fall a littfrom it, as in Fig.78. Thibends the ironFiganddoes not pound78it out of shape.One-halfof this bent in this way and then the partle

"Thethebendingfirststepinmakingan elike Fig. 79istocalculatetamount of stock requiredbend. The amount requiredforinttFig.79. ferencecase, found by lookingofa 2"circleup the circum-in the table,Thisdistanceshouldbelaidoffbymakingalk-markon the faceof the anvil 7 J" from thandend.piece of iron is heated andlaid on the anvil wiheatedendon the chalk-mark, the rest ofextending to the left. A hand-hammer is hethebarwith the edge of the hammer directlywith the end of the anvil.Thismeasuresfrom the edge of the hammer to the end of tThe bar is then laid across the anvilbringingedge of the hammerexactlyinlinewithde edge of the anvil, thus leaving 7 J" projec ingover the edge.untilThisprojectingit forms aright angle.endTheisextremebeof this bentpartis then bent over the horn inFig. 80.

e same general method as described for bendingrings should be followed. The differentshownin Fig. 80.stepaneyeis too small to closeround the horn, it maybedas far as possibleinway, and then completelyover the corner or onfaceof the anvil,as showng. 81.uble Link. "AnotherFlG- 8leof this sort ofgoodbending is the double linin Fig. 59.e link is startedby bending the stockint.center, the firststepbeing to bend arighThisstep, with the succeeding ones,in Fig. 82.1stC2nd3rdFig. 8**

Fig."anordinaryring ; excepting that all the bendingone from oneend of the piece, startingfromme endasusual.wisting. "83shows the effects produceding stock of various shapessquare,octagonal,^3)Fig. 83.flat, the shapesbeingshownby the cutscase.o twist workin this wayit shouldbe broughtniformheat through the length intended. When the bar is properlyheated itshoulfirmlygripped witha pair of tongs, or in avithe exact point where the twist is to commence.another pair of tongs the workis taken howhere the twist is to stop, and the bar twistedgh as many turns as required.Themetaof course be twisted onlybetween the two paitongs, or between the vise and!the tongs, asmaybe ; so care must bethe bar or the twist willbeusedin taking homade at the wrongs.

Thehotterpart, being softer, will twist more easilythe twist will not beuniform.If one endbar iswanted more tightly twisted than ththe heatshouldbe soregulated that the parated hottest that iswanted tightest twisted;heatgradually shading off into the parts wantedloosely twisted.erse Twisting."effect showninFig.oducedbyreversing the directionoftwisting.Fig. 84.squarebar is heatedand twisted enoughthe desiredangle.It is then cooled,ina line as possible, as far as B,and twistedin the oppositedirection. It is againheated,thisupdesiredto A,and twisted in the first direction;operationis continued until the twist islength.

ThisCHAPTER V.SIMPLE FORGED WORK.wisted Gate-hook. "description answers,, not onlyfor this particular piece,butrs of a like nature.ig. 85shows the hook to bemade.Tosta,itmust be determinedwhatlengthofstoc"tFig. 85.rit is forged to proper size, willberequiredheup the ends.lengthof straight stock necessary should,, be measured through the center of tkon the dotted lines in the figure. To do tout the fullworksize, andlay astring or the of soft wire upon the lines to bemeasured.is then a very easy matter tostraighten out tor string, andmeasure the exact lengthIf the drawing is not madefullsize,ate sketch maybemade on a board, orothethe length from

hook asabove will require about2 J" lengthOneAs is inastock; the eye, about 2f".e first step wouldbe like Fig. 86."*"---VJtmO"**-3Fig. 86.ercutting the piece ofTysquare stock, starforging by drawing out the end, startingend and workingback into the stock untilis forgedout 2f"longand \" in diameter.workin the shoulder with the set-hammerfollowingway:ming Shoulders: Both Sides "fromSide. "Placepiece on the anvilinsuch aposition thapoint where the shoulderiswantedy on the nearest edge of the anvil.comesPlaceset-hammer on top of the pieceinsucha wayitsedge comes directly in linewith the edgeanvil (Fig. 87). Do not place the piecelik1 1Fig 87. Fig 88.88, or the result willbe as shown"shoulder

ab-hooksThisinworkin faster on oneside than on the otheysbecareful to keep the shoulder exactly evethe edge of the anvil.hen the pieceis formed in the proper shapeend, start the second shoulder 4" from the firfinish like Fig. 86. Bend the eye and thenand,lastly,put the twist in the centerthe twist as follows:irstmake a chalk-markon the jaws of the vithat when the end of the hook is even with tthe edge of the vise willbewhereoneendtwist should come. Heat the part to be twistedto an even yellowheat (be su~WtV that it is heatedevenly) ; plait in avise quickly, with the e)even with the mark; grasp tpiece with the tongs, leaving tFig 80distance between the tongs avise equal to the lengthof twig. 89) ; and twist it around one complete turn.heeyeshouldbe bent as described before,ahook bent in the same general wayas the eye.rab-hooks."is the name given to a kihooksusedon chains, and madeforgrabbinging over the chain.The hook is so shaped ththroat, oropening,islargeenoughto slip eaiover a link turned edgewise,but too narrowdownoff this link on to the next one,which,, passes through the first link at right angleit.

thatFig.a90 will serve as anexample. To forge this,barm the heavystbeof round iron largeenoughinpart of the hook. This barslightly upset, either bysectionshouldtoramming or hammeringfor ashort distance from the end, and thenttenedout like Fig.91.^"Fig.90.Fig.92.Fig.93.The next stepis to round up the part for the eye,shownin Fig. 92, by forming it over the cornerofanvil as indicated in Fig.93. Theeye shouldforged as nearly roundaspossible, and thenhed.Particularthe eyeattention shouldbe paid to this point.is not properly rounded beforepunching,s difficult to correct the shape afterward.Afterpunching, the inside corners of the hole areded off over the hornsshownin Fig. 94.Fig.of the anvilin the manner95 shows the appearanceofa section of the eye as left by the punch.uptheeyefromshouldhen the eyeis finished it should appear as thoughroundbeiron "rounded off as shownis completed the bodyis, all the squareinFig.96.of the hook

uldbe drawn out straight,forged to size, abentintoshape.Careshould be taken-^Fig.94.Fig.95.Fig.96.the hook thickest around the bottomoft.)s the stocklengthisentirelyformed before bending,of the straight piece must beFlG*.^measured,carefullyas indicatedat A (Fig.thepieceis shown97), whereready97'for bending. To deter minetherequiredlength the drawing orsampleldbemeasured withastringorpiece offlexiblemeasuring along the center of the stock,fromextreme point to the center of the eye.he weakest point of almost any hook is in thm bend. When the hook is strained thereendency for it toshownthis the bottomstraighten out and take thby the dotted lines in Fig.as possible along the line90. Tof the hook must be keptof strain, whichby the line drawn through the eye.for this lower bend isit willbea little thinner inof the metalshownAgoodin the sketch,noticed that the bar has been hammeredorderin the directionto increase the thicknessof the line

e part of the hook most liable to bendunderis the part lying between the points markedJin Fig. 102.therstyle of grab-hookis shownin Fig.9Fig.98.shows the finished hookreadyhookformingforshownbending.and also the straightwill need no particular description.isforgedabout f " thick ; the out sidedge around the curve being thinned out|", inorder togive greater stiffnessinionof the strain.ckabout f " X 1" is used.thvery convenient wayto start the eyefor a hookhis kind, or in factalmost anyforgedeye,in Fig.99.Two fullers, top andbottom,used, and the work shapedasshown.The babe turned, foredgeedge,betweenfeeveryif the grooves are wanted of the same depth.ascutting the grooves the edgedescribedabove.isshapedlogging-chains,th

kby flatteningandforming oneendinto an epointing the other end; after which the hooent intoshape.Fig.99.Fig. 100.elded Eye-hooks. "Hooksmadebyinsteadweldingd stock.Such a hook issometimeshaveofforging fromshownin Fig. 10Fig.ioi.also shows the stock scarfed andbent inreadyforclosing up the eyefor the weld, athe eye readyforwelding.Before heatingweld, the eye shouldbeclosed, and stock atbe bent The

SIMPLE FORGED WORK.75This sort of eyeis not as strong as a forgedeyeof the same size ; but is usuallyasstrongas the restof the hook, as the eyeis generally considerablystronger than any other part.Ho:sting-hoobs. A"widely accepted shapeforhoisting-hooks, used oncranes,etc.,isshowninFig. 102. The shape andformula are givenbyHenryR. Town, in his Treatise onCranes.T=workingload in tonsof 2000 lbs.A=diameterof roundstock usedto form hook.Thesize of stock to usefor a hook to carry anyFig. 102.particularload isgivenbelow. Thethe hook, in tons, is givenin the uppercapacityline"ofthefigures in the lower line, directlyunder any particularload in the upper line, giving the size ofbarrequiredto form a hook to beused at that load.T=i i } 1iiA-i H 4"A '* *f ii2 3 452 H68 102* 2" 3*The otherdimensionsthe following formula,inches:D-E=F=of the hook are found byall the dimensions being in+1.25.$T.647+1.6.33T+ .85

sions for flattening be to tG=0=Q=H=i.o8A.7SD.363r+.66.64r+i.6J-I.2AK=i.i$AL=i.osAM-N=E/=.sA.85B-.16.866Aillustrate the use of the table, suppose a hooktontedraisea loadof 500lbs.the linemarkedT in the table are found thes ", denoting a loadof one-quarter ofa ton,lbs. Under this are the figures |j-, giving thtostock requiredshape the hook.e different dimensionsof the hookas follows :wouldbI? -.5 X74 +iV/'=i8/"=.64X74 + 1.6"= 1. 76 -i8//'about.'//8H=1.0"A/=i.33A ==1.08 X 11/13=.74 =74about.i.33X11/10=.9iS= 29/32abouthenreducing the decimals, the dimensions,have to doonly with the bendingof the hook,is, the opening, the length, the lengthof pointmaybe taken as the nearest 16th,but thes

Boltsecompletedimensions for the hook inques tioniooo lbs. capacity, wouldbe as follows :lts. "andare madewelding.Theby two methods, upsettingfirstparticularlyonsmally always used, the stockdmethodbolts,beingis the morewhereupsetthe head. In the second method the headbyupsetweldingaring of stock around the stem.ded they are bothhead is stronger than aweldedequally well made.itheade size of the bolt is always given as the diameterandlengthof the shank, or stem. Thus,olt, 6" long, means a bolt having a shank \"ter,and6" long from the under side of tto the end.mensionsofbolt-heads are determined fromediameter of the shank, and should alwayssameassizeof the length.diametershowninfor the same diameter, being inde pendand thickness of the head are measuredFig.e dimensions ofare as follows:103.both square andhexagonaleter).diameterofhead across the flats (sho

a 2" bolt the dimensionswouldbecalcu latedas follows :ameterofheadwould equal ii"X2"+"".icknessof head wouldbe 2".ese are dimensions forrough or unfinished;eachdimensionofa finished head is Vthan the same dimensionof the rough head.wv_yFig.103.oltsgenerallyhave the top cornersof the heaedorchamfered off (Fig.103).Thisdonewitha hand-hammer, orwitha cupping-cCFig.104. Fig.105.(Fig.bottom104), whichfaceis simply aset-hammer wit

making bolts onespecial tool isheading-tool. This isthe shape ofhurryboltsometimesFig.anyrequired,105, althoughflatstripofforaironpunched the proper size to admit the stembolt can beused.en in use this tool is"commonly made somethingwithplacedon the anvily over the square hardie-hole, the stembolthardie-holebolt.projectingis heading-tool isflushdown through the heading-toolwhile the head is being forgedmade withone side of twith the handle, the other side project inga quarter ofan inch or so aboveit. The too"alwaysbeset-head Bolt.: Thestockused with the flat sideon the anvilAnupset 'head ismadeas fo lois first heated to a high heat fordistance at the end, and upsetas shown106.The bolt is then droppedah the heading tool, the upf-}f-3ortion projecting above.This* 'partis then flattened downthe tool as shown at B,and 1^square or hexagonal on theFlG-Io6"e hole in the heading-toolshouldbelargA"to allow the stock to slip through it nearlyo the upset portion.ded-head Bolts.welded-headbolt is madeeldinga ring of squareironaround the shankrm the head, is then in a heading-

of the proper sizeis bent into aring,butnAbouted.the easiest wayto do this is to tarseveralfeet long, bend the ring on the end, acut it offasshownin Fig.107.\SFig.107.hisringis just large enough, when the endshtly separated, to slip easily over the shank.heshankis heated toaboutaweldingheat,beingslightly cooler, and the two put togethershownin Fig.107,B. The head is heatedad, and then shapedas described above.henweldingon the head it shouldbe hammerede the first thing, and not pounded round a.It is much easiertomake asound weldngsquare.are must beused when taking the weldingheheatslowly, otherwise the outside of the ring wburned before the shankis hotenough tostict is sometimes necessary whenheating the bolforwelding to cool the outside ring to preventburning before has been heated

Tongsays just far enough tocool the outside edgeringandleave the central part, or shank,hot.ngs. "are madein a great varietyseveral of whicharegiven below.mmon flat-jaw tongs, such as are usedfngdstock up to about J inch thick, mayas follows: Stockabout " inchsquarebeused.This is first bent like A, FigTo form the eye the bent stockis laFig.108.theanvilin the position shown at B,andenedbystriking with a sledge the edge of thforming the shoulderfor the jaw. A setmaybeused to do this byplacingwith the other side up,flat on the faceofandholding the set-hammerinsuchawaythth

fittingtohe long handle is drawn out withasledgeing as shown at C. When drawing out worway the forgingshould alwaysbe heldwistraight side up, the corner of the anvilformingsharp corner up against the shoulderon.If the piecebe turned the other sideisdangerof striking theprojectingshoulderthe sledge andknocking the work out of shapeorfinishingupinto the shoulderaset-hammerswageshouldbeused, and the handlesshoulsmoothed off witha flatter, or between top amswages.The jaw maybeflattenedat D.he inside faceof the jaw shouldbeslightled witha fuller, as this insures the tongs gri pintheworkfirmlywith the sides of the jaws, asimply touching it at one pointin the center,sometimesdo if this crease is not made.fter the tongs have beenshaped, and are fiinevery other way, the hole for the rivdbepunched.the hole. TheTherivet shoulddropeasistraight end of the rivet shoulbrought to a high heat, the two parts of tplaced together with the holes in line,inserted,and the end"headedup."Mostheadingshouldbedonewith the pene endhammer.beratherAfter"al times, while the rivetriveting the tongs will prob ablystiff''; opening and shutting theisstill red-hot, wthem loose. The tongs shouldbefinishe

Tongswith the exceptionshaping the jaws,maybe done inway:A top fullerbottom swageare FI("- noitht Tongs. "followingavemaybemadefrom flatstockway : A cut is made witha narrowat the rightdistance from the end of the baenough stock to form the jaw between thand the end,as shown at A, Fig.109.sendis bent over as shown at Bandasecondcut made, shown at C, to form the eye. Thend of the bar is drawnout to form the handle,dicated by the dotted lines. The jaw is shaped,rivet-hole punched, and the tongs finished,in the usual way.gs of this character maybeusedon lighgs for Round Stock."Tongsfor holdingstockmaybemadebyeither of the aboves, the operationsmakingbeingthe

Bolt-tongssize of the inside. The jaw is held on the swagethefullerplacedon top anddrivendownFig. no, forcing the jaw to take the desire, shown at A. The final fitting is done, after the jaws areriveted together.elded Tongs. "-outinTongswithweldedhandlesexactly the same wayas those with solihandlesout the entireexcepting that, in place ofdraw inglengthis forged, a few inches long,eda barof round stockin shows one readyof the handle, a short stforand to thisto form the handlewelding.Fig.hi.ick-up Tongs. No"particulardescriptionsaryformaking pick-up tongs. The tongbe drawn out ofa flatpiece andbentin Fig. 112.BFig. 112.olt-tongs."areeasily made frostock, although square maybeused

inFig.113. This may be donewith a fullethe edge of the anvil,asshown at A. Wheng the extreme end of the jaw the bareldbent.almostlevel at first,shouldand gradually swungas shown by the arrow, until the endisFig.113.Fig.114.eeyemaybeflattenedwith the set-hammer,thepartbetween the jaw proper and the eydown to shapeover the horn andon twith the same tool.jawproperisroundedandfinishedwithand swage,as shownin Fig. 114.ere isgenerallya tendency for the springjaw to open up too muchin forging. Thibe bent back intoshape eitheron the faceanvil,as shown at A (Fig.115),as at B.or over tothermethod of making the first bend,ing the tongs, is shownin Fig.116.AwhenproperlyswagQ-

Aer is to ther size could of course beusedinplaceofk.Fig.115. Fig.116.adle. "ladle,similar to Fig.117, mayoftwopieces welded together, one pieng the handle, the other the bowl.square piece of stock of the proper thicknesscutand"laidout"(or marked out)like Fthe center of the piecebeing first founding the diagonals.Fig.117.Fig.118.circleis drawn as large as possible, withr on the intersectionof the diagonals;eiscut out withacold chiselto the circpting at the points where projectionsarelipsandfor a place toweldon the handle. Th

owl is formed from the circular partbgitcarefully to an evenyellowheatandgit over a roundhole in aswage-blocktheobject.poundingAs the metalby the blowThe pene end of the hammer is used,done over the hole in the swage-in the center is forced downwardof the hammer, the swage-blockts the material at the sidesg.is gradually workedinto a bowlwhenfromshape.119 shows the position of the blockforging.e bowl beingormed,shaped properly, the lipsand the top of the bowlfollowingandthshouldground off true.oonFt.g.119.Fig. 120.e lips maybe formed by holding the parsthe lips are to beagainstone of the smallerin the side of the swage-block, andto the grooveon the insider a ladlebywitha bowlof the circle, cutdrivingplacingasmall piece of roundof the bowl as shown34"from the flatin Fig. 120.in diameter, the diameterstock,should4", as the edges of the pieceStock for other sizes shouldStockdraw in somewhat.bebeinabout

achine-steelshouldbeusedformakingthe. If ordinary wroughtiron is used, the metaliable to split.owls."bemustBowls,and objects of similar shape,madein the manner described above, butbeused not to do too much hammering in-6=Fig. 121.N"t^vcenter of the stock, as that is the part mostle to beworked too thin.hain-stop." Thechain-stop, shownin Fig. 121,serve as anexample of avery numerousclassof forgings; that is, forgingshaving a comparativelylargeon oneside.projectionCare should be takento select stock, for piecesthis sort, that will workinto the proper shape withleasteffort. Thestock should be as thick asthickest part of the forging,aswideas the widest part.k, in this particular case,ldbef'Xii".The different steps in makingforging are showninFig.First two cuts aremadeapart, as shown at A ; thene cuts arewidened out withuller, B. Theendsare thenged out square, as at C. Toish the piece the hole isFig. 122.ched and rounded and thend.endsfinished

en the fuller isuseditshouldbehely slanting, as shownin123.is forces the metal towardcentral part andleavesnearly square shoulder,of the slanting shoulderainFig.wouldbe left were the fuller to be held123.exactly.

CHAPTERVI.CALCULATION OF STOCK; AND MAKING OFGENERALFORGINGS.tock Calculations for Forged Work. "Whening,the amount of stock required towhen the stockhasred, there is one simple ruleitsoriginalmakeshato follow: Calc latethe volume of the forging, addan allowancestocklost in forging,ng the total volume.ingand cut a lengthInotherofwords,contains the same amount, orvolume,, no matter inwhatshapeit may be, r.snal stock ; an allowance of course beingstomadi"wsl,)" %? *Viar-=$Fig.124.the slightloss byscaling, andinmaking.ake as anexample the forgingfor the partsshowninFto determine the amount of stock required90

the piece.This forgingcouldbemadethe same jvay as the chain-stop.Apieceht stock wouldbeused and two cuts madewidened witha fuller, in the mannershownig.125.Theendsoneither side of the cutJCFig.125.then drawn down tosize, as shownbytlines, the center being left the size of tal bar. Thethe dimensionsForconveniencestockshouldof the largestinbe \" X i", as thesparts of the forg ing.calculating the forgingbe divided into three parts: the round enhe central rectangularblock J5, and the squareC.blockBwill of course require just 2"endinch.C has avolume of 4"X4"X3"=f of=4stock (4"Xi") has avolume of 4"Xi"of acubicinch foreachinchoflength.find the number ofinchesof stock requiredthe endC, the volume of this end (J cubicshouldbe divided by the volume of one incock (or 4 cubic inch) Thus, =i.-*- 4i4"-will therefore require 14" of stocktoendC\withforallowancescaling,e A isif".make

hhecylinder, multiply the square ofby3V7, and then multiply this resultof the cylinder.volume of A wouldhalf the diameterbybe l/4X 1/iX 3 1/1 X *4 y=the amount of stock required to make"/u-s-Va^iW*n length,toi5/8.addedasmall amount forheabout 1 "//'"stockneededng is as follows :whichisAtwouldpracticallyTo the above amount of stock mustfor the differentscaling, allowing alt getpartsofRoundBlocksshaftA"...if"2".SquareshaftCif"TotalSfnirst taking apiece of stock 4"Xi"X5f",nwouldinFig.bemade125'.sucha case as the abovefor drawing out the endsit is not always necessaryto know the exact amount of stock tocuis known to be more than enough stocktheforgingcouldbe taken, the centralblocthe proper dimensions, the extra metaddown into the ends, and then trimmedthe properlength. There are frequently timeser,when the amount of material requiredbecalculated accurately.ake a case like the forgingshownin Fig.1is to two blocks,

ake this, stock2" thick and 4" wide shouldsed,startingbymaking cuts asshowninFig" ""-IT""/*"-24-^"y3=^""-FlG.126.anddrawing down the center to 2" round.of course necessary to know how farapartFig.127.the cuts when starting to draw down thvolume of acylinder2" in diameteranlong,wouldbei"Xi"X31/7"X24"=753/7cubicwhich maybe taken as 75 1/2 cubicinches.eachinch in length the stock wouldhaveof 4,,X2,/Xt"=8 cubicinches.Thereforeit would require 75V2-*-8 =97/ie inches of stocorm the central piece; consequently the di tabetween cuts, shown at A in Fig.127, wouldtobe97/ie"-Eachend would require6"so the total stock necessary would6" +97i."-"7i.'//forging can generally beseparatedintosevera

Totable is Asy made,if it isalways remembered that tof metal remains the same, andin forgingy the shape, and not the isvolume,altered.eight of Forgings. "find the weight of anng, the volume mayfirst be found incubis,and this volume multipliedbyt.2779,t of wroughtironperinch.cubic(If tng is made of steel, multiplyby2779.)Thiswillgive the weightelow is given the weight ofinplac.2836in pounds.bothwrought anironand steel,both inpounds per cubicinper cubicfoot.Lbs.perLbs.perCu. Ft. Cu. In.Cast ironweighs 450Wrought ironweighs. .480Steelweighs 490.2604-2779.2936uppose it is required to find the weight ofngshownin Fig. 124. We had avolumef 11/u cubicinch, in Cof 3/4 cubicinch,andf1 inch,cubicmakinga total of 2 15/28 cubis. If the forging were made of wroughtirould weight 215/28X-2779he forgingshownin Fig.end of 48 cubicinches,=.7 of a pound.126andhas avolumein the centercubicinches,makinga total of 171^ cubis,and would weigh,if made of wroughtiropounds.much quicker way to calculate weightsis

Someis figured forsteel. Theweight givenis for a barof steel of the dimensionsinnamedthone foot long. Thus a bar i" square weighslbs.perfoot, a bar3i"Xi" weighs 11.9 lbfoot,etc.calculate the weight of the forging126, proceed as follows: Eachendshownis2"X4"6" long, so, as far asweightis concerned, equalbar4"X2" and 12" long. From the table4" X 1"weighs 13.6lbs. foreachfoot; so a bar 4^ X 2", being twice as thick,weigh twice asmuch, or27.2lbs.,andcombinedlengthof the twoends of the forgingfoot, this wouldbe their weight.The tablthat a bar 2" in diameterweighs 10.69lbveryfoot in length;consequently the centralof the forging, being 2 ft. long,would weigh2,or21.38forgingwouldlbs. The total weight of thbe48.58lbs. (This seemsa difference between this weight and thascalculatedbefore, but it must be rememberedthat before the weight wascalculatedftiron,while this calculation was madef.)ish. "forgings aremachined, or"fi is'afterleaving the forge-shop. As the drawingsare always made to represent the finishedand give the finished dimensions, it is necessaryto makeanallowancetheforging,for this finishingand all parts which" 'haveleftwhen

for finish, V82", or evenheparts required to be finished aregenerallyd on the drawing;sometimes the finisheceshave the wordfinishmarked on themimes the finishing isshown simplybyl /, asusedin Fig.128, showing thats and pin only of the crank are to be finished.#""* " 9 " " "4= "JNFig.128.henall surfaces ofa pieceare to be finishewordsfinish-all-over aresometimes markedthehedrawing.allowancefor finish onsmallforgings is ge erabout y^" oneach surface ; thus if a blowanted to finish4"X2"Xi", and x/x" weredfor finishing, the dimensionsof the forginldbe4""X2i"Xi"".n a forging like Fig.126, about \" allowanceldbemadefor finish, if it werecalledfthe diameterof the central shaft wouldthe thickness of the ends 2}", etc. On larg\" is forsometimes allowedmachining.he amount offinishalloweddepends to a lart on the way the forging is to be finished.s necessaryto finish by filing the forgingshoulmadeasnearlyto sizeas possible, and havin

Thereis of course necessary to take this into accountcalculating stock, and the calculation madethe forgingwith the allowancefor finishhe drawing dimensionsand not simplyedpiece.addedforthnk-shafts."areseveral methodsgcrank-shafts,methodwillbebutgivenonly the common commerchere.n forgings were mostly made of wroughtironwerewelded up of several pieces.Onewasusedforeach of the end shafts,one pieceach cheek, orside, and another piecepin.128;usedMild-steelandThe drawing forfinish to benly oncrank-pin and shafts.metalforthcranksare now more uni verforged from onesolid piecesuchacrankwill appear like the outlinesisgivenallowed only as shown, thain the throat of the crankd by drilling a lineofholesTheinforgings,isFig.generally129and then sawingwhere the sides of the crank cheeks shouldasshownby the dotted lines in Fig.12-89^".. KOiTXYVOq" % "IBFig.129.centralblock is then easilyknocked out. Thi

us metal witha hotchisel,but on small cranks,ashereshown,it is generally cheaperin a welped shop to use the firstmethod.hefirststepistocalculate the amount of stocred.StockAandJ5,i""X4"shouldbefor finishing. Theshouldleftendi\"Abeused.Thin diametercontains 10.1inches. Each inchof stock contains6cubis. Itwould therefore require 1.7" of stocform this end provided there were no waste froin heating. This waste does take place, abeallowedfor, so it willbesafe to take abouofstockfor this end.Bcontains 5.22 cubis, and would requireanceforscale.Aboutstock should then be7J".87"i""of stock withoutshouldbe takenlong. The firststo make cutsfrom onei""end and2" from, and widen out these cuts witha fuller,nin Fig. 130.Fig.130. Fig.131.heseends are then forged out roundin the mannerillustrated in Fig.131.Theforgingshouldd over the corner of the anvilin the position

the other end of the pieceis slowly raisedintpositionshownby the dotted linesandthhammereddownroundandfinishedupbe twswages.e must be taken to spread the cuts properlydrawing down the ends, otherwisea bahutwillbe formed. Ifuts are left without spreading,nF"the metal will act somewhatafter the mannershowng. 132.The top part ofbar, as it is workeddown,n/graduallywheng.aownbad132.fold over, leaving,hammered down toPig.132.cold-shut,orcrack, such as illustratedWhen the metal starts to act this way,by the upper sketchin132, the faultmayemediedby trimming off the corner along thline. This must always be done as soontendency to double over is detected.ble-throw Cranks."Multiple-throwcranksar4 " *"*Fig.133.forgedflat,rough turned, then heatedandinto

"thebe first forged as shownin Fig.134 ; the pardottedwould then be cut out with the dsaw, as describedabove.fter the pins and shaftshave beenrough turnehat is, turned round,but left as large aspossFig.134.iscrankreturned to the forge-shop,wheris heated red-hot and twisted into the finishe.hen twisting, the crankis gripped just to oof the centralbearing, asshownby the dotteA. This maybe donewithaviseorwrench,heiscranksmall,or the crank may beplacethe anvil ofasteam-hammer and the hammerred down on it to hold it inplace.heother end of the crankis gripped on the lnd twisted into the required shape.ctt3Fig.135.

e formed by bending a U out ofedgewise, and weldingon a handle.flatstock,ee-throw Crank. Fig."136 shows whatas a "three- throw" crank.The forging f37"i**T-f-"^~\" !1' I"*rf4r*lV4rfjr" " e=Fig.136.isfirstmade asshownby the solidlines in FiThe forging is drilledand sawedin t1Wr-"ir1i_l_5-e^ -+""!-"Fig.137.e-shop to the dotted lines,, being left as large as possible.and pins roughTheforgingurned to the forge-shop, heated, andbentintshape of the finishedthe machine-shop andaH8- *}'-It iscrank.then senfinished to size.Fourcranksarealso madein this manner.slotsare sometimes cut outin the forge-shophotchisel,but,particularlyon small work,generally moreeconomicalin the machine-shop.Thisto have them sawedisespeciallyso

Therenuckles. "canbeas the forkedis a largevarietyclassed underone head "ofsuchend of amarine connecting-rod,knuckle-joints sometimes usedinforgingsfor ingvalve-rods,others of this character, suchas illustrated139, i40i i4i"E."3\aFig.139.BFig.140.Fig.141.onnecting-rod End." Fig.138 shows the shapedoften usedon the crank end of connecting-The method offorming this is the samefirststepin forging the other pieces above mentio

and somewhat more than twice as thick asrfirststepis to make twocuts as shown at A, Fig.usinga top andbottomgand workingin bothat the same time. Whenin bothsides of a bareB^sway,itshouldbeturnedntly, bringing first onethen the other, upper-In this way the cutsbeworkedto the sameonbothsides,whileifworkis held in one position,one cut will generallybethan the other.Aftercuts are made, the leftendof the bar is drawnto the proper size and theFig. 142..hand end punched and splitwhen the length D, Fig.short and the stock wide,138,insteadislike B. Sometimescomparativelyd and split, the end of the bar is cut out,ofbeingat C, Fig. 142, witha right angle orcurvede split endsare spread out into the positionat D,andof the anvil,Thesepositiondrawn down tosizeover the cor nerin the manner illustrated in Figendsare then bent back into tfor the finished forging. Generallyare bent back

TheFig.the arrow-point at E" Fig.142.trimmed off along the dotted line.Thisshouldnuckle. "knuckle, Fig.139,isstartedly the same way,butafterbeingforgedoFig.143.Fig.144.asght, above, the tips of these endsare ben, forming a U-shaped loopof approximatelyshape of the finished knuckle. A barofirthe same dimension at the insideof the finishele is then inserted between the sides of tand the sides closeddown flat over it, Fiorked-end Connecting-rod. "same manner. The shaftdown into140is made5shouldbe drawnshape and roundedupsplit.before the other endAfter the split endhave been bent bacstraight, the shouldershouldbe finishedupwita fuller in the mannershownin Fig. The

Fig.shape.The final bending can be done overronblockof the right shape and sizeif tg is a large one and several of the same kinwanted.kwith Forked End. "141, E is a forgingalso comes in this general class.Thisfrom f" square stock.Thedrawn down to 8/16" round. Thisthrough the holepartis split witha hotout, and the sidestool. The differentofa heading-tool,hammeredend of the barroundandendchisel, the cut wid eneoutsteps areshownstraightintFignch, Open-end."l class shownOpen-endinFig.wrenches of t146 maybemadeFig.146.ldifferentways.Itwouldbethis by the same general methodpossiblefollowedmaking the forkedend of the connecting-rodbedabove.Ordinarysize wrenchesare moremadein the wayillustrated in Fig.147.piece of stockis used, wide enough and thicto form the headof the wrench. Thisin on bothsides witha fullerand the headd up asshown.A hole is then punchedh the headand the piece cut out to formas by the dotted lines J5.

afrom the proper sizehandle.flatstock and weldingf " \ryvFig.147.hesolid-forgedocket-wrench. "148, maywrenchThebemadeFig.148.is the moresatisfactory.socket-wrench,showninseveral ways.Aboutthe easiest,on "hurryup"work,is the methodshownin Fig.149.Heraisstubshaped upsame size and shapefinished hole is to be. Aringis bent up of thironand this ring welded around the stuFig.149.width of the ring should of course beequallengthof the hole plus the lapof the weld.hen finishing bolt-head

Therein the holeand the socketfinishedoverbetweenswages.betterway of making wrenches of this sortkea forging havingsame dimensions asfinishedwrench,butthe socket endsolid.The socketshould then bed to a depthslightlyr than the socketis.The diameterofdrillshouldbe,asFig.in Fig.150, equal to the shortesthole.150.diameterer drilling, the socket endis heatedred-hota punch of the sameshape as the intended holinto it. Theend of the punch shouldb, with the corners sharp.As the punchin, the cornerswill shave off some of tharound the holeandforce it to the bottome hole, thus makingitnecessary to have thd hole slightlyed to finish.deeper than the socketholeilepunching, the wrench may be held ing tool, or if the wrenchbe double-ended, inof special tongs, asshowninFig.150.it Work. "is a great variety of thigs, formed bysplittinga barandsplit partsintoshape.Forconvenience,beforgings.bendingthese

the bar, but if the ispiece couldbemadeby taking two flatstriwelding them across each other,but,particu"f\,A^ "*?":."/*"Fig.151.Pig.152.y if the workis very thin, this is rather a di cuweldto make.neasier wayis to take a flatpiece of stockproper thickness and cutitwitha hotchiseshownby the solidlines in Fig.152.The foformed by the splitsare then bent at rigsto each otherasshownby the dotted linhammered out pointed as required.f machine steel stockis used,it is not generallysaryto take any particular precautions whenFig.153.

Anotherbarsplit.where the end of the cut comes, to preventfromextendingback too far.153 shows several examples of this kindThe illustrations inshoweach case thedThepiece, and also the method of cutting thshaded portions of the bar are cut awaytely.anded or Weldless Eye. "forgingsamenatureis the expanded eyeinFig.1541Fig.154.Fig.155.make this, a flat bar is forgedpunched and splitasshown.roundingon tThesplitd out by driving apunch, orother taperingintothetheit,horndimensionsand the forging finished byof the anvil, asshowninof the eyeare to beFig.veryit willbe necessary to make acalculationworking155.length of the cut. This can be done as followse the forging, for the sake of convenienceating,tobemade up of a ring 3"inside"a5gfca-accurate,diameterand sides \" wide, placed on the end ofa baf

"thetecircle and subtractcircle. (Areas mayfrom it the area of tbe found in table, pagof outside circle= 12. 57sq."inside"=7.07""ring=5.50"ein.hisstock,beingi""wide,has an area offoreveryinch in length,andit will takestockto form the ring,as we must take3ofstockhaving the same area as the rinwillbepractically311/l6".hestockshouldbepunched and split, asshownFig. 154.Itwillbenoticed that the punchare$ " from the end, while the stockistoto \".The extra amount is given to allothe hammering necessary to form the eye.eldless Rings. "Weldlessrings can bemadeabovewaybysplitting a piece offlatstockandingit into a ring,or they can bemadews:Thenecessary volume of stockisfid into a roundflatdiscanda hole ispunchedgh the center. The holeshouldbelarhto admit the end of the hornof the anviforging is then placedon the hornand workedthe desiredsizein the manner indicated155.Fig.156 shows the differentstepsprocessdisc, the puncheddisc,andhedring.ings this are

large to form the boss drawingd.The discs areshaped and punched anforged to size over a"mandril.''AtUCEnnuU^^mSSFFig.156.Fig.157.rest isplacedon the anvil of the steam-, the mandrilisslipped through the holhe discand placed on the rest, as shownThe blowsI57-come directly downupontop side of the ring, it being turned betweentwo blows. The ringof course rests only uponmandril.As the hole increases insize,largelarger mandrilsareused,keeping the mandrilearlyaspossible the same sizeas the hole.rging a Hub, or Boss. Fig.is"158an exampleshape very often met withinmachineforging:ver, or some flat bar orshank, witha "boss"Fig.158. Fig.159.on oneend.Thismaybemadein two"eitherby doubling over the end of the barhowninFig.159, and making a fagot-weldient thickness to form the boss, or by taking

ibed, as no particulardirections are necessarythe weld, and after welding up the end,is rounded upin the same waystock shouldbe largeenoughineithercaseto form the bout any upsetting.barof stockis taken, for the forgingshown,2"wide and2" thick. The firststepisa cut about 2" from the end, witha fulleA, Fig.160..Fig.160.hestock,downandto the rightdrawn out toof the cut,is then fl tesize, asshown atdrawing out the stock, certain precautions mustaken or a "cold-shut"boss. If the metalwillbe formedcloseis allowed to flatten downshapelike Fig. C, the corner at Xintowilloverlap

thatitea common fault,scausedin a forgingbyand wheneveracrackclose to ashoulder, it is generallysomething of this sort"is, bcorner or part of the metal lapping over anginto the forging. When one of these crackss, the only way to remedy the evilis to cuasshownea hot-chisel isg. Ddformed like agouge.by the dotted lines in E. For thshows the proper waythe corner infrom the boss inquestionwiden the cut. The barupbyanvil,asshownsometimes used, withto draw out thshouldbeforgedsucha manner as to graduallyshouldplacing the workover the cornerinFig.161.FirstforgenowoffthFig.161.and then round up the boss in this way.finish around the corner formed between thand the flatshank, aset-hammer shouldSometimes the isshankbent awaybfrom

The'the boss is finished, the isshankstraightened.bossshouldbesmoothed up withaswage."adle Shank.may beladlein Fshank, showninmadeseveral ways.It is possibltomakeitsolid withoutany welds,or the handlemay beweldedon a fbarand the bar bent inar'ng and welded,orring1 IG. 162.Fig. 163.andhandlemayforged in onepiece aring closed together bywelding.isoned methodas follows : Theabout1" square.It isnecessaryThe lastock shoulto make

one by in Fig. Thmade of f'Xi" stock, about 2 3 J" woulded;now as i"Xi" stockis the samewidthabouttwo and one-half times as thickstock,everyinchof the i"Xi" will make2\" of f'Xi", consequently about 9^"1"square willberequired to form the ring.fuller cut ismade around the bar, as shown, Fig. 163.Thisshouldbemade about 9^the end of the bar. The left-handend of tis drawn down to \" in diameter to form t. If the workis being doneunder a steampowerhammer,enough stock may be drawnto form the entirehandle, but if workinganvil,it will probablybe moresatisfactoryout only enough stock tomakea''stub"4"ong. To this stub mayrm the handle.beweldedaround bater drawing out the handle, the9^" squareof the stockissplit,as shownby the dottedat B. Thesesplitendsspread apart, asshown, forged intoshape,andback to the positionby the dotted lines.eringiscompletedbyFiax6+g the endsto the proper length,scarfing,g intoshape, and welding,as indicated164.forany reason it is necessary tomake a for ingof this kindwithoutaweldin the ring,itmay

ThetheAbout f " or f " of stock shouldend.Thissplitisbe leftuncutwidened out and t"IjFig.165.drawndownandshapedinto aring as desiredtarting-lever."levershowninFig.166isFig.166heelssometimesusedfor leversusedof enginesorother heavyto turn twheelsing the rim.he method usedFig.167.Theendinmaking the lever isshownis first drawn down roundand the handle formed.Theother endis thesplit,forged downsize,anglesandbent at rigto the handle.After trimming to tFlGl67*Ifproperlength, the fare bent intoends shape

ofasolid block, asshownin Fig. 168, anineither workthe depressionby the dotted lines,withand set-hammers, or the dottedmaybe cut out witha hot-chisel.naFig.168.ulder's Trowel."Themoulder's trowel shownig. 169 gives anexample of the method usedFig.169.thinforgingsfaceofa largeclass,forgings havingwitha stem, comparatively smallat one end.eto bestockusedfor the trowel shown shouldabout J"Xi". This is thick toenoughallothe formationof the ridge at R."XBFig.170.g. 170 shows the general method employed.forging is startedbymaking nickslike A,witfuller. One is drawn down

forgedddownbut the entirepointed,asrequired when complelength of handlesquare and about the size the largestshouldred to finish to. The handle is then bentright angles, as at B,partand the corner forgeein the same manner that the corner ofet is shaped up sharp and squareon the ou sifter this corner is formed, the blade is drawnto sizeon the faceof the anvil.hen flattening out the blade, inorder to leavridge shown at R, Fig.169, the work shouldheld as shown at C, Fig.170.Here the handleeldpointingdownand against the side of t.Bystrikingdirectly down on the work, aing the parttheblows,directly over the edge of the anviall of the metal on the anvil willened down, leaving the metal not restinganvil unworked.Byswinging the piece arounda reverse position the other edge of the bladbe thinned down. If care be taken to hotrowel in the proper position while thinningthe blade, a small triangular-shaped piece nexhandle. Thiswillbe left thicker than the rest of traised part willform the ridge shown, Fig. 169.e same result maybeobtainedbyplacing tl, other side up,on the faceof the anvil aaset-hammer,or flatter, to thin out the bladelded Brace. Fig."171 showsa formbracket, for holdingofbrace

e bracket in this case is made of round stock;the same method maybe followed inmakingofflat or square material.Fig.171.isstockfirstscarfedon one end and this end over, forming a loop, as inshownFig.17Fig.172.loop is welded and then split, the ends straightenedoutrated.andflattened into the desiredshape]Fig.173.ded Fork."ismadeTheweldedfork,shownin Fiin the same way as the brace ds

CHAPTERVII.frameTheSTEAM-HAMMERWORK.neral Description of Steam-hammer."ge ershape of small and medium steam-hammersisshownin Fig.This type is known,17a single-hammer.Thesize of a steamhammeris determinedby the weight offallingparts ; thus tterm a400-lb.hammerwouldmean ththe total weightthe ram, hammer-die,and piston-rod was 4lbs.madestyleSteam-hammersTheframein this generalfrom 200 lbs.separateanvilisfromuentire lyof the hammer,"and each rests onatefoundation.120

oneable to be orTheThefoundation for the framegenerally takes thof two blocksof timber or masonry cappedtimber "in frontand one behind the anviTheanvilfoundationisplacedbetweentwoblocksof the frame foundation,andandheavier.eobject of separating the anvil andframethe anvil to give undera heavy blowdisturbing the frame or its foundation.iswith outmer-dies."hammersdies most commonly usedhave flat faces ; the upper or hammerdie being the samewidth,butsometimesrin length than the lower or anvildie.ol-steelmakes the best dies, butchilledirlso used to averylarge extent. Sometimes,formingwork, even grayironcastingsareuseddiesmade of tool-steel aresometimes usethardening.Diesmade this way, whenmaybefacedoff and used again withoutbotherof annealing and rehardening.rspecial work the dies are madeinvarious, the faces being more or less in the shapeworkto be formed. When the die-faces ato the exactformof the finishedpiece,tis known as drop-forging.gs for Steam-hammer Work."tongs useholdingwork under the steam-hammer shouldverycarefullyfitted and the jaws soshapedthey hold the stockonall sides.Ordinary-jawed tongs should not beused,as the work

msquarestock.Tongsforother shaped stocshouldhave the jaformed in acorrespond*ingway; that is, theFig.175.of the jaws, viewedfrom the end, shouldhavsame shape as the cross-section of the stock theintended to hold,and should grip the stocy on at least three sides.lat-jawed tongs can beeasily shapedas abovethe mannershownin Fig.The176.tongsFig.176.deandheld as shown,byplacing one jaup,on aswage.The jaw is groovedby driving down a top-fuller on it. Afting the other jaw in the sameway, the fiing is done by inserting ashort piece of stockproper sizein the jaws and closing them downtly over this by hammering.

Thebe done betweenswages, the stocken the jaws while working them intongs for heavyasshowninworkFig.177.this kind are held bynga link over theshoulds to force them together.beingshape.kephave the jaWhen in use, tongOnverylargesizes,link is driven onwitha.turn the work easily,Fig.177.link is sometimes madein the shape shown178, witha handleprojectingfromeachend.S,cFig.C5"178.mmer-chisels."hot-chiselusedforcuttingunder the hammer is shaped, ordinarily,lThis is179.sometimes made of solid tooSTEELIRONFig.179.Fig.180., and sometimes the blade is made of tool-steelhas awrought-iron handlewelded on. Fi

he handleof the chisel, close up to the blade,red out comparatively thin. This isthe blade to spring slightly without snappingthe handle. The hammerwillalwaysknockblade into acertain position, and as the chisot alwaysheld inexactly the right way, tpart of the handlepermitsa littleutdoing anyharm.' 'givehe forceof the blow is so great when cutting,the edge of the chisel must be leftrathe. Theedge shouldbesquare across, and ning.The proper shapeisshown at A, FiFig.181.Sometimesforspecial work the edge maslightlybeveled, as at B or C, butshouldshapedlike D.ometimes a bar iscut ornicked with acolchisel under the hammer.neverFig.182.Thechisel usedisshapedlike Fig.182,beingveflat and stumpy to resisting effect ofheavy blows. The three facthe chiselare of almost equal width.

hammeranvil.inmuch the same wayas donethe chisel be held perfectly upright,as shownFig.183, the cut end of the barwillbeleFig.183.g out in the middle.When the endis wantedthe cut shouldbestarted with the chisebutt,once started, the chisel shouldbeverly tipped, asshown at B. Whencuttingthis way the cut shouldbemade abouthalthrough fromall sides.When cutting opieces of square stock the chisel shouldnearly through the bar, leavingonlya thi,of metal, \" or \" thick, joining the twcA, Fig.184.The bar is then turned overa BAFig.184.he anvil and a thin baroflaidsteeldirectly oof this thin strip, asshown at B" Fig.184hard blowof the hammersends the thin babetween the two pieces

y the dotted lines, thes the ends ofand"Fig.185.bothpieces smooth, whileif tchiselisforusedcuttingonbothsides, the endone piece willbesmooththe other willhavefin left on it.orcuttingupinto corners on the ends of slocutters aresometimes used; such a cutterin Fig.185.These cutters are also maded, and special shapes madeforspecial work.eneral Notes on Steam-hammer. When"workingr the hammer, great care should alwaysto be sure that everythingis in the properionbeforestrikinga blow. Theworkmustflat and solidon the anvil, and the part tod shouldbe held as nearly as possiblecenter of the hammer-die ; if the workbebelowdononeedge or corner of the hammer-die, ttis a "foul" blow,whichthe ram and strain the frame.has a tendencyhen tools areused, they should alwaysbehesuch away that the part of the tool touchingworktheis directly below the point of the toolhammerwill strike.Thus,supposingwere being cut off under the hammer, telshouldbeheldexactly upright, anddirectlthe center of the hammer, asshown at186.In this waya fair cutis made.If telwere not heldupright,butslantingly,n at B, the result of the blowwouldbe

e faces hammer-be even thrown veryforciblyfromunderhammer.en a piece,* the blowsis to beshouldworked out to any greabe heavy,and the end/1 dk-riB^.-_jI 7 \Fig.186.stockbeing hammeredshouldbulge out slightlyA, Fig.187, showing that the ismetalbeinFig.187.d clear through. If light blows areused tof the piece willforgeout convex, like B,showingthat the metalon the outside of the bar hundworkedmore than that on the inside. If thofworkishollow in the center,e to beed.shaftssplitcontinued, the barlike C.will split anformed between flat dies areverin this way when not carefully

h. Thus,, the frontwhen the hammer is restingon tandbacksides of the two dies alinewith each other, while eitherone or botof the anvil-die projectbeyond the endshammer-die.his is not always the case, however, as inmanyrs the facesof the two dies are the sameandsize.aving one die face longer than the otheristage sometimes whenashoulderd on oneside of the work only.istohen ashoulderece the work shouldinis to be formed on bothsuchaway that the top diebesidesplaced under the hammerwillworkder, while the bottom die is forming the otherinoother words, the work shouldbe done from tof the hammer,where the edges of the dies aasshowninFig.188.If the shoulderison one side only, as in forging tongs, tvnFig.188.Fig.189.shouldbe so placedas to workin the shoulderdiekeeps

sameobject,ashoulderon one side onlybeaccomplishedbyusinga block, as shownFig!189.The blockmaybeusedas shown,e positions of work andblock maybereversedthe worklaidwithflatsideon the anvil anplaced on top.smethod offormingshoulders willbe takenore in detail in treating individual forgings.ls: Swages." Ingeneral, the tools usedhammer work, exceptinsimple.special cases, arges for finishingwork upto about 3" orameter arecommonly made as inshownFigThetwoparts of the swageare held apartFig.190.the long springhandle.Thisspringhandlebe made as shown at B, by forming it of a sep arapiece of stock andakinga thin slotfastening it to the swage,in the side of the blockwit-chisel or punch,forcing the handle into thclosingthe metal aroundit witha few ligharound the holewith the edge of a fuller.forming handle is

As, hammering down the center of the stockthehandle,andleaving the endsfullsizethe swages.wages for largenin Fig.191.workare made sometimesThe one shown at B is madeFig.191.ananvil-diehaving a square hole,similarhardie-hole in an ordinary anvil, near oneenhorn on the swage, at x,slipsinto this holthe othertwoprojectionsfit, one oneithover the sides of the anvil. These horns,rs, prevent the swagefromslippingaroundinuse.END-VIEWFig. 192.pering and Fullering Tool. "the facesof t- andhammer-dies are flatand parallel,to finish between the bar

Theusinga tool similarto the one inshownFigtapering work maybefinished.smoothlyer Work. "use of the tool illustratedisshownin Fig.work, the tool is193.For roughing ouused with the curved sid\J vuroughingfinishingFig.193.the straight sidebeingflatwith the hammer-When finishing the taper, the tool is reversed,flatsidebeing held at the desiredangleanhammerstriking the curved side.Thiscurvedenables the tool to do good work throughawide range of angles.If too great an angletempted, the tool willbe forced fromunderhammer by the wedging action.Fullers"llers. suchasusedngs arevery seldom employedforordinaryinhandwork.To take their \ /simple roundbars \ /used.Whenmuchthe barsshouldbeool-steel.e use of roundbars,issteam-hammerillustrated

asemicircular groove extending aroundinga''neck.''Thegrooveis formed bypla ingashort piece of round steel of the proper sthe anvil-die; on this is placed the work, wispot where the neckis to be formed directltop of the bar. Exactlyabove the bar,llel to it on top of the work,is heldanotherhe same diameter. Bystriking with the hammer,bars are driven into the work,formingabve. The work shouldbe turned frequentlyinsure auniformdepthof groove on all sideif held in one position, one barwill worker than the other.djusting Work Under the Hammer.' When"worfirst laid on the anvil the hammershouldysbe lowered lightly down on it inorderrlytrue"locate*'it. This brings the workfwith the die-faces; andif held in thion (and care shouldbe taken to see that it iwillbe littleslipping, causedby holding the forging in tposition.This isparticularlytruewhenchance of the jumping, jarrintools, asgreat care must be taken to see thhammerstrikes them fairly. If the first bloheavy one, and the workis not placed exactly, there is dangerof the pieceflying fromunderhammerand causingaserious accident.s an illustrationof the above, suppose thatbecarelessly placed on the anvil, asshown195, the piece restingon the edge of the anvinot flat on the face, as it

Itlllmayhappen :either the barwillbe bent (ifveryhotbe knocked into the posi-and soft)or \ /\ /shownby the dotted lines.e hammer be lowered lightlyrst, the barwillbepushedflat, and assumes the dottedon easily, wherefor the heavy blows.itmaybearing Up Work. "frequently happenswork, aswell as in hand forging, thatwhich shouldbesquareinsectionbecomese.danddiamond-shaped.correct this fault the forgingbe helshouldhownin Fig.196, with the long diagonalIEA B C DO'oonFig.196.iamondshapeperpendicularto the faceofthfew blowsflattenwillthe workinto the shapeat B ; the work should then berolled slightlye directionof the arrow and the hammeringnued; the forging taking the shape ofC,and,e rolling andhammering arecontinued,finally,

ends the into (Fig.nunder the hammer, the making of a pairary flat-jawed tongs is a goodillustration.ig.197 shows the different stepsfrom the straighto the finished piece.Fig.197.henstockis heated to a high heatandbentin Figs.198 and 199.Aand B (Fig. 11\I"^ssr"lFig.198.Fig.199.two pieces offlatironof the same thicknessstockisplacedlikeFig.198, the hammerht down lightly, tomakesure that every thingis in the proper position, and then one ha

inworkingthe shoulder.The bentpieceflat on the anvil anda piece offlatsteellaidinsuch a position that oneside of the stecut into the work andform the shoulderFig. 200. Fig. 201.jaw of the tongs. Thesteelispoundedinwork until the metalis forged thin enougharetheeye.in Fig. 201. TheThis leaves the workpartin the shapeA, Fig. 201, is after warddrawn out to form the handle, the jaw anformingholeformedshouldup,and,lastly, the eyeispunched.of the jaw and the punching of tbedonenot under the steam-hammer.e handle is,hammer,ForinFig.carefulwith the hand-hammer,of course, drawn out under t192, mayfinishing, the taper tool illu tratbeused,or asledge an.a general thing, steam-hammer workdoesnoverymuchmethod of operation,same;workbut,from forging done on the anvilineither case, is almostwhen working under the hammer,is more quicklydoneandshouldbebut needs no particular description.handled

The be heldand 129,is a quite common example of steamreibedwork.differentformakingoperationsareabout the sameit on the anvil.specially shaped tool is usedtomake the cuside of the crank cheek.This tool andareshownin Fig. 202. When the cuts aFig. 202.Fig.203.deep, they shouldfirstbemade with a hol and then spread with the spreading tooheisshouldernot veryhigh, bothoperations,utting and spreading, maybe done at oncewitspreading tool.termarking and opening out the cuts, tprecautions,to avoid cold-shuts, mustas areused whendoing the same sort

Ain this case the sledge and anvilarereplacedhe top andblockbottomof steel mayshoulder, as shownbe formed, on bothasdiesbeinusedof the steam-hammer.Fig.for203.squaringsides,one blockupIf ashouldershowne illustration beingckles. "wouldbefore in Fig.knucklebemadesas described forwsuggestionsmight194; the roundmayreplaced with square ones.suchasshowninby identically the samemakingbemade,ter the end of the bar has beenreadyforintbarFigit on the anvilhowever.splitshaping, the work shouldandbebentbelow and another above the work,somewhathandledunder the hammer, asshownin Fig. 204.Fig.204.first beplaced as shownby the solidlinesas the hammeringproceeds, shouldbegraduallyinto by dotted

After drawing out and shaping the endskle is finished by bending the ends togethera block, in the samewayas shownin Fig. 1workbeingdoneunder the hammer.Connecting-rod. Drawing Out between Shoulders.forging illustrated in Fig.126, whilehardl3exact proportions of common connecting-,is near enough the proper shape to be agoople of that kindof forging.he forging,after the proper stock calculationbeenmade,is startedbymaking the cuts neatwo ends,asshownin Fig.The distance,127.must be socalculated,asexplainedbefore, th"T^aiTh"IU-r"--fienlrFig.205.Fig.206.stock represented by that dimension,whennout, willform the shape, 2" in diameter along,connecting the two wide ends.hecuts are the tool

A, Fig.SpecialIte tool, or asecond tool, the tools beingplacedabove and one below the work,as shown205.ermaking the cuts the stockdown to the proper size andbetweenfinished.themsometimeshappens that the distance A isthat the cuts arecloser together than thof the die-faces, thus makingaw out the workultyasmayshowndless Rings "bybe overcome byinFig.206.Shapes. "itimpossibleusing the flat dies. Thiusingistwooftento make rings and similar shapes withoutnarrownecessThesimpleprocessis illustrated in FigsRingsmaybemadein this way under thhammer much morerapidly than is possibleending and welding.with which weldless ringscan bemade,thhas seen the stock cutfrom the bar, thforgedand trued upin one heat. Theringonwas about10"outsidetockinrim being aboutsquare.Thestock useddiameter, the sectionabout 3" square, soft steel.isforging for a die to be207.of tool-steel is showninisrings.madeTheTo illustrate the rapidityFlG-2"7-in the same general wayasweldlessstockis cut, shapedinto a dised, and workedover amandrilinto the shape

edge of the die, is* shaped on aspecial mandril,work being done as shown at By the thick s/a5Za\Fig.208.he ring being driven into the groove in the mandriland shaped up as shown at C,where the eof the mandril andring is shown.f the flatedge of the die is long, veryit mayghtened out bya flatusing mandril and workFig.209.

ebeforging leaves the hammer in the shapeinFig.209 at A. The finishingof the sharpis done on the anvil withhandtools,the same way that any corner is squared upBandCgivingageneralideaof working ucornerbyusinga flatter.ches. "Thepunchesusedfor this kindandin fact forall punching under the steam-, shouldbeshort and thick.punch made asshownin Fig. 210 is very satis factoforgeneralwork.Thispunchissimplyort tapering pin withallowgrooveformeditabout one thirde length from the bigA bar of smalliron (-"" isaboutforsmallpunches)isheated,wrappedaroundpunchin the groove and twisted tight, asshown.punchingis done inexactly the same waythhand tools ; that is, the punchisdriventhof about one half or two thirds the thick nessof the piece, with the worklying flat on tthepieceis then turned over, the punchd with the work stillflat on the anvil, anholecompletedbyplacinga disc, or some otherct witha hole in it, on the anvil; on this tisplaced with the hole in the disc directlywhere the punch willcome through. This then driven through and the holecompleted.

theworktoo long, it willbecome heated,ana few blows, the end will spread out in a mushroomshape and stickin the hole.prevent the above, the punch shouldbeof the holeand cooledbetween everyfewometimes,whena hole can beaccuratelyliftblows.anarrangementlike that shownin Fig. 2sed.Thepunchin this case isonlyslightlr than the thickness of the piece to be piercedis used with the bigenddown asshown.PUNCHfHifWORKDIEFig. 211. Fig. 212.hewhichpunchwhichis driven, together with the pieceis cut out, through into the hole in tis just enoughlarger to give clearancepunch.convenient arrangementfor locating the punchally with the hole in the die is shownin Fiheddieshouldbesomewhatlarger in diameterthe work to bepunched.Theisworkfiin the proper position on the dieand tplaced on top. Thepunchis locatedaspider-shaped arrangement madefrom thThisspiderhas acentral ring witha holecenter largeenough to slip easilyover tRadiating from four

Athe outside of the die, the fourth beingandusedfor a handle. Theends of the benare so shaped that where they touch the out sidof the die the centralhole is exactlyover tin the die.er locating the punch with the spider, anthespideris stillinplace,a light blowoftstarts the punch, after which the spideroff and the punchdriventhrough.ming Bosses on Flanges, etc."boss, onorotherflatpiece, suchasshowninFig.213beveryeasilyformedbyusinga fewsimpleFig.213.Fig.214.Thespecial tools are shownin Fig.214are : around cutter usedforstarting the bossat A,which also showsa section of the toola flat disc,shown at B,usedfor flatteningfinishing the metal around the boss.stockis first forged intoshape slightlyr than the boss is to be finished, as it flattenssomewhatin the forging.e boss isstartedbymakinga cut with thar cutter, asshown at A, Fig.215, whereforging

he metal outside of the cut is then flattenedthe be moreasshownby the dotted lines. This flatteningFig.215.ddrawing out maybedoneeasilybyusingof round steel,as shown at C. The barboss.barinissuchapositionas to fall just outsideAftermovedand the piecestockding.mstrikinga blow with the hammer,farther toward the edge ofis turned slightly.In this wais roughly thinned out, leaving the boTo finish the work, the forging is turneside upover the disc,with the bossextendingdown into the hole in the disc, asshown ata few blows, the disc is forceduparoundandfinishes the metal off smoothly.he discneed not necessarilybe largeenoughndto the edge of the work;for if a discibedaboveis usedto finisharound the bosedge of the work maybe drawn down inway under the hammer.disc is not absolutely necessary inany cas

tund Tapering Work. "Aasshown at A, Fig.round tapering shape,216, shouldbe firFig. 216.ygeforgedintoshape.Itmayin the shoulder next the headin the wayroughing out maypieces, using them inpiece only maybeillustrated before in Fig.bebedonewithstartedwith194.squaremuch the same way;roundused and the work allowedlie flat on the anvil, with the headtertheedge.swages.roughing out, the work mayAsbebprojectinfinishedordinarily used, the swagesleave the forging straight, with the oppositesidesparallel.To form a taper, a thin strdbe held on top of the upper swage closeparallel withoneof the edges,as shownFig.216.Thestrip causes the swageslant, thus forming the work tapering.to

CHAPTERVIII.DUPLICATEWORK.enseveral pieces are to bemade as nearlyas possible, the workis generally moreeasilbyusingenerallyg faces"dies'speaking,shapedterm "jig" may'or""jigs."dies''areblocksof metalfor bending or formingwork.beapplied to almost anforivanceusedhelping to bend,shape,Aswork.ordinarily used,a jig, generally,implyacombination ofsome sort offormflatplate and one or moreclampsandlevers for bending.Dies, or jigs, for simplebendingmaybeeasilyancheaply made of ordinarycastiron;and,formostpurposes, leftrough, or uf'1 BSimple Bending. "Th1 jbendafairshownin Fig.217example of simplFig.217.work.The dies for makingthis bend are two blockcastironmadeasshown, one a rec

lock the size of the inside of the bendde, the other a block having on one sidethe sameshapeas the outside of the piecebent. The blocksshouldbeslightly widerthe stockto be bent.stockiscut to the properlength, heated,on the hollow block,and the smallblockon top, asshownby the dotted lines at BThe bend is217.madeby driving down thblockwitha blowof the hammer.kof this kindmaybeeasilydoneunderhammer; and the dies described here ared for use in this way, most of them havingdesignedfor,and used under,a200-lb.hammer.sof this kindmaybe fitted to the jaws ofary vise, the bending being done by tighteningp the screw.diesuchas describedabove"clearance"; that is, the openingshouldhavein the hol lowdieshouldbeslightlylarger at the top thanottom.Thesmall, or top, dieshouldbemadeingly, slightly smaller at the bottom.make the dieseasierto handle, a holemaydand tapped ineachblockand piecesbars threaded and screwedinto the holesbhandles. This is more fully described in thingexample:g.A, is218,a hook bent fromstock "" X 1",round the flangeofan I beam. The hooksfinished. To bend

The dies were rough castings.Patternswereby laying out the hook on apiece of 2"whiteFig. 218.Pig.219.and then sawing toshape witha band-saw.block was "laidoff"asshownin Fig.219,sawingbeing done on the dotted lines. Thithe blocksof suchashape that the space btthem, when they were brought togetherthe upper andloweredges parallel, was jlto the thickness of the stock to be bent.atternsof this kindshouldbe given plentyft," which maybequickly and easilydoneing the sides, after the blocks aresawed outaper slightlyasshownin Fig.219,B,whereed linesshow the square sidesbefore beined off for draft as indicated by the solidlines.hen the castingswere made,a 13/32" hole wled in the right-hand end of eachblocked with \" tap. Alongpiece of \" roundai

t was run on each end and the blocksscrewedndlocked byscrewing the nut up against them,the finished dies as shownin Fig.218.Theformed aspring,holding the dies farenoughto allow the iron to beplacedbetweenmentionedbefore,diesof this kind can .made to cover avariety of work, andarinexpensive. The dies inquestion,for isrequired abouthalf an hour's pattern work,aboutas much time more to fit the handles.lating shop time at 50 cents perhourangs at 5 cents per pound, and allowingfor th, the entire cost of these dies was less than.e same handle can beusedof about the same size, andshouldbreak, it can beforany numberif any one of thesereplaced at avering cost.st-iron dies of this character willbendseveraledpieces and shownosigns of giving outugh they may snap at the firstpieceif madeard iron. On an important job it is generallyto cast an extra set to have in case the firdefective.most any simple shape maybe bent in thand the dies maybeusedon any ordinary-hammerwithflat forging faces ; and not onlbut, not having to be fastened down inanthey maybeplaced under the hammer,interfering

etter to have a die to replace the lowerthe hammer, as in the casementionedbelow.numberTheofforgings were wantedstock was cut to the properlike Ay FilengthanFig. 220.endsbent at right angles.Tomake alles alike, oneend of each piece was first benshown at By in avise.Theother ends ofes were then all bent the same way,by hookingbentendover a bar cut to the properlengtbending down the straight endover the othof the bar, asshown at C. Tomake the fi, acast-ironform wasused similar to D. Thingwas about 2\"thick, and the dovetailedbase fitted the slotin the anvilbaseofer. When the form was used, the anvil-diremoved and the formputin itsplace.The be bent laid fo

o dies are for but thesshape to fit the outside of the forging,top. A light blowof the hammerwouldU-shapedpiece down, bending the stockplacedforcinproper shape. Fig.221shows the operation,dotted lines indicatingthe position of thebeforebringingthehammer.e most satisfactorys were obtainedbringing the hammerdown lightly onon a full headthe ram wasofdownslowly,work, then, by turningcomparativelybendingstock gradually and.This was muchFig. 221.satisfactory than a quick, sharpblow.is not necessary to have the U-shapedpiecey the same shapeas the forging. It is suff cienllyeif the lowerapart. As the stripends of the U are the proper di tafollows the outline; andis bent over the form,it is only necessaryto force it against the form at the lowersides.e last bendmighthavebeenmadedie fastened to the ramof the hammerof the U-shaped loop.bypointsusing

thele,or more than acircle,CoilTheis formed, anarrangementeasilyheldinmadeto fit in the dovetail on the ramanplace witha key.ght-angle Bending. "ng right angles,Veryinconvenient tools fstock \" or less in thickness,areshownin Fig. 222. The lower one is madeto fit easily over the anviof the steam-hammer, tprojectinglips oneitheside preventing the dfromslidingforwardback. Theupper one hahandlescrewedin,described before. Botof these bending tools amade of cast iron, tpatternsbeingsimplysawedfrom a 2"plank.Fig. 222.Cast-irondiesoftbeshouldmade ofa tough, grayiron,rathethe harderiron,whiteas they are less liablek if castfrom the former.anyof the regularhammer dies, that is, the dflat faces forgeneralforging, aremade of ca; but the iron in this case is of another qualityhillediron"faces beingchilled,or hardened,a depth ofan inch or more.ircular Bending "Springs."diesbefore have been forsimplebends;s, or bending force,fromcomingone directionIn.the followingexample, whereacomplete

espringshowninFig.223is anexamplekind. In this particular case the bendingdonecold;but for hot bending the operationactly the same.Fig.223.Fig. 224.sjig (Fig.224) was builtf " thick, having oneendupona base-plate,bent down at righforclampingin anordinary vise.postE was simplya 1"stud screwedintplate.B was a piece of f'Xi" stock aboutong, fastened downwithtwo rivets, and servedstopforclamping the stock against whilebending.C was a levermade ofapiece of "" Xi"about10" long, having oneend groundngasshown.This lever turned on tFy threaded into the base-plate. D was tg lever, having a holepunchedandforgedheendlargeenough to turn easilyon the stuOn the under side of this lever was rivetedpieceofiron having oneendbentdownangles.Thispiece was so placed that tce between E the inside face ben

forfinishing.t Ye/' greater than the thickness of the stobebent.heninoperation, the stockto be bent wedrCin the position shownin the sketch,pulled over to lock it in place, and the bend inglever D dropped over it in the position shown.bend the stock, the lever was pulled arounddirectionof the arrow and as many turns takewereforwantedthe spring, orwhatever wg bent. By liftingoff the bending leveraening the clampinglever the piece couldpedfrom the stud.ith jigs of anykind asuitable stop shoulysnst,beinprovided to place the end of the stoorder to insureplacing andbendinges as nearly as possible alike.rop-forgings. "Strictlyspeaking,drop-forgingsforgingsmadebetween dies in a drop-presse. Each die has acavityin its face, so shapedwhen the dies are informof the desired forging. Oneened to the bedwith and under the othercontact the hole leftof the diesof the drop-press, directlydie,the under side of the drop, a heavybetweenraising the dropwhichweightiskeyeupright guides. The forging is doandallowingruniit to fall betweenguidesofits ownweight.here aregenerallytwo or more sets of cavitiethe die-faces, one set beingusedforroughingor"breaking down," the stock roughly

Drop-forging.-dies. The hole is then"breaking-down"and"finishing"dies,r sSometimesseveralintermediatedieused.a general way, the term drop-forgingtoshapedmeans.describediesing the worde given belowthe-bolt"workalmostwhetheranymadein its broadestmightbebeing done between"is the eye-bolt givenTheinFig.mayforging formed be twby a drop-pressmeaning,shapedexample225.Thedies.inthcalled a drop-forging,questiondiffer entstepsin the making, anddiesused,are showninFig.undstockis used, andfirstlike A, Fig.226, theg being done in the dieThis die, aswellas the other1"is made in the same way,1Fig.225.dinary steam-hammer swages ; that is, simplyblocksof tool-steel fastened together withhandle. The inside facesof the blocks artoshape the pieceasshown.isstockrevolved through about 90 degreesneachtwo blowsof the steam-hammer, anhammering continued until the die-faces jur the second step the ball is flattened toaboutthickness of the finishedeyebetween the bar

The forging is finisheda few blows in twithinishing die D,is bywhichshownasectional cnd plan.This die is s6 shaped that, when two parts are together, the hole left is exactly tSECTION AT X-XFig.226.hape of the finished forging. In the first die, how eveit shouldbeexactlynoticed that the holes do not cofoto the desiredhere the holes, insteadofshape of the forgingbeingsemicircular,rounded off considerably at the edges.shownmore clearlylinesinFig.227,AfThiswhere the dotteshow the shape of the forging, the solidthe shape of the die.Thesemicircleobject of the aboveinis this: If the holesection, the stock, being larger thli

MakingkejB,at facesrmingthe metal being forced out between thof the dieand'fins'.Whene bar is turned andainhit, these fins areubleddplaceinand makeain the forging.When the hole is adified semicircle,as describedabove, the stockllbe formed like C,d mav be turned andrked without injurydanger of cold-shuts.Fig.227.Forming Dies Hot. "dies forwork of thovekind is generally anexpensive process, par ticif the workbe done in the machine-shop.Rough dies for this kindof work may becheaplydein the forge-shop by forming them hot.The blocks for the dies are forgedand prepared,da blank, or*master/forging the same shaped sizeas the forgings the dies areexpectedrm is madefrom tool-steel and hardened.The die blanks are then heated, the masteracedbetween them, and the dies hammered tgthe master being turned frequently duringehammering.This,ofcourse, leaves acavity the shape of thster.When two or more sets ofdies are necessaryere, of course, must beseparate masters fordies. Dies in haveeach

Muchof the cavities rounded off,as the metalally pulled awayduring the forming, leavingcornerssomewhat relieved.iessuchas describedabovemaybeusedtage under almost any steam-hammer.orspringhammers, helve hammers,and powerrsgenerally the die faces maybe formedsame as above;but the die-blocksshouldned to the hammerand anvil of the powerr itself,replacing the ordinarydies.st-iron Dies. "drop-forging is donewitiron dies,andforrough work that is not tthey are very satisfactory, and the firstcoery small ascompared with the steelthe same purpose.diesuserop-forging can be done in this way with t-hammer,by keying the dies in the dovetailsfor the top andbottomhammer-dies.eldingtoisinparticularis done in this way, as tbeworkedis insucha soft condition thlittlechance of smashing the die.

For50CHAPTERIX.METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL.assification. "intelligentworkinginirorsteelsomeunderstanding of their chemicaland method of manufactureconvenience' sake, the ironsusedin the forge-shopmayisnecessary.and steels ordi naribe divided intgeneral classes, viz.:.Wroughtiron.Machine-steel, or low-carbonTool-steel.steel.stironproductughlyshouldfromalsobeconsideredas being thwhich the aboveare derived.speaking, the above metals mayasmixtures,or, better,compoundsbeofconsidirocarbon.ereisalways present asmall percentageelements, such as manganese, silicon, sulphur,orus, etc., but for the present these need noonsidered.e percentage of carbon commonly containede several materialsis about as follows :iron 2. 50to 4.per cent.t iron 02''. 50' ' 'e-steel 02''.60' ' 'teel" " "

0JFORGE-PRACTICE." TheCast Iron.crude material,onand steel aremanufactured,, in itscommercialforms, ironfromwhich ais iron ore; whichoxide. Somee common ores have much the same appearanceTohcoloras iron rust.obtain cast iron, the ore is mixed withlimestoneandmeltedis a shell ofironin a blast-furnace. The blastfurnacroundfire-brick. For ashort distanceinsectionupandfromlinethand then contract again to about the samemeter as the bottom. Such a furnace,ompanying 'hot-stoves/ istion,inFig.228.shown,withpartlyThe blast-furnace here illustrated is about80 feehHeatedtanceand20 feet inside diameter at its largestipoint.air, under pressure, is blown into the- fur nacthrough water cooled tuyeres placed ashortabove the bed, or bottom,When the furnace is inelburningof the furnace.operation, there is a bedcoke extending somewhat below thof the tuyeres ; on this is a charge,or layer,edore andthernacelayerislimestone, then a layerof oreandnearly filled, more ore andedas the mass settleslimestone acts as a fluxslag,meltsvearthyoffuellimestone, etc., until thfuelbeingdown in the furnace.andhelps to carry ofimpurities in the ore. The ore,is deoxidized; that is, the oxygenoff, and the molteniron,beingmuchistom the sidesarestraight, then rapidly convergcarrieheavier

METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL. l6lWhenenoughmeltedironhascollectedinthebottom, or hearth,of the furnace, a smallholeisopened, and the molten metalflows out and runsBvCovrtcty 0/The Scientific American.Fig.as8.into a series of small ditches, muchlike a gridiron,whereit cools, andis then brokenupintopieces4 or s feet long. These piecesarecalledin this formcastiron is marketed.'pigs ' ; andWhencastingsare to be made, these 'pigs' are

ltedlar to, butin the foundry, in a furnacecalledacupolaconsiderably smaller than, the blas furnt was the custom some years ago to allowgases to escapefrom the top of the furnaceto blow incoldthe top of the furnace is keptblast through the tuyeres.closedacone-shaped casting pulled upward againstal rim, slantinghen new materialdownward.is to bebymeansadded to the chargeore or fuel is dumped inside the slanting,d rim and the cone is lowered,ial to slidedownward,d, thus closing the furnace.ust below the rima largeallowingfunnelwhen the cone is agaipipeopensintoace. Through this pipe the hot gases areward into the 'hot-stoves/he hot-stoves are ironetermsmallsetand80 feet high, filledholes, or flues,cylinders about 20 feetwithextendingfire-brickfromof the stove. The hot gases rise throughoffluesandtophav ingdescend through another, thuing the brick to a high temperature.fter leaving the stoves, the gases arecarrieugh underground pipesto a largeney, anddischarged into the air.stack,Whenhas been thoroughly heated in this way ts are turned intoother stoves, and the cofrom the blowing-engines is forced throughflues in the heated brick on its wayto the blas furn

e blast leaving a hot-stove is heated to a temperblastsconsiderablyover iooo" F. The useeffectsaconsiderable savingcture of cast iron;ed as marking anepochanditsintroductionintought Iron."amedItwhile cast ironwillamount of carbon, wroughtmachinecontainthen,veryinlittle.be seen from the tablcontainsacomparativelyItironandin the iron Industries.would seem only necessorder to make either of the twmetals, to remove some of the carboncast iron. In most cases this is exactly whatne. First, the high-carbon cast iron is made,then a largeg the low-carbonpart of the carbonwroughtis burned outiron, or machinethwroughtironand machine-steel aremadevery similar processes, the essentialg.makingdifferenceprincipally the temperature at which tareworked.229 represents awroughtrunning the lengthiron."puddling*The'furnaceusesketch shows a setiof the furnace through. At A is the fireplace; B, the hearth,; ^and the stack,or flue, at C.fire is built in the fireplace,wayand the flamesto the stack are deflected downward,roof of the furnace,. The iron is thus broughtupon the iron lying on tinunder the infl ence

ast iron, together withhammerscale, or someoxide ofiron, is placed upon the hearthaddown. The fire is then so regulated asanoxidizingflame; that is, more air passedgh the fire than can be burned, leaving a supofoxygenin the flameswhichareplayingoveFig.229.iron onmeltedthe hearth. The oxygenins, aswellas that in the hammerscale,or imelted with the castiron, gradually burnscarbon of the cast iron. Themeltedantly stirredinorder to expose all partsinfluenceof the flames.s a general rule, the morecarbonironcontainsiteasier melts ; so castironwill melt at amuchmassheat than wroughtiron. A temperatureishighenough to melt castironwillleairon inhtsort ofa pasty condition.henmaking wroughtiron, as the carbond out of the iron the temperature of the fnis kept below the melting-point of wrought, buturnedabove that of cast iron ; and, as the carbonbecomes

Machine-steeledupintoballs,which at the completionprocess are taken from the furnaceorrolledintobars.here is more or lessandhammeredslag with the iron in thle, and someof this slag sticks to the irondropsofofof this slagitit are mixed with the iron in the ballsremainsis squeezedfrom the balls, buinsmalldropsall through thWhen the balls are drawn out intoe small dropsshape,of slagare lengthened out andminute streaks running through the lengthbar. These small seams of slag give wroughtitspeculiar characteristics together withous structure.achine-steel. "is variouslyknownimachine-steel,machinery-steel,low-carbonsteelsteel, and soft steel.The common shop namemachine- or machinery-steel, while the morect technical term is low-carbonsteel.achine-steelcontains about the same amount onaswroughtiron, but does not have the slagof the iron. Likeiron, it iswroughtmadereducing the amount of carbonin castiron.achine-steelmay be divided into twoclasses,hearthandBessemer, both deriving theirfrom the method of manufacture.essemerdcaststeelis madeby blowingiron, the oxygenin the airair throughburning outsilicon and carbon, all of the carbon,as nearlypossible,being removedin this way, the propert of carbon afterwardbeingadded to the

In this process the castiron is treated in avessen as a converter. The converter is a largel-shapeddwithmanysteelor ironvessel, 15or 20 ft. highfire-brick,andhaving a bottompiercedsmallholes through which airis blown.top is covered, with the exception ofashortt-shaped opening about 3ft. in diameter.converterturnedupsideismounted on trunnions, and maydown,right side up,or anyinter medianposition.operation, the converter is turned in a horizontalposition,acharge of melted cast ironpouredthe mouth, and the blast turned on. The blassufficient pressure to prevent the meltedflowing down into the tuyeres in the bottom.irovesselis then turned on its trunnions into aght position and the airblown through thl until practically all the carbonhas beened out. The exact condition of the metalnby the flamecomingfrom the mouth of thrter, this flamechangingincolor and volumethe silicon and carbonare gradually burned.the carbonhas beenconsumed, the convertergain turned on itsside, the blaststopped,thsary amount of spiegeleisen added to give thr per cent of carbon and manganese, and thnts of the vessel pouredinto a largecasting. From the ladle the metalispouredints and cast into "ingots."f the "blowing" is continued too long, the irofwill begin to burn,making the metal"rotten"

METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL.167out and then add more ; but it is easiertoremovenearly all the carbon and replace some of it than tostop the blow at just the moment when the carboniscontent right.This process derives its name from Sir HenryBessemer,creditedwithitsinvention,and has beenused since about 1858.Open-hearthissteelpigiron, castiron,andmadescrapbymelting togetherironand steel, andremoving the carbonby the action of an oxidizingJlame of burning gas.Theprocessis carried out in a furnace the same inprincipleas, but moreelaboratein construction than,the inpuddling-furnace used making wroughtiron.Aview and partial section of a largeopen-hearthfurnace is shownin Fig. 230.This is madeby burning coalretorts, not enough air being suppliedintoThe fuel used is producer-gas.airtightgive

etecombustion.Thegasfrom these retortsforced into the furnace through valves andofheatedbrickworkpiercedwithholes.Alsosuppliedto the furnace through asimilagement, the air and gas entering throughngsneareach other and combiningintensely hot flame. This flamelying on the hearthof the furnacetomal^plays over texactly the same workas the flame from tin the puddling-furnace.andpe fohe hot gasesfrom the furnace, insteadofbeinedofto escape,are first led through anarrangementbrickwork at the opposite end of the fu nasimilarto the heated brickwork throughthe entering gas and air were forced.ter a short time the valves, through which tand gas are admitted, are turned, and thegas are forced through the brickworkwhichbeen heating, the flames being then led throughfirst set ofbricks,whichis, in its turn, heated,reversal of the flow taking place several timehour.tovesThisisarrangementvery similarto tused with the blast-furnace.der the action of the gas-flame the carbonally oxidized, and whenit has beenreducedthe proper percentage the melted metalisbutfrom the hearthandcastintoingots.process takes much longer than the Besse mer,maybestopped at any moment when tcontains 'the proper amount of carbon.a the two different

Tool-steelthathe process, maybe tested and correctedfromto time whileit is beingconverted,ersteelis convertedso rapidly that nonetesting can be done.whilessemerextent-steel,steeletc.forisused mostlyforrails, alsostructural shapes and cheaperen-hearthsteelisusedfor best grades-plate,structural steel, etc.e Umted States Governmentspecifiessteelinused marineboilers must bemadeopen-hearthprocess.enmachine-steelis made, the temperaturefurnace is highenoughto keep the metalthaliquithe entire process.In this way the slterto the top of the ironanddoes not remainwithit, as when making wroughtiron.sufficient carbonhas been taken from tand while the metalit is drawningots,andofflaterfromrolledis stillin a molten condition,underneath the slag, casinto bars. This givesteela granular, not a fibrous, structure, anit free from the slag containedinwroughtol-steel. "s outlined above"may bemadeis, byarbonopen-hearthor Bessemerbeststeelis madeby the*'crucible"bymakingsteel;process.tbudinary tool-steel contains abouti per cent carboandfrommaybemadeiron,eitherby taking some of t

tool-steelalast is the methodin common use. In tble process, small piecesiron,of wroughtste, and other material richincarbonaremixedroper proportions to give the desired percentagearbon andareplacedin acrucible.Thecruci bleis covered witha lid to prevent the oxidationthe melted metal, placedin a furnaceand tre melteddown. When the metalhas beed and properly mixed, the crucibleis takenthe furnaceand the steel pouredinto amoldcast into an ingot,whichis afterward rolledinhat was known ashehtindone.incarbonalmost the same way"Harveyizing"blistersomewhat the same way.""armorsteel''wascase-hardening'plateprocess was based on the fact that whenveryhigh-carbonmakingiron is heated inrichincarbon,from those substances andblistersteel.isonce'alcontact withsomesu stit will gradually absorbbeconvertedThis is the principle usesteel or incase-hardening.teel was at one time commonly madebarsofing the barswroughtironand the charcoalbysurrowith charcoal aninair-tigh, this being necessary to prevent oxidationg the heatingwhichfollowed. The boxesheated to a high temperature andheldheatforseveraldays.Theoutside of the bacarbonizedfirst, thus makingashell,or coat ing

tironandconvertedit into high-carbonteel. As the heating was continued, thinworkeddeeperanddeeper, but the insidee bar would not become as highlycarbonizede outside and the steelwas "streaky."er bars werecarbonizedin this way, theycut into lengthssteelmore uniformiformas modernand welded together, makingin structure, but not nearly"crucible"steel.parisonofWrought-ironandMachine-steel.wrought-ironandlow-carbonsteel arechemicallyabout the same; that is, asample of eachcontain about the same amount of carbon,and yet the twomaterialsmaybeverydiffer ent.sbrokenend ofa barofiron has astringy,appearance, while machine-steel showscrystalline,grainyfracture. It is this structuralcondition that marks the distinction betweentwometals.e fiber of the wroughtironisproducedb, slag seams. Each oneof these slag seamsre or less a sourceof weakness, as the slamuch weaker than the iron, is liable to givcausingacrack.The presence of the slasome advantage when welding, acting asought iron ismuchmore liable to split thane-steelwhenbeing forged,and, whilebe heated and worked at aslightlyhigher

"InparticularlyMachine-steel is stronger than wroughta tensile strength very much higher.iron,ha inachine-steelmaybewelded easily without; butsound welds are moreeasily made whelux is used, the weldingbeing done at aslightr heat than the weldingheatof wroughtirachine-steel may not be distinguished frghtbeiron by the hardening test. Some iroslightlyhardened,while manylow-carbonls can not be hardened to any appreciablebleTheGovernmentstate that the steel usedofspecificationsbeing heated to aredwater, and then bent double,this that steelinboilersheat,cold"fordoes not necessarily harden.boile plateshallplungedshowingIn brief: In a forging,when much weldingdone,ironwroughthas someadvantages;general work"when much"required machine-steelis to bepreferred,isbuforginbeinger andless liable tosplit.he fibrous structure of wroughtiron iswnby taking a piece 5" or 6" longand treatinwith weak acidfor a day or so. Theacid win the ironandleave the fibersof slag standingrelief.roperties of Wrought Iron, Mild Steel, and Tool.erentbrief, the valuable properties ofmetalsare as follows:rought iron : Easily welded ; easilyhammered,forged,intoshapewhilehot ; can beworkedhardento

dsteel:Easilywelded;easilyhammered,, intoshapewhilehot ; can beworkedtosomewhile cold; will not harden to any extent;ularlygoodfor forging ; stronger than wroughtol-steel:hardeningParticularlyvaluableon accountproperty; much stronger than mildin tensile strength; used principallyformakingtools and parts of machines where wearing qual itieare required; welds withdifficulty,sometimesat all; properties depend to large extent upontage of carbon present.

OrdinaryIfCHAPTER X.TOOL-STEELWORK.ol-steel. "nationusedfortool-steel isofironandcarbon.practicallyThe kind commonsmall tools contains aboutiper cenn.teelwhich containsa large amount of carbonas"high"carbon steel, while that havingamount is "low"called carbon steel.Stees use the word"temper''asreferringtott of carbonasteel contains; thus a stee makespeaks ofa high-tempersteelasmeaningcontaininga large amount of carbon, andtemper as meaningasmall amount of carbomteelisalsodesignated by the number ofof i-per-cent carbon whichithun drecontains.instance, aone-hundred-carbon steel containser cent, or one hundred hundredths per cen,a forty-carbonhshesteelper cent carbon, etc.containsproperty of tool-steel which makesvaluablefortyis the fact that it can be hardeneda greater or less degree to suit the purposeit is intended.ithunpa tiardening."apiece of tool-steel be heated

thethet and then suddenly cooledit becomesThis is known as"hardening.''Ifvertbe done "steelit"very slowlywillas*'annealing."Inheatedred-hot abesoftened. Thisother words"spehicha piece of steelmines its hardness; thus, iffast itsoftened,becomesandbyverythe hardness of the steel may beeproperheatfromis cooledfrom a high heasteeliscoolehard ; if cooled very slowlvarying the speed of the coo ingvaried.which the steel shouldd varies with the percentage of carbon.As a general rule, the greater the amountcarbon, the lower the hardening heat"igh"heiment.onlysteelwillthan a "low"wayharden at amuchcarbonsteel.inthatlowerto determine the proper heatto harden any particular kindThismaymall piece of the same kindbeeasilyofsteelttem perisdone as follows:of steel as thathardened is hammered out into a bar\" square.howsnt,ngy.endwillanddullshouldTheend of this bar is heatedred and then cooledbe tried witha fileoff over the cornerof the anvil.endprobablybreaksbeingwithinandcoldaboutaboutbe found that the steel mayuntwater.difficulty, the grain of trather coarse and somewhatThe sameexperiment shouldberepeatedaslightlyharder "higher heat. This time the steel wishownby its being harder to file

Giving. Thistheheatexperimentshouldberepeated,slightly each time, untila heatra inleavesed which, after cooling,the steelthat the filewill slipoverwithout catchingall, andso brittle that itsnaps very easilbroken, the breakshowsaveryfine,. This is the properheat at which to hardenkindparticularof steel, andiscalled trdening heat."f the beitexperimentingcontinuedwillbe seeincreaseeach additionalof temperature, abohardening heat, increases the coarseness of tand makes the steel verybrittle, indicatingthe steel, whenhardened at these higher heatsevencoarserandless fine in texture, and, consequentis not as strong, and will not hold asgootting edge,as if hardened at the proper'heat.* 'hard eninhe proper heat at whichto harden anykindis, as noted above, that particularheatththe steel the finest grain andleavesithe two generallawsofhardening are these :. The more acarbon steel contains the loweheat at whichit maybeproperlyhardened,. The fasterissteel cooledfrom the hardeningthe harder it becomes.empering."apiece of steelor a tproperdegreeofhardness to do the workit is intended is known as"tempering/'he use the "temper" in

ath"justisusedby the toolor tool-smith,-maker,g the hardnessof a tool or piece of temperedregardless of the amount of carbonitcontaiols hardened as describedabove(heateding heat and cooledincoldwater)andbrittle for most uses, and must bearesoftenedtoeatedfor.to fit them to perform the work they aroperation of slightly softening the hardenedis known as "drawing the temper,"andthccomplishedhardenedbysteel.slightly reheating the previouslya piece ofhardenedsteelbe heated to a temperaof about 4300F. itwillbeveryslightlyed and toughened, being leftabouthardforengraving- tools, smalllathe-tools,rs, etc.If the heat beraisecj to 4600F., the hardness is about rightfor taps, dieF., etc.Reheating to 5500 F. or 5600 F.makeshardened steel about rightforcold-chisels,saws,awhile temperature of 5700F. leaveshardness in the steelabout rightveryfs.When a temperature of6500 F. is reached"temper" is all gone and the steelisleftsoftobeeasilyfiled. With a slightincreasemperature above this point the steelbecomest.se temperatures to which the steelisreheatedbemeasuredinseveralways.Onewaywould

it degree hardness toof the same temperature as the bath. Thanswer for tempering on a largescale,bardlypractical when onlya few tools are toed.hesteelitself furnishesabout the easiestmeansroughly determining this temperature. Ifof steel or iron bepolishedbrightandheated,inscaleforms on the outside, which changes colthe temperature is increased. When the scacommences to appear, at a temperature4300F., the surface of the steel seems to turry pale yellow ; as the temperature increasesesscale grows thicker, this yellowintobrown,turning into lightly blue. Thesescaleformedtowhichpurple,becomesandarker,becomes tinged witdarkpurple,colorsare due to the thin oxidand show nothing except the tem perwhich the metal was last heated.anpiece of wroughtiron or soft steel will, whend,show these colors aswellas tool-steel. Thsare permanent and remain after the metalooled.Thecolored scaleis very thin and maeasily removedby polishing.f the tool is not properlyhardened in the fithe fact that it shows the proper temper colthe outside means nothing.bout the only wayto test the temper ofa tooltry it witha file, andeven then the grain maytoo coarse, due to hardening at too high a heat.ecomplete process of tempering a tool (i

hout, or for a length, afrom the hardening heat,and then slightlyning,byreheating to acomparativelyloature.ter the reheating the steel may bedor left tocoolin the air.Suddenit slightlyharder.suddenlycoolinge higher the temperature of the reheating, uervisible"theredtemper.heat, the softer the steel and ththesteelisbyaccident orotherwise reheatedoo high a temperature whendrawing the temper,the tool must bedrawn.rehardened and the temperen there is any doubt as to the proper heathichto harden any piece of steelit ismuchto harden at too lowrather than too highIf hardened at too low a heat itmay bed and again hardened at a proper heat, buhigh a heat is used the first time there is nofdetecting the fact,and the tool will probablybreak the first time used.a general rule, a tool hardened at too highwillhave acrumbly and scratchy cuttingpering Tools. "forconvenienceInpractice tools mayin tempering into two generalbedvclasses:st, tools whichhavesuchas most lathe-tools,onlyacutting edge temperecold-chisels,ond, tools tempered to auniformetc.hardness

emperingold-chisel."ToolsThewhen Only an Edge is Hardenedmethod of tempering acoll willserve as anexample of the temperingtools in the firstclass, the onlydifferencetempering of various tools in this classbeintemperaturetowhich the tools arereheated,bythe''tempercolor/'table showing the temperatures to whichous tools shouldrlydbe"draw the temper/"tempercolors/reheated''afterto these temperatures, ishardeningtogether with theorcolor of scale, correspongivenon pagfter the chiselhas been forged itshouldedtocool untilblack. Thecutting endheated to the proper hardening heat for tthree inches back from the edge, care beinot to heat the steel akpve the hardening heael should alwaysbe hardened at arising heatheatedisend then hardened bycoolinginchesof the pointincold water, the endin the water just long enough tocoolit.aboubeinTlis then withdrawnfrom the water andpolished withapiece of emery-paper, old grind stoneor something of that character.spart of the chiselis still red-hot the heat frohot part will gradually -Yeheat the cold en"drawing the temper/'"Tempercolors'begin to show next the heated part, andcoldendisreheated the bandof colors wWhen

isagaincooledinorder to prevent furthering and softening of the steel.ouldendpart- of thechiselbestill red-hot wheniscooled the second time, then only tshouldbe dipped in the water and the tool heluntil all of the chiselis black,when the entirmaybecooled.it were a lathe-tool being tempered the processbe the same excepting the tool shouldthe second time when the yellow scale appearshe cutting edge.en hardening the ends of tools as describedthe tool whilein the water shouldbekeponstantmotionto prevent cooling the steasharpline, aswellas to keep upacirculationof water around the cooling metal.peringThrough)."ms : TheingToolsToolsof the Second Class (Hardenedhardness throughout) mayheatof the second class (thosebetemperedwhole tool is first heated to auniformit throughout. Theand cooled completely, thus hardeningsurfaceis then polishedand the temper drawn by laying the toolce of red-hotd color, generallyironuntil the surface shows tdarksuch tools as taps, dies,ileyellowor light brownmilling-cutters,etc.reheatingon the iron the tool shouldalmost constantly, otherwise the partst with the ironwill,becomeoverheated,anquentlytoosoft,before the other parts ar

thel82FORGE-PRACTICE.melted lead or heatedsand.Largepiecesaresometimes''drawn''over a slowfire or on a sheetof iron laid over the fire.Recalescence. "-Thereis a peculiarfactwhichhelps to determine the proper hardening temperatureofa piece of steel.If a piece of steelbeheated to about a bright-red heatand allowed tocool,it will cool gradually untila temperature isreached at whichit seems to growhotter; that is,it grows darker in color, and then, when the criticaltemperature is reached,it becomes lighter for aninstantand then gradually coolsdown. The temperatureat which this seeming reheating takesplaceis about the proper hardening heat.Thisphenomenonis known as "Recalescence."Anattemptis madein Fig.231to illustrate the/,-A r"'Fig.231.action of the heated bar at the point of recalescence.Ashows the heated bar as it comes fromthe fire"hottest part showinglightest.AtB the steelrecalescencehasbeginscooled slightly and the heatoftoshow at the lightpoint aboutthe centre of the bar. At C the firststreakhas

Differented somewhat and the endbeginsapparentlyreheat, this second streak gradually movingillustrated at D, E,andF,until at G the bpassed the critical temperature and cools downlly.is illustration isby Howe in his "Metallurgysomewhat the same as thaofSteel/givesanexcellent explanation of this phe nome temperature at which this reheating occursdsupon the amount of carbonhigher for the lowerin the steecarbon steel, andbout this temperature that the steel willly.e hardening heatas"cherry-red'and means veryMetcalflightyellowsays:'toofsteelisoftenheat. This term is''ithardendescribedverymis lealittle. Such anauthorityCherries areall shadesalmostblack;and'fromcherryseems to mean almost any of these variouss/'is a good plan when taking the steelfromthto hold it for an instant in the shadow of thmoreas the hardening heatmayincertaintythis way.beThedistinguishedcolor of thwill appear quiteht, and there is a betteruniformdifferent here than in thchance of obtainingheat by judging in the shadow thanhe open sunlight, which variesso muchinitte Cooling "Hardening Baths."The

Theerythingelsetle the steelbeingismade.equal),the harder and moreiles,wanted very hard, are hardened bycoolingabathofcoldbrine ; as the brinecools the steeler than water the steelis left harder than iened in water.pringswanted tough and not very hard areedin oil,asoil cools much slower than water.ometimesarticlesdelicatelyshapedandliablerack when hardening arecooledin water havinghinfilmof oil on top ; the oil sticks to the steelit is plungedinto the water and the steelisnotd quiteasquickly as in pure water.hefastersteelis cooled the more danger therefcracking.eating and Cooling "ImportanceofUniformng."greatest care must be taken whenning to have the steel uniformlyheated.Inot be left in the fire one minutelonger thanecessary to accomplish this ; but it must be uniformheated or the results are liable to be disastrous.Take amilling-cutter,forexample,with-pointed,projectingteeth.Thepointsofteethmaybecomemuchhotter than the bodythe cutter whilebeing heated. If dippedwhile/pointsare hotter, they are almost certain tooff.oomuchimportance can not beattachedtouniformheating. It is safe to say that probably thereof three-quarters of the work spoiledinhardiscausedby improper heating.

Atools in anopenfire, it is a good plantolayof thin, flat iron on the fire andheat the stethis. Thesteeldocs not then come in direcct with the fireand maybe moreuniformlyd.or heating taps, small-end mills, etc., a piecemaybe laid through the fireand the toold in this. The pipeforms acrude muffle,is very satisfactoryforsuchwork.he most satisfactory way to harden is to useurnace,but this is not always obtainable.eadHardeningand Tempering."bathoflearequentlyusedfor heating bothwhenhardeningdrawing the temper.hen hardening the lead is heated red-hot (hard eningheatoftheheld in the leadsteel) and the tools to be hardeneduntilheated to the proper temperahe top of the hot lead is keptcovered with char coalto prevent oxidation, otherwise, the leaexposedto the air wouldberapidlyoxidizedwasted.hesteelis cooledin the ordinary way.is is a very satisfactory wayto harden, as tmay*thelargerbeleadverymayuniformlyheated.be heated in anordinaryForsmalladlepieces somespecial arrangement is necessary.en drawing the temper the lead is not heatedot as whenhardening,and the piecesto be tempereare laid on top the lead. Th

StraighteningWhenVerythethen beeasily watchedduring the heating.pieces to be tempered arepolished andheatedl the proper colors appear"d in the ordinary way.same aswhenarping in Cooling."heatedsteeliscoolecontracts, and unless contracting takes plarmlyon all sides the pieceed, or sprung, out of shape.is liable toIf, for instance,ong, thin, flateddipping into the coolingitpiece of steel were to be hardenedbathedgewiseor fl wiwould probably spring out of shape.endwise the piece wouldbecooledat once and would standa betterg out of the coolings ageneral rule,ebathstraight.it is better to dipfromchancecylindricallong thin pieces endwise ; round, thin discsflatpiecesedgewise.ooling Thin Flat Work. "rm thickness ispieceeen two heavyred with oil.easilythin flatis heated to a hardening heatthe other quicklyplatesTheofpieceworkhardened as followsandacooleiron having flat facis laid on oneplalaid on top. This leavesoilhardbemayand verytrue andflat. Pieceswhicwarped all out of shapeif cooledinwatebeeasilyhardened in this way. Tr is drawn in the ordinary way.ardening Files "Long Thin Workhehardeningoffiles is agood example ofmentofbelong thin work; and the method e pfor

files are heated in a pot of red-hotlead. Theyplacedin this pot onend, and when properlyareplunged endfirst (being held in averti calposition)filesinto a vat ofbrine.nearly always warp somewhat whened, and when the iswarpingslightas follows:htenedAcross the top of thvat are fastened twowooden strips about twoapart, joined by two ironarpins about sfromeach other.The hardener draws hfrom the brine before it isentirely cold.Thhas just heatenoughhe surface of the steelleft to cause the waterto disappearalmostisThe file is then placedbetween the pinsone andover the other, with the concaveup,as showninFig.232, which shows oneFig. 232.The hardenerside strips removed.then bearon the end of the file,itspringingstraight,at the same time pourssome of the brincoldtop of the concave part.Thiswill generallyghten out the fileleave ittrueandperfectlyourseif the files are too badlywarped therengto do but reheat, straighten, andharden

BlazingSpringh are very difficult to harden. Fig.Fig.233.233 showssectional view ofasteelverywhichshouldbehard. The bodybear inghardenedbearing is thick and containsproportionatelya largeof metal, while the flange is very thin andjoins the body in asharp angle, makinga bae to harden. The thin flangeantly as its some seconds tocoolsoftvo umligalmoststrikes the water, while the bodycoolandge is set. As the body contractss.awayfrom the flange,crackingby that time tincoolingin the sharOf course shapeslike this will not always crackthere is alwaysa strong tendency to do so whenhinbodyof metal joins a thick onewithasharbetween the two parts.This danger canened by leaving a fillet in the corner asshownsidesketch.Thisby not leaving a distinct line betweenk and thin parts.Milling-cutter teeth when made withashare at the bottom are liable toIfrarelyleftwitha slightcrackif properlycrackinequalises the strainsomewhathardening.fillet between them thheated.Tempering Springs"Off."temperingdone inoilis a good example of work wheretemperature of the reheatingis determinedpendentlyof the' 'temper colors/This is known'

on asmall scale,forordinaryis heated to a hardening heatandwork.cooledTheTo draw the temper, the spring, still wet withoil,isreheated (ordinarily in the blaze) until the oilblazesup and then plungedofthfnstant into the oil-bath and again reheated untilazes. This iscontinued until the oilblazesmlyover the entire spring at the same time.rings are generally not inuniformthickness,the thin partsheat morequickly than thr. Thismomentaryplungeinto the oil coolsthin parts somewhat and affects verylittle thrparts.As the reheatingiscontinuedaof the springare thus brought to the sameature at the same time. If the reheatingcontinued without this partial cooling,byththe thicker parts were hotenoughtemper, the thinner parts wouldto have thbeheatedo high a temperature andhave no temper lefimalhisinkinditsoil, and not mineral oil, shouldof work,as the mineral oil is too uncertaincomposition and will sometimesbeblazeusedtemperature, sometimes at another, while thoilisfairlyuniforminitscompositionandllyblazes at about the same temperature.or fish-oil is a goodfor material this purpose.ther way of tempering springs (whichriskybutiswhichsometimesthe springin the ordinary wayused)iniswater.s then reheatedover the fire,and to test th

It is held inminute shavings thus made will catchfiretngheometimestemperatureof the woodburningissupposedtobereached,in this case taking the placoil mentioned above.whennopine splintersareconvenientthe hammer-handle is madeto serve the pur pothese last are not processes to bearegivenas illustrationsofreheatingofrecommended,how the temperaturefor drawing the temper maymined in avariety of ways, viz.,by the blungof the scale ; by the blazingof the wood.of the oil ; by tardening to Leave Soft Center."Anothermethodtemperinghasforusedmilling-cutters and tapproved very satisfactoryis as follows :he tools are heated in the ordinary way and aindwater, but are not left in the waterh to becomecompletelycold,beingof the water as soon as the "singing"lodrawnstopsn red-hot metal strikes water the wateriatecontact with the metal starts to boithis boilingproduces a decided hummingng noise and a throbbing sensation easilyfgh the tongs. This ceases when the outsidethe metal coolsto about the temperaturengwater.)hen the tool is drawn out of the wateritisplungedintolard-oilandleft there forshort time (depending upon the size of t

outside just commences to smoke, whenitplungedfor an instant into the oil and agained, this beingcontinued until the oil smokesallover the tool, when the temperingte and the tool may beeinobject of the methodpooledoff.is this: The firstcool ingwater hardens the outside and cutting edgese tool. The tool is then taken from the waterplungedintooil while the inside isstillcomparahot. As the oil conducts the heat morethan water, the cooling of the tool is continuin the oil, thus leaving the center ratherr than if hardened inwater.But even heremetalis not completely cooled,but taken fromoil-bath while there is still some heat left in th.This heat in the center helps to draw thof the outside, and consequently the tooeheated much quicker than ifentirelycooled.th a littleto which the reheating shouldpractice the tool can bethe oil-bath while there isstillbeheatin the central part to draw the temper.carried.withdrawnenoughway no reheatingin the fire isnecessary,thbeing simply taken from the oil, alloweditselfuntil the oil commences to smoke,theninplungedwater to preventfurtherrhnealing. It"maybesaid that annealingofhardening.Togo back to firstIf be heated to a'isth'smoking oil serves to indicate the proper temperaprincipleshardening

Averyhard. The faster it is cooled the hardersteel.On the other hand, if the steelthis hardening heatthesloweritisveryslowlycooled the softersoftening process, of heatingbeit is leftitcooledbecomes.sofand cooling slowlynown asannealing, and steel so treated is calleledsteel.ater Annealing. "iswhatTheis known asg this the steeledghdullredwhenin water. Thistobeworked,isquickest way of annealing"heatedwaterheld in a darkmethodheated to a hardening heatuntilannealing.'place,it just showsandis'theleaves the steel sobut not assoftas it wouldand cooled very.barifof steelhammereduntil cooledheat is ratherhard,and can bemader and putin a bettercondition tobelowsomewhatworkannealing.aterannealingis quite often usedforworkfollowing nature: A drill or tap issometimesnoffin a piece of work and must besoftenede it can beremoved.Suchworkis generallyedin a hurry,and water annealingis resortedto soften the brokenpiece.oapy water gives good resultsfor water annealing.nnealing at the Forge. "common way of a ntheis to bury the heatedsteelin the cindersforgeandkeep it there untilit is cold.Thiis for St

Sometimesury the metalin a box filledwithcommon limesteel cools slowlyin this, andis left invershapeforworking.eobjectineach case is tocool the metalyas possibleby keeping the airfrom it, as heaost to the air very rapidly.d in some material whichWhen the steeldoes not conductreadily,it of course cools very slowly andthat much softer.x Annealing."apiece of polishedmustbeannealed without raising any scalesurface, suchaswouldbe left by any of tdsdescribed before. To do this the air mustkept from the metal,dand while cooling.an iron box, filledwithbothit iswhilebeingThe steel can be buriedgroundbone, burneder, or other carbonaceous materials and sealedight.Theboxmaybeslowlyheated to ttemperature and allowed tocool very slowly,steelbeingremovedfrom the boxafteritere is a patented processforannealing polishedwhichis saidto leave the metalas brightanas it was beforehed annealing.Themethodoutas follows: Thepieces to beannealedinda piece oflargepipehaving acapon oneinto this capisscreweda small gas-pipebackextendsthrough to the outside of thce. When the piecesare allin the largepipecond capisscrewedon the open end.Thihas a hole drilled in it. While the largar

it through the small gas-pipe. This gasfpipe and escapes andugh the second cap.burns at the smallhordinary illuminating-gas isused.Oxygensary to formscaleon the steel, and as the gntainingverylittle or nooxygen) whichpipe drives out the air, there is no oxygenlformscale anddiscolor the steel, consequentlysteel comes out of the pipeas bright as whenfent in. Thepipe, of course, is kept fullofgl the steelis cold.r. William Metcalf, in his book on Steel,givasubstitutefor the above-patented processown as the Jones process)is description is taken verbatimthe followingmethodfrom his book)et a pipebemadelike a Jones pipe withoutin the cap or agas-pipein the end.Tochargeirst throw a handfulof resininto the bottompipe and screw on the cap.Theiscapa looNowroll the wholeinto the furnace ; the resbevolatilized at once, fill the pipe with carbonhydrocarbon gases, and with the airlong beforsteelishotenoughtobeattacked.he gas will cause anoutward pressure, and maseen burning as it leaks through the joint atThis prevents airfromcomingincontactthe steel.This methodes plan as far as perfectareconcerned.surfaces of the pieces,Itis asefficientasheatingand easymanagereduces the scaleleaving them a dark

Jonesplan,but it will not do forpolishingsurfac'le blanks (the shaped pieces of stock readytheast-ironteethboxescut) are annealed3^"or 4"10"wide, with just a littlebypackinglong, 1" deep,naceous material over the steel.dheby an iron cover whichcomes aboutan inchsides.andthemsprinkling of someTheboxfits inside the boxanda half below the toe box is made practically air-tightbyclay (the damp dust or grit which collectspacking8be nethegrindstonesissometimes used) aroundinside the box on top of the cover.ese boxes areplacedin a furnaceand heatedaboutforty-eight hoursand then drawn outcovered with sheet-iron covers linedwithos, where they cool very slowly.A boxputa cover Saturday isexpected to beusedy; and the steelissometimesso hot eventhat it can hardly be touched. Thismethodthe steel very soft and easy to work.eel is sometimes annealedby bringing it up tperheat in a furnaceand then allowing theand the furnace tocool off together.ealing is done inpitsby buildingfilling itpit,with steel, eitherinupa fire bricpilesoin boxes, leaving spacesfor the burning gasbetweenirculatethe pilesor boxes,coveringwholeover witha fire-brickcover,-linedandg to the temperature by

ingsin the side of the pitleft for the purpose.thesteelhas been heatedevenlyto the propererature, the gasis turned off and the pit acontents slowly cooled.This is the methodforannealingsteelfromwhichtin-plate.heheheat"underlyingsteelprincipleis first heatedis the same inuniformlyand then cooled slowly"tothea'any'slowercashardeninger. Sometimes, to prevent oxidation, precautionsare taken to keep the air awayfrom the stduringheatingandcooling.

AnyCHAPTERXI.TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING.isas described before is understood, and onlldirectionswillbegiveninparticularcaseshefollowingpages.rging Heat. "tool-steel forging onwhichis any great amount of work to be donedhave the heavy forgingandshapingdoneayellowheat. At this heat the metal worksand properly, and the heavythe grain andleaves the steelinpoundingproperrfassumed that the general method of tempericonditionto receive acutting edge.When a tooltobesmoothed off or finished, or forgedry slight extent, the work shouldbe done atlower heat, just above the hardening temperary little hammeringshouldbe done at anbelow the hardening temperature.ld-chisels. "inforging.heatTheordinarycold-chiselis sosim pleshape that no detail directions are necessaryandThehaspossible.willforgedstockshouldintobulge out, like Fig.shapebe heated to aye loandfinishedIf properlyforged the end,234.Thisshould

he the from A to B be), as shown at C,andbrokenbeen hardened. This brokenoff after the toedge will theFig.234.the grain andindicatewhether the steelhhardened at a proper temperature.hen hardening, the chisel shouldbe heatedreas far back from the pointas the line A, FiGreat care must be taken to heatslowlyenough to heat the thicker part of t"^Vchisel without overheating the point.the pointdoes become too hot, it shouldnot be dipped inwater tocool off, buallowed to coolin the air to below thardening heat and then reheated morecarefully.When the chiselhasbeenproperlyheatedH-Bto the hardening heat, the end shouldhardened incold water back to the lineFig-As soon235-as the isend cold tchisel shouldbefromwithdrawnt235.water andoneside of the end polishedoff withapiece of emeryor somethingthat nature, as described before.

flat on top the ast the point of the tool. As the metalisr hatthe polished surface will change color, showingfirstyellow,brown,as the purple, almostand at lastblueat the end, the chisel should againtimecompletely.ed off and the grain examined.purple.color reaches thbeThe waste end may nowAcooled,To test fr hardness, try the end of the chisel withfile,which should scratchitIfslightly.is too coarse, the tool shouldberehardeneda lower temperature, whileif the ismetalthtoitshouldberehardened at a higher temperature." Theape-chisel.cape-chisel,illustrated in Figis usedforcutting grooves and working at tFig.236.m ofnarrow channels.Thecutting edgebedwider than any part of the blade backwhich shouldbesomewhat thinner inorder thablade mayofA.hechisel* *clear' 'inwhen workingaslot tis startedby thinning down B overhornof the anvil, as shown atAy Fig.237.Thshing is doneawithhammer or flatter in tillustrated at B. Thechisel should n

Theel.cape-chiselis tempered the same as acoldFig.237.uare- and Round-nose Cape-chisels. "Thechiselstartedin the same way as anordinary capel,the endsbeing leftsomewhatmore stubby.eisendthen finishedround or square,in Fig.238, and tempered the same aschisel.und-nosedrills,cape-chiselsaresometimes usedandare then called"centering'ls.the-tools in General."same general formslathe-tools are followed inifferentnearly all shops;bu

"thatSuchRound-noseghtandLeft-hand Tools. "tools assiddiamondpoints, etc., aregenerally madeis, rightandleft-handed. If a toolwith the cutting edgeon the left-handsidthe tool is lookedat from the top with the shankFig.238.e tool nearest theobserver) ,it wouldbecalledht-hand tool. That is, a tool whichbegins iat the right-handend of the piece and cutss the left is known as aright-hand tool;commencing at the left-handend and cuttings the rightwouldbe known as a left-hangeneral shape of right- andleft-handtoolthe same use is practically the sameexceptingthe arecutting edgesonopposite sides.nd-noseandThread Tools. "andtools are practically alike, the differencein the grinding of the end.The thread tooetimes madea little thinner at the point.round-nose tool, Fig.that no description239,is so simpleof the forging is necessary.''

ladeCutting-offinand the sides must be soshaped that thear" the upper edge of the Inend.othes, the upper edge of the shaped end must8ECTIONATA-BFig.239.r at every point than the loweredge,asshownthesection.For hardening, the tool shouldbeheatedaboufar as the line A, Fig. 240, and cooled up toFig. 240.B. Tempercolor of scale shouldbelightylCutting-off Tools. "tools are forge

D.bladewithonesideflushA tool forged this waywith the side of this shownin Fig.241.Fig. 241.ethecuttingcuttingedgeis the extreme tip of the blade,is done by forcing the tool straightthe work, the edge cuttinga narrow groove.only part of the tool which should touch this the extreme end, or cutting edge; thereforethe th'ckest part of the blade must be the cut tinedge, the sides gradually tapering back intionsand becoming thinner, asshownng, A being wider than B.inathecutting edge shouldbeslightly above thof the top of the tool, or, inother words, thshould slant slightly upwards.eclearance angle at the end of the toolrightfor lathe-tools ; but for plainer tools thshouldbemademore nearly square, aboutby the line X X".r hardening, the heatshouldline C C,"and the end shouldthe line D".Tempercolorextendbeshouldtoaboutcooledbe ligh

edintond-hammer,shape withasledge,or, on lightstockworkingover the edge of the anviform the shoulderin the- mannershown atleaves the endbulged out andinroughshape,Fig 242.larharpto C. Theend shouldbe trimmed off withot-chisel along the dotted line.he finishing maybe done over the corner of tl, usinga hand-hammer or flatter, in the sameas when starting the tool; or a set-hammerbeused,as shown at D.are must be taken to haveproperclearancesides of the blade. It is a good plan toupseend of the bladeslightlybystrikinga few lig

en a tool is wanted with the blade forgedTheTheno description. The lengthcenter of the shank, the two shouldersarbyusingaset-hammer and working at thof the anvilface, letting the corner of thshape one shoulder while the set-hammerng the other.doublebeforeshoulders.nt Cutting-off Tool."Thisprocess has been dsunder the general method ofbentcutting-offformingtoolFig.243.243,ismade and tempered exactly the samethe straight tool, excepting that the bladebackward toward the shank through anangleout 45degrees.Fig. 244.ring Tool. "boring tool, illustrated in Fig

TheseThisthe tool is to beshould not bemadeusedanyin, but, as ageneralonger than necessary.his thin shankis started witha fuller cut anoutinmuch the same way as the cutting-offhewasstarted.cutting edgeis at the end of the small,benTheonly part of the tool required temperedhe bent nose, orend, which shouldbe given ttemper color as the otherlathe-tools"ligw.nternal Thread Tool. "screw threads on the insidetool, usedforcu tiofa hole, is forgethe same shape as the boring tool described, the endrently.beingafterward ground somewhatiamond-points.".tools aremade right anFig245.here areseveral good methods of making thes; but the one given below isabout as quiceasy as any, and requires the use ofno toopting the hand-hammer and sledge.he diamond-point is startedas shown at A, Fiby holding the stock at anangle of about

e against the corner, and the bentenddownhe dotted position witha few blows, as indi cateby the arrow.Fig.246.isendis further bent by holdingandstriking

in Fig. Theseiking asshown at C,which givesaside and eof tool in position on the anvil.The tool is finished by trimming the end wisharphot-chiseland so bending the endasw the top of the noseslightlyto oneside, githe necessary side''rake''asshowninFig.24When hardening, the end shouldbedippedn at Dand the temper drawn to showlighowscale.ools like the above made of stock as large1" maybemade using the hand-hammeralonePig.247.Side Tools. "Sidetools, orside-finishing tools,are also called,are generally made about

or Above things, thetools leave the endsforged the same; but thisafterwardbent toward the shank, cuttingout, at anangle of about 45degrees.eside tool maybeasshown at A, Fig.startedbymakinga fulle247,near the end of th.ebypart of the stock markedx is then drawnusinga fuller turned in the oppositedirec tion,working the stockdown into the shape shownB. The blade is smoothed up withaset-hammerandand trimmed witha hot-chiselon C. Thefinishedalong the dottedcurved end of the blade is smoothedwitha few blowsof the hand-hammer.e tool is finished bygiving the properhe top edge of the blade. This is done bythe tool, flat-side down,''offset'plac ingwith the blade extover, and the end of the blade next thabout one-eighth of an inch beyond, thde edge of the anvil. Athebladecloseupd, so that the faceedge of the bladeor two light blowsset-hammerisplacedto the shoulder and slightlyof the hammer touches thonly, as illustrated at Dwith the sledge will givnecessary offset, and after straightening ththe tool is readyfor tempering.is veryimportant on these tools, aswellas oothers,to have the cutting edgeassmooth andaspossible;it is, therefore, best, the verylas, to smooth up this part ofa tool, using th

empered the same as lathe-tools..grinding down the edge until the roundedhasbeencompletely ground off.hile the side tool is being heated for tempering,it shouldbeplacedin the fire with the cuttingup.edgeIt is more easy to avoid overheatingin this way.he blade is hardened by dipping in watern at E,onlyasmall part ofback, A,ofeextending above the water and remainingtot.The tool is taken from the water, quicklyhed on the flatside, and the temper drawnaverylightyellow.The samecolor shouldthe entirelengthof the cutting edge.If tshowsdarker at one end,it indicates thaend of the blade was not cooled enough, antooltoolshouldberehardened, this time tippinginsuchawayas to bring that end of twhich was before too softdeeper in the water.entering Tool. The"centering tool, Fig.24forstartingholes on face-plateand chuckwork,isstarted___^(8 y much the samewaas the boring toor~7 Theendisflattenedout thin and trimmedFig.248.side of the end shouldintoshape witha hochisel.Therightbecutfrom the top sithe left-hand from the other,leaving the ensameshapeas a flat drill.

down over the edged:i 1dendis flattenedandbyworking withaorset-hammer,asDE^/Dg the end of the stockanvilin the same wayen starting the diamondeFlG-2*9-at A, Fig.250.This leaves the endbenttoo nearly straight ; but, afterbeingshaped,nt into the proper angle,in the manner illuFig.250.atat B. The bladewill then probablybelike C, but a few blowswitha hammer,bentpointandin the direction indicated by thleaving it like D

AsThetempering. The bladeshouldbe temperedt show the verylightestyellow at cutting edge.When a tool of this kind is to beused on a planerfrontend should make morenearly aright angthe bottom; or, inother words, there shoulless front "rake" orFlat Drills.""clearance."flat drill, Fig.251, needsFig.251ription, as the forgingThele.end shouldcentering tool. Theand shapingare vebe trimmed the samesize of the tool is dete mineby the dimension A, this being the samesthe hole the drill is intended to make; thus,dimension were 1",thedrillwouldbeknownan inch drill.he temper is drawn to showa dark-yellowammers. "a general rule, when makingscalham merof allkinds by hand the eyeis madefirst.of steel of the proper size and convenientlengthandling isused, and the hammer forgedasend, muchforgingand shapingas possiblg done beforecutting the hammer fromhe hole for the eyeis punchedin the usual wathe proper distance from the end of the bagapunchhaving a handle (Fig. 70).The nose the is but

e taken to have the hole true and straight.isverydifficultandsometimesimpossiblehten upacrookedhole.terpunching the eye, the sides of the stockgenerally bulged out, and topreventknockingthe eye out of shape whileforging down thia drift-pin, Fig.252,isused.This is made8ECTIONA-AatFig.252.ool-steel and tapers from near the center tweach end,oneendbeingsomewhatsmallertheother.The center of the pinis the sameand sizeas the eyeis to be in the hammer.en the bar has been heated the drift-pinn tightly into the holeand the bulge forgedin the same way (B, Fig.be'254)as a solidbatreated. When the drift-pin becomesd it must be driven out and cooled, and undercircumstances should the bar be heatedwithpinin the hole. Thepin should alwaysbhape.when there is dangerofknocking the eye oue''steelusedin general, shouldfor hammers, and"batteringbe of a lower temper (con tainlesscarbon)than that for latheusedtools.e a hammer be

taper slightly toward the center, as illustratedFig.253, which showsasection ofa hammer cthrough the center of the eyWhen the eyeis madein tway (slightly contractedFig. 253.themiddle),the hammerhandlemay be drivently from oneend ; then by driving one or moreesin the end of the handle it is held firmlplace and there is nochanceupor down.for the headross-pene, Blacksmith's or Riveting Hammer. "er of this kind is shown at C, Fig. 6.Fig.254.he differentstepsin the process offorgingstrated in First is

TOOL FOKGMG AND TEMPERING.215shaped and a cut started at the point where theend of the hammerbeingused, as shown at B,around the eye.intoThewill come (C), the drift-pinwhileforging the metalother end of the hammer is then worked upshape, usinga set-hammer as indicated at D.When the hammer is as nearly finished as may bewhile still on the bar, it is cut off witha hot-chisel,leaving the asend nearly square and true as possible.Afteristempered.For tempering, the wholehammer is heated in aslowfire to an even hardening heat ; whilesquaring up and truing the face the hammerhardening,the tongs should grasp the side of the hammer,one jaw being inserted in the eye.Bothendsshouldbe tempered, this being doneby hardening first one end, then the other.TheshownthesmallinpositionFig.end255.isis hardened first byinstantlyreversed and the largeend of the hammer dippedAs soon as this endcooling,hascooled,asWhile the largeendis cooling, the smalleroneispolished and thetemper for.color watchedWhen a dark-brownscalein the water and hardened.appears at the end the Fig.255-hammer is again reversed, bringing the largeendUppermost and the penein the water. The face

Theissmallpolished and tempered in the same wayend.If the largeendis properly hardenedbefore the temper color appears on the smalsthe hammermaybe taken completely outwater and the largeend also polished, thbeingforwatchedon bothends at once.as oneend shows the proper colorit is promptlyd in water, the other endfollowing as sooncolor appears there.nder nocircumstances should the eyebecooledstillred-hot.or some special workhammer-facesmusthard; but forordinary usage the temperaboveis very satisfactory.ll-Pene-hammer."s startedbyballpene-hammer,Fipunching the eye.e hammer isroughed out withtwo fullersmanner illustrated at A, Fig.256.esize of stock used shouldbesuch that it wiy round up to form the largeend of the hammer.ter the hammer is roughed out as shown at Ametal around the eyeis spread sidewise, usingfullers as illustrated at 5, aset-hammer beingfor finishing. This leaves the forging likenext stepis to round and shape the ball,whichrged as nearly as possible to the finishedshape.ter doing this a cutismadein the barwherefaceof the hammerwillcome, and the largeened up,leaving the worklike D.enecked parts of the hammereach sidefinishedfullers

SledgesFiG. 256.in the same way as described abovefornecks roundinsection,but the commoneris octagonal.ersmoothing off, the hammer is cutfrom thand the face forged true. Bothendsaregroundand tempered. This hammershouldbe tem-temperillthe riveting-hammer.pene-hammers may bemade \yith the steaminpractically the same wayas described,substituting roundbarsforof steeloffullers.usedges. "are made and tempered in thgeneral way asriveting-hammers.Sledges

HardiesAfter"Thislacksmith's Cold-chisel."tool (Fig.2)ed in practically the same wayas the cross-peneer described before. Then out longerit.heparallel with the eye.temperend, of course,and thinner, the thin edgecominginsteadcutting edge only of the chiselshoulde just tinged witha littleumstances should the headof at right angleistempered.be drawn to showa bluispurple.Underof the chiselened, as this wouldcause the endtochin use and mightcause a serious accident.he tool showninFig.192 maybeusedtoavwhen makingm-hammer.ByFig.193, the bladen out andfinished.hot- orcold-chisels with tusing this tool, as illustratedof the chisel maybequicklyot-chisel."forming the eye of the hoel(Fig.2), the blade is startedbymaking~"i"w"'two fuller cuts, asin Fig.25Theendis drawndown as indicatedthe dotted lines. T257 'headisshapedachiselcutfrom the bar in the same way thwasriveting-hammertreated.This chisel shouldhave itscutting edge tem perthe same as that of the cold-chisel:Hardies. "suchas showninFig.

Flatters..-hole in the anvil and the piece cutfromthThis is heated, the stem placedin the holhe anvil, and the piecedriven down into thodand against the facehardy.shoulderof the anvil, thus formingbetween, the stem and the headter forming the shoulder, the blade is workedstartingbyusinghen starting the hot-chisel blade.e cutting edge shouldas acold-chisel.acksmith's Punches. "two fullers in the samewaybePunchesgiven the same tempershapedsimilarig. 70 arestarted the same manner as the hot, excepting thatfuller cuts areendonfoursides,asin Fig.258.is then drawnto the shapeby the dottedFig.258..mper same ascold-chisel.t-hammers""Theset-hammer,is so simple that no directions are necessaryFigfng.Thefaceonlyshouldbe tempered anshould show a dark-brown or purple color.atterssuchas inshownFig. 14 maybe.madeupsettingthe end ofa smallbar, the upset parng the face;wideor a bar largeenoughthe facemaybeused and the head, orshank,

Fullers230 FORGE-PRACTICE.made.Thefaceshouldbe tempered to aboutablue.Whenmanyare to bemadea swage-blocksimilartoFig.259shouldbeused.Halfonly of the block isshownin the figure, theother half being cut awayto show the shape of theholewhichWhenthe properis the size of the finished flatter.using this block the stockis first cut tolength, heated,inplaced the hole, andupset.Swages. may alsobemadein a blocksimilarto the oneusedfor the flatter. Theswageshouldbe firstupsetin the block and the creaseformed the last thing. The crease may bemadewitha fuller or a barof round stock the propersize.Fullers. "are madein the same way asswages.Allof these tools maybeupset andforgedunderthe steam-hammer, using the die, or swage, blocksas described above.Theswage-blocksmaybemade of castiron.

dirt, on theCHAPTERXII.MISCELLANEOUSWORK.rinking. "Wheniron is heated it expands, anbeingcooleditcontracts to practicallynalsize.ispropertyis utilizedin doingwhatisknownshrinking."Fig.260.common example of this sort of workisillu trat.in Fig.260, showingacollar"shrunk"Thecollar and shaftaremade separately.oninside diameter of the hole through the collaadeslightlyless than the outsidediametershaft.When the collar and shaft arereadygo together the collarisheatedtemperature causes the metal toincreases the diameterarger (if the sizescollarthan the outsidehavebeendiameterred-hot.expandof the hole,properlymakingThanproportionedof the shaftis then taken from the fire, brushed

Brazing,into the proper position, whereit is cooledlyas possible.ontractandf the collarbeThislocks it firmly incooling causes the collaplace.al owed to cool slowlyit willheashaft, which will expand and stretch the collahat; then, as bothcool together and contrathe collar willbe loose on the shaft.his is the method usedforshrinkingtiress.The tire is made just large enoughthe wheel whenhot, but not largeenoughIt iscold.then heated, putinplace,tostoanlycooled.ouplings are frequentlyshrunk on shaftsinthrazing. "it- mightbesaid,issolderingbrass.riefly the processis as follows : Thesurfacesjoined arecleaned thoroughly where they arein contact with each other.Thepiecesarngclamp.fastened together in the proper shapeborax)with wire,or holdingwithsome sorThe joint is heated, a flux (gene allybeingaddedto prevent oxidationsurfaces, and the "spelter" (prepared brasskledover the joint, the heat beingraiseduntbrass melts andflows into the joint, makingbetween the pieces.Ordinarily it requirest-red or dull-yellow heat to melt the brasrly.lmostany metal that will stand the heat cand. Great care be brazing

intdto start with, and then properly protectedtheoxidizinginfluencesof the air andfibeingheated.asswire,brass filings, orsmall strips of rolledmaybeusedinplace of the spelter.Brassinparticularis very convenient to use in some,as it can be bent intoshapeandheld in placey.simplebrazed joint is illustrated in Fig. 261showsa flange (in this case a largewasher)d around the end ofapipe.It is not necessaryto use any clampsorwires to hold the workher, as the joint maybemade tight enoughthepiecesinplace.The joint shouldbe tighthinspots to hold the pieces together, butbeopenenoughto allow the meltedbrassbetween the two pieces.Where the pipeincontact with the flange the outside shouldfree 'from scale andfiled bright, the insideoflange being treated in the sameway.BRA83'WIRE,Fig.261.Fig.262.en the pieceshavebeenproperly cleaned andd together, a piece ofbrasswire should b

. The fires.ldaxThesTheetheworkshouldAs soon as the workbebe acleanbrightbedis in the fire the josprinkled with the flux; in fact, it iplan to put on some of the flux before puttinflux,in the fire. Ordinary borax can bealthoughamixture of about three parandone part sal ammoniac seems to gibetterheatresults.shouldbegradually raised untilmelts and runs all around andthe piece shouldbrazingbrasswouldwire.couldIfbeusinto the joibe lifted from the fire.donebe laid on the firewithspelterspelter were to beinusedplaand the joint cov erwith* the flux as before. As soon as the fls to melt, the spelter mixed witha lartspelteroffluxisas the brasswhenofa long-handledtaking astrip oflongandend of the hammer.spread on the joint and meltedwirewas before. Forplacinbrazing it is convenient to haveironspoon.This is easily madeabout f " X "" three or fohollowing oneend slightly withhere are several grades of spelter which melterent heats. Softlpelterowingspelter,flakesiswayspelter melts at a lower heat thbut does not makeasstronga joint.simplybrassand can be boughthasbeenpreparedrecommendedreadyforbrazingfor use. Tfor the prep aratof spelter : Soft brass is meltedin a ladinto a bucket filled having

ing motion beforepouringin the brass. Thsettlesto the bottom insmall particles.Carbe taken when melting the brass not to burnthe zinc.Toavoid this, cover the metalwith powdered charcoalor coal.When tbegins to burn itgives a brilliant flameanwhite smoke,leaving a depositof white oxideinc.otherexample of brazing is the Tshown\i/z BRAZE ^Fig.263.263.Here two pipesare to be brazed toeacin the formof an inverted T.clamp must beusedto hold the piecesin properionwhilebrazing, as one pipeis simply stuckthe outside of theAsimpleis shownin Fig.consisting ofaofflat iron havingone hole neareachto receive the twobolts, as illustrated.Thisstripliesthe end of thev:j-^"w

Therethe ends of the bottompipe.Thewholeis hether by tightening down on the nuts.hebrazingneeds no particular description,spelter or wireis laid on the joint and meltedplace as before.piece of this kind serves as agoodillustrationstrength of a brazed joint. If awell-madet of this kind be hammered apart, the shorwill sometimes tear out or pull off asectionlongerpipe, showing the braze to be almostg as the pipe.henusingborax as a flux the melted scadbecleaned (or scraped)from the work whilred-hot,as the boraxwhen cold makesa hardy scale whichcan hardly be touched withThecleaning maybeeasilydone byplungingbrazedpiece, while still red-hot,into water.small work the iscleaningvery thoroughly donhe piece, while still red-hot,is dipped intomeltedde of potassium and then instantlyplungedwater. Ifallowed to remainin the cyanideseconds the brasswillbe eaten off and tng destroyed.t is not always necessary whenbrazingwroughtorsteel to have the joint thoroughly cleaned;careful work the parts to be brazed togetherdbe brightand clean,but forrough work ts are sometimesbrazedwithout any preparationver other thanscraping off anyloosedirtorscalipe-bending. "is one factsimpleaboutifin

t the full lines in Fig.265 represent a crossonof a piece of pipe before bending. Nowse the pipe be heatedand an attempt madebend itwithout taking any precautions what-Fig.265. Fig.266The concave side of the pipe willflattenagainst the outside of the curve, leaving thsection somethingasshownby the dottedthat is, the top andbottomof the pipe wilforced together, while the sides willbepushedInother words, the pipe collapses.the sidescan bepreventedfrom bulging outbeing bent it will stop the flattening togetherhe top andbottom.Asimple way of doingis to bend the pipebetween two flatplatesheldsame distance apart as the outsidediameterpipevise(Fig.266).Pipe can sometimesbe bentin this way, the jaws of the vise takingplace of the flatplates mentioned above.rgepipemaybebentsomethingin the following

orted, the other endis droppedrepeatedlyfloor. Theweight of the pipe will cause itin the heated part. Fig.267illustrates th11^n o" 1.Fig.267.solidlinesshowing the pipe as it is held beforping and the dotted lines the shapeit takessdropped.s the pipebends the sides, of course, bulge outhe top andbottom tend to flatten together;this isremediedby laying the pipeflating the bulging sides together witha flatter.annother way ofbending is to put the end of tin one of the holesstrated in Fig.268),of a heavy swage-blockthe bend then beingmadeFig.268.pullingover the freeend.must, of course, be taken aswhenThe same precautionbendingrways.

MISCELLANEOUS WORK. 229shapeis particularly valuable when several piecesare to be bent just alike. In this case a jig is madewhich consists of twoside plates, to prevent thesides of the pipefrombulging,anda block betweenthese plates to give the proper shape to the curve.A piece of bent pipe which was formed in thiswayusedisshownin Pig.for bending it.Fig.269.269, together with the jigThe pipe wasregular one-quarter-inch gas-pipe.The jig wasmadeas follows : Theof two pieces of board about ifsideswere madethick.Betweenthese sideswas a board. A,sawedto the shape ofthe inside curveof the bent pipe. This piece wasslightly thicker than the outsidediameterofthepipe (about '/"" being addedforTheclearance).inside faceof the sides and the edge of the block Awereprotectedfrom the red-hot pipe by a thinsheetofiron tacked to them.A bending lever was madeby bending a piece off"Xi"*stock into the shape of the outside of thepipe.This lever was held inplaceby a \" boltpassing through the sides of the jig,as shown.

o bend lever iso bend the pipeit was heated to ayellowheatin the jig as indicated by the dotted linesaleverpulled over, forcing the hotpipe to taformof the block.jig of this sort is easily and cheaply made ans good service, althoughit isnecessaryto throw a little water on the sides tofrom burning..sometimespreventnother commonway ofbending is to fill twithsand.Oneend of the pipe to be bentged either withacapor awooden plug driventightly.Thepiper end closed up tight. Theedoredandbentintois filled full of sand and tshape.pipe full of sandor it willdopipe may thenIt is necessary to havverylittlegood.very thin pipe the best thing is to fill witrosin.This,the tubing orpipeof course, can only beisvery thin and,as heating the pipe wouldcause the rosinhinout.copper tubing mayquite common formstrated in Fig.he270.be bent in this way.isusebenof pipe-bending jigoutside edge of the semicircular casting hroove in it that just fits half-way round the pipsmall wheel attached to the lever has a coregroove on itsedge.When the two athe position shown the hole left between themthe same shape and sizeas the cross-sectionpipe.

Brasscatch at A (which has a hole in it the same sihepipe), and the leverng the pipe as it goes.pulledback to the righte stem on the loweredge of the castingwasFig.270.to fit in avise, where the jig was heldwhileperation.nealing Copper and Brass. "or copperbesoftenedor annealedby heating the metalredheatand cooling suddenlyincold water,rbeingannealedin the same way that steelned. Copper annealed this wayis leftversomewhatlike lead. Hammeringcoppercauses it to hardenandbecomespringy.workingbrass orcopper,if muchbendingring is done, the be

Case-hardeningItending Cast Iron. "ighten castings whichissometimeshavebecomenecessarywarpeded. This maybe done to some extentng the iron and bending into the desiredpart to be bentshouldbe heated towhatdescribed as a dull-yellow heat. The bendingshapemightby gradually applying pressure, not by blowslightworkright amount oftwo pairs of tongs should give abouleverage for twisting andbend ing.henproperlyhandled (very "gingerly"), thngs may be bent to aconsiderable extent.reattempting any critical work someexperi mentinshouldbe done on apiece of scrap to deter mineat just whatheat the ironadvantage,andd without breaking.howmuchwillbendingworktoitwtase-hardening. "is a processarticles made of soft steel orwroughtirgivena hardwearingsurface.rought iron or machine-steel will not hardenany appreciable extent, and this factthe use of either metalwouldgiven a hardhisoughtghardbe the idealsurface.of the processironmaterialsinwouldpr vemany places whereif they could onsurface can, however, be hadknownas"Case-hardening/and machine-steel are takenpractically alike, as they are, so far aschemicalcompositionisconcerned.)

MISCELLANEOUS WORK.233more of the element called carbon than wroughtiron does. Tool-steel can be hardened by heatingto aredheatand cooling suddenly,because it doescontain this carbon; while wroughtiron can not behardened, on account of the lackof it. If then bysome means carbon can beadded to the metal onthe outside of anarticle made of wroughtironormachine-steel, the outside part willbemadeintotool-steel, and may then be hardened in the ordinarymanner,while the inside metal willbesoftandunchanged.Wrought iron or machine-steelif heated to a highheat in contact with charred leather, ground bone,or other material containinga great dealwill"takeup"or absorb carbonand the outside willbeconvertedofcarbonfrom that material;into a highcarbon(tool) steel, which maybe hardened bysuddenlyfrom a high heat. This processknown ascase-hardening, andwhich requires a hardwearingissurfaceusedforbackedworkupisby asofter and tougher materialto resist shocks.If apiece of wroughtcase-hardenedsomethinglikeironwhichbe broken across, itPig.271.Thecoolingoutsidelayer, or coating, of hard steelwillhasbeenappearcanbeeasily distinguished fromthe inner core of softer unchangedmetal."The depthof penetration" ofthe carbon (or, inother words, thedepth towhich the iron is changedinto" ?I"steel) is determined by the temperature to which

themetalis heated, the lengthof time it is kepttemperature, and the substanceit is heatedct with.hecarbon penetratesigh heat can not alwaysfaster at a high heat ; bbeused, particularlymottled appearance so often seen on caseenedarticlesis wanted.Piecesmottled should not be heatedmuchwhichareaboveredheat, as a higher heat destroys the cololonger the workis kept at the proper heat tr the carbon penetrates.So,when the sameand the samecase-hardening mixture areusethe time, the depthofhardness on the pieceed can be determined by the lengthof timpieces are hot. Forordinary work, whereitnecessary to have the mottled coloringon ts, abouta good yellowheatshouldbeusedas high a heat asordinary castironwill stanoutdangerof goingto pieces.sstatedbefore, acase-hardened piece ofirmachine-steelis really made up of two distincls"outsidehardshell of high-carbonsteich is the same as tool-steel) and the insider core of the original material.Thisoutsideingcan be treated in the same manner asord nartool-steel; that is, it can be hardenedaled just as tool-steel is-. In fact,enedarticleawhen a caseis suddenly cooledfrom ared hetly the same thing is done aswheniece of ordinary tool-steel, with,hardeninghowever, this dfin hardening is hard

"whatFortheas to be almost useless ; while withapiecehardenedmachine-steel,for instance, the out sionlyis hardened (because the outside only-steel), while the inside is left tough and comparasoft.In the case-hardened piece theretough inside core which will stand shockswould snap off apiece of hardened tool-steelanoutside coating whichis as hardandisthas hardened tool-steel. This gives acombinationofhardness and toughness whichis not pos sibwith either machine-steel or tool-steel alone;it is this factwhich makes case-hardened art clesovaluableformanypurposes.repeat:Theobject of case-hardeningisrt the outside of a lowcarbon steel or iron intigh-carbon steel that can be hardenedeasily;thisconvertingis done by heating the piecect withsome substance containing a largt of carbon.y taking certain precautions whileheatinganing, the surface of the case-hardened piecesbe given amottled coloring of reds,blues,ans, which when rightlydone is sometimes veriful.Suchcoloringisoften seen on gun, finished wrenches, etc.wo common methods of case-hardeningaremightbecalled the cyanide methodthe bone or animal-charcoal process.yanide Case-hardening. "the cyanide methodde of potassiumis used"purer the betterne the is as follows : Small

hard steelare heated to a high red heat, drawnssium,onthefirereheatedand sprinkledoverwith cyanidefor a fewseconds to give tfrom the cyanideachance to "soak inn from the fireandcooledinagain, sprinkled with the cy nicold water. This is an easy ank way whenit will answer the purpose.hisspots.methodWhenis also of use when case-hardeningonlya hole or somesmall partieceideis wantedhardened asmall piece of tmaybeplacedon that particular spthe hardening confinedto the areacoveredcyanide.nother method of using the cyanideis tomelndheatred-hotcase-hardenedare heatedcyanideandking" a properhisledbycoolingin a ladle or pot. Theandplacedpiecesin the releft there for some minutes. Aftelengthin cold water.of time they are hard enedmethod when properly carried out givesappearancehey have beento the case-hardened surfacespreviouslypolished.he longer the articlesare left in the heatedthedeeperwillough not quiteing in this waycy nibe the penetration of the carbon,forenetration of perhaps one hundredthinCase-hardening with Bone. "tapackeddeepercoatingin an iron box inproportion to the timeabout ten minutes will giThismethodis needed. Theof an incispiecesussuchaway that thbybone

carbon.On the bottomof the box is placedof the groundboneaboutan inch deep ; oarelaidpieces to becase-hardened,leavingabout three-quarters ofan inchwideon aof every piece; over these piecesis putmorecovering them about one inch deep; thenpieces and more boneuntil the box is fulmust be a top layerofbone at least as thick,t somewhat thicker, than the bottom layer.box is then sealed up air-tight (to prevent thion of the bone) withfire-clayandit andits heated in a furnace to the rightheatandat this heat forseveralhours. The deeper thgisneeded the longer the box is kept hotthe box has been heated longenoughitawnfrom the fire, the top taken off, and thpicked out while still red-hot and hardenedold water. Or, as isoftendone, after takingthe top of the box it is turned bottomside uthe tank and the whole contents, boneand alinto the water.eboxesusedaremade of cast orwroughtironcast-ironboxes arevery satisfactory and arereplacedas they wear out.bonemaybeused several times before itnt."en it is desired to give the articles a brighted coloron the surface they must bepolishedecase-hardening and shouldbepackedrred''bone; that is, fresh bonewhichhahotit

ed and the articles dumped by turning tupsidedown over the cooling-tank,keepingtvery close to the surface of the water.oodresults areobtainedbyusingamixturehalfandhalfbonecharredand powderedoal.heedthpenetration of the carbonisperhapsofan inch foreachhour the pieces aonhot. It is possible to convert a piece of wroughtto tool-steel clear through in this way.ometimescyanideis mixed with the boneanascarbonabove.somewhat.This hastens the penetrationilling-cutters and tools of that character whichonlyto beusedonce, or on lightof machine-steel and case-hardenedwork,bymayusinftercase-hardening,orcarbonizing, they mayhardened, tempered, and groundin the usuaase-hardening, in Parts Only,ofPieces. "Sometimesit is desirable tocase-harden only certainof apiece.Insucha case the parts to be lated maybecovered withacoating of clinplace with wire.Wherever the workctedby the clayitremains uncarbonized,the uncovered parts can be hardened. Aftering the parts with the clayas above, the case-may be done in the usual waybyningpackingtheobjectinboneandheating asusual.

parts wanted untreated ; thus, supposeashaftnted similar to Fig.272,A,with only the partsD E F_?__E_FBFig.272.E,D, E,andFWhencase-hardened.this firstmade, only the parts wantedhardand F) shouldbe turned to size, the resleft in the rough.eshaftannealedis then incarbonizedthe usual wayinsteadof hardened. The rough partsthen turned to size; the cut taken removes ahe carbonized coatingon these parts, exposinguntreated metal underneath.After this this heated in a fireandhardened, and as thD, E,andF are the only partsleftcarbonized,willbe the only partshardened, leaving thsoft.

TABLES.

Circumferences and Areas of Circles.

TABLE I" (Continued).Circumferences and Areas of Circles.m-r.TDiameter.i6iii17iii181920212223242526Circumference.Area.38239875454758012504653510606136660551826149485701398644118777791500

TABLE I" (Continued).Circumferences and Areas op Circles.

TABLE I "(Continued).Circumferences and Areas of Circles.

TABLES. 24TABLE I" (Continued).Circumferences and Areas of Circles.

TABLEII.ratures to which Hardened Tools should be Heatedto Properly "Draw the Temper," together withthe Colors of Scale appearing on a Polished-steelSurface at those Temperatures, and other Meansof Detecting Proper Heating.

TABLEIII.l Equivalents op Fractions op One Inch.From Kent's Mechanical Engineer's Pocket-book.

iCOaOwa0)HO"J"w53O"" "OoaiShwwH/""to *o a-" iootow0)""aCD"a

E OF EXERCISES IN FORGE WORK.atisis givenbelow.suggestedas astandardcourse ofexerciseshort talk shouldfirst belation of stockforsimple,eyes, etc.estarting of the fireandgiven covering tbentwork, ringsfittingof tongsexplained.ise i. Stock ^"X""x6" is drawnround, and this round stockthe two followingise 2. Fig.ise3.ise 4.ise5.Fig.Fig.Fig.ise 6. Fig.273.274.276.275.312.pieces of work.EyeBend.isDouble Eye Bend.Twisted Gate Hook.SquarePointandouttoused to makeEyeTwisted Scriber. Beforethis exerciseashort talk shouldon the effect ofbehigh heats on tool steel.Bend.gi ingivenThscribershouldbe forged from anoldfileorder to give practicetool steel.Thescriberin the drawing outis tempered later in tcourse.ise7. Fig.277.Weldless Ring.ise 8. Fig.290.Chain Hook.ise Fig. Bracket Forged Corner.

heat be hitise 10. Practice Weld. This shouldbe a soofa faggotweldmadeby doubling over tend ofa piece of scrap, theobject being simplyto determine the weldingheat.ise 11. Fig.292.Chainof Three Links.ise 12. Fig.283.Flat Lap Weld.ise13.Fig.284.AngleWeld.ise14. Fig.282.Welded Ring. ThisandthookmadeinEx.9 should eachbejoinedthechainbyextralinks,makingachainfivelinkswith the hook on oneend and tringon the other.ise15.Fig.308.WeldedRingsshrunkise16.Fig.293.PlanerBolt,makeweldedhead.ise17.Fig.287.Hexagonal Head Bolupsethead.ise18.Fig.289.Ladle.ise19.Fig.302.Taper Machine Key.ise 20. Fig.303.LeverArm.ise 21. Figs.305, 306, or307.Tongs.ise 22. Hardening Tool Steel. Thestudentshouldbe given anoldfile or piece of scratool steel to determine the properhardeningheat. This is done by drawing out the steto about \" square andhardening the enwhichis then snapped off and the conditionof the steeldetermined from the fracture.Thisshouldberepeated until the hardening

ise24. Fig.315.Center Punch.ise25.Fig.332. Cape Chisel.ise26.Figs.317or318.Thread Tool.ise27.Fig.319.Round Nose Tool.ise28.Fig.316.Side Tool.ise29. Fig.322.Boring Tool.ise30.Fig.320.Diamond Point.ise31.Figs.328, 329, 330, 331, or 334.Chisel, Cold Chisel, Set Hammer, FlatterHotPattern-maker'sHammer.ise32.Fig.335.Spring.ise33.Fig.310.BrazedRing.nystudents willbeable to cover muchmored than outlined above, andforsuchionaldrawings aregiven.Theseadditionalises maybe interpolatedwhere the instructorfit.ditional drawings arealso giveninorder that thmay bevaried somewhatfrom term to term.more than three pieces of stock should evercasesallowedforany oneexercise, and as ageneralthe student shouldmore than onepiecedo the work with one.is used the work shouldradedlksblensiderabledownshouldMetallurgySteelsaccordingly.beandofgiven on Brazing, Case Hardening,Bessemer, Open Hearth,Wroughtwork should alsohes and stock calculationsIron.be done inforlargegs, the to the differentmakingmachinean

en a steam or powerrs, tools, etc., mayhammer isavailable obe drawn out into bforcenter punches, small chisels, etc.e tongs inshownthe drawings may bemadegood advantage undera steam or powerr.

73Fig. 274DOUBLE EYE BENDEYEBEND8Q. POINT AND EYE BEND1 Fig. 276TWISTED GATE HOOK

"**k%"k-\t"i//'i*XM\iiT*T~*"X*--a*e(qo2 5?ucp_*.*:I

25"' =10_L_T

"" 1^-"BRACKET WITH FORGED CORNERFig. 286Calculate dimensions of headbyformula^"x4"HEX. HEAD BOLT'Fig. 287OPEN WRENCH Fig. 288

Fig. 289 LADLEFORGED EYE HOOK WELDED EYE HOOKCHAINFig. 292

PLANER STRAP No. 2Finish all over-*".heXf-Length as required-1."PLANER BOLT Fig, 293PLANER STRAP No. 1Fig. 294JLLength as requiredi

COURSE OF EXERCISES IN FORGE WORK.261u

FORGE-PRACTICE.G="Si

9Fig. 301"C"CLAMPTAPER KEY Finish all overFig. 302Fig. 303LEVER ARM1-3"^Finish7T-nV!--4X-a-X.Fig. 304LEVER " HANDLE

"H ^k5 1=1vA

Fig. 310Fig. 308WELDED RINQ8 8HRUNK TOGETHER j" % KFig.BRAZEDFLANGE

FORGE-PRACTICE."-r*" "gf|!; iM4Oy:

^oFig.- 316"g*RIGHT HAND SIDE TOOL'**THREAD TOOL No.1 8FCTION2-6-8od new Toolsi ""Fig. 31830VTHREAD TOOL No.2ROUND NOSE TOOL SECTION

IPig. 320-6-8on new Tools-RIGHT HAND DIAMOND POINT6-8 on new ToolsjihnFig.FINISHINGTOOL\W^Pig.CUTTING OfF TOOL

In-5-8non new ToolsCENTERINGTOOLFig. 324"4*(May be made IVomFLAT SCRAPER | |FIg*325old file )HALF ROUND SCRAPER Fig. 326y be made from old halfround file as shown by dotted lines)Fig. 327

Fig. 328 BLACKSMITH'S HOT CHISELBLACKSMITH'8 COLD CHISELFig. 329 Make same way but shape end as shownby dotted line.1*"SETHAMMERFig. 3302KFLATTER

CAPECHISEL3"Fig. 333ROUND NOSE OR CENTERING CHISELV*PATTERN MAKER'S HAMMERFig. 334c ISLGive Spring Temperallover.SPRINGfig. 335

INDEX.ling, in general, 175, 191.""at forge,copper"in boxes,192.andbrass,193.231.",special methods of, 194."water, 192., descriptionof,6.ng, in general, 59."cast iron,"duplicate232.work, 146."pipe, 226.mersteel, making of, 165.-furnace,descriptionof, 160.,dimensionsgeneralof, 77., cupping-toolfor, 78.,heading-tool for, 78.,,making of, 77.,upset-head, 79.80., welded-head,forcase-hardening, 236., use as flux, 21.on flange, forgingof, 144."lever,forgingof,in., making of,88., or bracket,welded,1 19.,annealing of, 231.ng, fluxused, 226.

Brazing, process of, 222.",spelterfor, 224.Butt-weld, 34.Calculation see Stockof stock, calculation.Cape-chisels, forgingand tempering of, 199.Carbon, effect of, on ironand steel, 163, 164, 174, 175, 176."in iron,percentage of,and steel, 159, 169.Case-hardening, in general, 232.tiuitit, colored, 235, 236, 237.,differentmethods, 235.in boxeswithbone,236.in spots, 236, 238.ti,penetration of carbonin,236, 238."with cyanide of potassium, 235.Cast iron, bending of, 232." ",description of, 160.Chain, making of, 29.", stock required to makeChain-stock, forgingof,88.Chisels, blacksmith's, hotand" a,forginglink,48.cold,descriptionand use, 6.and tempering of, 218.M9",grinding of,8.itorcuttersforsteam-hammer, 123.Coal, requirements offorge, 2.Cold-chisel, description ofblacksmith's, 7.tt"making of, 197.tempering of, 180.Connecting-rod,forgingof forked end, 104."ttitttwith steam-hammer, 138.stock calculationfor,93.,Copper, annealing of, 231.Copperpipe,bendingof, 226.Crank-shaft, calculation of stock required, 91.",forging of, with steam-hammer, 135.ti" "single-throw, 90, 97.it" "double-throw, 99."," "triple-throw, 101.Crucible-steel, 169.

stock, methods of, 9.ofpotassium,forcase-hardening, 235.-out,useof,definitionand methods of, 51.for hammer-eyes,213.rging,flat, 212.descriptionof, 154.",eye-bolt, 155.,forming dies hot,157.with steam-hammer, 155.te bending withblock,147." "tework, 146.with jig, 152.bendingof,64.weldless, making of, from flat stock, 109.t, drop-forgingof, 155.,finish,allowancefor, 95.hardeningand tempering of, 187.bankingof, 4.buildingof,2.descriptionof good, 3.oxidizing, 5.withboss,forgingof, 143.for brazing, 226.,useinof,descriptionwelding,20.of, 1.welded, 119.ends,forgingof,102,107., descriptionof, 15.,forgingof,220.ok, making of, 68., descriptionof, 10.",ball pene-, 216.",forging and tempering of, 212.",riveting, 214.

", description of, 7.,forgingof, 218.g-tool, for bolts, 78.chain, 71.,gate,68., grab, 70.,hoisting, 75., welded eye-, 74.isel, descriptionof, 7.",forgingof, 218.cast, making of, 160., wrought, making of, 163.-weld, 35.es, forging of variouskinds, 102,s, making of,86.-shank,forgingoffoundry, 114.-tools,ingeneral, 200.",boring,205.""tt, centering,210., cutting-off,202.diamond-points,,206.tttt,,finishing, 210.internal-thread, 206.etM, round-nose,201., side-finishing, 208.",thread, 201.ne-steel, making of, 165.",properties of, 171, 172.lurgyof iron and steel, 159.r's trowel, forgingof, 117.hearthfurnace,167."steel, making of, 167,, formationof, on iron,5 .

ding, in general, 226., copper, 230.,differentmethods, 228."with jigs, 229, 231.ools, see underLathe-tools., precautions necessary, 52.-furnace" 163.g,forsteam-hammer, 141.method of, and tools used, 58.ti,tools for duplicate, 142.cence,descriptionof, 182.amount of stock required, 46.,,bendingforgingup,63.under steam-hammer, 139., welding offlat-stock, 32.,," "" "round-stock, 29.washer, 33., weldless, making of,no.osedchisels,200.uses of, as flux, 21.gforweld, objectof, 23.mer,descriptionof, 14.",making of, 219.tools, seeunderLathe-tools.ng, process of,221., descriptionof ,n.,forgingand tempering of, 217.wrench, forging of, 106., for brazing, 224.ork,shapingfrom thin stock, 107.steel,welding of, 35.corner,forging of, 60.hammer,descriptionof, 120.", cutting work under, 127.",forging taper work with, 13a",general notes on, 126.",tongs for, 121.

Steel, Bessemer, 165."",machineor soft, 16$., open-hearth, 167.",tool, 169.Stockcalculation,ingeneral, 41.forcircles, 46.connecting-rod, 92.curves, 44.links, etc., 48.simplebends, 44.single-throw crank, 91.ring,weldlessno.Taper-work, with steam-hammer, 130, 145.Tempering,ingeneral, 179.",badshapesfor,187.""",,,definition and methods of, 176.different methods of, 180, 181, 185, 188, 190.heating for,184.tttt, straightening work after, 186.,thin flatwork, 186."toleavesoft center, 190.",seeunderindividualtools.Tongs, description anduse ofdifferent kinds, 12.",fittingof, 13."forforging83.round stock,of,"for121.steam-hammer work,",",",",",forging bolt-, 84."" ""forgingoflighthand-, 81.84.pick-up,handles, 84.with weldedwith steam-hammer, 133.Tool-forging, ingeneral, 198.Tools, seeindividualundertools; also underLathe-tools.Tool-steel,hardening,173."",making of, 169.,properties of, 192.",tempering, 176.","temper "-rating, 174.

-up of work under steam-hammer, 133.useanddescriptionof,1.g, for ornamental work,66.","gate-hook, 70.ng,definitionand methods of, 55.,offorgings,calculation of, 94.angle,flat-stock,37.butt,34., chain, 19.,faggot orpile, 22.,flatlap-,24.,fork,119.iron to steel, 36.,jump, 35.,ring,flat stock, 32.",, round stock, 29.,roundlap-,28.,split,for heavywork, 36.,split,for lightwork, 35., spring-steel, 35.,"T", flat stock, 38.,"T",round stock, 39., washeror flat ring,33.g, in general, 17.", allowance of stockfor,39.", scarfingfor,23.", spring-steel, 35, 40.M,tool-steel, 39.",useoffluxes, 20., for twisting crank-shaft, 100.,forgingof open-end, 105.$"of socket-, 106.tiron,making of, 113.", properties of, 171, 17a.