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SOCIETY AND ECONOMY OF THE FRENCH COLONIESWITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO PONDICHERRY IN THESEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES[A.D. 1674 - 1754)THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITYFOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OFBYMARY. A. SR. GEORGIADEPARTMENT OF HISTORYPONDICHERRY UNIVERSITYPONDICHERRY - 805 014INDIAMAY - 1998

PROF. K.8. MATHEWReloarch SupervisorDeprrtmmt of HistoryPondicherry UnivenityPondicherry - 605 014.CERTIFICATEThis is to certify that the thesis entitled "SOCIETY AND ECONOMYOF THE FRENCH COLONIES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TOPONDICHERRY DURING THE SECOND HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTHAND TEE FIRST HALF OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES - 1674 - 1754"submitted to the Pondioherry Univeristy in partial fulfilment of the requirements forthe award ofthe degree ofDOCTOR OF PHLLOSOPEY IN HISTORY, is a recordoforiginal research work done by MARY. A. (ali.8) SR. GEORGIA duringthe periodof her study 1990-1996 at the Department ofHistory, Pondicherry University, undermy supenision md guidmce md that the thesis has not formed earlier the basis forthe award fo my Degree/Diplomr/AssocirtesbipffeUowship or other similar titles.

DECLARATIONThis is to certifythat I, Mary. A. (alias) Sr. Georgia have carried out the researchembodied in the present thesis entitled SOCIETY AND ACONOMY OF THEFRENCH COLONIES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO PONDICHERRYDURING THE SECOND HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH AND THE FIRSTHALF OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES - 1674 - 1754 for the award of thedegree of Doctor of Philosophy in History.I declare that no part of this thesis was earlier submitted for theaward of the research degree of any University.". 'a?-MARY. A. (811.~) SR. GEORGUResearch SvpervisorPondicheHy UnivmnityPondicharry - 605 014.May 1996.WXkra Ah&Dr. LS. VlSWANATEHead ofthe Department.

CERTIFI~TESACKNOWLEDGEMENTABBREVIATIONSiiiiixQUSmI INTRODUCTIONI1I11IVVVIVIIINDIA AT THE TURN OF THB SBVENTBENTHCENTURY AND THE FRENCH EXPANSIONAGLORARIAN ECONOMYNON - AGRARIAN ECONOMYTRAJXAhlDCO~CBSOCIALLIPECONCLUSIONGWSSARYBIBLIOGRAPHYAPPENDIX

An award of a research fellowship in the name of PoetSavarirayalu NayaWEar was granted to me for two years 1990-1992 by the Pondicherry Government through ProfessorDr.K.S.Mathew, Department of History, Pondicherry Universitywhich enabled me to pursue my research on the society andeconomy of the French colonies with special reference toPondicherry in the seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries.Later, the cultural section of French Embassy in India,Delhi, sanctioned a grant for six months through C.I.E.S.Paris, in 1995 with to and fro air ticket and maintenance towork in the various archives and libraries in France andLondon for the collection of original data. I place onrecord my indebtedness to Pondicherry Government for theaward of Poet Savarirayalu NayaWcar Fellowship and to theFrench Government for the award of research grant through itsmission in India.My sincere thanks and gratitude goes to Dr.K.S.Y.thaw myguide and supervisor for his constant encouragement andguidance which enabled me to undertake a research of thisnature. During these years he has been a source ofinspiration in the several discussions that I had with him.It is because of his continuous request to the French embassyiii

Nayakar fellowship. And further six months to work in theEuropean archive^. I express my sincere thanks to theauthorities of the Holy Cross College for getting my leavesanctioned. I we a lot to my Superior General Sr.c!hristianeMotan, France, who made all the arrangements for my stay inFrance and London. My thanks go to Sr.Murie1, Paris who wasvery helpful during my stay at Picpus, comrmnity in Paris.My study during these years was done with the cooperationof the staff of various archives and libraries. InFrance the Director, National Archives, Paris, helped me byproviding the necessary MicroPilms for the French colonies inIndia for the period under review for nearly three months.Besidee, the officials at National Library, Paris, Archivesd'outre-Mer, Aix-en-Provence, British Museum, India officeLibrary London, furnished the necessary facilities for mystudy. I owe my special thanks to them.In India, the staff of National Archives, Delhi, gave meaccess to French Manuscripts and French Nouvell Acquisitionsin the form of MicroFilrns. I am highly obliged to the staffOf French Institute Pondicherry, Romain Rollan Library, EcoleFrancaise dlExtreme Orient, Pondicherry and the JesuitArchives at Shenbaganur, Kodaikanal.

There are a number of religious institutions which gaveme accomMdation during my research in India and in Europe.I particularly remember the congregation of St .Joseph ofCluny, Pondicherry for accomdating me right from 1990's.My thanks are due to the sisters Sr.Suzan, Sr.Bernadette,Sr.Raphae1 and Sr.Marcel1. I wish to thank the sisters atMaison St.Thomas des Villeneuve ~ix-En-~rovence, Prance forproviding me hostel facility during my stay at Aix.I received valuable information and timely help fromeminent professors whom I contacted during my researchprogramme both in India and France.Dr.Ajit NeogyShantiniketan, India, Dr.Emmanue1 Divien, Madras,Mme.Vasundara Filliozat, France, Dr.Jacques Pouchepadass,former Director of French Institute, Pondicherry (at presentin France), Dr.Jacques Weber, Professor of History --University of Nante, France, Dr.Jean Deloche, Ecole FrancaisedlExtreme Orient, Pondicherry, Mr .RajaRam, Museum curator,Pondicherry government and Ernestine Carreira, Universite deProvence, Department des Etudes Portugaises, Aix-En-Provence.I owe a lot to the Directress of C.I.B.S. Mme.Corlobe for herconcern shown towards me during my stay in France. A specialthanks to Dr.Claude Markovit, (Centre DIEtudes De L'Inde BtDe L'Aste Du Sud, 54, Boulevard Raspail, Paris) for being mysupervisor during my stay in France and at the same timevi

furnirhed me with all the necessary letters to visit thevarious archives and libraries in France and London. I alsothank for the comnents and suggestion that I had receivedfrom him for my research. My association with Fr.FrancisM.Peter, SJ. Principal St.Xaviers College, Palayamkottai,Fr.Ananand Amaladoss, S.J. Director Satya Nilayam, Madras,Fr.Joseph Maria Christy S.J. Research Scholar USA, Fr.RajaSJ, St.Paulls Seminary Tiruchy, Pr.Joe Lawrence S.J.Headmaster, St.Josephls Boys Hr. Sec. School, Tiruchy andManickam was rewarding.My thanks are due to Miss Tara and Usha Lecturers,English Department, Holy Cross College, Trichy, for readingthrough my draft and correcting them and also for Sr.MesminCorera, M.A. French, Librarian, Holy Cross College,Nagercoil, Madam Demise Baptiste, France and Miss.SheelaPuri M.A. French for having helped me in interpreting theFrench documents.I acknowledge with thankfulness the help and cooperationreceived from Dr.Visvanath, Reader and Head of theDepartment, Pondicherry University and the other members ofthe staff. I thank Mr.Sivasubramaniam, Librarian, DepartmentOf History, Pondicherry University for his assistance in theDepartment Library.

I express my thanks to Vaithianathan and Karthik -Bright Dataprocessing, Muthialpet for patiently carputerisingmy thesis with a sense of dedication.Above all, I give thanks to the Almighty for hisconstant care over my life during the period of researchand for his choicest blessings.Department of HistoryPondicherryviii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONSc2-2 etc. c2 - Colonies SeriesB.W. YSS. Bibliotheque Nationale Department desManuscrits FrancaisB.X.W.A. Bibliotheque Nationale Fond NouvellesAcquisitions FrancaiseCor.du.Con. Correspondence du Conseil Superieur desup.et da lacoa .Pondichery et de la CompagnieC.S.P.V.Proces-Verbaw des deliberations du ConseilSuprieur de PondicheryK a r t Memoires de Francois Martin ed. AlfredlMmir8MartinueauPillai' 8DiaryCEHIIDAFAAAnanda Ranga Pillai's Diary eds. J.F.Priceand H.H.Dodwel1The Cambridge Economic History of IndiaIndia at the death of AkbdrFrom Akbar to Aurangzeb

IITRODUCTIOIOur knowledge of the society and economy of India duringthe seventeenth and eighteenth centuries has gained greatersignificance in the recent past. Much research has been donein the twentieth century, making the source materialavailable for study and interpretation. Historians who arefamiliar with the socio-economic aspects of the abovementioned period have given different analyses.Some opine that events in the period between thesixteenth and eighteenth centuries have left a strong mark onthe history of mankind. In the advanced European countrieslike Britain and France feudalism declined and the firstbourgeois revolution triumphed, heralding the end of theMiddle Ages and the advent of the modern period as far asIndia is concerned. During that period many Asian, Africanand American people became the victims of colonialexploitation by a number of European States.A few others are of the opinion that capitalistactivities were an inseparable part of transcontinentaltrade. And the maritime trade in the Indian Ocean from the

ise of Islam to the middle or the eighteenth century has tobe understood in the light of the role played by capital inproduction end distribution. A scholar has come to theconclusion that India (or at least parts of India) wasperipheralised in the late eighteenth or early nineteenthcenturies. Prior to that point although it was engaged intrade, the trade between India and seventeenth century Europewas not of capitalism and that is what one means by theperipheralisation of India. It was a transition from beingan external segment to being a peripheral area within theworld capitalist system.Further, Europe was considered as consisting of corestates with India or Asia as the peripheral countries. Inspite of this strong-core and weak-peripheral relationshipall the European nations had trade relations with India.Europe in the pre-industrial era had great demand for easterngoods. Since the beginning of the sixteenth century, thePortuguese, the Dutch, the English and lastly the Frenchentered the scene.The fabulous wealth of the East captured the imaginationOf all maritime people in Europe. French sailors andmerchants had set out as early as the first quarter of theSixteenth century on what was regarded as the long voyage butwith enormous possibilities. France was perfectly within her

ights when she attempted to capture the Indian market. Therecognised avenue of commercial profit in those days wasmonopoly and all trading nations of the west were franticallytrying to secure the exclusive rights of trading with India.To be able fully to grasp the importance of this turningpoint in India's history and to define the place held by thatgreat Asian country in the world's historical developmentduring the epoch under investigation, a thorough study shouldbe made of the level of socio-economic development attainedby India in the sixteenth upto the end of seventeenthcenturies before she fell a victim to colonial oppression.Among the few historians a Japanese scholar has provedthat, to a certain extent, the concept of feudalism may bethe most appropriate one to describe the nature of thesociety and economy of India in the south. To understand thesituation of a region one needs to examine the powerstructure which controls the means of production. Changesoccur in any society as a result of the changes in the meansand modes of production which culminate in capital formation.Therefore to study the factors that bring about changes in asociety it is important to have a fuller and betterunderstanding of the economy of any region. Although alot of writings have appeared on the history of the French inIndia there are only a few writings on the history ofPondicherry during the French period and especially on

society and economy. In the past, scholars paid moreattention to the study of the political history of the regionneglecting the socio-economic aspects. There is practicallyno writing on the socio-economic history of Pondicherry inEnglish during the early period of the French presence inPondicherry when they struggled for survival. Moreover, theFrench sources dealing with the socio-economic role of theFrench in Pondicherry have not been utilised fully. It is inthis context that the present study is more relevant.The French presence was felt in Pondicherry in theeighteenth century. Under Francois Martin, Lenoir, Dumas andDupleix Pondicherry had reached the pinnacle of glory.Suddenly it seemed that the whole of India would become partand parcel of the French overseas hnpire rather than theBritish. But the table turned against the French in 1754 andthere was a reversal of everything planned and carried out byhim. As such the year 1754 turned out to be a significantturning point on the political and comercia1 prospects ofthe French East India Company in India in general and inPondicherry in particular. It would have definitely affectedthe socio-economic life in Pondicherry. This is anotherreason why the period for the present work is fixed from1674-1754.Hence an attempt is made in this work to throw light onthe agricultural pattern followed in cultivating certain cash

crops by the Compagnie Des Indes. The French also paidattention to non-agricultural production like the productionof cotton textiles. It aims at analysing the impact of theFrench on social satisfaction based on different professionalgroups. It examines the gradual transformation of thesociety of French Pondicherry from being an insignificantvillage into a commercial town. From this point of view itintends to observe the changes in the volume of the supply ofcommodities in accordance with the increased demand. Finallyan effort is made to investigate the role played byindigenous merchants in the growth of the commercialactivities of the French.In the seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries,Pondicherry witnessed a period of transition from being aforlorn fishing village into a flourishing commercial centrebustling with a network of trading activities connecting itwith the whole of India. Since the French were in closecontact for a long time with the people one can rely upon theFrench sources for the reconstruction of the socio-economichistory of Pondicherry.Among the archival source material that relates to thehistory of French India, the first category consists of thearchives accumulated in France since the establishment of theFrench East India Company. These include Royal Edicts,

Decrees, Ordinances, Memoires and copies of thecorrespondence despatched to India. The second category ofrecords is that which was accumulated in the Frenchsettlement in India. This includes Documents relating to theFrench East India Company, correspondence between thegovernors and the administrators of various French coloniesof India.Le Centre De Recherche Des Archives Nationales Paris hasa large quantity of source material related to the variousFrench colonies. For example - in c2 Colonies Series - allthe information related to the French colonies in India arefound. c2-1-42 is a valuable source of information -relating to the administration of the company in France. Itincludes the company's correspondence and Memoires about theadministration of the company.c2-56 consists of IndesOrientales Commerce, (1686-1788). c2-62-101 has generalcorrespondence (1666-1770), c2-116-117 relates to MemoiresGeneraux, (1716-1784) and c2-272-276 are found relevant inconnection with the shipping and naval activities of thecompany.In the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, Salle DesManuscrits Ancient Fonds Francais Nouvelles AcquisitionsFrancais - contains several important volumes of thecorrespondence of Dupleix and some scattered references tothe Compagnie Des Indes, which are also useful.

The Bibliotheque Nationale De Paris, Salle De Livres hasa large number of old books covering the activities of Frenchcolonies all over the world both in the West and the East.Among the primary sources, Depat Des Archives D'outreMer, Aix-en-Provence, France is one of the best equipped forthe history of Pondicherry. It has full documentationavailable in the form of original papers and microfilms fromthe arrival of the French in Surat upto the end of the SecondWorld War.In the collection of A/1, A1/2 and A1/3 Registre desdeliberations du Conseil dela Compagnie tenues a Pondichery acommencer le ler Fevrier 1701 a 1705, Fevrier 1701-1725, Mai1725 a Decembre 1739, Juin 1759 - Novembre 1760, there arefour registers which cover the period mentioned above. Thesecollections constitute a mine of information about the dailyevents of the company's commercial activities in Pondicherry,and they gives in great detail the manner in which thecompany executed its contract with the merchants of thecompany.Correspondence Du Consei 1 Superieure De Pondi cherry(C.S.C.C.) contains collections which furnish valuableinformation about the proceedings of the company and the thecompany's governor and his counsellors.

The various deliberations of the Superior Council ofPondichery covering a period of about forty years from 1701to 1739 were published in three volumes under this titleProces-Verbaux des deliberations de Conseil Superieur dePondichery, Pondichery 1911-1914. These throw aconsiderable light on the organisational, financial anddiplomatic activities of the French company in India. TheGovernor in the Superior Council was the highest body whichdealt with almost all the affairs of the company in India.Closets d'Errey has collected and published severalletters written by the Superior Council of Pondicherry to thelocal powers and the chiefs of other European companies.This was titled as Resume des lettres du Conseil Superieur dePondichery a Divers (du ler aout 1725 au 31e Decembre 1742 etdu ee Decembre 1749 a 14~Novembre 1760) On the whole thisbook is of great importance for the present work.Memoires de Francois Martin (3 vols.)published byAlfred Martineau describes Francois Martin as the leadingfigure of the French activities of the French company inIndia. It gives a graphic picture of the early activities ofthe French in Pondicherry as well as their colonies and theirrelations with the native powers.The British India Office Library, London, too has usefulrecords relating to Anglo-French rivalry, Records of Fort

St.David, Cuddalore, and Records of Fort St.George, Madrasserve as a source of useful information on the role of theFrench in India.The National Archives of India, Delhi has also a numberof microfilms collected from Paris - Manuscripts Francais andFond Nouvelles Acquisitions Francaises deal with theCompany's commerce in India.The French Institute in Pondicherry and the RomainRolland Library, Pondicherry have inherited a number ofvaluable collections of books which serve as a importantsource of inionnation about the French in India. They arepublished mostly in the 18th century. The Historical Societyof Pondicherry founded in 1911 has made a great contributionby publishing about 17 volumes of its journal, RevueHistorique De Pondicherry. They contain a lot of usefulinformation.Further, among che secondary sources, Henry Weber's LaCompagnie Francaise Des Indes (1604-1875), deserves specialmention. It was published in Paris in 1904. This had been agood work on the French Bast India Company's activities fornearly thirty years. The work of H.Castonnet des Fosses, L'Inde Francaise Avant Dupleix, Paris, 1887 deals with theearly period of the French in India, Paul Kappelin's, LaCompagnie Des Indes Orientales et Francois Martin, Paris,

1908, gives a graphic description of the formation of theFrench East India Company, M.V.Labernadie, Le Vieux~ondicherry, (1664-1815), Pondicherry, 1936, dwells on thegrowth of Pondicherry and more details are found about thesocial life, festivals of the people, the urbanisation andalso the Fort life in the Pondicherry settlement are found inthis work. Henri Froidevaux and Alfred Maitineau in their,Histoire Des Colonies Francais Tom V, Paris, 1932 deal withthe French in India and they furnish useful information aboutthe French activities in India.G.B.Malleson has published three books during the lastquarter of the nineteenth century bringing to light the factthat the French achievements in the colonial sphere were noless impressive than those of their victorious counterpartslike the English in India. However, Malleson has given moreimportance to the military and political activities of theFrench in India. The work of S.P.Sen, The French in India,First Establishment And Struggle, Calcutta, 1947, explainsthe early struggle of the French at Madagascar and later ontheir arrival to India. His second book The French in India,(1763-1815), is the first attempt to provide a comprehensivehistory of the French in India. W.H.Dalglish, The PerpetualCompany of the Indies in the Days of Dupleix, (1722-1754)covers the company's organization and its administration inFrance and in India. Virginia Mc Lean Thompson in her

Dupleix and His Letters (1742-1754, New York, 1933 givesimportance to the policies and the achievements of Dupleix asthe governor of India.The works of Jacque Weber and Philip Haudre about theFrench in India are of vital importance. Philip Haudre'swork is voluminous with lots of details about the ships sentfrom different colonies to France. He has also given anexhaustive bibliographic material that would provide anyresearch scholar with an easy access to the places wheresource material can be had for the French studies.V.T.Hatalkar has worked on the Franco-Maratha relations.His work too is of political in nature and has no bearing onthe economic and commercial activities of the French inIndia. Indirani Ray has worked on the commercial activitiesof the French privateers in India and the relations betweenthe French and the local merchants in Bengal.J.F.Price and Dodwell brought out the Diary of AnandaRanga Pillai in English. It is an indigenous source materialfor the study of the socio-economic history of Pondicherry.As Ananda Ranga Pillai was a Dubash to Dupleix, he enjoyedthe confidence of Dupleix and his council. He had access tothe secret correspondence and confidential papers. As thenative chief he has practically touched upon all the

activities, political, commercial and everything which wentthrough his hands.C.S.Srinivasachari1s work on Ananda Ranga Pillai - The'Pepys' of French India is another work that covers thepolitical career from La Bourdonnais till the fall ofPondicherry. It would interest the reader for the politicalcareer of the French in India.Imnuel Divien's French Pioneers in South India 1664-1706 and The Development of Tamil Society in Pondicherry1706-1898, furnish details about the early comercialventures of the French and the social life of the people inPondicherry. Dr.B.Krishnamurthy has studied the earlyventures of the French to reach India and their comercialactivities with much details about the volume of import andexport of commodities and so on. The work of Dr.R.Natarajan,has used fully the Diaries of Ananda Ranga Pillai on theSocial His tory of Pondicherry.In order to understand better the nature of society andeconomy under French in Pondicherry it is essential to have aglance at the socio-economic background of the region beforeits take over by the French. It is assumed that the Frenchwho had already broken the shackles of feudalism in Franceencountered the society in Pondicherry which was feudalisticin nature.

The present study is restricted to the society andeconomy of Pondicherry during the second half of theseventeenthand the first half of eighteenth centuries. Thethesis is organised into seven chapters as given below.Chapter two deals with the Indian situation in theseventeenth century and the French expansionist policy inIndia. French commerce received its first encouragement fromthe crown during the period of Henry IV who with Richelieu ashis minister took steps to establish colonies in India.Later it was Louis XIV as King of France with his able andenterprising minister Colbert who founded the French EastIndia Company in 1664. The Company received the commercialrights and privileges from the crown.The French King, the princes and the principal courtierstook an active part in floating the concern and they weregood enough to subscribe largely to the investment. Highecclesiastical dignitaries condescended to patronize the EastIndia Company; the prospectus was advertised in the churchesand recomended from the pulpits, while royal proclamationsexhorted all true Frenchmen to seize this opportunity ofmaking their own fortunes and contributing to their country'sprosperity. Further Colbert, a man of ability and wisdomcalled on the famous academician Charpentier who was made topublish a pamphlet at the expense of the crown, calling allFrenchmen to undertake commerce in distant lands.

But in the beginning the French Bast India Companywasted its money, time and energy in trying to coloniseMadagascar. Due to various reasons Madagascar was lost tothe French.In their search for better pastures the French with thepermission of the monarch came to Surat. The French were ofcourse received well by the Mughuls. They got a Firman fromAurangzeb and established a factory at Surat in 1668. Thedisturbed political condition in India was favourable forthem to fish in troubled waters. The power of the greatMughul was waning.In the north and in central Deccan, three of theSultanates had broken the power of Vijayanagar. Ahmadnagarwas under the Adil Shahi dynasty and Golkonda was under theQutub Shahi dynasty. The power of the Vijayanagar rulerdeclined and the Nayak kingdoms of Gingee, Tanjore andMadurai sprang up. The onslaught of the Marathas becamepowerful in the south.A large number of trading factories were established onthe Coromandel coast out of the necessity of collecting theCompany's chief Indian export of cotton piece goods. SouthCoromandel ports had weaving villages in the hinterland andthis export of textiles alone was enough to sustain theirSrade. The merchants of the Coromandel coast were spread out

all along the coast. It was no wonder that the Frenchestablished themselves at Pondicherry in 1674.The Portuguese had founded factories in Goa, Diu, Damn.The Dutch were in Tenganapatam, Pulicat, Nagapatinam, Cochin,Masulipatam and Hugli. The English had establishedthemselves at Surat, Masulipatam, with purchasing agencies atAhmedabad, Broach, Baroda and Gujarat.The varying aspects of production in primary andsecondary sectors especially the relations of production willhave to be discussed to identify the changes, if any, broughtabout by the French from 1674-1754. One of the importantaspects in any encounter between Europeans and Indians duringthe period of mercantilism would be the change in the modeand relation of production in the agricultural sector. AsEuropeans were primarily interested in cash crops, a shiftfrom the production of items needed for daily consumption tothat of commodities may be found. Similarly it is possiblethat more and more lands were brought into cultivation toCater to the needs of Europeans. Sometimes the colonialistsemphasised the production of those items that were needed bythem to the neglect of products needed by the local people.It will be our endeavour to examine the impact of the Frenchin the agricultural sector. Therefore chapter three isdedicated to dealing with the agrarian economy of Pondicherry

and the methods followed by the ccmpany to acquire villages.The French not only did acquire villages but also encouragedthe cultivation of cash crops such as betel, sugarcane,tobacco etc. The French leased out the fam to the highestbidder and tried hard to raise revenues for sustaining thecompany's commerce. It is certain that since the French cameto India with their feudal background, they did not introduceany innovation in the field of agriculture. They more orless accepted the pattern of agriculture which existed in therest of south India.Before the arrival of Europeans production in thesecondary sector was not always a full time occupation. Butas the demand for certain items of production in thesecondary sector went on increasing, more and more artisansand craftsmen devoted full time, specialising in items neededby the Europeans. Entry of people who were not traditionallyartisans and craftsmen may also be found on the wake of theEuropean contacts with India. Some of the capitalists havecome forward and obtained the services of artisans andcraftsmen for production meant for distant markets.Moreover, these non producing elements could discharge theduties of a supervisor in production.Against this background chapter four focuses itsattention on the non-agrarian economy, the effort of the

French company to bring in the weavers from distant places toPondicherry, the production of cotton and the different kindsof textiles manufactured in and around Pondicherry as alsoother items in the non agricultural sector on the Coromandelcoast. The French Company came to Pondicherry mainly for thecollection of textiles. They were keen on learning thevarious steps involved in weaving, printing, painting, dyeingand other tasks related to the process of bleaching.AS full time producers in the secondary sector becamemore and more specialists in certain aspects of production,separation of labour was prominent in this period during thisinteraction. So attempts will be made to analyse how theFrench presence in Pondicherry affected the exchange sectorin the period of mercantilism which underwent substantialchange. A few merchants who had been doing business on theirown became agents to the European merchants even by givingtheir vessels for freighting commodities needed by theforeigners. Some small scale merchants left the scene andbecame paid agents and workers to large scale merchantshaving better investments. The changing face of the Indianmerchants, during the pre-industrial period is somethingwhich attracts the attention of economic historians.Chapter five has traced the growth and development oftrade and commerce in Pondicherry which was famous for her

trade contacts with West Asia, South East Asia and withdifferent parts of India. All the European Companies wereattracted to Pondicherry port by the cotton textiles andpepper brought to the port.This chapter is further divided into sections dealingwith internal trade and external trade. External trade canbe divided into intra-Asian trade and Indo-European trade.Internal trade is divided into coastal trade and hinterlandtrade. The mode of production of textiles for export, thenumber of ships that were sent by the French company toPondicherry every year and the various auxiliaries of tradeare also discussed here giving emphasis to the growth oftrade under Francois Martin, Lenoir, Dumas and Dupleix.Some of the aspects of the changes in primary andsecondary sectors of production during the French contact inPondicherry will have to be studied to examine the depth ofinteraction. In any interaction between the western societyand the Indian society there could be a few changes that maybe studied. Entry of a new set of people in differentsectors of production is something that can be analysed. Itis therefore, proposed to examine these factors in the studyof the social changes.Chapter six attempts to study the interaction betweenthe French and the Indians in French Pondicherry. Society is

studied on the basis of different professional groups. Aneffort is made to trace the structure of society not from thetraditional division of castes but from occupational groups.Many Indians were absorbed in the service of the company'scommerce. This led to the rise of Indians to the position ofDubash, company's merchants, bankers, traders, money lendersand suppliers etc.Chapter seven concludes by analysing the changes thatoccurred in the society and economy of Pondicherry due to theFrench encounter. No doubt the history of Pondicherry saw agradual evolution of the town as a port-cum-commercialcentre. Pondicherry became a centre where ships from Francewere anchored and ships to Europe, and West Asia and EastAsia were sent. There was a brisk trade which brought boththe French and the Indians closer. Social interaction wasanother means whereby the Indian learnt the western habits,food and customs. Pondicherry became a cosmopolitan city andmore people came from different parts of India to settlethere. Because of the Company's growing commerce, the cityWitnessed a transition from a feudalistic to a pre-capitalistLode of production. Thus the impact of the French upon thesociety and economy of Pondicherry is noteworthy.Relevant documents and a glossary are appended to thestudy, which is followed by a select bibliography.

INDIA AT THP TURN OP TEE SPVPWTPE#TB m YANDTEE PREUCH EXPAWS1019Introduction:The economy and society in India during the medievalperiod underwent some change of lasting effect because of theinteraction with Europeans. The economy which comprises thethree different sectors namely, primary and secondary sectorsof production as well as the exchange sector is said to havemade adjustments during the period of the encounter with theEuropeans who came to India in the period after 1500.Agrarian production in India was meant chiefly for localconsumption and so it was generally described as asubsistence economy. Production for the market especiallydistant market started in full swing with the arrival of theEuropean traders and thus commodity production began tostrike deeper roots during this period. In this process ofproduction, cash crops dominated over consumption-goods.Products that were needed for daily consumption had to giveway to those required by foreigners. A change of this sort,in its turn, brought about considerable re-adjustments in thepattern of agricultural production.

Similarly, it is held by the economic historians thatthe non-agricultural production and the exchange sectorunderwent considerable change in the course of the encounterbetween the Europeans and the Indians. Textiles and otherproducts of the secondary sector that were customarilyproduced in India were obtained in a pattern totallydifferent from the earlier ones. In the exchange sector too,transformation of this sort was visible. Independentmerchants and financiers were affected by the new pattern oftrade introduced by the Europeans and, in our case, by theFrench. The same could be said about the society whichconfronted the European society which had a style of life andfaith totally different from that of the oriental way oflife. Christianity was introduced by the Portuguese, and anumber of people from Hinduism were brought into its fold.Similarly, the structure of Indian society underwentappreciable change in the wake of the encounter. The extentof the transformation that was effected in French Indiaespecially Pondicherry can be understood well only in thelight of a study of the economy and society in vogue in Indiabefore the arrival of the French on the scene. Hence, weshall discuss in this chapter the economy and society inseventeenth century India and the French expansion.The evolution of economy and society during theseventeenth century was marked by two major developments.

The first was the rise and consolidation of a powerfulcentralised empire in the shape of a Mughal empire. Thepolitical forms developed by the Mughal rulers, the domesticpolicies --- particularly in the field of agriculture andcommerce, the character and the deeper urges of the rulingclasses under the protection of the Mughal emperors gave adefinite direction to economic and social evolution in thecountry1. The second factor was the establishment of thevarious European trading centres at various port-towns andinland centres and the linkage of India more closely thanbefore with the markets of ~uro~e'.Agriculture:India had a predominantly agricultural economy and morethan seventy five percent of the people lived in villagesduring the Mughal period. Inspite of this, India did notexperience between 1600-1900 an agricultural revolution3, andthe influence of old ideas were still predominant.Agriculture was carried on by peasants living in villages.Each village is said to have contained 200 to 300 men.Cultivation was based on individual farming and the size ofthe land cultivated by them varied greatly. The khots orheadmen had large holdings while the balahars or villagemenials had smaller plots. Below the peasantry came themenial castes who formed a landless population4. In theMugha1 period the ruler and the subject occupied the land,

the latter was to pay a share. of its gross produce to theruler in return for the protection he was entitled toreceive.The revenue was collected by the nobles who may beregarded as representatives of the kings formally absorbed inthe empire. They paid a certain amount to the imperialtreasury and retained the rest. Nuniz states definitely thatthe peasants paid nine-tenths to the nobles, who paid half ofwhat they received to the emperor. And de Laet says that theMughal authorities took nearly three-fourth of the grossproduce, "leaving only one-fourth for the wretched peasants,so that they sometimes received nothing in return for theirlabour and expenditure1q5.A variety of crops were cultivated in North and South1ndia6. Generally we find the cereals, rice, wheat, barley,several small millets, common vegetables, sugarcane, fibres,cotton and hemp and the usual oil seeds. Because of thedemands made by the coming of the Europeans, they accepted togrow commercial cash crops like cotton, indigo, spices,tobacco, maize and drugs7. Akbar instructed his revenueofficers to advance money to the cultivators inneed8. It isobserved that when an English merchant went into the villagesnear Agra to buy indigo in the year 1614, he distributed sumsof money as advance following the custom of the country9.

These amounts were to be adjusted when the indigo was readyfor delivery. Land in the seventeenth century was wellirrigatedand well manured. Apart from rains and riverirrigationthere was artificial irrigation through wells,tanks and canals. As a whole, the system of agriculture inthe Country has not changed and in any particular region thenumber of rural population has varied with the area undercultivation.Non-~gricultural Production:There was an increasing demand for a wide range of goodsto cater to the needs of the royalty, the nobility, the richtrader and the foreigner. These included house-hold articles,furniture, tailoring, perfumery, leatherwork, jewellery,pottery, building glass, soap, textiles, saltpetre andhandicrafts. Most of these goods were manufactured byartisans working in their respective homes scattered indifferent regions of the empire. Among these artisans wereblacksmiths, coppersmiths, carpenters, jewellers, goldsmithsand silversmithslO.Frads and Canrmerce:"India had a considerable inland as well as foreign:rade with countries both to her west and east since earlycimes. An advanced urban culture had developed at many:entres, leading to the displacement of the traditional idea

that warfare and agriculture were the only two nobleprofessions worth f ~ llowin~"~~. There was considerablespecialisation in handicrafts manufacture, particularly oftextiles and metal work of various types of numerous centresin the country. A number of cash crops such as sugarcane,oilseeds, indigo and above all cotton were produced in fairquantities.Internal Trade:Internal trade of Mughal India has different dimensionsnamely 1. Intra-local trade and 2. Inter-regional. Much ofthe inter-regional trade was coastal. A significant featureof the inter-local trade was the pre-dominantly one way flowof commodities from villages to towns.provided the necessary demand since they wereThe towns in turndependent onthe villages for the supply of primary products as well asmost of the manufactured goods they required12."Differenttypes of 'producers goods' featured prominently in the inter-local exchange of commodities.Raw material for textilemanufacture in the towns - cotton, wool, silk cocoons as wellas dyestuff --- necessarily came from the countryside13.Centres for trade in particular products were developed insome towns. These products were procured through the inter-regional and also overseas trade. Trade in precious stonesfor instance, was centred in Belgaum and Goa.In Goa,Fraders were not harrassed by a varicious princes and nobles.

Hence winers and merchants went to Goa to get a good pricefor their best products14. Coastal trade was much easier,safer and was more profitable than inland trade. The coastaltrade was therefore of much importance on both sides ofIndia. On the east coast small boats appear to have pliedmore or less independently throughout the trading season, buton the west the danger from the pirates was so great thatpractically trade was carried on with convoy15. Each yearwhen the monsoon weakened the Portuguese sent out to thenorth and to the south of Goa fleets consisting of ten totwenty armed "frigatest1 or rowing boats usually with one ortwo galleys in the support. These fleets watched over thecoasts attacked the pirates in their harbours, and from timeto time escorted convoys of merchant's boats between Cochinand Goa, or between Goa and the Cambay ports. Those convoysgave protection to the trading boats equipped with passes.The Cambay convoy consisted connnonly of from 200 to 300 whichmight total from 8000 to 10,000 tuns and making the annualtraffic each way more or less between 20,000 and 30,000tuns16. The coast carried on a brisk trade in its ownproduce as well as imported luxuries with the west coast andGujarat. Trade was carried on both by sea and overlandacross the Deccan. Luxury textiles, including silk, variousimported items and cotton were the main exports of highlycommercialised Gujarat to various parts of 1ndia17.

Tzade Rout.India.There were two main routes between Gujarat and NorthThe first linked Surat with Agra through westernRaj asthan via Ajmer, Merta, Jodhpur, Jalor, Ahmedabad, Cambayand Broach. The second was a more easterly route and passedthrough Malwa and Kandesh. Roads connected Golkonda to Goaand through Gendikota to Madras.The Dabul-Goa route wentsome distance into the interior of the country where it waslinked up with the Goa-Bijapur road. The Masulipatam -Paliacat route hugged the coast line most of the way linkingello or el^. There were well maintained trunk roads, fromLahore to Kabul and from Multan to ~andahar''.External TraderThe coming of the Portuguese to the coast of Malabar inthe closing years of fifteenth century was one of the rareevents in history; their purpose in coming to the Indies wasto seek for Christians and spicesz0.Since there was noserious opposition made it was easy for them to control theseas by means of fleets of very moderate strength. Thus, atthe outset, their main concern was the acquisition of port-towns and fortification of the naval bases.The primarynaval bases were three in number. Goa (1510) on the westernCoast of India, Malacca (1511), at the gateway of the farthereast, and Ormuz (1515), at the entrance of the Persian~ulf 'l.

Apart from them, the Portuguese held various forts fortrading purposes, the chief of which were Mozambique, Diu,Daman, Cochin and Colombo. Diu and Daman watched the Gulf ofCambay the most important of the various outlets of Indiantrade. cochin2' was the another significant port for pepperfrom Malabar which formed the largest single item exported toEurope.In order to establish their commercial supremacythey struggled with the ruler of Calicut who was not willingto yield to their request. Immediately the Portuguese turnedto his rival, the Raja of Cochin promising him to make someday the Zamorin of Calicut and the first Portuguese fort wasbullt in his territory in 1503~~.Once the Portugueseestablished themselves on the Malabar coast they hadformulated certain methods to carry on their sea -bornetrade.In the first place, certain trade routes weredeclared a monopoly of the King of Portugal and on theseroutes no vessel of other nationalities was allowed to ply.Secondly the transportation of certain goods,particularly munitions and pepper was prohibited to allforeign vessels. The punishment for a breach of this rule wasdestruction or confiscation.Thirdly, no Asiatic vesselcould ply to any port, or carry any cargo, until fees hadbeen paid and a licence - cartaz was obtained. In additionto licence fees, customs duties were levied, at such ports asDiu, Ormuz or ~alacca~~.

Commercial Rivalrier Among the Europe-Tht POftUgUeBeCwaier:The Portuguese came to India for spices and christians.Vasco da Gama reached Calicut in 1497.The Portugueseestablished themselves at Goa, Diu, Daman, Cochin, Santhome,Hughly and other areas.In the sixteenth and seventeenthcenturies trade in textiles got a new fillip and thePortuguese exported them in greater quantities.Since thePortuguese power was checked by its other competitors, it wason the decline towards the close of the sixteenth century.The volume of the Portuguese trade was less than what it wasin the beginning of the sixteenth century25. But Portughalretained its position in the European market especially withregard to pepper which was exported mostly from 1ndiaz6.The DutchAfter the formation of the Dutch East India Company, theDutch sent a fleet of fourteen ships to India under thecommand of Admiral Van der ~ a ~ e n He ~ ~ arrived . at Calicutand entered into an offensive and defensive alliance with theZamorin of Calicut on 11 November 1604~~. Next the DutchAdmiral concluded a treaty with the Zamorin in 1608 andP.S.Groes signed yet another treaty with the ruler ofKayamkulam in 1643".At first, the Dutch did not come to India for pepper,but obtained it along with other spices from Java and

Sumatra, they were able to maintain themselves against thePortuguese and by the end of the century their trade with theIndonesian Archipelago was established. Their ties withIndia grew later, since they found that none of themerchandise they could bring from Europe was readilydisposable in the Spice Islands and that Indian piecegoodswere the only medium of trade. So they established factoriesin 1ndia30 as subsidiaries to their principal business.Later at the beginning of the seventeenth century, the aim ofthe Dutch was to take over the whole of the Portuguesetrading empire in Asia. So they began their contacts withthe princes of eral la^' who helped them in ousting thePortuguese from Ceylon as well as from the Malabar coast.The Dutch had made a series of attempts and foundedtheir factories at Devanampatnam and Surat in the territoriesof the Nayak of Gingee in (1608-1609), and also at Pulicat in(16101. Negapat (1690), Cochin, Masulipatam and ~ugli~'.Further they had trading centres for purchases in the inlandproduction centres like Broach, Baroda, Agra, Ahmedabad,Patna and Golkonda to procure textiles, indigo and saltpetreand diamonds33. One can say that 'the Eastern trade fellinto their (Dutch) hands after the destruction of thePortuguese power. The Dutch had to spend huge sums of moneyto safeguard their settlement and through their trade

diplomacy they more or less maintained their trade monopolyover pepper.The English and the Dutch tried to establish traderelations with the Mughal empire that the latter had shown nointerest in engaging conpetitore to trade with the empire.The Portuguese disliked the entry of any other European powerin the Indo-Buropean trade and intrigued at the court ofJahangir against them34. In 1612 captain Thomss Best put toflight the Portuguese in the Arabian Sea. This victorybrought in the much desired change in the attitude of thenative towards the English who were now permitted to settleat ~ u r a t and ~ ~ trade with the Mughal empire. In 1619, atreaty was signed between the Dutch and the Bnglish for aunited action to eliminate the Portuguese from the Indianscene. There was also a fear in the heart of the Englishthat the htch would try to drive them away from the IndianThus the average investwnt of the Dutch per yearln western India wao only 2,000.000 florins between 1607 and1628 and gradually increased to 13,851,560 florins between1629 and 1633)'.Th. mg1i.h:The Bnglish formed the English East India Company in1600 A.D. Like the Dutch, the English too had settlements inthe east coast at Nizampstam and nasulipatam (1612), with the

permission of the Dutch at Pulicat in (1621), and at Madras(1639), in Amgaon, Cuddalore and other places. They hadtheir factow at Swat and they had purchasing agencies at~hmedabad, Broach, Baroda, Cambay and Gujarat. Formerly theyhad their settlements at Pipli and Balasore and hadestablished a factory at Hugli in (1651)38.The transfer of Bombay from the English crown to thecompany in (1665) and the fortification of Calcutta (1696-99)were all part of a general plan to make the company's tradeindependent of the political power of the indigenousrulers3'.The English had pepper purchasing centres at Tellichery,Calicut and Baliapatam on the Malabar coast. Morelandobserves that the annual exports of the English amounted toRs.2.5 lakhs in 1625, but around 1658-60 it increased to Rs.5lakhs from the western coast and Rs.3 lakhs from Bengal andthe eastern coast. The English also carried on trade of theIndian merchandise to the other European countries such asFrance, Germany, Baltic region and other places40.The Danea:In addition to the Dutch and the English, the Danes alsohad trade contacts with India in the seventeenth century. TheDanish company was established in 1614 and by 1616 they hadopened a counter at Tranquebar. Later factories were founded

at Balasore and in 1676 at Serampur in Bengal.commercial activities were quite insignificant4'.But theirSocial Life:People in Mughal India could be classified on the basisof either race or economic conditions. In the economicclassification one finds, according to Moreland that therewere only two marked classes, the privileged andunderprivileged. He says that middle classes werecomparatively insignif i ~ant~~."It may be pertinent to point out that while classifyingsociety on the traditional Indian model of the four states orvarnas, Abul Fazl assigned the first place to the warriors,the second to artificers and merchants, the third to thelearned and the fourth to husbandmen and labourers"43 thusreflecting the position of the various classes and castes.Generally speaking, medieval Indian society presented thepicture of a pyramid. The emperor was at the apex. It'supper slopes covered the grand imperial court, and a smallwealthy, aristocratic independent chiefs, rajas, mansabdars,jagirdars and zanindars. The base was formed by the lowerclasses, the masses, the comon people having two tiers, thepeasants as well as workers or artisans and the agresticserfs at the bottom. In between the apex and the base therewere trading professional and service groups which formed the

middle Stratum Of the society. These included the richtraders and merchants, bankers, shroffs, mahajans, shopkeepers,various professional classes like accountants,writers, teachers, high officials, and physicians. But thismiddle class was not powerful44.Merchants and hadmra:The Muhammadans of the coast were primarily traders whocame originally from Arabia and the Persian Gulf and gaverise to communities of mixed origin, like Navayats of WesternIndia, the Moplas of Malabar and Labbais of Marakayars andChulia of the east coast45. They clung to their maritimetrade even after the arrival of the Portguese and on the faceof their continued opposition. The Armenians formed a smallbut important element in trade centres like Surat, Terrydescribes them as the chief wine merchants of ~ndia~~.Thomas Roe found great and small to be traders47. Promthe scattered references in the English records, it wouldappear that at the beginning of the seventeenth century.Jahangir, Nurjahan, Prince Khurram and even the Queen Motherowned ships which plied between Surat and the Red Sea. WhileKhurram was the viceroy of Gujarat, his ships carried on anextensive trade with Mocha, carrying mostly broad cloth andtextiles, but were not averse to carrying even tobacco whenno broad cloth was available. His ships also went to

~~sulipatam which was one of the principal ports of south~ndia at this period and Carried textiles and gum-lac to thepersianDuring the same period, Jahangir's junks plied betweenMocha and Goa. He also seem to have invested money in theCambay trade4'.When Shah Jahan came to the throne hecontinued to take interest in overseas trade. His ships theFettee (Path) and the Shahe(Shahi) went to the Red Seaports, while a third went to Achin (Sumatra) in 1636~'.Princess Jahanara also had ships of her own and carriedon extensive commerce with the help of the Dutch and the~n~lish~'. Many rulers still continued to conduct trade inthe period. Even nobles Asafkhan and Mirjumla were engagedin trade52.There were the other classes including Banjaras, Shroffs(money changers) , Mahajans (money lenders) , bankers andmiddlemen who played a vital role in trade. Linschoten foundthe Goa merchants to be very 'rich and substantial'. Thechief merchants of Surat had great wealth. Several merchantsin Gujarat and Bengal possessed amazing wealth. And in thesouth, the Telugus and the Chettiyars were engaged in tradeand business53.

~~riculturiata:The rural Society in medieval India was dominated by alarge heterogenous group of people called Zamindars. Theywere often closely linked with the cultivators organised onthe basis of caste, clan or tribe54.Under the Mughals a small proportion of the Zamindarswere offered mansabs and were closely drawn into the centraladministrative system. However, the bulk of the Zamindarswas sought to be integrated into the working of the localland revenue system55.Under the caste and the structure of rural society theMughal rulers tried to control and utilise the Zamindars fortheir purpose. Recent studies show that village society wassegmented into a large number of cultivators who, fromancient times, had been considered owners of the land theycultivated, and could not be dispossessed as long as theypaid the land revenue. The cultivators were a major assetdnder the land-man ratio and they could not be forced toleave for neighbouring territories. These cultivators werecalled khud-kasht in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuriesPersian revenue records. They formed a privileged group invillage society with well recognised hereditary rights andduties (often they were drawn from one caste or clan). Thelocal officials Muqaddam, Kulkarni, Patel etc. and even the

intermediary Zamindars were often drawn from the khud-ka~ht~~.~hus the Mughals tried in a more systematic manner toestablish direct relations with the cultivators in order todetermine the nature of crops and thus set up a system ofrevenue administration. Gradually there came into existencea triangular relationship between the central government, theZamindars and the cultivators in which the khud-kashtdominated.In this system the Faujdar had the duty ofproviding military support to the Jagirdar in collecting hisshare of the land revenue and it provided a means to redresstheir grievance against anyone5'.The agricultural sectionof the society was a factor in the seventeenth century socialdivision.Artisans:Manufacturing in Mughal India was mainly a ruralactivity though most urban centres also had their ~ndustries,especially production of certain luxury and semi-luxurygoods58. As the peasants were involved in the manufacture ofa range of conunodities, the rural artisans as heredita~yservants of the village community were often recruited by thepeasants for auxiliary agricultural work5'.The ruralartisan in Mughal India, whatever be the basis of hisrelationship to village community did cater to a large andProbably expanding market60.

~rtisans settled in large numbers in and around thecentres of export along the European factory towns likeMadras and Calcutta, and the urban centres had a relativelyaffluent class ofAtleast in ten villages nearthe iron mines in Golkonda there was a concentration ofblacksmiths and cannon-ball makers6'.The artisans rangedfrom the very affluent to weavers who could not afford to own.In parts of southern India several occupations likethose of carpenters, braziers, goldsmiths and stone-cutters,were included in the same --- caste group64. However, themost significant innovations of the period were the growth oforganisations involving the employment of large number ofartisans65. The imperial karkhanas employed a wide varietyof artisans like embroiderers, goldsmiths, painters, turners,tailors, shoemakers, armourers and so on66. The artisanatewith hardly any access to mercantile profit and poorremuneration for high skills had very little savings6'.Though the artisan group contributed largely to economicprosperity of the country, not all of them were free orwealthy in the seventeenth century India.Political ConditionsThe whole of India falls into three main divisions, (a)the Mughal empire in the north, (b) the Deccan Kingdoms in

the centre and (c) the territOrieS held by Hindu chiefs inthe south. In the north the rule of the Mughals wasdeclining and the Hindu Rajputs were becoming powerful. Inthe Deccan, the rise of the Marathas was a check to thegrowing power of the Sultans of Bijapur, Golkonda andAhmednagar. In the south the fall of the Vijayanagar empiregave birth to the Nayak Kingdoms, which completes thepolitical life-line of India.Golkonda and Bijapur were extending their territories,some times in alliance with one Nayak or another. The Dutchand the English records show that these Nayaks wereconstantly fighing among themselves. Peace was rarelyenjoyed and could never be expected to continue. Thepresence of the Portuguese was limited to commerciallyimportant ports like Goa, Diu and Daman which were ofconsiderable importance in the political arena.Akbar and his two successors were rulers who alliedthemselves with the princely families of the Hindu Rajputs,and respected upto a certain point, the prejudices of thepopulation and kept civil and religious despotism withinreasonable bounds. Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan wereboth sons of Hindu mothers. But Aurangzeb the son of ShahJahan and the fourth in descent from Akbar was a Mohannnadento the core and an ardent Islamite by temperahent. After his

triumph in the great civil war that broke out among the sonsof Shah Jahan he launched out into a career of persecutionand ambitious territorial aggrandizement.Due to the absence of a law of primoogeniture, therewere struggles for succession to the throne and an endlessseries of Court intrigues. The recurring outbreaks ofdisturbances involved not only affected the present but hadfuture consequences. These elements seriously had theirimpact on the socio-economic condition of the empire, as wellas agriculture, trade and conmerce and created politicalanarchy. The policy followed by Aurangzeb created divisionbetween the Hindus and Muslims.Aurangzeb, while in the north (1658-16811, because ofhls narrow mindedness, inefficiency and religious intolerancecaused the alienation of the war --- like frontier tribes,and destroyed the loyalty of the Rajputs to the empire whichhad been won by Akbar and maintained by Shah Jahan. Notrealising these elements of disturbances in the north in 1681he left for the south to extinguish the existing Muslimpowers and to quell the rebellious activities of theMarathas. The Mughal empire reached the zenith of its powerand moved towards its decline during his rule.While the central authoriw was thus weakened in theDeccan, the feudal chiefs especially the Hindu chieftains of

~~harashtta had grown in power and strength. Shaji who wasone among them shifted his loyalty between Nizam Shahi andndil Shah Sultan and carved out power for himself68. His sonshivaji openly rebelled against the authority of the Sultanof Bijapur, attacked his territories and established a smallkingdom for the Marathas. 69Shivaji raided and destroyed Surat in 1664 and returnedwith a rich booty.He repeated the same in 1670 andchallenged the Mughals. In the later years Surat trembled atShivaji's raid. Before his death Shivaji was successful inuniting the Maratha Kingdom which included the whole ofpresent Maharashtra, and parts of Carnatic namely the TanjoreKingdom. 70In the south, the battle of Talikota (1565), was one ofthe decisive battles of India.The Central power ofVijayanagar kingdom was crushed and the city itself wasplundered at leisure."The destruction of Vijayanagarakingdom provided additional ground for hostilities to theMuslim powers of the South.The Nayak kingdom wasestablished in Madurai, Tanjore and Gingee, and Ikkeri wasunder the nominal ruler of Chandragiri. Venkatappa Nayak wasthe ruler of ~kkeri'~ and he wanted to bring Malabar andCanara, under his control. In 1616, the battle of Topur wasfought between Telugu Nayaks over the Vijayanagar throne and

this civil war continued up to 1630. Carnatic hardly enjoyedany peace under the Nayaks and ~ala~akaras.')~The territories of the Nawab of Carnatic extended frompaland in Andhra Pradesh to Kanyakumari, in Tamil Nadu.was only during the reign of Mohamad Adil Shah that aconsiderable part of Karnataka was brought under ~ija~ur'l*.Karnataka (Mysore territory) however had been shared by pettyHindu chiefs and Bijapur nobles and the Madras plain wasdivided among the three nobles.ItGingee was under NasirMoharnad Khan, the fiefs to south of it were under Sherkhanand in the extreme south lay the Jagirs of Venkoji - the halfbrother of Shivaj i.In the south and south east Muhamad Adil Shah acquiredmore than 50 forts so that Bijapur territory extended rightupto Mysore in the south, Vellore and Gingee in the southeast.Shivaji snatched away considerable territory and anumber of forts from Bijapuri Governors in the Karnataka,men the Mughals invaded the kingdom in 1686. ''The Bijapur government was a pure military occupationand as such its authority was upheld by a number of noblesamong whom the major portion of the kingdom was distributedas Jagirs and some of these nobles were more powerful in theseventeenth century and came to acquire big ~agirs.')~Gradually the weakening of the central power in the Bijapur

kingdom led to conflicts among the local Governors ofcarnatic .The territories in Malabar were partitioned among anumber of rulers and local chieftains, which presented adecadent feudal ~et-up.~~ Calicut a small kingdom in thesouth became practically independent. The Zamorin of Calicutclaimed overlordship over the entire Malabar especially overthe rulers of Tanur and Cochin. The coming of the Portugueseand their political and commercial activities in thesixteenth century seriously affected the balance of power in~alabar~~.The advent of the English and the Dutch in the beginningof the seventeenth seriously threatened the Portuguesesupremacy on the Indian waters.79In 1604 the Dutch fleettouched Cannanore and Calicut and Chetwai and Van der Hagenconcluded a treaty of alliance with the ruler of Calicutagainst the Portuguese.80 When the Zamorin actually askedtor Dutch assistance, they refused to render any help.The Mughal power took advantage of the existence of theEuropean powers and when the Mughals found themselves engagedin a naval battle with the Portuguese in Gujarat, they sentinvitation to the Dutch at Masulipatam inviting them toattack and occupy the Portuguese installations at Diu and~aman.'lThe Bijapur Sultan during his struggles with the

~~ghals sought the help of the Portuguese who in turn helpedhim, keeping in mind that if the Mughal daaination increasedin Bijapur that would affect their fortunes in those areas.However, they earned the wrath of the Sultan by attacking hisships. The Sultan Of Bijapur wanted to reduce the power ofthe Portuguese and so he concluded a treaty with the Englishand then with the Dutch to drive the Portuguese from histerritory.Only the Dutch blockaded Goa continuously andthis affected the Portuguese trade in India.The Portuguese continued their active intervention innative politics. For instance, the Portuguese enthroned theruler of their choice in 1646 and 1658 in the kingdom ofCochin. The dethroned prince sought the help of the Zamorinwho readily took up his cause. The Dutch captured Quilon inDecember 1658, the Portuguese got it back and the Dutchoccupied Quilon again in 1661. After a few years of conflictand conquest on February, 13, 1663 the Portuguese werecaptured at Cochin, and the Portuguese surrendered.teTm8 of the surrender were that the town of Cochin would beThehanded over to the Dutch Governor with all its jurisdiction,old privileges, revenues and lands".Thus the Dutchacquired Cochin and Cannanore in January, 1663 and Van Goensmade similar agreement with the chief of Champakaserri(Purrakad) whose lands bordered the southern part of Cochin.1' was then brought under the control of the Dutch.

The political system under which the Indians had longlived was vanishing in Complete disintegration. It wasduring this period of confusion that the French and Englishappeared as rivals on the political arena in India. hd thisin turn calls for a further probe into the favourableconditions that served as the "Push and Pull" factor for theFrench Commercial expansion.THE FRENCH EXPANSIWIST POLICY DD9.IMG THO UID - S mCmTuRY IFrance witnessed an eventful period in her history bothin her home-land as well as in her overseas expansion duringthe mid-seventeenth century and at the same time it was themost populous and the wealthiest country in Europe. In thecourse of several years of development. France had graduallyevolved a kind of transformation from medieval anarchy andpapal domination into a strongly centralised nation. Forinstance, the era of Louis XIV aimed at the establishment ofa new and strong France in the eyes of Europe in herPolitical, social and economic front. The territorialenhancement and comercial activities were to be carried outthrough a policy of expansion.During this period in France the formulation of anational comercial policy was largely the work of Colbert,who for twenty two years from 1661 to 1683 was the Finance

~inister to Louis XIV. He was a man who could fulfill allthe dreams of Louis XIV. For, France wanted to place itscountry in the premier position in all fields of economicactivity, and sought to wrest the supremacy in corranerce fromthe Dutch and the ~nglish.'~Therefore, Colbert's program was three fold, embracingthe monopoly of overseas trade for French marine, theimprovement of domestic industry, and the protective tariffagainst the manufactures of foreign countries. Thisindustrial and comercial programe played such a vital partin the development of mercantilist policies that "Colbertism"and "Mercantilismu were almost synonymous terms 83The French following the example of other Europeansdisplayed a determined taste for the luxuries of the East.84Another factor that influenced the French comerce with theEast was the propaganda given by their own men, theirwritings and by the crown.Colbert's aim was to draw gold and silver into France.He believed that national wealth consisted in the possessionof precious metals and the development of industry, as wellas the control of tradesa6Colbert had great faith in the chartered company as ameans of promoting trade and he was responsible for the

establishment of numerous cmnpanies which he used for theacquisition and development of colonies and as his chiefweapon against the commerce of other nations. 'The creationof chartered companies with monopoly rights was only onethough perhaps the most important, feature of themercantilist policy Of exclusion. This principle ofexcluding foreigners from all intercourse with the colonialdomain was known as the "Colonial Pact".87The first systematic application of the colonial pactwas the work of Colbert." It was a part of his scheme forincreasing the wealth and power of France. By means of thenavigation laws, which were an imitation of those in England,he planned to create a large merchant fleet and to developtrade in all parts of the world. Foreign ships wereforbidden to enter the port of French colonies, and colonialproducts could be carried only to France so that the Frenchmarine should receive the charges for transportation. Thegovernment collected the proceeds of duties on theirimportation, and the French merchants, enjoyed the profits ofselling them to foreign ~ountries.'~It was Colbert who provided the Chief impetus to thefoundation of the "Compagnie des Indes Orientales" in theYear 1664." When the company was established in the year1664, the French were not altogether unaware of the mechanicsof trading with the East

There appeared a pamphlet - by Charpentier - who stated:lf~ust as military activity was necessary for the defence of acountry, commerce was necessary for its wealth."Cornnercewas beneficial both for the individual and for the statewhich could only flourish under peaceful conditionsn. Theyrealised that the world's most profitable comnerce was to befound in the Indies. Having known that the Portuguese, theoutch, the English and the Danes were engaged in flourishingtrade with the Indies; they were prompted to do the same. Itattempted to gain the support of the lukewarm Frenchmerchants.Further charpentier proved that the French paid12% more for Indian goods obtained through the Dutch thanwhat they should be paying if they "fetched them themselves"and that they consumed atleast one third of "what was broughtout of India"."This gave a clear cut push to all thecitizens of France. Therefore the French thought it would bemore advantageous and at the same time more honourable to goin search of these goods across the occean, than to obtainthem from the hands of their adversarie~.'~ They also feltto undertake commerce to orient to bring glory for theirnation and realised that there was considerable commerceavailable for the French.Further Louis XIV was pleased to issue the Edict whichwas to form the basic constitution of the company on 27thAugust 1664.'~ To state a few privileges in brief, "all the

were invited to invest in the "Compagnie des IndesOrientales", the minimum investment being of the order ofl,ooo livres of which one third had to be paid irmnediatelya.The rest later and so on.95 The trade monopoly was to beenjoyed for fifty years starting from the time when the firstvessels sailed out from France. "The king agreed to wave theproscriptions made against the movement of bullion outsidethe realm in favour of the company. The company would beallowed to send all the bullion it required to Madagascar,the Indies, and any other places in which it had engaged incommerce"96.Moreover for the French, the king, the royal princes,and the principal courtiers took an active part in floatingthe concern. They were good enough to subscribe largely tothe investment. High ecclesiastical dignitaries condescendedLo patronize the East India Company; the prospectus wasadvertised in the churches and recommended from the pulpits,while royal proclamations exhorted all true Frenchmen toSeize this opportunity of making their own fortunes andcontributing to their country's prosperity97.Colbert after colonising Madagascar decided to directhis efforts towards India where Francois Caron had alreadyshown the way in creating the first branch at Surat in167'. Louis XIV and Colbert has sent a strong fleet under

M. De La Haye with the aim to "show the Indian princes andmerchants a sample of the power and the prowess of the kingof France".99 Their idea was to impress the natives and tocoax and bully them to offer commercial privileges to theFrench company.The other European powers used profusely, their militaryand naval power to secure the establishment of theirstronghold. Moreover they intentionally followed the policyof intervention in the native politics aiming to gaincommercial and territorial privileges.100 The same policywas followed by the French against their European competitorswith whom they had to share trade which was restricted andcould not be greatly increased without affecting the fortunesof other contenders. lo'This policy was quite close to the heart of Colbert, whowas a mercantilist to the core and felt that commerce causeda continuous struggle among the participants - the Dutch, theEnglish and the French - one who would secure a major shareof it in peace as well as in war times.lo2Colbert followed strictly the policy of vBullionismn -by which he held that as mentioned earlier the greatness of astate was measured by the quantity of the silver itThe crown forbade the export of 'bullion' outOf France and insisted on the import of French products

against the Indian merchandise.lo4 That was one reason, whythe French developed Country trade with China, Japan, andSouth East Asian countries. '05~ollowing the above mentioned principles, the companyunder Louis XIV and Colbert began their trade with India.According to the charter - the Chief merchants under royalpressure "elected twelve syndics in 1664 to set up and raisesubscriptions to a capital of 15 million livres and thus, the,companies des Indes orientales ' was formally established onSeptember lst, 1664 .Io6At the same time, the directors of the company sent ablemen with royal letters to the Shah and the Mughal emperors.Francois Caron, who having much delayed at Madagascar arrivedat Surat in February 1668, found that Monsieur de la Boullayele Gout had already secured from Aurangzeb a site for afactory and a firman granting the same trading rights as theDutch and the ~ng1ish.l~~ At once Caron collected cargo anddespatched it homeward.In the meantime he proposed somePlans for the company's further greatness such as buildingfortresses in the important production centres.lo8In 1670 the great fleet, called the nPersian Squadronwconsisting of five ships allong with three company's shipssailed from Rochfort and Port Louis respectively to theSouth. But errors of execution wrecked it. In 1675 two

~utch ships sailed into Port Louis with a few survivors.Three years later before de La Haye's arrival, the Frenchfactory at Surat had been torn with internal dissensions.109Later the French company found a man with abilities andcharacter far superior in Francois Martin who came fromMadagascar to India, the man who was to play the greatestrole in the establishment of a French empire of trade in theEast, arrived in Surat in 1668.110De La Haye had engaged in a war with the Dutch in 1674at San Thorne. The Dutch released the town to the king ofGolkonda, and urged him to destroy it within a few weeks andit was levelled to the ground. De La Haye sailed back homeleaving Francois Martin at a new factory - Pondicherry,founded sixty miles to the south, during the first siege ofSan Thome and was destined to become the headquarters ofFrench 1ndia .'I1With supplies running short, De La Haye, in earlyNovember sent Bellanger de Lespinay, to seek his help in thekingdom of Bijapur from the local ruler farther south,hostile to Golkonda and to the Dutch. From Porto Novo, 'deLespinay got in touch with Sherkhan Lodi who then controlleda large district around Valikondapuram.l12In 1672 de Lespinay was warmly welcomed toValikondapuram. And much to de Lespinay's Surprise,

sherkhan told the Dutch and the French - "Since theHollanders were neighbours of France, they would be so in the~ndies", and to that end, he gave the French the place calledpondicherry . 'I3A little later Sherkhan Lodi, the Governor OfValikondapuram requested Francois Martin to capture the fortof Valudavour on 24th September 1676, which belonged toGingee.But before the conflict could develop further,Shivaji reached Gingee on his famous Carnatic expedition andcaptured it at the first assault.He then moved furtherSouth and in the battle of Tiruvadi near Cuddalore, SherkhanLodi suffered total defeat and was forced to flee. FrancoisMartin accepted the advice of Shivaji to remain neutral andtherefore benefited with a finnen114 dated 15th July 1677granted by the Marathas.On July 17th news arrived atPondicherry of a treaty signed between Sherkhan and Shivajiby which the formed ceded all the territories under hisjurisdiction. On the same day two Maratha officers arrivedat Pondicherry for the administration of the French Colony.Just a little before De La Haye arrived home in 1675with news of utter failure both in Madagascar and in 1ndia1l5Colbert saved the company and its credit by giving theshareholders unjustifiably optimistic reports, andoverhauling assets. The heavy losses were due to the initial

,,pensesand the war with the Dutch. The shareholders werereassured with the payment of 448, 137 livres in purelyfictitious and unearned dividends. 116The French renewed its trading activities in 1678 afterthe peace of Nimjwegen. The company failed to surmount itsfinancial difficulties.In 1684-85 after the death ofColbert the company underwent a reorganisation which placedit more completely than before under the control of the king.In 1684-85, the directors managed to dispatch cargoes --mostly silver worth about 2,500,000 livres, over a millionwhich was obtained by loans in anticipation of the futuresales. This became the pattern of trade, upto 1706.~'~"In India, Surat remained the head quarters of theFrench trading enterprises for the whole of the seventeenthcentury. By the turn of the eighteenth century, Pondicherryattained a place of prominence than Surat in terms of trade.By 1672, the French established a chain of factories atRajapur (1668) Raybay, Mirjan (1669), Masulipatam (1669),Tellicherry (1670), Balliapatam and Ponnani. In 1673-74 theFrench opened a counter at Pondicherry and one more atCalicut in 1678.Karaikal was occupied in 1739."~In 1725, a factory was founded at Mahe, andBesides these factories,the French established themselves in the province of Bengalat Chandranagore, Dacca, Kazimbazar and Balasore and finallyat pune,119

art in virtually recreated ~ ondicherr~.~~~ He turned atonce to his plans for erecting a much stronger fortress andfor surrounding the town with a wall to assure the Indians ofgreater security.By early 1700, Pondicherry had 500 looms.The tradeassociation of local merchants had been restored. Martin washard at work building up a country trade to Achin, China andthe Philippines and developing his private contacts with theEnglish in Madras.In peace times it is said that the company coulddespatch two ships to Surat and two to Pondicherry and Bengalwith cargoes.At least from 1747 the reorganised companyplaced its hopes on piece goods121 and never took properadvantage of the rising demand for tea.The French EastIndia Company was thrown open to individuals from 1769 until1785 when Calonne refounded an East India Company as part ofhis well conceived programme of fiscal reform.122In their over enthusiasm the absolutist monarchy ofFrance and their faithful "watch dogs" like Colbert kept thecompany under control.The French company was more royalthan mercantile in its approach towards trade with India.The French mercantilism paved the way towards a vigorousdevelopment of -companies with corporate capital. 12'

India had an attraction for the French who had by nowdeveloped more settlements the beginnings were started by~rancois Martin, in Pondicherry. The successors of FrancoisMartin continued to develop the French cornnercial ventures inthe period under study.

NOTES AND REBEREUCESSatish Chandra, Medieval India, The Jagirdari Crisisand the Village Society, (Henceforth Satish Chandra)Delhi, 1986, pp.155-156.Ibid.Moreland, India at the Death of Akbar, (Henceforth IDA)Delhi,1987,p.94.Foot Note: Moreland IDA p.103, presents a picture that,Itat the beginning of the present century there werefrom 100 to 120 persons to each 100 acres of normalcultivation. While there were from 60 to 70 persons to100 acres in other districts lying farther south; thedifference was because of permanent features of theenvironmentv.Tapan Raychaudhuri, Irfan Habib, The Cambridge EconomicHistory of India, (Henceforth CEHI) Volume I.C. 1200-C.1750, Delhi, 1991, p.48.More land IDA, op. ci t., p. 92.Ibid, pp.281-282. Appendix. A. the crops grown in themedieval south India are given and one can say that thesame crops were found in the seventeenth century India.Ibid, pp.95-96Ibid, p.104.Ibi d.J.N. Sarkar, Mughal Economy: Organisation and working,(Henceforth J.N.Sarkar) Calcutta, 1987, p.32.Satish Chandra, op.cit., p.156.CEHI, Vol .I., op.cit., p.327.Ibid, p.328.Ibid.

15. ( ore land IDA, op.cft., pp.224-225. 16. Ibid.17. CEHI, Vol.1, op.cit., p.329.18. Ibid, p.338.19. Moreland, IDA, op.cit., p.205. 20. a) CEHI, Vol.I.,op.cit., p.382.b) P.E. Roberts, History of British India, Delhi,1986, p.15. "In the sixteenth century thePortuguese enjoyed a monopoly of the trade Easternmonopoly granted to them by the fiat of Papacy.By the Bull of Pope Alexander VI in 1493 and asinterpreted by the treaty of Tordesillas in 1494and rectified in further bulls of Julius I1 andLeo X in 1506-1514 west and south of the CapeVerde Islands, all undiscovered countries of theeast were assigned to Portugal and all lands onthe west to Spain. The pronouncement of the Popewas universally regarded throughout catholicEurope as the highest possible expressions ofinternational law, while the Protestant nationsfor nearly a hundred years did not feel themselvesstrong enough to defy it".22. a) Ibid.b) K.S.Mathew, Portuguese Trade with India in thesixteenth century (Henceforth K.S .Mathew) NewDelhi, 1983, pp.187-191.23. William Jackson, History of India, volume VI,(Henceforth William Jackson) Delhi, 1987, p.122.24. Moreland, FA&, op.cit., p.725. a) B.Krishnamurthy, The French Trade with India 1664-1754 (Henceforth Krishnamurthy) (unpublishedthesis submitted to the M.S. University of Baroda)Baroda, 1984, pp.35-36.b) Archives Nationales de Paris, Colonie Series, c2-2fols.8,20.C) CEHI, ~01.1. Op.~lt., p.210.26. Moreland,. IDA, op. cit., p.210

~.O.Koshy, The Dutch power in Kerala (Henceforth Koshy)Delhi, 1989, p.13.a) A.Galetti, The Dutch in Malabar (HenceforthGaletti) Madras, 1911, p.13.b) Koshy, op.cit., p.14.M. 0. Koshy, op. ci t., p. 14.Moreland, IDA, op.cit., p.210.George Wood Cock, Kerala a portrait of Malabar Coast(Henceforth George Wood Cock) London, 1967, p.130.CEHI, ~01.1. op.cit., pp.388, 389-392.Moreland, FAA, op.cit., p.40.Krishnamurthy, op.cit., p.31.Ibi d.Ibid, p.32.Koshy, op. cit., pp. 170,172.Krishnamurthy, op. ci t., p. 34.CEHI, vol . I. op. ci t ., p. 392.Krishnamurthy, op. cit., p. 35.a) K.N.Chitnis, Socio-Economic Aspects of MedievalIndia (Henceforth Chitnis) Poona, 1979, p.53.b) Nilakanta Sastri, History of India Part 11,Medieval India (Henceforth Nilakanda Sastri)Madras, 1950, p.282.C) CEHI, vol.1. op.cit., p.264.Satish Chandra, op.cit., p.51J.N.Sarkar, op.cit., pp.235-236.Nilakanta Sastri, op.cit., p.281Ibid.

Satish Chandra, op.cit., pp.148, 149.Ibid, p.149.Ibid, p.150.Ibid, pp.152-153.~.~.sarkar, op.cit., p.238.Ibid, pp.255-256.Satish Chandra, op.cit., p.61.Ibid, p.62.Ibid.Ibid, p.62-63.CEHI, vol.1. op.cit., p.278.Ibid, p.279.Ibid, p.280.Ibi d.Ibid.Ibid, p.284.F.N. Such a hierarchy among artisans was not altogetherabsent in Mughal India.Ibid, p.285.Ibid, p.286.Ibid, p.287 - Karkhanas are loyal factoriesIbid, p.288.B.Krishnamurthy, op.cit., p.5.Ibid.Ibid, p.6.

~.c.Venna, History of Bijapur (Henceforth D.C.Verma)elh hi, 1974, p.129.~.Krishnamurthy, op. cit., p.6.Ibid.~.C.Verma, History of Bijapur (Henceforth Vermal Delhi,1974, p.129.Ibid, p.216.Ibid, p.245.Mathew, op.cit., p.10Ibid, pp.4, 5, 51.Krishnarnurthy, op. cit., p. 10.Ibid.Ibid, p. 12.Frank Arnold Haight, A History of the French CommercialPolicies (Henceforth Prank Arnold) New York, 1941, p.5.Ibid.Andre Maurois, A History of France (Henceforth AndreMaurois) London, 1964, p.209.Frank Arnold Haight , op. ci t ., p .2Ibid, p.228.Ibid, p.227.ibi d.c2-2 f0lS.99.Holden Furber, Rival hrpires of Trade in the Orient1600-1800 (Henceforth Holden Furber) .c2-2 folg.6, 26, 28, 113, 118.R.H.vol.XII1, 1976-1980, p.138.

a) Ibid, p.25b) Holden Furber, op.cit., p.104. French merchantsshowed no great enthusiasm.Ibid.Ibid, p.28.William Jackson, op.cit., p.88.R.H. ~01.111, Op.cit., p.lO. c2-2 f01.30B.Krishnamurthy, op.cit., pp.149-150.Ibid, p.151.Ibid.Ibid.Ibi d.Ibid.a) Arch. Col. c2-2 fols.99.b) Holden Furber, op.cit., p.107.Ibid, p.105.Furber, op.cit., p.106.Ibid, p.107.Ibid, p.108.Ibid, p.109.Ibid, p. 111-112.Ibid, for Sherkhan Lodi told the Dutch, that he hadlearned from a famous merchant travelled in Europe whosaid that the King of France was the most powerful kingOf Christians and that Hollanders themselves had only avery small country and lived only by trade.Ibid, p.112

a) Paulkappelin, La Compagnie des Indes Orientales etFrancois Martin 1664-1719 (Henceforth kappelin)Paris, 1908, p.162.b) Cyril htony, Gazatteer of Pondicherry, 2 volumes,(Henceforth Cyril Antony) Pondicherry, 1983,p.161.Ibid.Ibid.Ibid, p.113.Ibid.R.H. vol.XIV, p.40.Holden Furber, op.cit., p.123 -- contact's which wereto stand Martin in good stead, after the renewal of warfor they could be used to protect the silver and goodson hand with sales partly real and partly fictitious.Ibid, p.210Ibi d.B.Brishnamurthy, op. cit., p. 414-415.

A G R A R I A N X C O N O Y YFrom the sixteenth to the eighteenth century, firstportugal and in its wake the Netherlands, Britain and Prancebegan to carry on a lively trade in India. In this respect,the middle of the eighteenth century was a landmark inIndia's history since it marked the establishment of thedomination by the English East India Company and thebeginning of territorial seizures by the ~ur0~eans.lIndia began to feel the effects of the methods -- thatwas the cruel colonial plunder and brutal violence to whichthe British bourgeoisie resorted in its quest for sources ofrapid enrichment .* The British entered into treaties andagreements with the native rulers to obtain lands and laterexperimented their land revenue system in order to raisesufficient revenue for the growth of their colonial andcommercial activities in India. In the same manner, when theFrench came to India with the feudal and rural background3 toIndia were enthused with similar motives for comerce andcolonisation.

France was involved in continuous campaigns in Europehence the company and the crown could not send bullion ormoney consistently to the colonies in India. So the Frenchin ~ndia entered into commercial and diplomatic relationswith the native creditors and ntlers. This left them at themercy of the native creditors and rulers and forced them torealise that it was necessary to raise revenue in Indiaitself to fund their comercial ventures.' So the Frenchtried to acquire more and more villages in and aroundPondicherry.Besides these steps, the French had claims also to avast extent of territory because of certain titles and honorsconferred on the company's officials by native rulers.Certain territories were secured in return for military aid.In acquiring these territories, the French had high hopes ofderiving substantial returns. The Paris directorateconstantly took pains to point out that comercial ratherthan territorial expansion should be the primary aim of itsemployees in India.However, the company in France was not opposed7 toholding a reasonable amount of territory sufficientlyProtected where the company's workers might be Safe in timeOf trouble - which was all too frequent in India. Such landswere to be adequately extensive to furnish foodstuffs for the

inhabitants. It was also desired that they produce a revenue,,fficient atleast to pay the expenses of their,dministration, so that funds destined for the company'scomerce need not be directed. Indeed the company on oneoccasion went so far as to compliment Dupleix, for havingacquired Villianur as the result of an alliance with ChandaSaheb, which was one of those territories that was meant notonly for self sustenance but also remuneration. Theadministratione of these territories was in the hands of aGovernor and a considerable number of councillors and localdirectors. These were aided in their work by French andnative clerical employees and numerous Indian agents.So in this chapter an attempt is made to study thetechniques followed by the French in acquiring villages inand around Pondicherry, the agrarian pattern they adapted,the kind of land tenures, relationship of the land lord andthe peasant, the crops they cultivated and their effort inihe field of irrigation in their newly acquired territories.In their commercial enterprise, the French tried tobring under their control San Thome in 1672. Knowing thatthe ruler of Golkonda, supported by the Dutch, laid siege onSari Thome, dela Haye used Pondicherry as a supply base andSent a guard to the place in 1672 and also 'Le Navarre' inOctober 1672 for obtaining victuals in Ponqcherry. On 1673

sellanager de 1' Espinay, a trusted lieutenant of de la Hayelanded in Pondicherry on orders from his admiral to establisha loge.De la Haye was forced to surrender San Thome andthis forced the French to establish a colonial settlement inpondicherry in 1674. Thus the naval squadron sent by Colbertto found a company that would become strong and powerful inorder to maintain itself appeared very dim at the moment in~ondicherry.~ Under these circumstances Francois Martinbecame the chief of Pondicherry.Francois Martin obtained the concession of the locationof this city from Sherkhan Lodi, governor of the countryunder the authority of the King of Visapur (Bijapur) and hehad made some fortification which cost only 700 ecuslO, (oldFrench coin). And later, this city became the headquartersof the French commercial and territorial activities in India.About this time Francois Martin, the chief of the Frenchcompany at Pondicherry took a small village in its vicinityon rent from sherkhanl1. Against the loan given by Martin,Sherkhan Lodi offered the right to collect custom duties atPondicherry.In course of time the French acquired Mahe(1725), Yanom (1731), Chandernagar (1701) , and Karaikal(1739). The governors of the company administered theseterritories in the name of the French crown.By 1708, the company managed to acquire from the Nawabbud Khan) of the Carnatic and from the ruler Raja Sorub

~ingh of Gingee, Ariankuppam, Oulgarai, Murungapakkam,olandai, PakenamPak (Paccumdayanpet), Kalapet andcamvadikuppam villages all around ~ondicherry'~.The villages Of Theduvanatham and Archivac(~bishekapakkam) Odiampattu, Thirukanji and Kottakuppam weregiven to Dumas by Nawab Safdar Alikhan the then Nawab ofcarnatic as a gift for his exemplary courage shown during theMaratha incursion in September, 174013. Though companyallowed Dumas and his family to enjoy the fruits of thisoffer, the French King ruled out the same and the companytook possession of these villages too.14In 1749 Chanda Saheb and his son Raja Saheb gave toDupleix Vilnour with its dependencies of forty five villages,Pollichepalayam (Pollachipalayam) comprising eleven villagesand Vahur (Bahur), consisting of twenty villages1'andValdavur (vazhudavur) with its hundred villages was grantedto the French for their military assistan~e.'~ And thecompany did likewise in the case of Mahe, and Masulipatnam.There prevailed political disorders during the period ofthe Vijayanagar rule. After the decline of the central powerof the Vijayanagar kings, following their defeat inTaliakota, in the second half of the sixteenth century thewhole of south India, especially Tamil Nadu, experiencedSuccessive invasions from the Deccan, the ruler's of the

~~~athaS and the Mughals, wars between the British and theFrench, Tipu's invasion, internal wars between Nawabs and~ayaks, rebellions Of the Poliqars etc. In fact the whole ofTamilNadu was in a state of anarchy1'.Pondicherry beingpart and parcel Of TamilNadu would have been a victim to allthese calamities. The system of agriculture in Pondicherrycertainly would have followed certain features ofagricultural pattern of the Mughals, Marathas, Cholas,vijayanagar etc.The economy of the Vijayanagara Kingdomcontinued the Chola pattern, obtaining its income fromagriculture and trade1*.The French records do not throwmuch light on the agrarian relations and agriculturalproduction in Pondicherry and its dependent villages.Onecan infer that on the whole whatever was prevalent in theseventeenth century India might have been followed in FrenchPondicherry .Agricultural Production in Pondicharry and it.SurroundingVillages :There was the cultivation of single crop and double cropand there was cultivation on wetlands, dry lands and wastelands.%Jricultural Product.:wet crops such as paddy, sugarcane, betel, tapicoa was apart Wet land cultivation. They were called wet crops

ecause they Were distinguished from those which were givenoccasional lushing.cultivation of Paddy on Wet L.n& (ringla crop) IThe field intended for the cultivation of paddy waswatered and ploughed at least three times and then the paddywas planted towards the end of October. The paddy was ripein February. Harvesting was done with the sickle, beatingwas made by the flail, then the last grains were extracted bymaking the bullocks trample the straw1'. Usually the harvestper kany cultivated in this method amounted to 50 kalams andabout 40 bundles of straw.Cultivation of Paddy on Wet Land (Double crop):Lands on which this kind of cultivation was done werethe same as those discussed above. Only more means ofirrigation helped bringing about a second harvest during theseason. In 4/5 of the lands of double crop were situated inthe communes of Villianur and Ozuvarkarai and they werewanted by ousteri lake. Other lands were wetlands of Saranirrigated by spring of Ariankuppam and by artisan wells ofBahurZ0. The first cultivation was done in the sameconditions like the lands of single crop variety of sambhaZ1which was planted in September and harvested in February.For the second cultivation the varieties cultivated werekarri, Manacatta or Somavary. The karri variety required

cultivation for 4 months Manacatti 3% months, Sornavary 3was no planting.For the latter sowing was done directly and therecultivation of 8-1Three kinds Of banana trees were cultivated in Frenchpondicherry . They were Mauritius, Vangalai and Mondan. The~auritius was a variety of small height which maturedrapidly. It was planted either in paddy lands irrigated bytanks or in dry lands exclusively by pumping. First waterwas distributed and then it was done by pumping or by liftirrigation. The young plants coming from banana grove,already cultivated, were planted in the month of July-~ugust~~.The field for plantation of banana trees was carefullyploughed, weeded and irrigated. The land was cut into smallditches of about 0.30 m and into small trenches ofirrigation. The density of young plants was 2000 to 2500 perkany. For 3 months water was sent every 4 days at the rateof 250 m 3 per kany. At a time there were about 100 kanys ofland where Mauritius variety was cultivated, half of themfarmed out to highest bidders and the balance was cultivatedby the owners. Money was paid to the person in charge ofdistribution of water. The varieties of vangalai and Mondenwere Of a bigger size than the Mauritius. Their cycle of

,ultivation spread over fifteen months instead of tenmonths23.cultivation of Sugarc.ne:The cultivation of sugarcane which was very muchdeveloped in the neighbouring Anglo-Indian territory waspractised very little in French India. The cultivation ofsugar-cane was undertaken in the month of Adi on wet landsand in February on dry lands24.lasted 12 to 14 months.The period of cultivationThe cultivation of sugarcane wassimilar to that of banana trees. The field was similar tothose where banana trees were planted.ploughed weeded and cut into shallow pits.The field wasThe irrigationwas less frequent than for banana trees; as a rule 4 tuns ofwater per month would be enough2=. There was no sugar millin Pondicherry but one was in Indian territory in Nellikuppamwithin a few kilometeres south of Pondicherry.Cultivation of Betel:It was usually raised by the ~ abbai~~, sub-division ofthe Muslim community and though some of the black and morePungent variety was cultivated, the white kind was morePopular. The neighbourhood of ~elliku~~am~' was well knownfor this crop. References in contemporary diaries show thatVillianur was the area where betel was cultivated2'.cultivation began in July.TheIn order to set the field,

ditches were dug sufficiently deep, which along with the bankwere lm, 80 c.m. wide. Since betel was a creeper it wassupported by the tree called 'avuthy' which was sown on thebanks of the ditches.DRY LAND CULTIVATIONNOB-~rrigated Paddy:on-irrigated paddy was cultivated on two kinds oflands. 1) On lands called manavary located on placesrelatively elevated, 2) On internal lands of the tanks. Thevariety of paddy cultivated on these lands was not the same.Vellachamba was used for the external cultivation(poulidical) and kalikenchamba2' in the interior. The periodof cultivation was five months and the harvest was done inDecember. The paddy planted in September received too earlythe monsoon water and their growth was bad.Carruarina:The cycle of cultivation of casuarina extended over 7years3'. As a principle 5000 young plants were planted perkany in the month of July-August. They were irrigated duringthe first six months, the rains were not enough and on anaverage four turns of water were given per month. During thefirst two years, the young plants in between the casuarinaplants except inlands which were too sandy. This cultivationthe tax payment and for irrigation. At the end of sevenYears it produced many tons of wood which were usually sold.

of Ua-Irrisatd xi1.t.:This cultivation was practised on high lands generallysandy not provided with irrigation. The cultivation variedfrom year to year according to the need or the degree ofhumidity of the monsoon. The items were winter groundnut,kdu, ragi, tend, varagu and gingelly and the cultivationtook place between July-August and that lasted for threemonths3'. The harvest began in April for the sesame and inOctober for other millets and groundnut32.Cultivation of Coconut TroerrThe most useful of the trees of the orchards withoutcontradiction was the coconut trees or coconut palms. Thesecoconut palms carried bunches of nut of a monstrousthickness33. When they allowed these nuts to come tomaturity they furnished abundant oil that the Indiansutilised for all sorts of things, specially to season theirvegetables despite the disagreeable taste of this oil forsomeone who was not accustomed to it.The cultivation of coconut trees was done in groves orOn the road side paths and residential areas. The Coconuttrees planted on the borders of roads and in residentialareas were more productive no doubt on account of bio-manurewhich was brought to their foot.34

The irrigation for coconut trees was pursued for fiveyears. As the years went by, the need of pouring water waslessened. In the 6th year there was no watering and theharvest might be done in the 7th year. Ten years of wateringwas necessary for harvesting from all the trees. And therewere two ways of exploiting the coconut trees either incoconuts or in toddy35. The toddy was fermented juice whichcame out from top Of the tree, when bleeding6 were made. Thetoddy was very much appreciated by the population and wassold at various prices according to the location of the tree.But the coconut was much less productive. The exploitationof toddy could not be kept going on continuously, as thetrees would soon be exhausted. The coconut trees thusplanted and cultivated produced as long as forty to fiftyyears36 (a detailed description of how to tap toddy is givenin the foot note No.35). These trees were planted at adistance of twenty five to thirty feet. Sandy and pure soilwas very congenial to coconut trees and they flourished wellin such soi13'.Groves of Wango trees, Cashew trees, wastelands:In the mango and cashew groves plucking was done at thetime of maturity. All these lands were used as pastureground for the cattle. Some of these lands belonged to thegovernment called Poromboc, sometime to the municipalitiesSometime without any owners.

of Ground-Nut:round-Nut3' might have been an important produce of,outh-arcot.And it was cultivated in Tindivanam,Villupuram, Tirukkoyilur and Cuddalore districts.Recordsshow that in French India ground-nut was an important item ofcultivation. It was stated sometimes that ground-nut onlywas cultivated. Sometimes it was cultivated along with Raagior Kambu .Indigo :The history of indigo highlights the price - responsivecharacter of India's agro-manufacturers. In India Biana inAgra produced the best indigo. The bulk of the indigoproduced was used locally and substantial exports to Europedeveloped. Mention was being made that in several places innorth and south oro om and el^^, indigo was cultivated. It isvery doubtful whether the French really cultivated indigo inPondicherry.Irrigation:As in the days of Pallavas or vijayanagar rulers theFrench realised the importance of agriculture and hadProvided irrigation facilities by constructing tanks feedingchannels and other diversion4'. The famous ousteri thelargest irrigation lake in ~illianur comne had been builtduring the days of Vijayanagar rulers. It was further

developed by the French.Ananda Ranga Pillai, the IndianDubash to the French Company during the period of Dupliex wasknown to have Spent money for the repair of tanks andcanals4'.The French had undertaken the construction of a fewanicuts. The Suttukanni anicut was built by the French tohead off the Water flowing in the river and diverted the sameinto Suttukanni channel in the village of Suttukanni. TheKilur anicut built across Kuduvayur during the French periodwas north of Kilur village. The French builtkilsathamangalam across Kuduvayur, in Villianur comne andthe other Tirukanj i a ni~ut~~.The French paid attention to canal irrigation.TheVillianur channel taking off from Pillaiyarkuppam anicutprovided direct irrigation to an area, of about 200 hectaresin Villianur and in Ozhukarai communes and feeds Olandai and~urungapakkam~~. For example, in 1706, the company wanted toirrigate her land in Oulugarai which needed water from thetank, but the tank belonged to the Muslims.The generalfarmer of the lands of the Muslims was one Sinnagaridy. Sothe company decided to get the lands irrigated by the supportOf Sinnagaridy and decided to lease out the lands inOulugarai to Sinnagaridy in order to promote increase inc~ltivation~~.

well irrigation too, was prevalent during the FrenchTanks were used for irrigation. They were alsocalled as Eris Specially two bodies namely Ousteri and Bahur. These Eris existed even in the days of Cholas andvijayanagar4'.Lift Irrigation:Yet, another interesting technique they employed forirrigation was the use ofwhich was a machineinstalled on the side of a well or of a tank or of a pond, todraw water, from it, to carry it to the fields. When thewater in the pond was found at the level of the neighbouringterrain they were withdrawn into the pond with the help of abasket made impenetrable by means of a coating of a cow dungand some wet earth - (glaise) . The basket was suspended orhung by four cords - ropes which were held by two men, placedone in front of the other. They plunged the basket in thewater and poured it in the canals with oscillatory andregular fast movement. In this manner the water of ponds andwells were lifted and sent to all the low lying areas of ourterritories and increased the fertility of the fields. Thesemeans were found remarkable for their efficiency and theirsimplicity47.The company had totys who were the surveyors and thedistributors of waters and as the watchmen of the borders.

Each aldec had its own totys. The division of waters fromthe sources and from ponds being regulated by the farmer orsteward, but the toty48 remained responsible for theexecution. He watched over that each cultivator received thequantity of water which had been assigned to him.The Villago Cannunity in PondicharryRelationship of the French company with the landlord,the peasant, the land, the village comnity was one of vitalimportance in the life of a village community. In MughalIndia the entire land was in the name of the emperor. TheEuropean travellers of the period, declared without a singlevoice of dissent, that the proprietorship of land was vestedwith the king alone4'. Similarly the French companyadministered its landed properties in the name of the FrenchKing.For instance in 1740 Safdar Alikhan the Nawab of theCarnatic conferred Archivac (Abishekapakkam) Odiampet,Tirukanji, Kottakuppam and Thoduvanaton (Theduvanattam) toDumas for his exemplary courage and wisdom shown during theMaratha incursion in 1740. Though the company allowed Dumasand his family to enjoy the fruits of this offer, the Frenchking ruled out against that and thus the company tookpossession of these villages alsos0.

First and foremost the sovereign has a right to atribute of the earth as the price of his protection, of hissubjects against the oppression of usurpers and tyrantss1.In order to understand French India it is important toknow the habits, customs and the way of living of the ruralpopulation.The village community was bound togethereconomically on the basis of their traditional occupations.The following were the four dominant comnities the Brahmincommunity of Priests, Kshtriyas - community of warriors,vaisiyas community of merchants, sudhras, comnity ofagriculturalist^^^. Like in any other part of India thereseem to have been the existence of Brahmadaya and Devadanavillages in pondicherrys3.One can trace the origin of Brahmadaya and ~evadana~* tothe Chola and the Vijayanagar times. The Brahmadaya was agrant or perquisite appropriated to Brahmins by the kingss.The grants were in the form of small lands or whole villages,made usually in recognition of a Brahman's scholarships or toenable him to impart regular religious or secular instructionto others. There were two such grants the manyams and the~arvaman~ams~~ while the former was subject to a small quitrent the latter was usually immune from the payment of anytax to the government. The devadana lands were those grantedto temples for carrying on daily worship and festivalss7.

In Pondicherry territory many Brahmins lived in thetown. Those who lived in villages lived in agrahard8 or inan area of the village inhabited by caste people. Brahminswere landowners or merchants but they did not cultivate theland themselves. Practically there were no kshtriyas inpondicherry and however some connnunities of sudras - (Pallisor Vannyas) pretended that they were descendants of kshtriyasor warriors and vaisiyas were few and there were a fewkomuttys who were merchants or pawn brokers. Almost all thecommunities people were sudras. The important subcommunitiesof sudras were the following.Vellalas: The vellalas lived generally in Pondicherry, wherethey were government employees, lawyers or merchants. Theyentered into contact with the Europeans very much earlierthan the members of other communities. Many families ofvillages have converted themselves into Christianity. Theyinvested their capitals in wet lands, cultivated by theirtenantss9, while they continued to live in the town. A fewOf them lived in villages as small land owners.Chettys: The chetty's were communities of merchants in townand country. They owned lands but rarely cultivated itthemselves.Reddis: The ~eddis" were the owners of the soil. Havingtheir origin in Telugu country they spoke telugu and they had

settled very early here. They often owned large acres oflands and having their pannayals6l (Valanga attached to theirfamily) or by coolies (wage workers who were valangas orvanniyas or reddies). Reddies lived in the country (village)in the middle of their lands and supervised very closelytheir cultivation, even when they were leased out orentrusted to farmers.Vannyas: The Vannyas represented a very important fraction ofrural population. Generally they were small land owners whocultivated their land themselves.The other communities of Sudras did not play animportant role in the agricultural life; the fishermen wereotherwise known as Mucuvas or Patnavas. Pot-makers, Weaversand Souraires whose job was to climb on the coconut trees,for plucking coconuts or for extracting the juice from palmtrees were also found living in Pondicherry.In every village there were craftsmen or workers,blacksmiths, masons, carpenters, pot-makers and toddytappers. h d these artisans were entitled, in the same wayas the Brahmin incharge of religious ceremonies, to therevenue called manyams62 or (grants). They were requested toserve the people of the village freely according to theirProfession.

RELATIOUSIIP B m THL LAND LOIU), PWMT MD THL LANDT m :When the French acquired lands they did not alter theclassification of lands followed through generations and thecollection of revenue was also modelled on the sameprinciple. As in the systems of the Mughals, Cholas, thevijayanagara period, the lands in Pondicherry villages wereclassified into three categories. wet lands (Paddy), drylands (millet), woody and waste lands.Rotation of Crop:There was the practice of rotation of crops as anothermeans of preserving the fertility of soil. In the wet landpaddy, bananas, betel and sugarcane were cultivated and thisreceived water. The dry lands or manavary lands were notirrigated. The other crops cultivated were cotton, groundnutand cholam in dry lands.63 In wet lands a crop of paddy wasfollowed by another crop of paddy and then again by anothercrop of paddy or ragi or groundnut. In Pondicherry regionthe cultivation of ragi along with irrigated groundnuts was acommon practice in all garden land areas. 64The rotation crops followed in dry lands were cotton,groundnut and cholam. In wet lands paddy was followed byragi, and groundnut. Sometimes paddy being followed byapplying green manure, was in vogue in certain parts of this

egion. About 252 of the lands of the territory (5,000hectares) was thus cultivated, another 252 was cultivated byvaram (share) or farming and the balance was leased out. Thelease amount was paid in grains for millets. Generally theshare of the owner represented a little less than half of thegross revenue. The farmer (lessee) shared fifty per cent ofthe harvest with the owner in the case of lands irrigated bytanks or manavary. When the irrigation was made by pumpingwater from the well one third of the harvest went to theowner and two third to the lessee.65LAND REVENUE SYSTEM FOLLOWED BY TEE FREWCH:As mentioned 'earlier in this chapter, the Frenchfollowed the system of collecting land revenue which wasparticularly to support their trade and couanerce in India byhaving a steady supply of finance. And therefore landrevenue was a vital source of income.Generally it is observed that all the lands of theCoromandel coast were divided in jagirs or in manyam ormirasis, in strotarium, in pata or in adamanon and in~romboc.~~ In the first case, the jagirs were granted tosome comndants and generals of the mughal troops for themaintenance of these troops. It was thus that the subha ofDeccan was given to Bussy with all the revenues of theProvince of Rajamundree, on the coast of Orissa for themaintenance of his troop's. 67

It is possible that the French followed whatever systemwas found in it's neighbourhood. The French leased out torenters and in turn to sub-renters. For the sake ofadministrative convenience the area was divided into Subha,~agir,~' and Sinnai. One Subedar was engaged for eachdivision to collect taxes from the people during the harvestseason. And when Karaikal and its dependencies came underDumas in 1739 and when the French extended their suzeraintyin the Deccan and the carnatic during the time of Dupleix in1748 Naiyinars assisted the French in the administration ofvillages. Palayakarars helped them in the revenuecollection. Amaldars were appointed to collect revenue fromthe leaseholders and they were assisted by a set of soldierswith flags6'. And Villianur taluk itself had forty fivevillages and each village was under the control of twoservants of the company.Jagirdars and Killedars were assisting in the revenueadministration. Even villages were leased out fully Karaikaland the neighbouring villages were given to Ananda RangaPillai for 4000 pagodas. Villages leased out to KanakarayaMudaliyar were given to his younger brother for 5 years for asum of 3700 pagodas7o. However very little is known aboutthe history of the French land revenue administration incarnatic71. But there were two possible methods of revenueand ministration at that time prevalent. One was to let the

villages at a fixed rent to tax farmer and the other was to#place them under the superintendence of one who might betrusted to bring all his collections to account.'12The Prench at first collected land revenue directly butit proved to be a hard task for them due to the insincere andevasive tactics practised by the native clerks, who wereemployed by the company in assisting it in tax assessment andcollection. Moreover, direct tax collection called for showof force towards Poligars, the local chieftains, demandinghuge expenses and other complication.To ensure a fixed income, the Prench took to ijira orfarming of it's territories to the chosen one, naturally thehighest bidder.73 When the company could not get a handsomeoffer, the company resorted to direct collection appointingits own clerks and other people.74For example, the company itself collected the taxes7=until Dupleix came as a Governor.It had employed nativecollectors who regularly robbed it, or were negligent intheir duty. Native tax farmers, on the other hand knew thetricks of both the natives and the collectors, hence they hadthe faculty of getting the greatest possible revenue out of aParticular region, so the superior council took special careto keep up the value of the farms. When in 1731, the companyfarmed out tobacco and betel to Malabar merchants the

merchants had a tendency to reduce the sum to 4,500 pagodas.so the company entrusted to one of its trust worthy nativeclerks for 4995 pagodas. He managed it so successfully forthe next six yeare that the company's income from it rose ashigh as 7,000 pagodas in 1737. Thus the company at times hasattempted to protect its interests.Villages were rented out for two or three or four years,but the contract could be terminated at the end of the firstyear or after it, if the renter so wished.76 Farmingcontracts were fixed for five years. As the prospects ofyields were fluctuating the loss sustained in the lean periodwas Often made good under better harvest conditions. 77The leasing out of lands to the farmers of two typescalled varam and tirvai. In the case of tirvai, the land wasoffered to to the ryots for a fixed rent. In the case ofvaram the produce was shared between the farmers and theowners. Deductions of ten percent were made from the cropstowards payment for village servants, artisants, templesbefore the ryots were allowed to have their share.78The dry land was usually assigned on fixed rent, whilethe wet land was either rented or cultivated according tocrop-sharing system. The peasants stood to gain more byvaram and their share varied from 2/5, 9/20, and of thetotal produce. On the basis of the nature of the samba 2/3

of the tirvai was paid and the balance was paid in the secondkar season. The total benefit of the third crop went to thec~ltivator.'~ Lands in adamanon beyond the fixed period of 5years was left to the goodwill of the farmer and his ryot.The assignment of lands on adamanon was announced topeople by beat of tom-tom and it was effected by givingcowles containing the rates for the lands." A cowle was anagreement to hand over land without payment for a certainperiod or on payment for a certain period of a diminishedassessment gradually rising to full assessment. As per theestablished tradition followed from time immemorial, land hasto be passed from father to son in every family. Because ofcontinuous war menance between 1742-1761 agriculturalproduction was terribly affectede1 and demands for essentialcommodities were on the increase.Usually, moneyed men who were having commercial contactswith the company like the merchants living in the Frenchcolonies who used to furnish the company with localmerchandise to export them to Prance, as well as the Frenchor other European settlers in the French colonies took tothis fanning of land revenue and other tax collections. TheCourtier of the company or any wealthy man of the settlementstood surety to the native bidders for prompt payment .'I

As stated earlier the company was the owner of theentire lands and it administered in the name of the Frenchking. Analysing the advantages that would come to thecompany's land at Oulgarai if it was leased to Sinnagardy whowas the general farmer of the lands of the Muslims in thesame area, the company leased out Oulgarai to Sinnagardy in1706 for two years for a sum of 580 pagodas for each year andin 1708 again the aldee at Oulgarai was given for two yearsat the rate of 880 pagodas for each year. In 1709MurungapaWram was given on lease for 4 years at the rate of500 pagodas per year, and in 1710'~ for another two years for930 pagodas the same Oulgarai was given to him. And for thefourth time in 1712 under Herbert again Oulgarai was given tothe old farmers for another two years at the rate of 1000pagodas per year. In the same year Pondicherry andAriancoupam was given for 900 and 490 pagodas respectively.In 1713 the company let the aldees of Murungapakkam,Ollandai and Pacquenampac for a period of two years at therate of 630 pagodas per year. In 1715 Murungapakkam,Ollandai and Pacquenampac were given to Nainiappa for fourYears at the rate of 550'~ pagodas per year.In 1716 Tanapamodely, Trinadapulle, Nallathamby chetty,Candapachetty, Vinguracheya, Perimachetty and Quichichettyall merchants inhabitants of this town, came together and

demanded the farms of tobacco, betel arrague, paria andchange of the lands of Pondicherry, of the lands of~riancouppam and the fish of the river, for which theyoffered to pay the sum of 5,800 pagodas in twelve equalpayment each month.85 They together stood as guarantors andresponsible persons. The company finding the above mentionedrequest to their advantage accepted to pass on the bail forthese farms to the above mentioned merchants for two years.In 1718 Pondicherry, and Ariancoupam were given on leasefor four years at the annual income of 720 and 420 pagodasrespectively. In 1720 the company leased out Ariancoupam andMurungapakkam and Oulgarai 420, 520, and 950 pagodasrespectivelly. In 1721 lands of Pondicherry was rented forthree years for 550 pagodas annually.86In 1728 the company has leased out the lands ofPondicherry, Ariancoupam, Murungapakkam and Olugarairespectively at the rate 535, 415, 520 and 1050 pagodas. In1733 the company leased out the lands of Pondicherry,Ariancoupam, Murungapakkam and Olugarai for 5 years at therate of 600, 391, 455, 1200 pagodas respectively.In 1738 again the company has leased out the lands ofPondicherry, Ariancoupam, Murungapakkam and Olugarai for aPeriod of 5 years at the annual payment of 900, 475, 717 and2360 pagodas. 87

On 25th June 1743, the villages forming the suburbs ofpondicherry and Murungapakkam were leased for 5 years at ayearly rent of 944 and 751 pagodas respectively~umarapillai, Viranayakkam, Chandramadipillai and Ellapillai.For these four persons Ananda Ranga Pillai stood surety andhe signed the lease beginning from July 1743."toThere wereinstances of sub-letting the revenues to various farmers andalso Europeans standing sureties for sub- f armers . (Note :the available data are given in a statement about the FrenchLand Revenue collection in Pondicherry and outer villages.Dupleix proclaimed the wartime economy in 1746 and gavean account of the distribution of land revenue system. Thatis to say that right from the frontier limits of Pondicherryupto the gates, the lands covered in between belonged to theThe company lands given on lease, without theconsent of the Notary or approval of the Governor were nottransferable. Whenever payment of taxes were not made,receipts for payments were given and must be kept up.they failed to pay the tax, their lands were confiscated bythe government. The company had the right to take away anyland required for the purpose of protecting the inhabitantsof the territ~ry.~'As a result of these disturbed conditions in theCountry, at times the connnandants prevented the amaldarsg2If

from executing their duties properly and they increased theirprivate gains and as such even the reduced rent was notrealised under the successor, Godheu properly. The frequentclashes between European commandants and amaldars affectedrhe revenue collection very often.93 People ran away toplaces like Vridachalam at the time of tax collection toescape from the ill treatment.94 In one instance AnandaRanga Pillai seem to have remarked that he found hard tocollect money in the country. To collect rent from the ryotsand others one had to keep whip in hand.Inspite of the difficulties which the company faced incollecting the revenue, the duty of the revenue collector,tax farmer, was the collection of revenue and remitting it tothe company. Perhaps he also took care of irrigationfacilities in the villages farmed out to him.The land revenue was collected in cash as well as inkind and the company had the final say in which it was to bepaid. Sometimes Mudaliar was employed to persuade the nativerenters to pay to the company according to its needs ofscarcity for food grains to pay the rent in kind orotherwise.95 The payment in cash was called for, ininstalments . 96 The disturbed political condition in southIndia was another reason and the war time politics of theBritish and the French brought havoc to agriculture inPondicherry and its surrounding villages.

Inspite of the various measures adopted by the companyafter 1754 one can infer that there might have been acutefinancial distress in Pondicherry with no money even to paythe civil and military employees to purchase provisions forthe inhabitants. One important reason was the defectivesystem of collecting revenue under the company'sadministration. All the sources of revenues like land,betel, tobacco, alcohol, customs both on land and sea etc.were farmed out to private persons mostly Indians and in somecases connected with the administrative officials. 97Added to the already existing financial crisis thecompany was faced with the outbreak of famines at differentperiods. The famine of 1687 was the earliest mentioned inthe records. Famine was marked by shortage of food andpeople migrated to different places. Francois Martinarranged for the import of rice by boats to be sold atPondicherry. Similar famines occurred in 1708, 1717, 1737and the most severe one in 1760. In order to eradicate theshortage of food supply and to attract the import of foodgrains to the town, duties and levies were suspended.98On the whole the French were humanitarian in theiroutlook towards the revenue collection. Whenever there wasScarcity of food grains as the result of drought and faminethey suppressed the entry tax on food grains. The tax

collected from the inhabitants for fortifying Pondicherry wasalso withdrawn in consideration to their sorry state evenafter the persuation of the higher ups in France for thecontinuation of it. 99In conclusion, the French company in Pondicherry throughthe farming out system ensured a fixed sum of revenue tocarry on her commercial enterprises. The company did notbring in any new i~ovation in the field of agriculture.Unlike the English the French in Pondicherry and in itsvillages followed whatever was found in the Mughalterritories and in the land of the native rulers. But itencouraged the cultivation of cash crops like groundnut,paddy, betel, sugarcane to increase their land revenue.It also indicated the rural feudal backwardness of theFrench in their homeland in the field of agriculture. Forthe French came to India as traders. In the field ofagriculture they more or less followed what was found in therest of the village society in India in the medieval period.

A.I.Chicherov, India Economic development in the 16th -18th centuries, Outline History of Crafts and Trade,(Henceforth will be noted as Chicherov, p...) Moscow,1971, pp.5-6 .Ibi d.Ed., Carlo M.Cipolla, The Fontana Economic History ofEurope, The Sixteenth and Seventeenth centuries,(Henceforth will be noted as Carlo, p...) GreatBritain, 1974, p.276 .Ibid, During this time the wars of religion were goingon in Prance, the thirty years war in Germany, war ofSweden in the central and the eastern regions, therevival of peasant unrest especially in the Germanprincipalities.Abbe Raynal, A Philosophical and Political History ofthe Europeans in the East and the West Indies. (Tr.Justamont) London, 1813 volume 11. p.129.W.H.Dalglies, The perpetual company of the Indies inthe Days of Dupleix (Its administration andorganisation, for the handling of Indian commerce 1722-1754) (Henceforth will be as W.H.Dalgliesh, p...),Philadelphia, 1933, p.34.Ibid.a. Archives National de Paris, C2, 26, folio 65,Ibid, 28 folio 12.b. Dalgliesh, op.cit., p.34a. Castonnet pp.109, 120-123b. Cyril, yazettier, vol.1. pp.160-161.c. Ed. Jean Deloche, Statisgue de Pondicherry 1822-1824, (Henceforth will be as Statisque dePondicherry, p...) Pondicherry, 1988, p.19.

10. a. Alfred Martineau Memoires de Francois MartinPondicherry 1931-1934, vol.11, p.19 - SherkhanLodi was the governor of Valikondapuram in theCarnatic who offered a trading post named -Puducherry (present day Pondicherry) .b. Statisque de Pondicherry, p.18.11. Prancois Martin's Memoirs, vol.11, op.cit., p.1912. Proces-Verbaux des deliberation du conseil Superteur dePondicherry. (Henceforth will be as C.S.A.V. p...) TomI., pp.30, 78-79, 146.13. Correspondence du Conseil Superior de Pondicherry ecdela comwarmie 1726-1727. (Henceforth as Cor. du. con.sup. et.-dela, comp.) ~om.111. pp.60-6214. Statisque de Pondicherry, op.cit., pp.19-20.15. a. Ibid.b. MSS. B.N.N.A., 9355 Pol. 31, 32MSS. B.N.N.A., 9356 Pol. 36c . S . Kuppusamy , Kalvettukalil Puduvai Paguthigal,Pondicherry, 1974, p.2 (Tamil) In Hyderabad NasirJung became the Nizam, after some days he waskilled and Dupliex placed Muzzafar Jung as theNizam of Hyderabad and Dupleix sent Bussy with amilitary force for the protection and safety toMuzzafar Jung. Muzzafar Jung became pleased withthe help rendered to him by the French and gave toDupleix as Maniam (freeland) the territories ofBahour, Valdavur and Villianur.16. MSS. B.N.N.A., 9359. f01.7117. Noboru karashima, South Indian History and Societystudies from Inscriptions A.D.850-1800; (Henceforthwill be as Noboru karashima, p...) Delhi, 1984. p.179.18. Romila Thapar, A History of India, (Henceforth will beas Romila Thapar, p...), Great Britain, 1966, p.328.19. Pierre Girod, Ayricul ture and Agricultural, Hydraulicsin the settlements of Pondicherry, pp. 57-163, RevueHistorique de Pondicherry, vol .xiv. 1981 -1986,Pondicherry, 1986 (RH).

Ibid., p.85.a. w.Francis, Madras District Gazettieer South Arcot,Madras, 1906, pp.115-116. As a rule Samba iswhite or golden in colour and kar is red; butsomekinds of kar white. Samba is usually longeron the ground than kar and usually requires morecareful cultivation.b. J.H.Garstin, M.C.S., Manual of the South ArcotDistrict, Madras, 1878, p.185.R.H.Vo1. XIV. op.cit., p.89.R.H.Vol.XIV. op.cit., p.90.Ibid., p.94.a. Ibid.b. Madras District Gazettier South Arcot, op.cit.,p.119.Here one finds that encouragement was given forcultivation of the crop round Nellikuppam bygranting advances to the ryots and payment wasmade for the cane according to the quality of dulytested samples of each batch. Mention was beingmade that there were two main varieties of canewas raised in the district, which was common inTiruchirapalli District and the other was stripedcane, known as rastali or namadharai karumbuo andthis kind was found in and around Nellikuppam.Madras District Gazettier South Arcot, op.cit., p.120.Ibi d.a. Pillai's Diary vol.VI, p.4.b. Kalvettukalil Puduvai, p.152.In the 16th century there were merchants known asvertilai vanigargal (betel leaf merchants) inVillianur. During the 18th century too Pillairefers that there were betel leafs gardens andeven today vertilai viabaram continues.Ibid., p.117.

31. Ibid., p.118.Ibid., p.118. For ragi, tenai, varagu, the harvest wasof 12 to 16 kalams per kani, the kalam of these milletscosts Rs.2/-. For the sesame the harvest amounts toonly 8 kalams. The yield of the groundnut in drylandwas inferior to that of the groundnut irrigated.J . Racine, L'agricul ture au coromandel d'apres unvoyageur Francais du XVII erne Siecle: Pierre Poivre,avec un inedit de 1763, Revue Historique de Pondicheryvol XII 1974-75, (Henceforth will be as R.H.Vol.XI1,p.. .) Pondicherry, p.43R.H.Vo1. XIV. op.cit., pp.119-120.Ibid.R.H.Vol.XI1, pp.36-44. The toddy tappers prepare thecoconut at the time when the coconut palm attains thelargeness of our ordinary nuts this happens after theflower falls. Then toddy tappers cut the tail of thebunch at a distance of about 7 to 8 inches from thetrunk of the tree, they attach an earthern potreceptacleto receive the abundant sap which comes outof it, they envelope with the bit of cloth the openingof the receptacle in order to protect the liquor fromthe influence of the air which would make it sour. Thereceptacle would be filled in 24 hours. The Indian wasattentive to change it everyday. This wine was calledsourry, it was sold was drunk in this state. It hasthe taste of grapes, but it can be conserved only for afew days, it must be passed in an (alambic) withoutwhich it would become sour and would no longerdrinkable. This wine distilled was known as arraqueand it was more violent than even brandy.Ibid., pp.36-44.Madras District Gazettier, South Arcot, Groundnut -otherwise called earth-nut or pea-nut was known in thevernacular in South Arcot as verkadalai or root-gram ormanilla-kottai. The latter term is generally supposedto mean manilla nut but thought to be a corruption ofmanalai-kottai, sandy-soil nut or mannilagum-kottai,the nut which grows in the ground.CBHI, op.cit., p.273.R.H.Vo1. XIV. op.cit., pp.57, 163.

P.Cyril Antony, Gazettier of India, Union Territory ofPondicherry, (Henceforth will be as Cyril Antony,p.. .), V0l.I. p.409.Ibid., pp.420-421.Ibi d.Kalvettukalil Puduvai, op.cit., p.14. We find herethat in Bahur during the Chola period, the prevalenceof Eris for the irrigation of Pandyas - 'Chola KeralaPereri ' and 'Rajendra Chola Pereri'. And theinformation we glean from page-15 of the same work wasthat to maintain this Eri - paddy was collected fromthose fields where water was distributed from this Eri.a. R.H.Vol.XIV, op.cit., p.63 - Picot - Btram aninstrument intended for pumping water from wells.It was formed of a big horizontal beam movingaround an axis at the top of a post at a height ofabout 3 m from the ground. The bucket hangs fromone arm of the beam one or two men move along theother arm for giving to the bucket the movement ofcoming up and going down.b. R.H.Vol.XI1. p.41.Statisque de Pondichery, op.cit., p.91.a. Statisque de Pondichery op.cit., p.84.b. Chicherov, op.cit., p.24 + The toties were thewatchmen of the village and of the crops.Irfan Habib, The Agrarian System of Mughal India,(Henceforth will be as Irfan Habib, p.. .) Delhi, 1962,p.111.Statisque de Pondichery, op. cit., p. 82.Ibi d.R.H.XIV. op.cit., p.66.Ibid.T.V.Mahalingam, Administration and Social Life underVi jayanagar, (Henceforth as Mahalingam Vol. 11, p. . . )Madras, 1975, vol.11. p.109

Noboru Karashima, op.cit., p.37.Mahalingam Vol.11. op.cit., p.110.Ibid.R. H.VOl .XIV. Op. ci t., p. 66.a. Ibid., p.67.b. Statisque de Pondichery, op.cit., p.85.R.H.Vol.XIV. pp.66-68.K .C.Alexander, Agrarian Tensions in ThanjavurHyderabad, 1975, p.15. Explanatory note for themeaning Pannayal - The land owner, cultivators andtenants usually cultivated the fields with the help ofagricultural labourers who were mostly Harijans. Inthe past many Harijan labourers entered into a specialkind of contract with the cultivators. A labourer'sfamily entering into such a relationship was known asthe cultivators - Pannayal. A pannayal and the membersof his family obtained more or less regular work fromthe cultivator. They also received certain gifts fromhim on festive and ceremonial occasions. But the wagesthat were paid to the pannayals were lower than themarket rate. They were allowed to work with othersonly when their own master did not require theirservices. In contrast to the pannayals were thelabourers who were free to choose their employers.R.H.XIV, op.cit., p.69.Ibid., p.72.Cyril Antony, Vol . I. op. ci t. , p. 450.R .H.Vol .XIV. Op. ci t., p. 70.Statisque de Pondichery, op. cit., p. 79.Ibi d.a. R.Natarajan, Social History of Pondicherry asevidenced by Ananda Ranga Pillai Diary Madras,1989, p.158 (unpublished Ph.D. Thesis submitted tothe International Institute of Tamil Studies,(Henceforth will be as Natarajan p ... )Madras -113).

. Pillai's Diary Vol.IX. pp.28-30.69. a. Natarajan. op.cit., pp.148, 158.b. Pillai's DiaryVol.VII1. p.2221a. Natarajan. op.cit., p.158.b. Pillai's Diary Vo1.X. p.261Pillai's Diary Vol.VII1. Introduction p.XXVInIbid. Vo1.V. Introduction p.IV.C.S.P.V. Vol.1. 1) p.93. 2) p.293a. Irfan Habib, op.cit., p.159 By ijira it is meantthat one deed of lease ijira fixed the amountpayable by the lesee for each of the two harvestin the year for three years.b. The company having realised by experience that itwas more advantageous to the company interest togive for farming out the lands to some inhabitantsto be engaged and to be responsible foradministering the same at a reasonable price.Ibid., pp. 147-292.Dalglish, op.cit., p.70.C.S.P.V. V01.1. p.198-200.Pillai's Diary Vol.IX. pp.28-30.Natarajan, op.cit., pp.137-138.Ibid., p.138.Pillai's Diary Vol.VI. p.149.Natarajan, op.cit., p.139.a. Pillai's Diary. Vol.1. p.226.b. Martineau, Letteres ... pp.78-79.C.S.P.V. Vol.1. pp.30-31, 37, 81, 93, 112, 114.Ibid., pp.117, 170-171.

Ibid., pp.179-180.Ibid., pp.199, 247, 292-293.a. Dalgliesh, op.cit. p.69.b. Cor. du. con. Sup et de la coc Vol.11. p.210Pillai's Diary. Vol.1. p.226.Ibid., Vol.1. pp.242-243.Natarajan, op.cit., p.136.Ibid., p.137.a. Ibid., op.cit. p.159.b. Pillai's Diary, Vol.IX. p.307.Pillai's Diary Vo1.X. pp.154-55.Natarajan op.cit. p.159.Pillai's Diary, Vol.IV. p.329.C.S.P.V. Vol. p.180. In 1716, the company allowed thetaxfarmers to pay off their due of Rs.5,800/- in twelveequal instalments.S.P.Sen The French in ~ndia (1763-1816), (Henceforthwill be as S.P.Sen, p...) Delhi, 1971, p.70.Cyril Antony, Vol . I. op. ci t., p. 539.Cor. du Con Sup et de la Coe, Tom.1. pp.313-314.

With the establishment of the European companies inIndia especially on the Coromandel coast in the seventeenthand eighteenth centuries direct trade with Burope wasestablished. The demand made by the Europeans for thetextile goods for the export market of Europe, there was anoutburst of activities accelerated the production of theseitems, especially on the Coromandel coast. This affected thevarious other sectors in this field. Emergence of artisansand craftsmen both in urban and rural centres, Rise ofmerchant's capital, the system of giving advances to weavers.Besides, there was division of labour, separation of weavinginto an independent trade in spinning, weaving, dyeing,printing, bleaching, iron-making, sugar - manufacturing aswell as growth of better implements.Artisans and craftsmen devoted their full time to theproduction of these items rather than using only theirleisure hours. Some of the scholars of the economic historyhave proved that this transformation was a phenomenon ofgreat importance. This is assumed by some scholars that

ealising the great demand for coarmodities like textiles,entrepreneurs came forward investing large amount in settingup looms and employing artisans of various kinds payingwages.Advance was also given to workers by merchants inputting out system. Some of the artisans became wage earnersin the hands of these rich merchants.Some of the historians came to the conclusion thatemergence of large member of intermediaries who actually didnot produce, lived at the expense of the ordinary workers.Here below we shall discuss these assumptions try tohighlight the indigenous technology in the production ofthese commodities and the French effort in the promotion ofthis handicraft industry on a large scale in Pondicherry andits environs.Weavers, Weaving Technology and Varietier of Taxtilee inPondicherry:Prompted by the example of the Portuguese, the English,and the Dutch who earned enormous profit in their tradecontacts with the East Indies in the sixteenth century, theFrench were excited with a great desire for easternluxeries .With the establishment of large scale French trade onthe coast of Corornandel and the revival of Dutch commerce,new centres of trade had begun to exert their influence on

the textile industry of the south. The places in and aroundpondicherxy2 had become important for cloth weaving. Withthe French acquisition of new settlements both on the westernand the eastern coasts and Pondicherxy (in 1673-1674), thisinsignificant fishing village became the headquarters of theFrench in the eighteenth century and Pondicherry played adominant role in the Indo-French trade in textiles3.Even before the arrival of the French Pondicherry was afamous centre for textiles. Its skillful weavers namelykaikolars4 manufactured varieties of cotton cloth and silkthat attracted the merchants from far-off places. Later on,the Danes who had settled in Pondicherry about the beginningof eighteenth century had built up a lucrative trade in themanufacture of cotton.5Efforts were made by the French governors to bringweavers to Pondicherry in order to develop the trade intextiles, weaving, painting and dyeing. Mention could bemade of Francois Martin, Lenoir, Dupleix, Moracin (Conmandentat Masulipatam), and Ranga Pillai. It was Francois Martin(1674-1706), who took possession of Pondicherry andencouraged the weavers to come and settle in Pondicherry fromthe neighbouring towns6. He also invited the cloth printersfrom various places to come and settle down in Pondicherrywith the aim of starting the manufacture of dyes and painted

cloth. Rtrther Francois Martin requested Sherkhan Lodi for300 soldiers for defence. These soldiers fought during thetime of war and they were encouraged to weave in peace times.The French had advanced 30,000 pagodas to get the weaversinto their town7. The weavers settled in Muthiayalpet, Saramin Pondicherry and Villianur.During the period of Lenoir (1721-35), there were 1500looms at work and later it was ordered to be increased to2000. When the French were involved in war, the number oflooms came down to only loo8. Washermen, bleachers, paintersand pressors of cloth were employed by the French atPondicherry and elsewhere in their factories on daily wages.About 400 washennen were employed per day by the company atPondicherry in 1739'.When Dupleix was the governor of Pondicherry (1742-1752), he said to Ananda Ranga Pillai, that Villianur was ahealthy town with a river and groves on its bank. Weaverswho agreed to build their houses there, would be given tenpagodas, a loom, which would enable them to build theirhouses and also undertake weaving. They could be keptworking constantly would weave and supply plenty of cloth,repaying what was advanced to them at the rate of one pagodaa year. Moreover yarn, cotton, etc. would be brought inwithout being taxed for two years after they settled there1'.

pillai did as he was told. Imnediately, in 1749 he sent forthe weavers to come from Udaiyarpalayam,chennamanayakanpalayam and Conjeevaram. Finally Dupleixsucceeded much better at Villianur where 1,200 families ofweavers were said to have settled until they were scatteredby the war in 1752'. Moracin, another military official ofthe company posted at Masulipatam made a serious effort tohelp about two or three hundred families of weavers from theCarnatic to settle in Pondicherry through money advances1*.Tuctilar in PondicharryIn the seventeenth century, with the coming of theBritish, Dutch merchants and the foundation of the Europeanfactories on the coast, the trade of India with thesurrounding countries widened and the direct export oftextiles to Europe began. Textile industry now had morepossibilities for expansion. The concentration of textileworkers in sea-ports of the Coromandel coast was enhanced13.Pondicherry itself was a production centre for guinea clothand was very famous for its higher quality of dyeing.Further the French established factories at Pondicherry,Caveripatnam and Karaikal in the Coromandel coast to tap thevarieties of cotton cloth in those regions14.Pondicherry was the most important establishment of thecompany15 on the Coromandel coast, and was moreover a

centrally-situated warehouse for their trade in the far-eastwhere goods Of all kinds arriving from other centres in Indiasuch as Bengal, Orissa and Surat were stored.Among theproducts connected with the textile trade were varieties offine as well as coarse cotton - coutils, salemporis,deriabadis, taffetas, percales - and cotton muslins -betilles, organdies, tarlatanes. In addition there was whiteand coloured cotton cloth such as guinea, guingams, basinsand nikamias manufactured in Pondicherry itself.The availability of cheap varieties of cotton cloth ofgood quality inspired the French to establish a counter atMasulipatam. In 1723 they opened another counter at Yanam toprocure the guinea cloth16.Some historians are of theopinion that weaving villages sprang up in and aroundPondicherry.Tindivanam was a centre of some weavingactivity and was a market for the sale of goods.To thesouth of Tindivanam in the Villupuram division there weresome weaving villages. Some of these were clustered roundPondicherry especially in the villages of Muthialpet,Valudavur, Kottakuppam and Mudiliyarpet .I7Variety of Tsxtil.81In Pondicherry we find all kinds of cotton textile goodswhich are manufactured on the Coromandel coast. Pondicherryregion produced a lot of ordinary guineesl8 called south

pinees and they were dyed in blue. Sailasse, the name givenfor ordinary checked cloth made of dyed yarns with blue andwhite stripes or blue and red stripes, was manufactured inpondicherry19. To the west of Pondicherry Betille doreas of~iruvannamalai resembling Bengal doreas were manufactured.This cloth was less fine than organdie but was a very goodstuff2'. From Salem came a special variety of cloth calledSalemputi. Gudalur was famous for its ordinary basins. Thelight and fine white cloth called percale came fromConjeevaram. It was used for making chites2'. Betilleorgandie muslins were manufactured in the Conjeevaram regionbetween Madurapakkam and Vandavasi routed for sale throughPondicherry.Technique. of Cotton Cleaning, Carding, Spinning, Weaving,Bleaching, Dyaing, Printing and PaintingA significant development in textile manufacture inIndia was the specialisations of techniques in theintricacies of bleaching, dyeing, printing and painting ofcloth as well as ~ilk-reelin~.~~The craftsmanship of Indian artisans was of such highquality that Frenchmen, like the Jesuit priest Fr.Courdow,made a detailed study of the various processes. In order tobe of benefit to Frenchmen, in France detailed accounts ofthe processes were written in French. One of the ships

captain at Pondicherzy, De Beaulieu, described in minutedetail the method of producing painted cottons in ~ndia~~.The Indian artisans used the most primitive equipmentand materials to create products which excited the admirationof the French. A detailed study of the processes involvedwill serve to bring out the full extent of the expertise ofthe different artisans and weavers.Cotton Claaning:Artisans who were not directly involved in spinning orweaving collecting the cotton crop or picking up the seedsfrom the field, cleansing the raw cotton, ginning, beatingand carding which was then followed by spinning, twisting andwinding the yarn was done." Cotton cleaning was done byartisans living in suburban areas "the spinners cleansed thecotton seed with a hand mil, then beat it and combed it,where upon it was spur with a spindle and a traditionalspinningCarding:The cotton was first drawn between the fingers to disentangle the strands. It was then spread out in a plait forcarding and one succeeded in carding it with a long bow thatone pushed above and the cord of which was pinched, with theforce that the vibrations struck the Cotton frequently. It

was whipped and disentangled. After this operation it wasgiven forspinning IBoth men and women were involved in spinning. The womenengaged in spinning were expected to have quickness of sightas well as very nimble fingers. The coarser sorts were madewith a wheel, while work on the finest thread was extremelyexacting. The French noted that the spinning wheel used inthis region was smaller than the one found in Europe. Thequality and fineness of the thread depended on the spinner'sskill. Between the two extremes of very fine and very coarseyarns there were several graditions29. "The best kind ofthread were produced by impoverished Brahmin widows and thecoarse thread was produced by women of conmon ryots who couldnot spin fine thread because their fingers were stiff by hardworku3'. "When the spinners satdown to spin a fine threadthey placed a vessel with clean water infront of them to seethe thread more distinctly against the background of thewater inorder to lesson the strain in their eyesn3'. Theyarn was wound into skeins and given to the weavers withoutwashing.Preparing the Yarn for weaving:The thread used for the weft was thicker or coarser thanthat for the warp. The former was boiled and then

immediately plunged in cold water3'.This was the onlypreparation given to it before it was put in the shuttle.In contrast, very elaborate processes were involved inpreparing the finer yam used in the warp. At first it wassoaked well in cold water.Then it was steeped in watercontaining a small amount of cowdung. The damp yarn was leftin a covered pot for three days and then dried in the Sun.Lines of bamboo stakes about three feet high were driveninto the ground at intervals of two feet, the total distancecovered being equal to the length of cloth required.yarn was stretched out in a flat expanse over these lines ofThesticks. Children ran along the length of the yarn separatingthe strands with small bamboo sticks33 when the strandsextended to the required width, more bamboo stakes wereplanted between the earlier ones. Thus the yarn was made tostretch without sagging.This yam was wound around the sticks to form a rangeand taken to a pond. There it was soaked for about a quarterOf an hour, stamped with the feet to increase the penetrationOf water. Then the roll of yam was once again stretchedover stakes planted in the ground. The weaver ensured thateach strand ran free without obstructions.Then it was removed and placed on a stand. The yam wasthen rubbed with c~njee~~ or starch which had been allowed to

form for a long time and thus become acidic. The conjee was&bed into the yarn until it had penetrated on all sides.The excess conjee on the surface was squeezed out with thefingers. After this each strand had to be separated onceagain. At first this was done with the fingers, but later akind of stick with prongs at one end was used. Its fibrespenetrated between the strands, removed the unwanted matterand tightened them. This process was extremely tedious andtime-consuming.Next, a gum made of cooked rice was poured on thestretched yarn and spread evenly with sticks. After dryingfor some time, the yarn was finally rubbed with sticks dippedinThese various preparatory processes made the cotton yarneven and smooth like silk yarn. By the treatment with sourconjee, the strands were almost fused to form a smoothsurface. The final application of oil made the strandssofter and more f le~ible~~.Weaving :Usually the weaving of cotton proceeded thus: The weaverplaced his loom under a tree, a shed or within his house. Ahole was made in the ground for the lower part of the loomand the feet of the weaver who guided the heald motion withhis feet. Sometimes the weavers did without a hole for the

lower part of the head in motion. The weaver sits while theloom rests on tall EUppOttS. The weavers feet are strappedto the heald motion on the ground level. The weavers usuallyworked early in the morning from 6-7 am, to noon and thenfrom 2-3pm. to 6-7pm. In the morning and in the afternoonthe air was humid and this kept the thread From over dryingand breaking.37 The loon?' and the method of weaving, inIndia as it was noted, with some differences were fairlysimilar to those used in Europe. The quality of the clothdepended on the yam and on the weavers skill.Bleaching:The woven cloth was then bleached in order to give it abeautiful lustre. The cloth was first soaked in plain coldwater, and then in water mixed with a little co~dung~~. Thenit was, dried slightly and twisted and rolled into a concavecylinder and steamed over a pan of boiling water. The steamenhanced the effect of the subtle chemicals in cowdung, whilethe heat delayed or lingered and brought the dirt out4'.TheCloth was left in this state overnight. The next morning itwas beaten on stones and part of the dirt was thus removed.The second day, the cloth was placed in an earthern panof water containing equal quantities of quicklime and acertain type of light, white and light mud which was totallySterile and contained subtle salts. The cloth was steeped

well in this solution, then wrung out, and epread out to dryfor some time4'. Once again the cloth was steeped in thesame solution and then washed. This procedure made thechemicals in the solution penetrate into the cloth fully42,removing all the dirt. Lastly curd was used to make itperfectly white. If the degree of whiteness was belowrequirement, the cloth was beaten strongly in clear water atthe second washing. Then it was dried in the sun.Salempores and other such varieties were prepareddifferently. They were folded in twelve doubles, placed on awell-polished plank and beaten hard with a stick43 to give alasting lustre. In addition to cloth of brilliantwhiteness44 and extreme fineness, coloured cloth wasmanufactured with dyes of such brightness and lasting qualitythat the cloth became more beautiful, it was washed more.Dyeing :The French have recorded the methods of dyeing used byIndian artisans45 and the ingredients they used. They hasalso suggested how these could be adapted in Europe where thedyeing industry was not yet so advanced.The cloth meant for dyeing was wrung out and dried inthe Sun. The next morning it was washed lightly in plainwater, wrung out, and dried in the Sun and then in the shadefor a quarter of an hour. This preparation was called

l~interior"~~ and was followed by another called wexteriorn,which gave a smooth finish to the upper surface of the clothand made it even.The cloth was folded in four or sixdoubles, placed on a wooden board and beaten evenly all overwith another wooden board. The cloth was then re-folded inanother direction and the process was repeated once again.This finely woven cloth of a standard length of ninecubits was taken, and it was partially bleached. About threepalams47 weight of a dried froit called caducai (or twentyfive4* in number) were powdered49 after removing the seed,sifted and added to about two pints of buffalo milk.Thecloth was soaked in the milk for sometime. The quantity ofcaducai and milk was proportionately increased according tothe amount of cloth to be treated.Eyeing :Indian dyers used threes0 methods. Only one of these isdescribed here as it gave a better and more lasting colour.The branches and leaves of a plant called Napviri weredried and then burnt. The ashes were mixed with about ninepints of hard water of which we have mention earlier and leftfor three hours. Then the solution was strained and aquantity sufficient to soak the cloth was taken. To this wasadded a piece of sheep dung the size of an egg and aOf leaven, the composition of which will be given below. A

glass" of gergelin oil was added and the solution was mixedwell If the ashes were unadulterated the oil would whitenthe water and would not float on top. If the ashes ofsomething other than the Nayoviri was used, the oppositewould occur. The cloth was soaked in this mixture, presseddown and left for twelve hours, that is from morning tonight. Then some water with ordinary ash was sprinkled inorder to maintain the humidity and ensure that the mixturepenetrated the cloth all over. The cloth was left thusovernight.The second day,the cloth was turned,pressed and kneadedas before to make it evenly moist.Then it was wrung out,shaken and spread in bright sunlight.In the evening it was steeped again in the same solutionfrom which it was wrung out,more water of simple ashes beingadded if necessary to cover the cloth fully. This procedurewas repeated eight days and nights.The leaven mentioned above consisted of hard water towhich was added the ashes of Nayouviri, goat-dung and sesameoil. This was allowed to ferment for forty-eight hours andpreserved in an earthern vessel to be used when required.The cloth which had been treated for eight days waswashed in water in which ordinary ashes were dissolved in

order to draw out the oil from it, until it became ratherwhite. Then it was rinsed in hard water and dried in thesun. It was then put in a solution of hard water along withthe dried and powdered leaves of cacha. It was leftovernight and the next morning it was wrung out slightly anddried in the sun until evening. This treatment gave thecloth a yellowish look.In the next stage the cloth was soaked in a mixture ofwater and the dried powder of skin of the root of the nounatree. The cloth was turned several times and left overnightin the solution. The next morning it was wrung out and driedand in the evening steeped again in the same solution. Itwas taken out and dried on the third day. This gave areddish colour, to which force and fastness were given by theChayaver. 52The preparation of the Chayaver was carried out at thesame time as that of the cloth. The Chayaver roots weregathered, trimmed, cut into pieces and pounded in a stonemortar with a little water added to form a paste, so that thepowdered root was not blown away.About one "lass" of this Chayaver was dissolved inabout nine pints of water. The cloth was soaked in it,turned well and left overnight. The next morning it was

wrung out strongly and dried in the sun for eight consecutivedays This gradually gave the cloth a darker red.After eight days, about two "glassesn of Chayaver powderwere added to about ten pints of water in an earthen vessel.The cloth was soaked in it and was heated until the watercame to a boiling. Then it was allowed to simmer over theembers for twenty four hours.Great care was taken to turn the cloth regularly with astick so that the dye penetrated evenly. After twenty fourhours the cloth was removed, washed in fresh water and hungout to dry. Thus the cloth was dyed a dark red colour.Special care was taken to ensure that the water remainedof the same quality in all the operations from the beginningto the end. It was also preferable to use the Chayaver onthe same day that it was dug up, since it could be easilydried. However, its qualities persisted up to a more than ayear after digging up it was reduced in quantity.The French also gave details of the availability ofcado~~~ fruits. They wrote that it was taken from a tree ofmedium height, found almost everywhere but particularly inthe mountainous regions of the Malabar coasts4. They notedthat the most significant quality of the cadou was itssharpness, a quality not to be found in any fruit in Europe.

They suggested that the peel of pomegranates may have similarqualities of cadou.~yeing twhniquo8 wod for variou.colouzrr:Green c ~lourin~~~ was obtained by mixing quicklime witha solution of cadou. If there was an excess of quicklime,the shade became brown. If a large quantity of this solutionwas poured on the brown shade the colour at first becamelighter and then the quicklime settled at the bottom of thevessel.Yellow colouring was given by soaking the cloth in astrong solution of cadou, and when buffalo milk was mixed toit, a pale shade of orange5' was obtained. Buffalo milk waspreferred to cow's milk because it was thicker and greasier.Red colouring was prepared by using water from certain wellswith water of a particular sour taste.Two pints of thiswater were mixed with two ounces of powdered alum, fourounces of the powdered red wood called vartangu17 or thewood of sapan. This mixture was placed in Sunlight for twodays, taking care that its power was not diminished by thefalling of unwanted matter. Various shades of red were addedby changing the proportion of the ingredients. More of alumgave a darker red while more water gave a lighter shade.Violet shade was obtained by mixing one part of the redwood or wood of sapan with one part of the black powder was

mixed.Then an equal portion of rice conjee that wasfermented for three months was added to it and from thismixture a violet colour resulted. The French also found theuse of caducaipou and vomicnutSB. It was the fruit of a bigtree that resembled the size of a lemon. The cad~caipou~~was called mirobolan by the Europeans, a lot of it was usedin the dyes and it was used with alum to get a greatersolubility.The chayaver which possessed a beautiful redcolour and its tenacity on the linen was stronger than thatof alum. The roots of this plant were long and they grew inlight and sandy soil well.In Pondicherry the fully ripecaducois were used. The Nayouviri was another plant whichgrew every where in India.The solution of the nayouvirihelped in getting the yellow co10ur~~ when it was mixed insesame oil.Another ingredient that was used in colouring operationwas saltpetre. In Pondicherry the printers and dyers used itwith water for their dyeing work.The French tried to obtain certain colours for paintingon the linen, A little more than an ounce of the flower ofcadou was added with a handful of chayaver and if one desireda mere beautiful shade of green, they added the skin of thepomegranate.These ingredients of powder were placed inbottles with boiled water and they were left till 3/4 of itwas evaporated.

This dye was poured into a vessel strained with apiece of linen. Again with one bottle of this dye half anounce of alum powder was added and shaken well and the colourwas ready and when it was applied on the blue linen, abeautiful green shade was obtained.Sometimes when one painted the green on the blue thelinen would have yellow colour. In order to keep this colourfast and lasting, it had to be soaked in milk, mixed with thelemon juice and finally soaked in the water mixed withcowdung.The Indian BrurharThe Indian brushes61 were a small bit of bamboo woodsharpened and split at the end, at a distance and across thefinger point. A small piece of cloth was soaked in thecolour which one wished to use and it was pressed with thefingers and wrung out. The one which was used for paintingthe wax, was of iron of a length of a finger. It was thin onthe top and was inserted in a small stick that served as ahandle which was split at the end and formed a circle in themiddle, was attached around a ball of hair of the size ofnutmeg. This hair was soaked in the hotwax that flowedlittle by little at the end of this sort of brush."The cotton manufacturers would never be complete unlesswe know the different men who were involved in it. Each was

performed by a specialised class of small-scale comnodityproducers or artisans"62. For instance bleaching was done bydhobiesS3 or washermen, weaving was done by kaikolars andsaliyasS4. Printing was performed by the Palis. Thekar~nnalars~~ in TamilNadu included five basic inter-communityspecialists such as the blacksmiths, carpenters,coppersmiths, stone masons, goldsmiths and silversmiths.Abbe Carre in the seventeenth century pointed out that therewas a peculiar co-hesion among the kamlar comunity.one of them was offended or wronged all the others shut theirshops and abandon their work.66IfKaikolars too sometimeabandoned their settlements and stopped producti~n.~' In theFrench Pondicherry several instances show that whenever therights and privileges of weavers were violated at once theyhave deserted the town of Pondicherry to other places.the company8 trade would suffer so the French governors werevery much in favour of the weavers.bbaufacture of Sugar, Oil snd SaltEssential products such as sugar, oil and salt weremanufactured in Coromandel coast. Various factors wereresponsible for the growth of these industries.Sugar:In the case of sugar manufacture it depended on thecultivation of sugarcane in and around of the riverineSo

egions of Pondicherry. Though there was no sugar factory inpondicherry during the period under study, the French hadencouraged the cultivation of sugarcane along with the cropsin wet areas.There was one Sugar factory in the Anglo-Indian territory of ~elliku~~arn~~ a few kilometres to thesouth of Pondicherry.oil:In Pondicherry groundnut was grown in Bahur. There wasalso the cultivation of manioc, gingilee and coconut. Fromthese comodities, either in great or smaller quantity, oilwas extracted6'.Salt:The production of salt depended on factors like heat,humidity and nature of soil.manufactured had come to be known as Uppalam.The site where salt wasThe contemporary records show that there were threesites in Pondicherry Olandai, Nallavadu, Uchimedu which onlysuggests that there must have been places meant for themanufacture of salt in French Pondicherry. At Marakanam alsoSalt was produced closeby Pondicherry, the salt from theSmall river of Archinac was very good. Records say that itwas from here that the French ship loaded salt and took toBenga170.

mTAL AnD moD ~IUs:wood:Carpentary was one of the traditional crafts followedby the asari71 comrmnity in Pondicherry. Prior to theof the French, they were engaged in the manufactureof wooden agricultural implements, rathas and vahanas for thechariots to carry the image of gods during the templefestival. They also supplied carved wooden doors, windows,beams, rafters. With the advent of the French the use offurniture also spread among the people.French records often refer that Kalapet area was full ofthick woods which provided sufficient timber for theconstruction of houses. Asari community was engaged in thecraft of wood carving.Iron:In Pondicherry and Karaikal the people who attended tothis work were known as karumars or blacksmiths. In thepast, they supplied iron and steel implements such as knives,sickles, crow bars, spades, cart wheel tyres, ploughs, etc.For such service they were paid wages or allotted manyamlands by the village community. Iron was available in thehinterland port of ~unimedu'~.Various metals such as iron, copper, brass, zinc and tinwere generally used in the metal works for manufacturing

of various designs as well as weapons of the armylike guns, swords, battle axes, javeline, shafts, bows,arrows and spears.Bronze mg* Ca8ti-IBronze casting was an old time craft dating back atleastto the middle of the eighteenth century. At present, thiscraft is practised only in one village, Uruvaiyar invillianur comrmne of Pondicherry region73.The craftsmen used very simple tools and implements suchas pillars, hammers, files, blowers, chisels, vessels ofdifferent sizes.Images of various gods and goddessess such as Vishnu,Siva, Nataraja, Vinayagar, Subramaniar, Muthumariamman,Parvathi and Kali were mostly made by these ~raftsmen'~.The artisans found no difficulty in marketing theirproducts since they undertook orders only on getting anadvance for them.Toy Making:Toy making was practised on a limited scale inMurungapakkam, Nayinarmandapam, Ariyankuppam and some otherVillages.Such was its impact that "it was characteristic of thehouses that their facades and arches were embellished with

clay vases made in Kusappalayam. It marked an intelligentuse of an industry which flourished in the vicinity ofp~ndicherry'~. In course of time the craftsmen developed thedoll industry to meet the demand for dolls at the time ofimportant festivals.These toys were made of terracotta, paper mache orplaster of paris. Originally these toy makers made onlyterracotta toys painted with water colours and toys of paperpulp which were not durable and for which they had to put inmuch labour. The use of paint was said to have begun withthe arrival of the Europeans in the settlement.The important raw material^'^ were clay, paper cuttings,gypsum, limestone colours and varnish. Subsidiary rawmaterials were French chalk powder, cement, glue, maizeflower, thin iron wire, zinc powder, white lead, belgiumchalk powder, gum benzoin, linseed, oil, turpentine varnish,kerosene, cow dung cakes, firewood and straw. Clay wasbrought from Ariyankuppam, Arumattupuram and Odiyampattu.All other raw materials were obtained from dealers in Pondytown and from the surrounding villages.Pottery:Pottery was a popular handicraft in Kusappalayam evenPrior to the eighteenth century. From time immemorial,Pondicherry was associated with pottery and pottery craft.

In the site of Arikamedu near (Virampattinam) where theOf a Roman settlement was brought to light, aspecimen of local pottery was found.770oldMIi th tThe goldsmiths in Pondicherry and Karaikal were known asThattars and belonged to the Asari comunity. Thesemanufactured golden ornaments with the gold supplied by theparty and according to the designs specified by the party.This craft which must have flourished even before the adventof the ~rench'l' passed through a period of transformationadopting the alloy of gold and silver instead of pure metalsto make ornaments.Wood Carving:Undoubtedly this craft must have flourished inPondicherry for more than two centuries. Any one who visitsthe house of Ranga Pillai, in Ranga Pillai Street inPondicherry, can surely see the typically Indian house builtwith a court yard and interior verandhas exhibiting thePattern of wood carving of this epoch.So with the arrival of the French, the art acquired newdimensions with western orientation. This fusion, was statedin the words of Labernadie, "added to the robustness of thematerial, a touch of grace which reflected the style of Louis

xv in its finest shapen79 reflected the skill of theartisans.salt PatrarThe Royalty made use of salt petre, in town and in thearmy. Saltpetre, powder produced the explosive heat, wasused by His Majesty as a means for cooling water and was thusa source of joy for great and small. Bengal was theprincipal emporium for saltpetre. A prodigious quantity wasimported from Patna .'OOne of the principal refineries of Saltpetre was atChuprah about 25 miles from Patna, where the French, Dutchand Portuguese had factories. The French in PondicherryImported Saltpetre from Patna.Indigo :With the establishment of the European companies, Indigobecame a priced item of international commerce. Biana inAgra, Golkonda along the Coromandel coast where this plantwas grown in large quantities. It became an object ofCompetition among merchants of different countries andnationalities among the Europeans the English, the Dutch, thePortuguese and the French. It was used for washing,bleaching cloths crystal white, for dyeing and for paints.The pure grain of indigo would be of violet colour glossy inthe Sun, dry and light, floating in water."

B.Krishnamurthy, The Beginnings of Indo-French Trade:The French attempts to reach India, 1668. RevueHistorique de Pondicherry vol.XII1, Pondicherry, 1976-1989, p.138. (Henceforth R.H.)K.N.Chaudhri, The trading world of Asia and the EnglishEast India Company, Delhi 1978, p.252.Cyril Antony gazatteer vol.1. op.cit., p.161.Ibid. p.545. Kaikolars were members of an influentialcommunity in the Vijayanagar empire. They livedgenerally around temple precincts, in separate streets.By profession they were weavers and enjoyed certainsocial privileges. It will not be wrong to suggestthat the village of Kakkalipattu in Mannadipattucommune where, these kaikolars lived moved toPondicherry in the seventeenth century.Cyril Antony, gazatteer vol.I.op.cit., p.546.Cyril Antony, gazatteer, vol.1. op.cit., p.546Ibid, p.679.Records of Fort St. George, Public Despatches toEnglish, 1741-43, Madras, 1916. vol.XII1, p.252.Pillai's Diary, vol.XI1, p.2.B. Krishnamurthy, The French trade with India, 1664-1754, unpublished Ph.D. thesis submitted to the M.S.Baroda University, Baroda, 1984, p. 2.Pillai's Diary, vol.VI, p.157.Ibi d.Arvind Sinha, paper presented on The French trade inIndia in the eighteenth century, (Henceforth ArvindSinha) Seminar proceedings on Indo-French relationsHistory and Perspectives, The Embassy of France inIndia, New Delhi, 17th-19th April, 1990, p.39. 13.CHI, vol.1, op.cit., p.319.

Krishnamurthy's Ph.D. thesis on The French trade withIndia, p.270.R.H. ~01.111, p.69.Arasaratnam, op.cit., p.57.The French trade with India, op.cit.,Blancard, Manuel du commerce des Indes Orientales et lechine, (Henceforth Blancard, p...) Paris, 1806, p.244.G.Jouveau Dubreuil, Le commerce de Tissue de coton aPondichery au XVII~ et XVIII~ Siecles, RevueHistorique, (Henceforth Dubreuil, p.. .)Tome.VII1.p.229.a) Dubreuil, R.H.vol.VII1. p.231.b) Pillai'sDiary, ~01.111. p.24.Dubreuil, op.cit., p.228.Ibid, p.229.CEHI, vol. I. op. cit., p.272.A Summary of Beaulieue text is given in the preface ofa work which was published in Paris, 1800. The authoranonymous, pp.76,80.J.N.Sarkar, op.cit., p.44.Chicherov, op. cit., p. 51.Jacques Philibert Rousselot, Memoire, GeographiquePhysiques Historique tires des lettres edifiantes etdes voyages des missionaires jesuites par I'Auteur desmelanges interessants et curieux, (Henceforth Memoiregeograph, p...) Tome.1. pp.125-213.Chicherov, op-cit., p.53.Memoire geograph, p.126.Chicherov, op. cit., p. 52.Ibid, p.54.

Memoire geograph, p.127.Ibid, pp.127-128.Ibid, Conjee was rice cooked and fermented.Ibid, p.129.Ibid, p.130.Chicherov, op.cit., pp.64-65.a) Memoire Geograph, op. ci t. , p. 130.b) Vijaya Ramasamy, Textiles and weavers in theMedieval South India, (Henceforth Vijaya Ramasamy)Delhi, 1985, p.24. The word achchu, by itselfmeans mould or print or loom referred to theprocess by which the threads were tied together toform certain sequences and then heddles werelifted by hand in the weaving of the pattern. Itgoes back to the eleventh and then thirteenthcentury. Further innovations were made in theproductions of the figures weave in theVijayanagar period.a) Memoire Geograph, Tome.1. op.cit., pp.130-132.b) From the writing of Mr.Beaulieu, p.81.Ibid, p.131.Ibid, pp.131-132.Ibid, p.132.Ibid.Ibi d.Ibid, p.133. Recorded from Indian artisans by theFrench missionary Fr.P.Courdow.Ibi d.Ibi d.Ibid.a) Ibid, p. 134.

) One palam was equal to one ounce.C) The Indians crushed it under a stone and for thatused a cylinder which of the same material andthey used it in the same manner as the bakers doto flatten and spread the dough.Ibid, pp.125-204.Ibi d.Ibi d.Ibid, p.135.Ibid, p.135-136.Ibid, p.136~.Ibid, p.137.Ibid, p.148.Ibid, pp.149, 169.Ibid, p.205.Ibid, pp.189-190Ibid, p.158.Sarkar op.cit., p.46.Ibid.CEHI, p.318.Ibid, p.320.Ibid, p.321.Ibi d.R.H. vOl.XIV, p.94.R.H. vol.XIV, pp.97-105.Blancard, op.cit., p.245. I1 y a une lieue et dais dePondichery et Pris de I 'embouchur de la petite rivieredlArchinoac des salines tres considerables; crest de la

gue 1 'on tire les chargements de sel que les naviresFrancais portent au Bengal.Cyril Antony, vol.1. op.cit., p.591.Ibid, p.592.Cyril Antony, Gazatteer, vol.1. op.cit., p.594.Ibid, p.595.a) Ibid, p.596.b) Labernadie, op.cit., p.260.Cyril Antony, Gazatteer, vol.1. op.cit., p.596.Ibid, pp.597-598.Ibid, p.599.Ibid, p.600.Francois Bernier, Travels in the Mughal 5npire 1656-1668, Oxford, 1914, pp.356, 364, 440.J.N. Sarkar, op. ci t., pp. 28-30.

T R A D E A I D C O M M E R C EThe mercantalist ideas developed by Colbert whoestablished the French East India Company in 1664 with thepermission of Louis XIV for conducting the trade emphasisedthat bullions should not be exported from France in largequantities. It was further suggested, that more funds wouldbe raised in Asia, with the least quantity of the export ofmoney and material. This prompted the French to enter on theintra-Asian trade whereby they could double and triple theinvestment made in India. They seem to be familiar with thetrend set up by the Dutch who too insisted that the capitalbrought to India should be enhanced by conducting trade inIndia and other countries of Asia.The cheaper varieties of textiles, pearls, diamonds andother items of the secondary sector of production could besold to various areas of the Indian Ocean region and thehighly priced items from these regions could be brought, inturn, to India providing market for the purchase of commodityneeded in Europe. Moreover some of the commodities of IndianOcean could also be sold in ~ndia to enhance the capital for

further purchase. The nobility and royalty were in need ofluxurious items. The Indian rulers were in need of betterand ammunition for their internecine warfare.Some of the European powers who understood the localruler's need came forward to extend help to them whichprovided an opportunity for raising more funds in India.strengthening one power contending against the other alsocould create an opportunity for fishing in troubled waters.Therefore the European powers were happy to enter intocommercial relations of this sort. They also found betteropportunities for generating funds in India throughconducting trade with the various parts of the subcontinent.In the contact between the Indian merchants and Europeancompanies, some of the Indian independent merchants lostthelr independence and they became agents to Europeanmerchants. Their vessels were rented out to Europeans.Similarly a few wealthy merchants turned out to be wealthier.The Europeans in turn could place their trust on richmerchants on account of their credibility and the wealth theyhad. This paved the way for the disappearance of small scalemerchants. The nature of trade conducted by Europeans invarious parts of India differed substantially from the onethat was in existence.

An attempt will be made in this chapter to see how theFrench reacted to the above mentioned trends. Sources aregleaned from contemporary French records.E V O ~ U ~ of ~ O Pondicherry ~a# the port cum conmarcia1 centreunder the French:As is well known, Eastern luxuries were introduced intoEuropean markets by the Arabs who had flourishing tradecontacts with eastern countries from very early times. Withthe capture of Constantinople in 1453 by the Ottoman Turks,the land route to the East was closed.European powers were successful in establishing directtrade with India by sending out several naval expeditions tothe East.Thus not only did they put an end to the Arabmonopoly of trade with the east but also discovered new sea-routes.The Portuguese were the first to establish a factory inthe sixteenth century in Pondicherry and other places on theEast coast. Pondicherry was part of Porto Novo then. TheDutch set up a loge at Pondicherry in 1618 and vacated it in1620. The travelogue of the Dutchman Van den Broeck throwssome light on the relation of Pondicherry with places in thehinter1and.lThe Danes succeeded the Dutch in 1624. Theyretained their settlement at Pondicherry for nearly thirtyyears.

The prosperity and gains of other European nationstrading in the Indies served as an example and inspirationfor the French.For instance the territory and resourcespossessed by the Dutch in the Indies enabled them to supporta total of 80,000 men for defence and other purposes at home.Cheap credit facilities were also available to further theirtrading activites in the East.An added incentive for theFrench was the fact that they had to pay twelve per cent morefor Indian goods obtained from the Dutch than if theyprocured themselves.A large variety of commodities beckoned the French tothe ~ndies:~ But the volume of trade with India began toalarm French manufacturing in France with the result that theletters patent of 5 August 16014 forbade the import intoFrance of the Indian drugs.Henry IV realised the importance of overseas trade andenvisaged a colonial empire for France in emulation of thePortuguese and the Dutch. Thus a company was formed on 1June 1604 to trade with the East Indies. However these andother subsequent efforts did not meet with lasting success.It was not until Louis XIV and Colbert who put into practicethe principle of Economic Nationalism, that a charter wasgiven to a royal company on 1 September, 1664.~ This chartervested the company with political powers. In addition to the

king's guarantee of protection and escort for the company'sships, it granted the company permission to send ambassadors,make treaties or declare war on sovereign rulers of India.The earliest French establishment in India was set up inSurat on 4September 1668 under a firman granted by the~oghul emperor Aurangzeb. The company carried on trade withvarying fortunes until the French were banned from carryingon commerce in Surat in 1703.Other trading ports wereestablished by the French including those at Mirjan 1669,~asulipatam 1670 and at Tellichery in 1670.The area of Pondicherry on the Coromandel coast wassecured for the French by Bellanger dell Espinay in 1673following an invitation to settle in the area of Sherkhan~odi' the Governor of Valikondapuram. At first only a smallsettlement was establi~hed.~ But when the French were forcedto surrender Santhome to the mtch9 on 6 September 1674, theFrench Pondicherry acquired greater importance.ThoughSherkhan Lodi was defeated by Shivaji, the French weregranted a firman by the latter in July 1677"in recognitionof their neutrality in his confrontation with Sherkhan Lodi.At once two Maratha officers arrived to carry on theadministration in the French colony. However, the port wasPlaced under the jurisdiction of the French who were alsogiven administrative and judicial rights1'and customs

concessions. However the customs duty on exports and importswas fixed by the Marathas at 1% per cent for the first year,increasing by % percent annually to 2% per cent12. Theobtaining of the fiman of 1677 was a noteworthy diplomaticfeat achieved by Francois Martin for it granted extraterritorialrights to the French company.13Though the Dutch bought Pondicherry from Ramaraja ofGingee paying a sum of 25,000 pagodas in 1693, the treaty ofRyswick in 1697 restored Pondicherry to the French uponpayment of 16,000 pagodas to the Dutch.The stabilisation of Pondicherry was the work ofFrancois Martin, who remained in charge from 1674 till hisdeath in 1706, except for a short period between 1681 and1687 when he was summoned to Surat. Martin's success wasachieved not by force but by diplomacy.He was able to maintain the prosperity of Pondicherry inthe midst of wars and other vicissitudes in the region. Butthe disturbed conditions in France as well as India affectedthe French company. In order to find a steady revenue tofinance the growing commercial ventures, the French felt theneed to acquire more territories, As a result of the goodrelations Martin established with the Mughals who conqueredthe region, the French were given Kalapet in 1703, and in1706, Ozhukarai, Mu~ngapakkam, Olandai, Pakkumudayanpet and

~aruvadikuppam. Gradually the company came to occupy Mahe,yanam and Karaikal.As trade in Surat declined, Pondicherry grew inimportance as a trading centre.This prompted the Frenchcrown to issue an Edict Royal in February 1701 whichtransferred the conseil souvereign from Surat topondicherry14 with Francois Martin as its President. Thisgave it overall jurisdiction of the French settlements as acourt of law.The company founded in 1664 was declining due to lack offinance and a new company was started in 1719 under John Law'the Finance Minister of Prance.Law's decision to allowprivate individuals to trade freely in India and to removecustoms duty on goods led to greater prosperity.He alsoacquired for the company the port ~'0rientl~ which was toremain in its possession till 1764. There the company builta magnificient naval station and arsenal. During his periodhe gave a strong impetus to the construction and acquisitionOf ships. This contributed to the expansion of the company'scommerce.However, members of the superior councilinstituted in Pondicherry for administering it complainedabout these steps to King Louis XV and had them withdrawn.This badly affected the company's trade. Disturbed politicalconditions and financial instability in France also weakenedthe company's monopoly over trade.

The company6 trade in Pondicherry could be broadlydivided into external trade and internal trade. The externaltrade can be further subdivided into Intra-European trade and~ntra-Asian trade. The internal trade can be divided intocoastal trade and hinterland trade.I ~ O - ~ TIWE O P ~Imports frcm Franc.to Pondicherry:There was some demand for the European products such aswine, coral, iron, steel, lead.16 A number of French sourcesshow that the French commercial ships laden with wine andsilver, iron, cannons, fire-arms, French head cloth and asubstantial quantity of bullions such as gold and silverreached the Indian ports especially the Port of Pondicherryfrom L'Orient or Cadiz.The iron bars imported by the~rench'~ were used in making circles and in binding wheels.The French imported a small quantity of red and yellow coppercuivres and sold in the Indian markets but the Indianmerchants purchased only the red copper, not yellow copper,for making utensils.As a result they obtained a part oftheir copper from the Dutch for sale as well as for mintingcoins while the English and the Dutch were selling theircopper at 70 to 80 pagodas per bar in the Indian markets, theFrench sold it at 84 pagodas and a fanam per bar.Masulipatam mint the French used the copper for making doulis- small coins for daily business transactions.At

In general European goods were not in great demand inthe ~ndian market, though the French tried their level bestto sell their imported clocks, broad cloth, etc. They couldnot succeed as there was no market for them in the CoromandelAmong the imported items the golden threads (filed~or)'~ gave them some profitable income. So the Frenchimported this item regularly to Pondicherry. Wineconstituted the most important article of commerce but it wasconsumed mostly by the Europeans in India. Fire-arms wereimported into Pondicherry and were sold to the local princesand petty Chieftains who desired to purchase these items fromthe Europeans. 19Among the Europeans, the French had a special fame forselling their fire arms to the riative princes but the Englishtried their utmost to prevent their sale through politicalmeans. Mercury, camphor, horses, crockery, rolls of silk,and gold were regularly imported by the French intoPondicherry for sale. 20From 1725 to 1759 the company usually sent out toPondicherry an average of 20 vessels while the returningvessels annually numbered an average of 15." The remainingvessels used to stay in the Indian ports either for want ofcargoes or for the use of country trade. It is said thatfrom Port LIOrient the French company regularly Sent toIndian ports, bullion which is given below:

ILlPORT FROM PIUlPCE TO POUDICBPILILYBULLION SBIPIIP#TS PROVIDPD FOR IU THP DILIB-TIONSCOKPAUY FOR POUDI-YMarcSourceOF THE55 Arch.Co1, c2 - 26 fols 174 0 Ibid 26 fols 2159 0 Ibid 27 fols 484 Ibid 27 fols 106127 Ibid 28 fols 4154 Ibid 28 fols 258193 (1) Ibid 29 fols 5175 (I) Ibid 29 fols 18923 (2) Ibid 30 fols 449 Ibid 30 fols 13085 (3) Ibid 31 fols 385 5 Ibid 31 fols 1434 6 Ibid 32 fols 19-20......................................* Expressed in thousands - 000 is omitted.(I) This sum includes export from Chandernagor also(2) In addition to the company's sum, the company added asum of 15,500 marc which M.Castanier then had investedin India.(3) Only two vessels were despatched to Pondicherry. Thethird was simply en route for China to leave 15,000marcs. As found in Dalgliesh, p.80.

TABLE - BsHIPIIEUTS PROVIDPD BOIL IX TKE DICLAUTIOXS OT TKE COIIPAlWFOR P~ICHPIIIIYyear Verrel for Pondy Amount............................................................Source: As found in Dalgliesh, p.80.Quoted in Dalgliesh Arch.Co1 .c2-40 fols. 28.A special feature of the French trade in India was theimport of silver bullion, for use as a medium of trade.Silver was also obtained from China. There was a mint inPondicherry where the silver was converted for makingpagodas22 for use in local trade.Often the company sentsilver for minting coins at Pondicherry and these coins weresent subsequently to other trading centres.Numerous references about trade in silver are found. In1737 a company ship brought 94 boxes of silver, weighing30,000 marc^.^^ After minting, these coins were sent to~handrana~ore. 24 A European ship 'Merchult' arrived atPondicherry with 23 chests of silver weighing 12,018 rnarcsequivalent to 2,50,000~~ rupees. Another ship brought 32chests of silver an average of 15 vessels per year between

1725 to 1759. Each of which contained 300 marcs of silverwhen weighed at pondicherryZ6. Ananda Ranga Pillai refers tothe significant trade in silver during this period andmentions seven chests of silver arriving at Pondicherry from~ranquebar to be coined into rupees, and sent to Bengal bythe same ship." Silver was sold at the rate of sevenpagodas a man (a unit of measurement)Once the company had sent several chests of coral toPondicherry. Ananda Ranga Pillai had undertaken theresponsibility to sell it for the company. While finding thepurchaser for this particular commodity Ananda Ranga Pillaihad to encounter lot of difficulties, since the merchants whobought the coral did not pay the amount fully. But thecompany asked Ananda Ranga Pillai to pay the whole amount."Some of the ships from France did not arrive atPondicherry directly and they often used to stop at Mocha forcollecting commercial goods before arriving at Pondicherry.After collecting the goods at Moka they arrived atPondicherry after touching Mahe. The cargoes of these shipscontained casks of spirits, bales of English broad clothknown as Moka broad cloth, broad cloth stripped green and redboxes of silver and bullion. 30It is evident from numerous sources that like otherEuropean nations, the French faced extreme difficulty in

marketing their product6 in India. A further obstacle wasthe political domination of the British Bast India Companywhich traded in similar products. Despite a large variety ofproducts like Bordeaux wines, fire-arms, metalsand gold brocade from Lyons were brought to Pondicherry. TheFrench had to depend on the regular supply of funds fromFrance in order to sustain their trade.Export frm Pondicharry to Europe:The items of export to France from Pondicherry consistedof spices, pepper, cardamom, textiles, raw cotton, silk,yarn, wool, coffee, tea, redwood, foodstuffs, preciousstones, varnish, coir, aloe and indigo. Porcelain fromChina, and cowris from Maldives were also found in the exportitems. Turmeric was widely produced in TamilNadu, Kerala andCanara regions and this formed another item of export.31Slaves were also exported from Pondicherry to work in theplantations of the French in the 'New World' and Senegal inAfrica.It is worth mentioning here that among the export items,various kinds of textiles such as table cloth, curtains,napkins, handerchiefs, bed covers, silk, mixed cloth,including muslin that came from Bengal, Kanchipuram andTiruvannamalai formed the major items of exports fromPondicherry. The cloths exported from Pondicherry were

mainly of four types. Namely (a) white cloth, (b) cloth dyedin blue COlour after weaving, (c) cloth made from dyed yam,and (d) printed and dyed yarn. Cloths from Pondicherry werein great demand in Mexico, Peru and in the Antilles islandswhere they were used mostly by the creoles and slaves. 32Broadly speaking the items of trade between India andFrance can be divided into two main branches of profit. Thefirst branch which included coffee, pepper, cowries etc. gaveabout 100 per cent gross profit, whereas the second branchcontaining all types of textile items fetched about 70 percentHowever, these profit margins varied accordingto the political and economic conditions that prevailed inSouth India.Anindication of the quality of cloth manufactured inthe Coromandel region was seen in the admiration excited bythe gift of a golden box containing forty-eight towels givento the mistress of King Louis XV, Mme.Pompadour by Bussy theFrench general on his return to France after conqueringGingee in 1762. The cloth attracted appreciation and wonderwhen shown to the weavers and merchants in addition to theroyal family. 34The volume and direction of imports and exports weresubject to changing policies and perceptions. Colbert firmlyresisted attacks on the company by those who believed that

the import of textiles from India would ruin the cottageindustries in France. His death in 1683 was a great blow tothe company as the direction of domestic economic policypassed into the hands of ministers led by his enemy~ouvois.~~ The import of silk and muslin was restricted in1702. The trade in spices was relatively less affected. Thefinal victory of protectionism was marked by the banning ofthe import of all kinds of cotton goods from India in 1709.Slave Trade:The French colonists cultivated coffee, tea, indigo,jute and cotton in the island of Bourbon and its nearbyislands. They needed an unlimited supply of slaves to workin these plantations. This requirement opened the way forthe interlopers to carry on their trade in human cargoes.During the period under review slaves were cheap inPondicherry because of the famine that came in the wake ofthe Mughal - Maratha wars in the Carnatic region. Both boysand girls were preferred for slaves. It is evident from thediary that during the periods of Lenoir and Dumas both boysand girls from 18 to 25 ages were recruited as slaves to workin the plantations of the French colonies.36Even the stone and wood cutters37 were brought fromdifferent places to Pondicherry and were sent to the FrenchColonies as slaves on the promise of giving employments.

Slaves were transported from Tranquebar by boats during thenight to Pondicherry from where they were shipped to the~rench colonies.Besides the company, the French private and nativemerchants were also engaged in the slave trade illegally. Itis said that M.Soude, the warehouse keeper of the companyconducted his trade in slaves illegally and he advanced moneyto one native merchant by name Paramanandam for theprocurement of slaves. A number of persons were trapped intoslavery by using spells and magic concoctions in theCoromandel region. Some of the slaves were illegallykidnapped from different places to Pondicherry and wereimprisoned by the illegal traders in their houses where theheads of the slaves were shaved and covered with black clothsand their legs were tied with one chain before shipping themto the French colonies. The illegal slave trade by theFrench private and native merchants was brought to the noticeof the Governor and it ws strictly prohibited.Intra-Aaian TradeThe French company entered into Asiatic trade not onlyto obtain cargo for ships bound for France, but also toderive some profit from the sale of the goods in East.Freight was another source of income.

The French traded with the ports in Pegu, Thailand,(siam) Tanesserin, Bantan, Achin, Java, Sumatra, Malaysia,Malaya, Manilla (Phillipines), Indonesia and China in theeast and with the ports in Persian Gulf, Red Sea regionincluding the Maldives islands and the islands of Prance and~ourbon in the West. In her intra-Asian trade the companycarried on both public and private trade.The company's trade included the one with South EastAsia, China, Japan, South Asia, Afro- Indian, Isles des Franceand Bourbon. Sometimes the company officials and merchantsused company's ships for private trade. At times the privatemerchants employed their own ships - Ananda Ranga Pillai senthis ship 'Anandapuravai' to Colombo that returned with hisagents, Pir Marakayan, Muttukumara Pillai and others. 38 Inher trade with these countries the company on the one handsent the European commodities to be sold. Sometimes theysent the Indian goods for a market. In turn the South EastAsian goods were also brought to Pondicherry for a sale. Inthe intra-Asian trade both the French company and the nativesbecame active partners in both companys as well as privatetrade .The loading of cargoes for the ships bound for theaforesaid ports was partly done in coastal Bengal,Masulipatam, Yanam, Mahe and partly at Pondicherry.The

pods taken on freight compensated a part of the cost. Thecompany benefited from this loading by the taxes of entry andexit. The merchants who loaded their goods on board of thecompany's ships used to pay freight charges to the companyfor their goods.39The ports of Mergui (Siam) and Pegu were the mostimportant to the French and these were less prestigious than~anila andThe French ships often visited theseports with a small cargo of cloth and freight fromPondicherry and Porto Novo.In return these ships broughtrice, timber and rope for building and marine repairs. Theseparts were used as shelter for the European and Indian shipsbound to Manila during the monsoon on the Coromandel regionbetween September and December. Rice was brought from theseports to avoid the frequent famine at Pondicherry.French invested little capital4'ports and obtained considerable profit.Thein the trade with theseFrom ~ e teakwood, ~ u white ~ sugar, ~ chemicals, incense,wine, silk, porcelain, tea, pepper, redwood, candle, drugs,medicine, aluminium, tobacco and cloths were imported intoPondicherry. These goods were sold by the company to thenative merchants who resold them in the hinterland markets.The textiles of Coromandel region had long beenExchanged in the ports of Malay Peninsula and archipelago

,pinst gold, tin, Precious metals, horses, pepper, spices,timber and rice. Among the South East Asian countries Manilawas an entrep~t~~ for the goods coming from the ports ofcoromandel coast and from China. The merchants trading oncoromandel ports carried textiles and other goods of Bengaland Gujarat with them to Manila where they exchanged thesegoods for those of China.The Chinese junks often visitedManila which was an important meeting place of Indian andChinese traders. It was one of the most important ports inthe East for the French traders. Every year a company's shipfrom Pondicherry sailed to this port and there were four innumber betwen 1720 and 1750.~~During the period of Lenoirthe trade with Manila reached its zenith4'.Various kinds ofcloth stripped and ordinary, flowered cloth, fine chintz andstuff cloths were carried by the company's ship by nameSankaraparik to Manila where these goods had profitablemarket46.The French extended their trade with China as well anddesired to have it from Pondicherry.The company's shipSt.Benoit went to China carrying pepper and ~ardomom.~~ Inturn it brought to Pondicherry coffee, tea, porcelain andsilk including gold. These goods were in great demand in themarkets in South ~ndia.~* Part of these goods was exportedfrom Pondicherry to Europe.

The French participated in the trade with West Asia.coromandel goods from Pondicherry port were also found in thecompany's ships sailing towards the ports in Persian gulf andRed sea.49 In 1720, trade with these ports mostly dependedon the goods from Bengal. The company's vessels were mostlyloaded at Pondicherry with goods brought from Chandernagoreand set sail towards the ports in Persian gulf and Red seatouching the ports of Malabar, Goa and Surat.In returnthese ships brought Moka broad cloths and coffee from Mokaand horses from Persian gulf. 50The French developed its trade with the port of Moka inRed sea. It began in 1722 with an English ship and Englishcaptain by name William ~eble.~' Annually the company usedto import 500,000 pounds of coffee from ~ o k a in ~ order ~ toexport it to Europe for which the ship owners were paid bythe company in silver at Pondicherry. When the French foundthat the textiles of Gujarat were very famous in the Mokamarkets they introduced the patterns of Gujarat to theweavers on the Coromandel coast to export textiles in largequantities. The textiles exported from Pondicherry to Mokawere distributed to Yemeni market where they were in greatdemand.The islands of Maldive, and Isle de France and Bourbonbecame the principal market centres for the Coromandel

The company's ships of ten touched these islandswhile going to France and coming to Pondicherry. Textiles,,ice and food stuffs were carried by the company's vessels to~aldive islands and in return they brought coconuts, coir,mats and cowries to ~ondicherry.~~ The cowries of thisisland were used as token coins in the commercial sector.cotton fabrics of different varieties collected from Southernparts of Pondicherry, live stocks, imported wine, seeds ofindigo, rice, foodstuffs and other provisions were exportedto Isle de France from Pondicherry and from there wheat,silver, marc and other European goods that came to thatisland were brought to ~ondicherry. 54 The textiles exportedto Isle de Bourbon were largely consumed by the slaves.55Timber which was largely grown in this island was mainlyimported to Pondicherry in large quantity for buildingconstruction^.^^ The companyls ships carried various kindsof textiles, muslin, handkerchiefs including rice and sugarto the island of Bourbon and brought back raw cotton, corn,maize, timber and imported wine and liquor to ~ondicherry.~~An important feature in this traffic was the import of timberwhich was largely grown in this island.Internal TradeInternal trade can be divided into two group namelyhinterland trade and coastal trade. Here we shall deal withthe company's trade in Pondicherry, various commodities,

and Co-nication,merchants and intermediaries,customs and taxes involved and currency that was circulatedin pondicherry .The geographical position of Pondicherry was highlyconducive to trade and commerce.The city of Pondicherrybuilt within the limits of a rampart surrounding the threesides of the town was provided with four gates (a) Porte deGoudalour - (Cuddalore gate) facing south, leading toCuddalore, (b) Porte de Villenour (Villianur gate), Porte deValdavour (Valudavur gate) facing west leading to Villianurand Valdavur respectively and Port de Madras (Madras gate)facing north leading to ~adras . 58Cuddalore was linked with Ariankuppam, Karikalampakkamand Kurivinatham.Cuddalore was further linked withDevanampattinam and Karaikal while the route to Madras wasmainly through Marakkanam.On the south west of Pondicherry a route connectedPondicherry with Valikondapuram via ~illianur.~~ FrancoisMartin travalled through this route.Furthur this routeconnected Porto Novo through Thirumadam and Bhuvanagiri . 60At Bhuvanagiri this road connected Karaikal throughChidambaram, Sirkali and Tranquebar.Another routeConnected Pondicherry with Karaikal through Villianur,

~ornavur, Naduvirapattu, Venkatmlpettai, Bhuvanagiri, andchidambaram. 62Through North West, Pondicherry was linked with Gingeethrough ~aludavur.~~ Villianur was also linked with Kunimeduthrough Valdalrur .coastal TradeIn the coastal trade small vessals, boats, andkattamars, were used to transport the goods6* from one portto another. The company ships plied between Pondicherry andChandernagore touching often Masulipatnam, Yanam betweenPondicherry and Surat through the ports of Karaikal,Tranquebar, rounding Cape Comorin sailing along the westerncoast touching Mahe and Goa. Silver imported from Europe andcoins struck at Pondicherry mint were taken to~handerna~ore.~~ They in turn carried textiles of varioustypes which were collected at Chandernagore from severalPlaces such as Balasore, Patna, and Kasimbasar toPondicherry. Saltpetre, silk, threads, opium, foodgrains andPalm sugar and other Bengal merchandise were brought toPondicherry. 66A large variety of textiles produced the hinterlands ofYanam was brought to Pondicherry for washing as well as forexport to Europe.67"iverThe European goods such as gold andcoins struck at Pondicherry were also sent to

~~sulipatanam and in return bales of Guinea cloth, andhandkerchiefs were brought in large quantities for export topondicherry . 68From Santhome, Porto Novo, Cuddalore,~araikal and Tranquebar came rice, and textiles of cheap~arieties.~' Different kinds of textiles from Nagapatnamwere brought to Pondicherry for which the French advancedmoney to the merchants .70Textiles of various kinds from Pondicherry were sent forsale to Mahe.quantities for export.71In return they brought pepper in largeThe company's ship on her voyagefrom Pondicherry to Surat took some goods produced in theregion of Pondicherry. 'lZEinterland TradeThe French in their hinterland trade had establishedextensive trade contacts with a number of places in theCarnatic and the Deccan besides Pondicherry and itssurrounding territories. The whole area between north Pennarand Porto Novo were the chief textile production centres.Contemporary sources give a lot of references to placeslike Thiruvady, Bhuvanagiri, Venkatammalpettai and PortoNova, and Devanampattinam, which were important places fortextile production.These production centres and theirrevenue collection were looked after by the amaldars,

naymars and palayakkars under the supervision of the Frenchcompany. 73Textiles of various kinds such as long cloth, coarsecloth, cotton, and strips were produced at Pondicherry,~uthiyalpet, Kottakuppam, Karuvadikuppam, Lawspet,pakkumudayanpet, Thilasupet, Kadirkamam, Muthirapalayam anduluvargarai . 74 Similar varieties of textiles were producedat Villianur, Murungapakkam, Ariankuppam, Mudaliarpet,Orlanpet, Kanuvaipet, Bahur, and Abishekapakkam for thecompany. These textiles were brought to Pondicherry wherethey were bleached and exported. 75Paddy was cultivated in large quantities inMurungapakkam, Ariankuppam, Abishekapakkam, Ulavargarai,Villianur and Bahur. To avoid the shortage of food grains,paddy was brought from these centres for local c~nsumption.'~Raw cotton produced in the outlying villages was brought toPondicherry for weaving and also for export .77From Fort St.David at Cuddalore and its villages, rice,coarse, cotton, blue cloth, chintz and lampasses includingjaggery and arecanuts7' were brought to Pondicherry.Mayiladuthurai, Neyveli, Vedaranyam, Thiruvarur, andKumbakonam supplied cotton which was brought by bullock cartsfor sale and export.79 Textiles of different kindsa0 from

ulundurpet, Erasanallur and Valikondapuram were transportedto Pondicherry.Udayarpalayam, Chennapanayakanpalayam andSalem provided large quantities of long cloth such as SalemGuineas, and Salempuri Chintz. " Kanchipuram, Vandavasi,~athiripakkam, Thimvannamalai, Chengalpet, Lalapetai andnrcot were textile production-cum -comercia1 centres. The~rench brought Percalle, Chintz, betille, organdi, paddy,rice and wheat from these centres to Pondicherry.The French sent their goods of Mecca broadcloth,liquors, and the South East Asian goods to these places forsale.e2Ananda Ranga Pillai was appointed as the supervisor bythe company for the textile production centre at Porto Novo.Blue cotton piece goods, handkerchiefs, brown cloth, longcloth and Dutch sorts were consistently supplied from thiscentre to the company for export to French islands of Franceand Bourbon, Moka and ~anilla .83 Lambardies weretransporters of the goods in this case.84Trade in Paddy, Batal, Arecaunut, Tobacco and ArrackTrade in paddy and rice was looked after well. Duplextook great care to enquire about the cultivation of paddy andit's harvest. For instance Dupleix decided that paddy broughtfrom outside was to be sold in specified shops. TheProcurement of paddy by the Company was systemati~.'~

In another instance Monsieur Delarche and Ananda Rangapillai told the Governor to be lenient and not to fix theprice for the sale of paddy in Pondicherry in order toattract the Paddy merchants to sell freely and if need be tofix the price for the sale of paddy later. It is a clearevidence that the company had fixed the sale of paddy.86Tobacco was another item of trade.It was sold at~rumpai Pilai's choultry and was smuggled in great quantitiesby the soldiers and officers. Tobacco with betel formed aprofitable monopoly which was fanned out to both Bnglish andFrench settlements. Tobacco was sold at the rate of 10 palmsfor one pan an^.^^Mode of Procurement:The company was in need of different types of goods forexporting them to Europe.So they followed the contractsystem. Immediate delivery was just impossible. Themerchant had to make arrangement well in advance. Nolmallyon a particular day an which the merchants would assemble inthe presence of the council, the merchants would begin theirbargain.The merchants were given the quality and thequantity of commodities needed to be fabricated. After theContract had been signed if the merchant would face famine,the council used to make some concession of granting a littlemore than the contract price.

Thus in India the French at Pondicherry followed thesystem of giving advancesto the Indian merchants, ormiddlemen or brokers, in order to obtain the necessarycommodities of textiles both for shipping to Europe and forlocal consumption. To this effect a society 'merchandisesdela ~0ciet6 formee a pondicheryl was established in~ondicherry.'~ Some times these goods were purchased from thenative merchants who were dealing with them."When Dupleix was the governor Mousieur Legou wasresponsible for giving sample patterns92 of this kind. In thepresence of the officials of the company and its counsil, themerchants of Pondicherry signed the contract with theweavers. According to the agreement, goods were produced indifferent hinterlands and weresent by bullock carts. ThePondicherry workers bleached them and turned white and afterironing they bundled them in bales. These workers worked inthe French company Ananda Ranga Pillai called them asMuthiyal Pettaiyar.In the mode of procurement, the company kept strictwatch over the inspection of goods, when it was brought tothe store house. Once Dupleix himself seems to have remarkedthat one of his chief duties was to preach from morning onassiduity in the inspection.91If the company's officialswere dissatisfied with the finished goods, after having

inspected them they used to reject them and the merchantswere asked to take the goods back.The company at Pondicherry employed weavers, bleachersof cloth and other artisans in its workshops to manufacturemore textiles at its own cost. One such was establishedporto-Novo and Ananda Rangapillai was in charge as the nativechief before becoming the Dubash of the company. 93 AnandaRanga Pillai himself established trading house at his owncost at Lalapettai and Arcot for a brisk trade in exchange ofEuropean goods for local marchandiseg4Mode of Transport and C-ication SystemVarious means of transport and comnication system werein use during this period, which facilitated easy transportof goods from one place to another. Old people, invalids andthe wounded were carried by means of doli ( a kind ofportable hamock) .Kings, Queens, chieftains and rich people were carriedin Palanquin. Horses were used for fast travel especially intimes of war. Elephants were used by kings and rich people.For long journeys, camels were used to carry heavy load andalso to carry news and letters from one place to another.Camels were used for comunication purposes from Trichy,Mahe, Trivandrum, and Mysore to far off places.95

The French East India company under the supervision of~nanda Ranga Pillai had kept men to cary news, money, etc,These men went on foot to different places to collectinformation and bring to Pondicherry. The services ofPattamars, runners and Brahmins were called for sendingletters, and money to various places. 96The approximate time taken for the journey, from Madrasto Pondicherry was one day, from Karaikal to Trichy two days,From Mahe to Mysore ten days, from France to Pondicherry fourmonths. A daily post was established between Pondicherry,Tanjore and Karaikal . 97Idannor of Sales in India and Prance:In Pondicherry the weekly fair was held on every Tuesdaywhich attracted thousands of people from all over theworld.Further, the company at Pondicherry avertised theauction sale company well in advance among the nativemerchants by way of notices exhibited in the fort, at thechurch and in court house also by the beat of tom tomg9 Thesale of tobacco, arecanuts, and betel leaf too was sold atspecial canteens by the native bidders to whom the companyhad farmed out the same .Io0Letters and notices were sent to Rouen, Nante, Lyon,L'orient, Bourdeaux. Paris and mostly to all the towns. Hand

ills were issued announcing the list of goods arrived fromIndia, Sometimes, all over Europe inviting all the merchantsto take part in the sale. Generally there used to be annualsale held either in September or october. lolLeasing or Farming out ryrtomAs mentioned in chapter I11 dealing with AgraraianEconomy the company counted upon different sources ofrevenue. Revenue from land through it's farming out systemwas completely under company's monopoly. As part of generaladministration procurements, sale of paddy, rice, arecanut,tobacco, betel -leaves and arracque was controlled by thegovernment.Revenue from tax farming of betel and tobacco, change,Araque de Paria and fishing at ~ondicherry.~~~ The companyearned considerable revenue from collection of custom dutiesin pondicherry .Custom taxes collected at Pondicherry at different yearare as i 0110~~:~~3

TABLE - CCUSTOW COLLECTPD AT POMDI-Y IU DIF- YSARS..........................................................place Date Import tax Export tax..........................................................pond~ 1715 4 percent 4 pereentPondy 1715 5 5pondy 1720 Taxes of all kindstemporarilysuspended.Pondy 1722 3 1~ondy 1728-35 lsurtax(4percenttotal) surtax notapplicable to foodsstuff or goodsdestined for company vessels.Pondy 1728-30 Famine(Chandernagor 17321 on goods introducedby river route for wholesale; some slight specifictaxes)Pondy 1734-36 Famine foods tax freeperiodPondy 1737 famine foods tax freeperiodPondy 1738 3 percent 1 percentBengal 1739 ?4 Percent surtax for % percentursulinesPondy 1739 (surtax not applicableto goods sestined forEurope)Pondy 1742 3 percentPondy 1747 3 percent Famine, period;foods tax free............................................................Source: Dalgliesh, p.68.

In times of financial need the company had to borrowloans from different persons. During famine war in India aswell as in Europe, eome times the company failed to send herfinancial support, and it had to find her resource to supporther trading activities.lo4TABLE - DLoAlps TO TEE SUPEILIOR COUX7CIL 1719-1739.............................................................Date Amount Rate Creditor------------*------------------------------------------------1719 2000 rupies6000 pg Delavinghe + St. Malo Comp.1003 pg Delavinghe + St. Malo Comp.1720 162 pg Pilavoine Bstate300 Pg Albert1900 pg Narsou1723 2502 roupies Tremisot1727 4000 pgs 8 Diverse4000 pg 10 Diverse9500 pgs Diverse1553 pgs Dulaurens1728 5000 pgs 8 Pondy merchants1729 8000 pgs 8 Pondy merchants15000 piastres5000 pg

8000 pg200,000 roupies1732 60,000 pagodes free Chancarabany20,000 pagodes1734 26,000 pagodes Chanacrabny1735 99,000 pagodes 8 ----------8 Chancarabany8 ChancarabanyImamsaheb8 Imamsahebone lakh roupies free Chandasaheb1739 50,000 pg Imamsheb20,000 pg 8 - - - - - - -14,000 pg 8 st. sauveur6,000 pg 8 ----------26,000 pg 6 Jesuits50,000 pg Imarnasaheb12,000 pg Narayanachetti2,000 pg Miram10,000 pg Pedremodeliar40,000 pg diverse--------------------.-------------

statomat of lorn8 otc. to tho ruporior councilThe company for proper circulation of currency took theinitiative to get permission from the local rulers toestablish its own mint at Pondicherry. This also broughtsome revenue to the company and employment to the natives.yinting, rnd CurrencyThe need to use the coinage in the local area in andaround Pondicherry forced the Company to mint considerablequantities of precious metals. Piastres of Sevile, MexicanPiastres and ingots of silver were minted into money by theMoghuls at Alamparai or at Arcot. The Company was criticisedfor draining the reserves of precious metals. But the Indianprinces demanded a very high tax for minting coins. Thisaffected comerce, and all the governors tried in vain toobtain this right.It was governor Duma who obtained on 17th August 1736the right lo6 to mint rupees and pagodas which were the localcurrency at Pondicherry. This right was granted in returnfor protecting the families of Dost Alikhan and theMohammedan nobles of Arcot at the time of the invasion ofFrench Singh and Rahuji Bhonsle. In recognition of hisachievement Dumas was given, the Cross of St.Michae1 by theCompany and the Minister. However, some researchers claimthat coins were minted in Pondicherry as early as 1700.~~'

The firman for minting coins at Pondicherry was notreceived without making presents to the Nawab and to hisdurbar amounting in all to 40,000 108 pagodas. The mintcould not be located in the fort, so it was constructed nearthe old fort or Goudelour on the plans of Father Louis. Itwas completed in September 1738 at a cost of 5000 pagodas (Acolony of the low castes in front of the mint was cleared toprovide to lodge the goldsmiths and other workers in themint) logInitially, the French faced problems due to completeignorance of theory and practice of financial transactions.They had to obtain both the equipment and the technical knowhow.The responsibility was given to the chettys and theysent workers to be trained in Alamparai. The Companyprovided them with silver for the first trial of coins andthen gold was used. The Director of the mint, Mr.Legouhad custody of the moulds and dies, and kept an account ofthe daily operations. Thefts and cheating by workers werePunished by death. The rupees of Pondicherry were issued atthe same rate as that of Arcot.The right to mint money gave the company the connnercialadvantage desired for a long time. It also completed theindependence of Pondicherry, giving a tangible mark ofsovereignty which was appreciated by the natives. '

During their stay in Pondicherry, the Dutch minted Cash,a copper coin of small denomination. 64 of which made onefanam and which at that time was equal to a biard, Frenchcoin112 These coins carried on one side the figure of Kali,goddess Of destruction and on the other, the name ofpondicherry (present day Pondicherry) .Inspite of the various comercia1 steps taken by theFrench company, the company's comerce witnessed periodicalstand still and decline in their trading activities in India.Causer for tha failura of ccvapauy'r cornnarcexPolitical changes in India were partly responsible forthe difficulties in the maritime trade of the French. Theadvance of the Mughals, Maratha incursion in the southdisturbed the countries political balance. The company thatColbert tried to create in imitation of the Dutch from itsvery inception turned out to be a Royal company under thecontrol of the crown.The available funds were sunk and was lost on theuseless attempt of colonising Madagascar in the verybeginning. The dissensions and constant bickering6 among thedirectors at Surat was partly responsible for the failure ofDela Haye's expedition. And the policies of Louis XIV wasanother cause of ruin of La Compagnie des Indes Orientales.

Mismanagement and continuous wars both in Europe and inIndia was another factor. The situation worsened under~eyrit in Pondicherry. He never cared for the advice of thechief Dubash and who seldom visited the store-house of thecompany. Ultimately the merchants of the company managedeverything themselves by flattering the councillor.113Discords, quarrels, disobedience and fights were sogreat among the French that the other European companies weresure that the French would not last long.l14 Dedicated andable servants of the French East India Company was left toofrequently without support from Europe in the Asian eyes,the French chiefs of factories often lacked credit andsubstance. The appointment of inexperienced men in thecompanies service115 weakened the company.The competition of the English East India Company on theCoromandel coast was a constant threat to the existence ofthe French in Pondicherry which was another cause of theirruin.l16 The religious Fathers wanted to abolish pagonism inPondicherry. The people agitated against them and left thetown in 1705 for the first time. Francois Martin had topersude the people who left Pondicherry to bring themback.l17 In 1705, the Fathers accompanied by the servantsentered by force into the temple of lingam to destroy it. In1708 there was a fight in connection with the temple at

pondicherry which affected the interest of the company andcommerce.l18 But the council in Pondicherry was in favour ofthe gentiles and allowed them to practise their religion.This tolerance was very necessary for the companies commerce.The company often faced lack of funds to advance moneyto the weavers which was a necessary feature to keep thecompany's comerce in India on the move. After the Marathasraid in 1740 most of the weavers did not return. The oftrepeateddrought killed the standing crops and famine addedto the already existing miseries. The merchants who camefrom several other places like Trichirapalli and Tanjore werealarmed and had fled to Jaffna, Udaiyarpalayam and Aliyalur.Thus the company after fifty-five years of its existencehad not succeeded in laying down a solid foundation for theFrench in India or even in establishing a regular comerce.The chief causes could be summarised as the rigid control ofthe state, depriving the share holders of any independence or~mitiative, the protectionist policy of the government whichhit the most profitable branch of trade, the lack of capitalnecessary for sustained activity and the continuousinvolvement in Campaigns of Burope paved the way for itsdecline in comerce in Pondicherry and in other colonies of1ndia. llg

J. L Racine l'Esquisse, D'une Historire Commercial dePondicherry Jusquin 1954" (A brief account of thecommercial History of Pondicherry upto 1954 RevueHistorique volume X, Pondicherry. 1972. PP.8-9 (henceforth R.H.)Lotika Varadara j an, "Reasons leading to theestablishment of the French East India Company. Edictof the year 1664" Revue Historique volume XII,Pondicherry, 1974-1975 P.22.Ibid, pp. 22-23.Krishnamurthy, op. ci t . , p. 84.a) Abbe Guyon, Historie des Indes Greeutalesanciennes et modernes, Paris, 1744, Tome 111,p.83.b) Cyril Antony, op.cit., vol.1. P. 159.Ibid., p.160a) Aniruddha Ray, Francois Martin Memoires Calcutta,1990, PP. 102-103b) Cyril Antomy, op.cit., Vol. I P.160.a) C. S . Srinivasachari, Ananda Ranga Pillai The Pepysof French India New Delhi, 1991, P. 142, (Henceforth Pepys, P.)b) Cyril Antomy vol. I. Op. cif P.Charles Fewcett, The mglish Factories In India Vol. I1New Series, 6 Xford, 1952, PP. 44-45.Arasaratnam Sinnappah, Merchants, Companies andCommerce on the Coromandel Coast, 1650-1 740,(Henceforth Arasaratnam, p...) Delhi, 1986, p.2.Ibid, pp.92, 157.Mas. No. 8971. Fo1.7.

Cyril Antony, op.cit., vol. I. p.162.Archives Nationals, Paris, (c2-8, Folios, 250-252)a) Dalglish, op.cit., pp. 15-16.b) S .P. Sen, The French in India, (HenceforthS.P.Sen) Delhi, 1971 P.42.Dalglish. op. cit., p. 93. Cyril Antony, op.cit.,V0l.I. p. 689.Correspondence dep conseilTom. 51 P-18b) Labernadie, p. 148.C) CCSP, V01. 5 p.19 10-12Ya~d8d) Dalgleish, p.75Ibi dDiary Vol I1 p.31, 113, 127.Natarajan, op.cit, p.177.Sen, op.cit., p.42.Natarajan, op.cit., p.128superieur year 1755Diary, vol.1. p.18 1 Marc = 8 ounces, 1 ounce= 8 gros,lgros = deniers, 1 deniers = 24 graineDiary, vol.1. pp.18-20.Diary, Vol. XI p.152.Proces-Verbaux, Vol I. op.cit., p.34Diary, Vol I. pp.78. Man was a unit of measurement.Diary.Diary, vol. 11. p.367.Dalgliesh, op.cit., pp.81-82.

a) Correspondence du conscil superieur deb) R.H. vol. X P. 20Sinha, op. cit., p.42R.H. vol. X P.Holden Purber, op. cit.. p.113.a) Diary, vol. I. p.66.b) Dalgleish op.cit., p.81.M.P. Sridharan, "Notes on Beno Dumas" The IndianHistory Congress Proceedings, Kuruckhetra, 1982, p.547.a) Diary, vol. I. p.20b) Virginia McLean Thompson, Dupleix and his letters1742 - 1754, New York, 1933, p.84.a) R.H. Vol. I. p.115.b) R.H. vol X . p. 230C) Arasaratnampp. 157, 202.Catherine Manning, "French country Trade on Coromandeln(1720-50) (Henceforth Manning, p...) Revista decultura, 1991.Ibid.a) R.H. VO~. X p.23b) Diary, vol I. p. 205Catherine Manning, op.cit., p. 165.Ibid.Pepys op. cit., p. 338Diary, vol. I. p.33.Ibid, pp. 36-37.a) Manning, op.cit., p. 165.b) R.H. X p.111

Manning, op.cit., p. 165-166.Ibid.Ibid, p. 167.Ibid, p. 166.a) ~abernadie., op.cit., p. 154.b) Diary, vol. IV. p. 165.Diary, vol.XI1. pp. 44-45.S.P.Sen, op.cit., p. 57.Ibid.Paul Kaeppelin, op. cit., p.507.a) Labernadie, op.cit., p.57.b) Diary vol. VII p. 273.Lotika Varadarajan, vol I, Part.1. p. 310.Ibid, p. 313.Diary, vo1.V. p. 172.Diary, vol. IV. pp. 3-8Lotika, vol . I. part - I , p. 329Diary, vol.11. pp. ii 213, 289, 438Diary, vol.VI1. p. 307Diary, vol I1 pp. 109, 303, 304, vol I11 p.410Diary, vol.11. p.51CCSP, Tome I, p.45Diary, I11 p.411 vol VII p.50Lotika Varadarajan, Vol. I, part , I1 p. 604a) Diary, vol I1 p. 207b) CCSP, Tome I, p.45

71. R.H. VO~X p.31.72. Diary, vol IV p. 22773. Edmund Gaudart, Correspondence des Agents aPondicherry de la Nouvelle Compagnte des Indes avec lesAdministrateur de Paris 1788-1803, (Henceforth EdmundGaudart, p.. .) Paris, 1931,p. 36.74. a) R.H vol X p. 73b) Diary, vol. 111, p. 138.75. Diary, vol IV pp.381, 402, 40876. Diary, vol. V PP. 99, 228Diary,p. 230Velayuthanar, Kadal Vanigamum Tharai Vanigamum,Madras, 1982, pp.141-142 (translated from Tamil).Diary, vol. IV p. 393, vol. VI, p. 299.Diary, vol I11 p.a) Diary, vol IVp. 453., Vol.11, 211b) Pepys, p. 36.Diary, vol I P 1113, vol IV P.3 vo. VIII p 320.Francis Buchanan, A Journey from Madras through thecountries of Mysore, Canard and Malabar, (HenceforthBuchanan) London, 1807, vol.1. p.186.Diary, vol I1 p. 4Ibid, vol V P. 206.Diary, vol. I1 pp. 118, 204Holden Furber, op.cit., p. 116Archives, c2-36 fols 263.Cor. du. con, sup et de la coe tome I11R.H. Vol.X, p.20, Diary Vol.IV, p.1.

a) R.H. vol X p.20.b) Diary, vol. IV .1c) BNNA 9353 fol 140Memoirs Martin Tome I1 p. 18.Pepys op. cit., pp 10 118.R.H.vol. x . pp.10,118Ibid.b) Diary, vol. iv, PP. 36, 372.C) CSPV. Toure, I1 PP. 369, 372.a) Diary, vol I p.51b) R.H. Vol X p. 51.Castonnet op. cit., p. 129a) Holden Furber, op. ci t. , p. 123.b) Divien op. cit., P. 168Diary, vol I p. 89., Val. V P.65C.S.P.V. tome 111Kaeppelin pp. 130-131Dalgliesh op.cit., p. 69Ibid, p. 68Ibid, p. 65Labemadie op. ci t . , p .I48a) Ibid, p. 147.b) Pepys op.cit.. p.339.C) Divien op.cit., p. 177Natarajan op.cit., p.132

107. Pepys op. cit., p. 13108. Labernadie op. cit. , p. 147109. Ibid, p. 149 - 159.110. Labernadie, op. cit., p.150.111. Ibid, p.151.112. Natarajan, op.cit., p.15.113. Holden Furber, op.cit., p.105-109114. Ibid, pp. 210-211.115. Chicherov, op.cit., p.111.116. a) MSS. 9225 pp.291-292.b) A-1, pp.33-35.117. Ibid.118. S.P.Sen, op.cit., p.38.

S O C I A L L I F EEuropean trade with Indian port-towns brought about anumber of changes in the medieval Indian society. Itattracted the attention of economic historians to write moreabout the socio-economic conditions of the people indifferent parts of India. The French trade at Pondicherryopened up avenues of commerce for the artisans and merchantsand provided an opportunity to play an important role in thecommercial sector. Thus, the social and economic life of thepeople underwent some major changes in Pondicherry region dueto the growth of trade and commerce under the activepartronage of the French. Therefore against this backgroundan attempt is made in this chapter to analyse the sociallife, status and position of various classes of people inthis region.The town of Pondicherry was divided into two partsnamely, White Town or (Ville de Blanc) and Black Town (Villede Noire). In the white town only the Europeans had theirsettlements and their houses were built in Roman Style withterrace6.l and it was situated closer to the seashore. A

fort was constructed in this town. On the eastern side ofthis fort a shelter was formed with roof made out of coconutplms to avoid rain for the employees and for storing thegoods.2 St.Louis chapel was built inside the fort area forthe purpose Of Europeans who were the employees of thecompany like Governor, councillors, dubash, interpreters,packers, and some officers. It is said that nearly 1000 or1200 Europeans lived inside the fort area.3The black town was located just west of the White Townand was inhabited by Tamils. In this town a big bazar wasestabilshed for local people. Inside the bazaar a Chavadi (anopen hall) similar to caravan sarai was constructed in 1729at the cost of 152 pagodas on a plan drawn by ~ r.~ouis.~ ~twas in this Chavadi that the French rendered justice to thenative criminals.In this bazaar, besides natives, theEuropeans were also found buying commodities for their dailyneeds.On combining both White and Black towns together in one,ramparts were made and a canal was dug by the French roundthe city inorder to safeguard the people from the attacksmade by the European and Indian enemies.Urban SocietyThe urban Society of Pondicherry in which the peoplelived in both White and Black towns, was a mixed Category of

nationalities and professionals such as Europeans andIndian nobles, merchant princes and other artisans.goreign NobilityThe European nobles in Pondicherry included the FrenchGovernors, the member of the Superior Council and the~esuits. They belonged to aristocratic families and ledluxurious life.There were admirals vice-admirals andcontrollers in the companys service who were Europeans whoseduty was to cater to the cargo of the ship. Among them, theGovernor was the first and foremost person in every aspect ofsocial, political and commercial affairs.steps for developing and beautifying the town.He took seriousLabemadiepoints out that during the period of Dupleix mud houses wereremoved and new houses were reconstructed with bricksresembling marble^.^ For the development of trade, theFrench Governor undertook several measures and broughtmerchants, weavers and other artisans to Pondicherry fromvarious parts of the country.When Francois Martin, thefirst French Governor, came to Pondicherry, he broughtTanappamudali, an eminent merchant, from Poonamalle, subrubOf Madras,to promote company's trade.6It is also pointedout that when in 1746 Madras fell in the hands of the French,Dupleix tried to bring the merchants from there.Could not succeed in his effort fully.7But beOnly Armenian

who lived in Madras had come down and made theirin Pondicherry.In addition to this, the Governors constructed not onlyhouses but also shops and markets for the local population.*They had great political influence with local chieftains aswell. It is said that at one time when Dupleix had writtenletters to palayakkarars, kallars, and Rajas of Tanjore andMysore not to help Muhamad Ali who ran away to Trichy, theydid accordingly. The Governor had aquired necessaryprivileges from the local rulers. In 1746, Dumas, the FrenchGovernor, obtained permission granted by the Nawab of Arcot,Dost Ali khan, to coin money for the French at ~ondicherry.~Initially the French were in favour of converting theHindus into Christianity and opposed the Hindus to celebratetheir festivals in the town. In 1701 Francois Martinprohibited all religious Festivals of non-Christian6 onEaster and every sunday.l0 Similar incident took place inthe later period as well. When Dulivier became the Governor,because of the decision made by the superior council andapproved by the king in 1711, he forbade the Hindu ceremoniesand processions with music on Sundays and Catholic holidaysParticularly refused to give permission for the performanceof the dmavasya (New Moon Day rites) ceremonies whichhappened to fall on sunday February 3 1715." The result was

that the People revolted openly against the French anddeserted the town which remained empty for some days. As athe Governor and the Superior Concil had givenparantee to the deserters for the free exercise of theirreligion in order to return to their homes.12 This situationwas changed in the subsequent periods.The Governor not only did celebrated but also didparticipate in such festivals. A special feature of thecelebration of such festivals in the town was marked by thevisist of the Governor,. councillors, Jesuits and otherEuropeans to the church.13 On every occasion of thecelebration of such festivals the Governor used to go toChurch to have a mass and received honour from the publicEvery year when the Governor marched towards the church onthe occasion of the feast of Holy Sacrament, the Frenchsoliders stood in two rows by forming a line and tambour wasbeaten. Again when he left the Church after having attendedholy mass, the soliders bowed their heads with their hats andflags and beat tambour.14The feast of the Nativity of St. John was celebrated bythe Europeans in a great splendour in the town. They used toset fire to the faggots which were built round the palmyrafixed on the ground south of the fort. The custom was thatat first the Governor and Jesuit priests Set fire to the

faggots Before Setting fire, the Governor, councillors,piest6 and the parade marched in order towards that andtambour was beaten and three salutes of twenty one guns eachwere fired from the fort and from the ships.15 When thetroops dispersed they fired one gun after another. Afterthat they returned to their homes and enjoyed the feast.The Governor clebrated the King's feast day in honour of~ouis XV. On this ocasion he wore the cross of St.Louis,opened the big half and eastern side of the hall in hisresidence and invited the visitors to dine with him and thosewho met him paid their respects.16 The traditional custom ofthe French was followed in this town on the occasion of theEuropean festival days, salutes of firing of twenty on guns,to the Governor was a significant aspect in the Frenchculture. When the Governor marched towards the Church toassist at the holy mass on the occasion of his feast day,salutes were given to him by firing twenty one guns each fromthe fort and ships and a flag was carried in front of him.After returing from the church he invited Indian nobles andhad entertainments with them.'' The King also expressed hisdeep sorrow against the dead. It is reported that on theOccasion of all Souls' day, the Governor used to wear blackand went to the Church to participate in a holy mass inmemory of the deceased Europeans February was carnivalSeason for the Europeans living in Pondicherry. This

festival lasted for many days as this period was known ascarnival season. The Governor celebrated the carnivalfestival with European music, songs and dance in great pompand invited the local chieftains and nobles for theentertainment. It was during the period of Dupleix thatduring the carnival festival the Europeans danced at a mosquethroughout the night, Dupleix invited Muhammad Tavakkal andAnanda Ranga Pillai for the entertainment who attended it andlistened to European songs and music .I9The Governor was responsible in every aspect of thecompany's commerce and local administration. He had toappoint the chief dubash and merchants for the companyaccording to his will. When Dupleix became the Governor hehad great confidence and faith in Ananda Ranga pillai. So herejected the petition given by the Jesuits against him andappointed him as a courtier or Dubash of the Company. Healso participated in various ceremonies such as marriages ofthe Indian nobles and wealthy merchants in the town.1°Next to the Governor the members of the superior councilheld higher posts in the town. It is said that the Sovereigncouncil or superior council was shifted from Surat toPondicherry in 1701. l1 The members of this council remainedgreatly attached to in every aspect of the cityadministration and development of company's trade. It was

headed by the Director General of the French East IndiaComapny form Paris.The French missionaries could be considered members ofeclesiasti~al nobility and they were mainly responsible forthe development of French colonies in the East. The capuchinpriests came from Madras, started their mission atpondicherry in 1686 and undertook the religions services inthe city as they were invited by Prancois art in.^^ Theylearned the Tamil language and began to help the nativechristians. When Pondicherry was captured by the Dutch,these priests were ill treated and were imprisoned. TheJesuit fathers came in 1675 and later the fathers of ForeignMission too arrived at Pondicherry, from Prance in 1699 andstarted their religious work. Both these missionaries playeda vital role in the religious matter.The capuchin priests rendered their service for thereligious needs of the Europeans, while the Jesuits took toevangelical work among the natives. The first chapel wasconstructed outside the fort under the efforts of thecapuchin priests and it was dedicated to St.Peter which wasknown as St.Lazar Church. The Jesuits also built church andConsecrated to our Lady of Immaculate Conception. Aftergetting due permision from king Louis XV in France theJesuits established some schools and started to educate the

French. Thus they opened a college and taught Latin,and theology. Students from Madras, Bengal,philippines Surat, Ispahan and even from Paris and Londoncame and studied in this colllege. Through this eductionalinstitution they spread the religion and western culture. 1tbrought a number of natives to get intermarriages andconverison. 23The Jesuit received full support from the company andwielded great influence with the Governor and council andtheir proposals were accepted by the council. They supportedthe local catholics even in getting Jagirs. It is evidentthat when Leyrit became the Governnor the Jesuits forced himto rent out some villages in favour of catholics. 24They spread christianity and were the main supporters ofthe local christians and not Hindus. They had considerableinfluence in the afairs of the Company and even controlledthe appointment of chief dubash by the Governor and council.Source materials show that the Jesiuts sent a petition to theroyal court at Versailles to remove a non- christian from thePost of courtier and suggessted to appoint a Christian inthat place. The result was that Nainiyapa who was a courtierwas given six month's time to convert himself intoChristianity when he did not become a Christian he wasremoved from his service.25 This policy was changed in thelatter period.

The Jesuits did not enter into the houses of paraiahsand never condescended to go to their houses to perform eventhe last Sacraments. So the paraiaha had separte priests toattend to their spiritual needs.Thus they opposed thesuperior Council against the stamping of pagodas on one sideof the gold coins as the pagodas signified the Hindu temple.They converted many people into Christianity. Their policyagainst caste Hindus caused the people to desert the town forsome days.Indian Nobility:As far as the Indian nobles in Pondicherry wereconcerned some of the resourceful and influential merchantsand their families belonged to this group. They had luxuriouslife in Ponicherry and held important position in thecompany's service like chief dubash. Because of the financialposition and status in the society the French appointed someof these merchant princes for the post of chief dubash orcourtier of the company.These resourceful merchants camefrom different places like Madras, Permabur and settledpermanently at Pondicherry.Mention may be made here thatTanappa mudali a Hindu Merchant from Poonamalle, accompaniedFrancois Martin to Pondicherry for trade26 and TiruvengadamPillai, a merchant from Perambur came with some wealthymerchant families and settled down at ~ondicherry.~~ Theybecame chief dubash of the company.

These merchant princes performed a number of functionsnot only in the development of company's commerce but also inthe society. The merchant princes like Tanappa mudali helpedthe French Governor Prancois Martin not only in procuringcommodities from various places for the company's commercebut also in getting merchants and artisans from differentparts to settle down at Pondicherry in order to boost thecompany6 trade. For their devoted service they were appointedin the higher posts. It is important to note that Tanappamudali who became the chief of the Tamils was appointed as acourtier or chief Dubash to the company by Prancois Martin,because of his constant service.28 They also helped theGovernor in the construction of shops, godowns and warehouses. 29In fact they were the chief intermediaries in allcommercial transactions of the company between the companyand local merchants. The chief dubash became the chiefadvisor to the Governor to solve the local problems. Thissituation worsened under Leyrit who ignored the advice of thechief dubash and did not maintain even a surveillance of thecompany's activities. This chief dubash left correspondencewith the native rulers on behalf of the Governor and companyand had great political influence in the court of the localchieftains. They rendered services in the development of theFrench boundaries. It is said that Nainiappa Pillai

,ucceeded in his efforts through a Brahmin in getting thevillages Of Murungapakkam, Olandai, Pakkamudaiampet, and~~~vadikuppam. 30When the merchants and artisans deserted the townbecause of the siege of Pondicherry by the Dutch, MuthappaMudali, a courtier of the company, succeeded in negotiatingand convincing them to return to Pondicherry. The dubash hadthe right to do justice to the local criminals and also todeal with civil cases in the chavadi according to the customsprevailed in the soceity. 31They also used to call on the Governor in his residenceon the occasion of European festivals, offered valuablegifts, took part in the entertainment and received some giftsfrom him.32The Indian Dubash travelled pompously in a palanquin andwere carried by four or eight men on their shoulders to callon the Governor in the fort. And they were also allowed totravel in a palanquin by the Governor with white umbrella andtorches. Because of the wealth and influence they possessedin the society they lived a luxurious life and were held ingreat esteem by the French. It is worth mentioning that whenKanakaraya mudali was chief dubash of the Governor, AnandaRanga Pillai enjoyed three times as much power as Kanakarayamudali enjoyed and possessed a palanquin and torches. Those

who did not have such wealth and influence as mentioned abovein the Society were not allowed to travel in palanquin. It isevident that when Vinayakam pillai started to come into thefort in a palanquin his journy was banned. Similarly whenthe Governor Leyrit came to know about the arival of Gountur~ali chetti from Sardrasapattanam in a palanquin he did notpermit him to come inside the town in a palanquin.33 Whenthese nobles or merchant princes happened to go outside thetown they used to travel on horseback.)'l They also obtainedJagirs from the company, the lands of which were rented outto the ryots. It appears that Ananda Ranga Pillai had anumber of Jagirs such as Pillaithottam and Villianur whichmade him further rich Thus they carried on trade privately.Merchsota ISo far as the mercantile group in south India wasconcerned Chettis Komatty, Berichetty, VyaperichettyKasukarachettis, Kaverichetty, Nagarathuchetty, and Nattukkottai chetty were traders by profession. But we also findmembers of other community and religion such as Idaiyan,Reddy, Vellalar, Armenians and Marakkayars in the tradingoccupasion. They played a vital role in the commercial sectorand performed a number of functions in the trading activitiesof the company. As mentioned earlier these merchants camefrom different places and settled down at Pondicherry totrade with company. They carried on their commerce in varied

mnner. They acted as wholesalers, retailers, shopkeepers,peddalers and also brokers and financiers . 35The wholesale merchants had established various godownsfor paddy, indigo, arecanut, tobacco and so on where theyappointed their agents to look after the businesstransaction on behalf of them.36 Some of them worked for thecompany while others conducted their trade privately. Everyyear the company merchants made an agreement with the comapnyfor the supply of textiles and for buying imported goods fromthe company. They also executed bonds to the company for thisannual agreement. For instance, in 1736 Sunguvar Seshachalachetti, Lakshnipatichetti, Chidarnbaram chetti and Adivarahachetti made annual business contracts with the company forsupplying 1471 bales of textiles of third class whichamounted to 1204012 pagodas.37 They invested large amount ofcapital in their wholesale trade which covered a wide rangeof cormnodities.They procured various sorts of textiles through theirown agents directly from the producers, stored them in theirgodowns and supplied them to the company to be exported toEurope. They supplied textiles not only against directPayment but also on credit basis to the French privatemerchants and collected money with interest in due course.In the credit system, in fact some time they had to face loss

of their entire property on the occasion of insolvency ofborrower or on his death. It is said that Ananda Ranga Pillaisome bales of textils on credit basis to Franciscopereia who owed 700 pagodas with interest of 400 pagodastotaling 1100 pagodas to Ananda Ranga Pillai. When he diedwithout repaying the amount Ananda Ranga pillai lost theentire amount.A few merchants were whole salers of imported coral fromthe company. PorazhakJcara Uttirapattu Chetti was a wholesaledealer and took entire quantity of coral from the companythar was imported into ~ondicherry.~~ He sold this item tothe retail traders. The sale of tobacco and arecanut was thecompany's monopoly. A very few merchants who desired to havetrade in tobacco and arecanut, received licence from thecompany and conducted trade in those conon~dities.~~These merchants sometimes received money from thecompany as an advance and invested a large sum of money intheir trade. On the surety given by the Chief Dubash, sometimes they abtained a heavey loan from the company as well asimported commodities on credit basis.41 A few merchants wereinvolved in minting silver coins in the Pondicherry mint andtook certain amount for the same purpose.It is said thatSeshachala chetti, Tiruviti Balu chetti, Gunturi Venkannachetti including a goldsmith who were appointed as merchants

in the mint, coined silver into rupees and took Rs 16 forevery 1000 tupeeS.'12 A few of them were appointed as chiefdubashs Of the Governor and company by the Governor becauseof their tremendous wealth and influence and status in thesociety. '13In addition to this, the merchants were involved in thetax farming. Some of them took certain villages based onlease from the company and collected tax from thecultivators. Guntur Venkatachala chetti, for instance, tookvillianur village on lease from the company and collectedrevenue from the ry~ts.~~ Some wealthy merchants had theirown ships and involved in the coastal and overseas trade.Hasan Marakkayan of Porto Novo is said to have conductedcoastal trade and his ship plied betweenPortoNovo andMarakkanam carrying cargo of salt frequently touching~ondicherry.~~ Ananda Ranga Pillai had his own ship by namednanda Puravi and traded between Pondicherry and South BastAsian countries and Colombo carrying arrecanut andtextiles.46 He was also one of the partners with Dupleix inthe trade with ~ocha.~' A notable wealthy merchant SunguramaOwned a ship through which he exported textiles to Manila fortrading. His ship was named after him as ~oucourama.~~As trade flourished in course of time, Sherkhan Lodi,the Governor of Valikondapuram, Imam shahib, the Governor of

Alampanra, and others participated in the trading activitiesand carried on their trade trough their own agentsprivately. 49The retail traders made small scale investment in theirtrade. Because of the insufficient capital they were in aposition to depend on wealthy merchants for their investementin trade. Their trade covered only a particular comodity.During the period under review Jayanthi Raman Kesava mudaliand Ranganatha mudali are said to have conducted theirbusiness in grain.50 They supplied the goods to the wealthymerchants. They also had their own shops in the bazaar ofPondichery and other places and sold sundry goods. Forexample, Nallathambi Arunachala chetti sold sundry goods fromhis shop which he had in the bazaar of ~ondicherry.'~ Thepeddlers used to attend the weekly markets and fairs. Theysold sundry goods in retail price. It is said that they hadsold vegetables, yellow water melon, huge bundles of betelleaves and arecanut and variety of spices in a number ofsmall dishes in the weekly markets and temple fairs.In the social custom of Pondicherry every year on theNew Year's day and some other festive occasions the merchantsusually went to meet the Governor in his house and offered tohim some valuable gifts such as gold chain, ring withdiamond, gold coins in return they received from him

oadcloth, velvet, and other articles. 52 The wealthymerchants conducted the marriage ceremonies of theirdaughters and sons in great pomp. The couples were carriedin a palanquin arround the street with pipe, tambour andmusic for which they had to get permision from the Governor.They invited the Governor and his wife usually to attend themarriage function and gave presents to them with sprinklingrose water and giving pansubari. It is worth mentioning thatwhen Seshachala chetti conducted his daughter's marriage, ofthe couple were scatrel accompanied by in a palanquin pipe,music and tambour, the Governor Dupleix and his wife attendedthe marriage function. Seshachala chetti presented Rs.lOOO toDupleix and Rs.100 to his wife and gave them pansubari withsprinkling rose water. At that time the Governor gave thepresents of dhoti, sari and Jaket to the couples in honour oftheir marriage. 53Brokers :There were two types of brokers known as urban brokersand, country brokers. Brokers from the urban center wereemployed by the company. They were wealthy and resided in theimportant cmercial centres. During the period under reviewthe company employed a numbr of Brahmins as brokers, whilethe native merchants engaged some Brahmins in their tradingactivities. It is clear from the evidence that vakilhbbayyan, Gopala Ayyan and Ramachandra Ayyan were well known

okers of the company and resided in the centres like Arcotand Lalapettai and so on.54 They procured camnodities fromcountry brokers and supplied them to the company merchants.The brokers resided in the country side, and collectedgoods in the production centres directly from the producersand sent them to their masters. They were actually the mainbuyers and sellers of various goods in the countryside andtraded on behalf of their higher agents. For instance AvaySahib was an agent of Imam Sahib and he purchased broadcloths worth Rs 25,300 from the company on behalf of Imamsahib." Thus they acted as merchants middelmen in thetrading activities and took a conmission of three pagodas foreach score of piece goods.56 Side by side they had carriedon private trade of their own, while working for their masterand earned huge amount through brokerage in the trade.Banker. :Right from the beginning of the seventeenth century, theGularati and Mawari bankers migrated to Pondicherry andstarted their banking institutions in this town as well as inother trading centres such as Cuddalore, Kanchipuram, Arcotand so on. They appointed their own agents in these placesand operated their business through them. Por instanceKasidas Bukkanji, a banker, appointed Hari Sankara Tawadi ashis agent at Pondicherry and others at Arcot, and

~rirangapatanam.~' These Gujarati bankers were known assowcars in the cormnercial sector of south India. Kasi Das~ukkanji Vallabha Sundara and Govardhan Das were promientsowcars in Pondicherry . 58These bankers or shroffs, in order to eliminate therisks or burden that involved in transporting large sums ofmoney or bullions from one place to another at firstintroduced hundi5'system in the banking sectors which waspractised in norht India. The practise of this system wasbannned for some time at Pondicherry.It is said that in1754 when M. Dupleix protested against a bill for a lakh ofrupees drawn on him by M. Bussy and M. Godeheu confirmed thisprotest, the Principal sowcars recalled their agents fromPondicherry, closed these transactions in that place anddetermined not to draw any bill on ~ondicherry.~~ The resultwas that Pondicherry lost its importance for some time as abanking centre.As trade flourished, in course of time the nativemerchants of different communities such as Idaiyan, chettis,even Brahmins appeared as bankers or shroffs and invested aPart of their capital in the money lending business. Amongthe natives Melugiri chetti, Muthukumarappa chetti, GunturBali chetti, Rayalayyan and Ananda Ranga Pillai were notablebankers in ~ondicherry.~' They lent money for interest not

only on the security of Jewels but also on promissory notesexecuted by the borrowers and also lent money depending onthe cofidence and relationship with the borrowers. 62They supplied loans to the French private merchantsagainst bonds or promissory notes and collected interestwhich varied from eight to twelve per cent per annum, that isto say eight per cent from the French and twelve per centfrom the native borrowers. In 1754 when M. Godehu asked aloan from Ananda Ranga Pilai, the latter supplied a loan of6000 pagodas at the rate of eight per cent per annum over abond. 63.On some occasions the rate of interest fluctuated inPondicherry as the bankers or shroffs charged eight per centInterest for the French and twelve per cent for the nativesper month above the official rate. As a result the GiovernorM. Leyrit ordered to collect more than elght per cent fromthe French and twelve per cent from the natives per ann~m.~~In the money lending transction they had to loss entire amouton the occasion of borrowers' death. In 1758 Ananda RangaPillai is said to have lost 30,000 rupees due from PirMuhanunad when the latter died.65 Thus they also gave up theirClaim to collect a particular amount from the borrowers whenthey were not in a position to return the amount.66 Indealing with the transmission of bills or hundis theyCollected connnission from the merchants as well.

The brokers who worked for the company as merchants, andmiddlemen, also acted as bankers and performed money lendingbusiness. They usually received advance money from thecompany and from wealthy merchants and made further advancesto the weavers. The company furnished a specimen of cloththey required, from the merchants. The master weaversinstructed the measures to produce the stipulated variety.The company6' received in textiles against the sum and variedto the brokers. These brokers cancelled the order andinformed the weavers not to produce and send a particulartype of cloth for sometime because of the bad conditions inthe country. Then the rate of inteest for the loan receivedby the weavers increased high as the weavers had no work.68The freedom of fixing the prices of their finished goods andof selling them directly in the market was restricted by themoney lenders as long as the money advanced by them remainedunpaid. Under these circumstances the weavers could notbargain with the money lenders becuase the prices of finishedcloth were fixed before hand.The bankers extended their money lending business to theagricultural sector as well. They advanced loans to thefarmers in the villages with sureties and received repaymentOf their principal lending only in the form of kind at thetime of harvest. The farmers who lived in Pondicherry andits outlying villages required money in advance about four

months before the harvest because of the heavy land revenueimposed by the amaldars and by those who leased out and thefarmers had to meet the expenses of cuttivation and otherhouseholdThe money lenders fixed the prices ofgrains with the farmers usually, when they provided loan andthe prices of grain fell in the market because of the surplusgrains after the harvest season. At the time of harvest theyforced the farmers to return the amount with interest in kindbecause it was very difficult to collect the amount after theharvest season was over.'1° They collected grain and kept itIn their godowns and sold it in the markets for higher priceswhen the prices of grains began to rise in the markets. Theyalso did not fail to make use of their opportunity of buyingthe lands of poor farmers when their capacity to repay wasaffected by failure of rains, damages caused by floods anddroughts leading to crop failure.'ll Hence the poor farmersbecame the daily wage earners in the lands of the landlords.Artisans :A number of artisans were employed to work in differentfields of the company's service. This artisans groupConsisted of both Indian and European origins. In order toconstruct houses and buildings, and to beautify the cityseveral skilled artisans like armour markers, gunsmithsbankers, master bankers, merchants of spices, blaksmiths,master carpenters and watch makers were brought by the

to work in their respective fields.72 Skilledbuilding workers were mainly brought from Europe at the costof 700 pounds along with specialised workers such asblacksmiths, trained carpenter and timber workers especiallyfor building houses. 73For the development of company's trade skilledprofessional artisans were invited from its surrounding areasto work for the company's commerce. Because of thefacilities and protection given by the French the weaverssuch as Kaikkolars, Devangas, Saliars, and Seniyers fromKanchipuram, Arani, Arcot, and Andra came to Pondicherry andsettled down to work in the companys service.74 Coral fisherswith their familes came to Pondicherry and they were givensome portion of lands west of Pondicherry for theirsettlement. During the period of Dupleix 1200 families ofweavers came and settled down at Villianur and each familyrecived ten pagodas from the company for the establishment oflooms with some privileges. 75Washermen were employed by the company for bleachingthe company's cloths in the bleaching industries and weregiven separate quarters in Pondicherry. They usuallybleached the company's cloths and ironed them before theshipment. 76 Pondicherry and Muthiyalpet were very famous forbleaching because of the best quality of water available

there.77 The painters used to paint the cloths in accordancewith finest of design.The blacksmiths who settled down in Pondicherry producedof high quality articles such as swords, guns, knives,daggers et~.~' The carperters produced articles such asdoors, windows, chairs, tables and forms wooden articles onthe European model. They also made traditional agriculturalimplements. 79 Goldsmiths made ceremonial symbols, jewelsgold and silver ornaments and also engraved company's armsand worked in the mint." Carpenters, blacksmiths andcobblers worked in the gun-powder manufaturing industries atPondicherry as coolies.There were many workers on daily wages. Labernadiepoints out that one sixteenth of the population was composedof poor coolies and domestic workers. These coolies embracedchristianity without participating in their culture; but itwas very difficult to judge the exact number of coolies whoremained faithful to ~hristianity.'~ The economic conditionof these coolies was very poor in the society because theyworked one day and drank two days .83The council employed number of native brahmins in thecompany's Service as vakil, translaters, and messengers to besent to Tanjore Mahe etc while some of them held highPosition as Diwans in the court of the local chieftains.'*

Even much before the arival of the French, some kind ofpolice system existed in the urban society. In order tomaintain order in the town and safequard the big bazaar fromthe robbery in the night, naiynar, native chieftains withsome peons were posted in the town and were paid salary fromthe one fouth of the revenue that was collected on the grainscoming to big bazaar.85 This postion of naiynar or policewas a hereditary one. Topas, who were born for thePortuguese, were enlisted as s~ldiers.'~ The creoles born tothe French parents in the colonies were mostly company'sofficials. Besides a large number negroes were employed inthe military service besides manual labourers to protect theFrench colonies.However, each group of professional artisans such asweavers, painters oil mongers, carpenters, goldsmiths,blacksmiths, washermen and cobblers came from differnt placesand lived in a separate street in Pondicherry according tothe traditional custom that prevailed in the society." Theyfollowed their traditional religious faith and celebrated thefestival in honour of their family God and Goddess. It issaid that blacksmiths known as Kammalars in PondicherryCelebrated kinnither (the cupcar) festival every year onparticular days in honour of their family deity, Goddess Kaliin great pomp.88

During the period under review tremendous changes tookplace in the cultural aspects. Devadases or dancing girlswere usually engaged in the temples to perform dances infrontof the procession of God and Goddess but we find inpondicherry the the dancing girls were often engaged toperform dances with music in the various functions and in thehouses of leading citizens and at their daughter's and son'smarriages besides their usual performance in the temple.The caste system in the society was deeply rootedaccording to the traditional custom, so much so that the lefthand caste (Idangai) dancing girls were not allowed to dancein the houses of right hand caste (Valangai) people.89Whereas we find that the left hand caste dancing girls wereallowed to dance in he houses of right hand caste peopleduring the pongal festival. It seems that on such occasionsit was permissible. The right hand caste and left handcaste groups united together were one against the Brahminslandlords, and tenants. But the conflict between these twogroups was a permanent feature throughout the period in thisregion.Another factor was that as whites and the Indians livedin separate quarters, the Hindus lived in the streetsassigned to them. There were the weavers street, thePainters, oil mongers, the Vellalas, the Bhahmins, the Kusava

street. Chetty street etc. each according to differentbodies of profession. According to the methods of daily workcaste System allowed no innovation in French Pondicherry.These different professional groups came in as the Frenchbegan to establish themselves in P~ndicherry.~'Rural Sociaty rRural society in and around Pondicherry consisted ofmostly traditional agriculturalists and artians. The formerincluded Vanniars or Pallis, Reddiars, Odayars (Malayarnans),Yadava Pillais and Vellalas. Whereas the latter consisted ofblacksmiths, carpentars, goldsmiths, masons, potters,barbars, washermen and cobblers who were partly tied toagriculture. 92AgriculturiatrIn villages which were acquired gradually by the Frenchcompany, the entire lands whether cultivable or noncultivablewere leased out by the French to the nativebidders and amaldars for a fixed annual rent collected on thebasis of the average yield for five years.93 These leaseholders and amaldars held the leased out lands in certainvillages.This system of lease was generally known askuttagai system. 94The lease-holders in turn had the right to rent out thelands further to sub-renters. They also looked after the

interest of levelling the lands, removing the shrubs andrepairing tanks, and Channels for irrigation. Since theselands were in the leased out villages, they offeredconsiderable revenue to the lese holders.For instance, Ananda Ranga Pillai took the Nechanurvillage on lease from the company. When the tanks and twoirrigational channels came to be blocked up in the saidvillage he had to spend a years' profit for repairing them soas to increase the cultivated fields and reclaim the waste.95To a great extent the French followed the old orderwhich was in force in the villages. For instance, theextensive Jagirs of Bahour, Vazhudavur, and Villianur cameunder the French possession. The company with the help ofAnanda Ranga Pillai appointed headmen who were otherwiseknown as amaldars to manage these villages. 96 These amaldarswere asked to collect the revenue from the lease-holders.The amaldars were assisted by the soldiers. For example inVillianur village which had 45 villages was kept under themanagement of Jargirdars and killedars who helped in therevenue collection.97 But some times there used to be someclashes between these soldiers who were Europeans andamaldars which afected the revenue colle~tion.~~Some times the company undertook serious steps to bringback the fugitive peasants who ran away at the time of

y the English in the villages. The company attimes distributed lands to these poor peasants. For instancein 1748 the lands lying between Ariyankuppam andabishekapakkam were given to the poor peasants who wereliving by tillage.99 In order to encourage agriculture thecompany constructed new tanks and channels in thevillages. looThe lease holders in the villages rented to them mostlybelonged to agricultural comnity such as Vellalas, Reddisand Idayas. They rented out the lands further to thepeasants on the basis of Varam which was the share of thecultivators.101 Under this system the produce of the landwas divided between the landlords and peasants and half theproduce was allowed to be taken by the peasants.The French, when they acquired lands, did not alter theclassification of lands followed through generations and thecollection of the revenue was modelled on the same.lo2 So,the peasants too followed the traditional methods ofCultivation as it existed in the rest of Vijayanagarempire.lo3 Some of the community of Vellalas and Reddiarsowned certain portion of land in the villages and cultivatedtheir lands with the help of farm servants known as Pannayalsand also the coolies, who lived in a state of half-bondage.The pannayals did receive their wages in kind. They got at

the end of each month 22 measures of paddy or millets for thefeeding of their family.lo4 They were allowed to take theirmeal daily in the landlords' houses.Besides, the Pannaiyal usually received one rupee and asaree for his wife on the Pongal day. The expenses of themarriage of his sons and daughters and even funerals were metby the landlord.lo5 At the harvest time he received acertain quantity of paddy and during the days when they beatpaddy be was given two measures of paddy daily. He keptwatch in the night in the field during the harvest season.lo6Coolies were mostly Vanniars and Paraiahs including thepoorest reddies. They were free workers on daily wages andthey worked also for daily wages in the field of land owners.When the season of cultivation and harvest was over they wererendered jobless and were with no means of subsistence.lo7Thus one can say that the position of the coolies incomparison with the pannaiyals was not any better in thevillage or rural society.The traditional artisams of village community includedblacksmiths, cartwrights, masons, carpenters, shoemakers,barber, washermen, potters who were partly connected with theagriculturists. They had provided shoes for the bullocks,repaired ploughs and some minor building work.lo8 Thepotters supplied mud vessels to the agriculturists for their

household purpose. Similarly the washermen and barbersrendered services to the agriculturists. Normally therelation between these artisans and agriculturists wasmutual and peaceful one. The social services and certaingoods required by the rural society or rural population weremet by the traditional artisans.These artisans too were paid in kind for their servicesto the villages through setting apart a small portion fromthe gross produce of agriculture, which was known as ayam.They also were given a piece of tax free land known asmanyam.log Some times a single artisan used to render hisservices to several villages and he was tied with the wholeset of social, economic relations of rural people of certainvillages. The remuneration received through ayam and manyamby these artisans came under Jajmani system which waswidespread in South 1ndia.l" Among these artisans anothergroup consisted of craftsmen who must have been working inthe field of spinning and weaving. Though this was one ofthe traditional forms of the village craft, it was declining.Cotton cleaning and spinning were often carried out byartisans living in rural areas. The bulk of spinners wasfound living in rural areas where raw cotton was mostlyavailable. And rural women were engaged themselves inthis craft of spinning.

Sometimes these works were carried out by the members ofthe peasant family like women and children in their homeitself as part-time occupation. The members of the peasantfamily cleaned cotton from the seeds during their leisurehourS.l12 We have many evidences to show that the Frenchencouraged weaving for their export market. All theGovernors of the French company took keen interest inbringing the weavers to Pondicherry and its suburbs. Forinstance Francois Martin himself brought the weavers withexemption from the payment of customs. And village ofVillianur was a settlement of the weavers.'l3 FrancisBuchanan who travelled in the Coromandel region, had remarkedthat all the women and children of the peasant family andalso the women of paraiah community were great spinners inthe ~i1lage.l'~The growth cleaning of cotton spinning and weaving amongthe peasant families was based on home industry. When thepeasant women spinned it was mainly for sale in the market.It gave an additional income to the family. 'I5 However, thesocial status of the traditional artisans of villagecommunity was lower than that of mirasdars or landlords.l16There was market oriented handicraft production whichwas of two kinds in the village society. The low quality ofcoarse goods produced by the rural weavers catered to the

needs of local markets where as the high quality of goods metthe demands of the upper strata of the society and also theexternal market.'l7 It depended mostly upon merchantcapital.The rural society being part of the rest of South Indiaunder the French witnessed similar changes. However theFrench catered to the growth of agricultural production ofcash crops as well as for catering to the local population.

NOTES AND REFERENCESa) B.N.N.A. 9354, fols.76.b) Pondicherry en 1746, Pondicherry, p.2 (Authoranonymous and publication by Historical Society,Pondicherry)C) M.V.Labernadie, Le Vieux Pondichery 1673-1876(Henceforth will be as Labernadie) Pondicherry,1936, pp.83, 25,133.d) Divien, op.cit, p.90Labernadie, op.cit, pp.83, 99-101.Ibid., pp.331-335.Ibid., p.129.Labernadie, op.cit, pp.133-136.Henri de Closets d'Errey, Histore de L'Inde Francaise,(1664-1814) - Institutions Religieuses et Artisanalesde LiInde Son Folklore (Henceforth will be as ClosetdlErrey) Pondicherry, 1940, p.59.Labernadie op.cit, pp.240-241.Ibi d.C .R. Srinivaschari, Ananda Ranga Pillai The Pepys ofFrench India (Henceforth will be as Pepys) Madras,1991, p.13.a. Kappelin, op.cit., p.558b. C.S.P.V. vol.1. pp.24-25.pepys, o.cit., p.xii.Ibi d.R.H. V01.x~ p.20.

14. Cyril Antony, "Festivals celebrated in Pondicherryduring the time of Ananda Ranga Pillai" (RH) 1736-1761,Vo1.X. Pondicherry, 1972, pp.11-20.Ibid, p.17J. F.Price and Dodwell, Ananda Ranga Pillai's Diary, 12volumes (Henceforth ~illai's Diary) Madras, 1904 -1908, Vol.VI1, pp.185, 401 and Vol.X, p.16. 17.R.H.VOl.X, p.18.Ibid, p.17.Ibid, pp. 17,18.Closet dfErrey op.cit., p.64.b) Dalgliesh, op-cit., p.48.Memoires, Francois Martin, Tome.11, pp.418-419.Y.R.Gabele, Histoire de Pondichery de I'an 1000 a nosJour, Pondicherry p.20.Pillai's Diary, Vol. IV, p.20,52, IX, p.214.a) Pepys. Op.cit, p.xi,xii.b) Diary, Vol.11, p.157.Closet d'Errey, op.cit., pp.59-60.Diary, Vol.1. p,ii, Vol.IV, p.123.Closet dlErrey, op.cit., pp:60-61.Ibid, pp.59-60.Closet dlErrey, pp.60-61Ibid.Labernadie Op.cit, pp.242-243.On aura une idBe de Ifimportance des diffdrentesparties de la population par cette liste empruntse aANANDA et qui dCnombre les cadeaux recus par Dupleix aI'occasion de la remise de sa croix de Saint Michel en1747.

The meaning in English is as follows:On the occasion of the replacement of the cross ofSt.Michea1 in 1747 it is interesting to note the giftsoffered to Dupleix by different sections of the nativesequal to fifteen rupees in those days in Pondicherryu.Les marchands de la CompagnieSalatouvenkatachalachettySeshachalachettyLes marchands de tissusLes marchands de corailLes tisserandsLes homes de MoutialpettaiLes tisserands etrangersLes potiersLes forgerons, charpentiers etartisansLes marchands d'arackGontour RavanapachettyLa population dlAriancoupomLa caste de comettys (marchandsVenus du nordLes vellalas (cultivateurs)Les gens de la MonnaiettyLes gens du petit bazarLe NainardLes gens des villagesLes marchands d'huileLes gens dlOulgaretLes gens qui vont chercher levin de palmeLes peintresLes presseurs de cotonLes laveursLes marchands de tabacLes changeurs d'argentLe Chef des chettysLes marchands d'indigodonnerent 11 mohurs* One Mohure is worth about fifteen rupees.33. S . Krishnara ja, "Customs and manners in Pondicherryduring the time of Ananda Ranga PIllai", Vol.X,Pondicherry, 1972, p.13-17.35. Pillai's Diary, passim.

36. Ibid.Pillai's Diary, Vol.1, pp.4,5.Ibid, Vol.1, pp.374-375.Ibid, Vol.V, p.302.E . Gaudart, Catalogue des Manuscri ts des dnciennesArchives de 1 'Inde ~rancaise 1690-1787, (HenceforthGaudart) Paris, Torn.1, pp.46,52.Pillai's Diary, Vol.1, p.76, X, pp.103-105, 110.Ibid, Vol.1, p.8.Ibid, Vol. IV, pp.147,148Ibid, Vol.V, p.302.Ibid, Vol.11, p.69.Ibid, Vol. 1, pp. 116,201.Ibid, Vol. 11, pp.164-165Catherine Manning, op.cit, p.168.Pillai's ~iary, Vol.11, p.69, IV, p.346.Ibid, Vol.VI, p.83.Ibid, Vol.X, p.195.R.H.Vol.X, p.23.Ibid, p.15.Pillai's Diary, Vol.II,p.250, Vol.111, p.99, IV, p.18.Ibid, Vol.111, p.300.Ibid, Vol.11, p.12.Ibid, Vol.111, p.119.Ibid, Vol.x, p.147. Note: Sowcars meant bankers inIndia.

Hundi or Indian promissory notes had been in usage overa considerable period of time. It provided the creditfacilities for Indian businessman. Irfan Habibexplains that if an individual wished to send moneyfrom one place to another without travelling himself,he handed over the sum in question to a financiercalled kwastadar who gave a receipt for this sum. Thisreceipt was then sent to the desired recipient. Therecipient showed his receipt called hundi to the agentof the financier who then handed over the stated sum tohim. This makes it clear that these hundies weresimple promissory notes. Lotika Varadarajan, Vol.1,Part.1, pp.787-788.Pillai's Diary, Vol.X, p.xxi.Ibid, Vol.111, p.iii, 27, Vol.VI1, p.162, Vol.IX, p.45.Ibid, Vol.11, p.154Ibid, Vol.IX, p.45.Ibid, Vol .XI, p.115.Ibid, Vol.XI, p.97Ibid, Vol.11, p.162.Ibid, Vol.1, p.55.Ibid.Ibid, Vol.XI, p.135,136Ibid, Vol.X, p.17.Ibid, Vol.X, p.153a) Labernadie, Op.cit, pp.220-221.b) Dalglish, Op.cit, p.43.Labernadie, Op.cit, p.132.a) Pillai's Diary, IV, p.51, Vol.XI1, p.201.b) closet dlErrey, Op.cit, p.112.Pepys, op.cit., pp.137-138

Pillai's Diary, Vol.11, 334, Vol.VI1, 3,11.Pillai's Diary, Vol.VI1, p.37.Ibid, Vol.1, p.144, Vol.11, p.24.Ibid, Vol.1, p.172.Ibid, Vol.1, 34, Vol.V, pp.137-142, 248,286Ibid, Vol .V, p.356. 'Labernadie, Op. cit, p.242Pillai's Diary, Vol.IV, p.249.Ibid, Vol.VI, p.343.a) Ibid, Vol.VI, p.229.b) ~abernadie, Op.cit, p.240.Cyril Antony, op.cit., Vol.1, p.394.a) Labernadie, Op.cit, p.326.b) Pillai's Diary, Vol.XI1, p.19.R.H. VOl.X, p.8.Pillai's Diary, passim.This division of caste into right hand or left handexisted in Pondicherry even during the Vijayanagartime, T.V.Mahalingam, Administration and Social Lifeunder Vijayanagar (Henceforth Mahalingam) Madras, 1975,p.69.Labernadie, Op.cit, p.242.P.L.Samy, Society at the time of Ananda Ranga PillaiVOl.XI, pp.52-55.a) R.H. Vol.XIV, pp.66-67.b) Cyril Antony, Vol.1, op.cit, p.360.Pillai's Diary, Vol.1, p.226.T.V.Mahalingam, op.cit., p.97.

Pillai's Diary, Vol.IV, p.427.Pillai's Diary, Vol.IX, p.145, Vol. I, p.99.Pillai's Diary, Vol.VII1, p.222.Pillai's Diary, Vol.X, pp. 154-155.Pillai's Diary, Vol.VI, p.38.a) Cyril Antony, Vol. I, Op. cit, pp.408-411.b) CCSP (1726-1730), p.30.Pillai's Diary, Vol.XI, pp.111.113.Natarajan, op.cit, p.158.T.V.Mahalingam, Part-11, op.cit, p.93.R.H. Vol.X~v, pp.66-79, T.V.Mahalingam op.cit, p.97R.H. VOl.XIV, p.69.Ibid, p. 69-70.Ibid, p. 70.Ibid, p. 71.a) CEHI, Vol.1, Op.cit, p.316.b) R.H. Vol.XIV, p.67.CEHI, Vol, op.cit, p.316.Chicherov, op.cit, pp.50-52.Ibi d.Cyril Antony, Vol. I, op.cit, pp.161-162.F.Buchanan, Vol.1, p.53.Chicherov, op.cit, pp.50-52.CEHI, Vol.1, Op.cit, p.317.Ibid.

CHAPTER - VIIC O N C L U S I O NThe maritime and commercial ventures of the Europeannations like the Dutch, English and the French on the Indiansub-continent resulted in significant changes in the societyand economy of those centres where colonies or settlementswere established from the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries.The commercial encounter of the French with Pondicherry andits surrounding areas witnessed similar changes in the socioeconomiclife of the people during the period under review.Enormous development occured in the agricultural andnon-agricultural sectors of production both in the rural andurban centres of Pondicherry due to the expansion of Europeanand Asian overseas trade. Agriculture was affected becauseof the French demand for certain cash crops like cotton,indigo, sugarcane and betel to meet the export market as wellas the local need. The cultivation of these commercial cropsboosted the capacity of the agriculturists to buy more landto bring it under cultivation. This led to increase inagricultural production through intensive and extensiveCultivation of cash crops which enabled the French company to

generate sufficient revenue to fund their commercialactivities.There was a gradual emergence of big land lords who werebecoming moneyed men like the Reddis and Vellalars anddisplaced the small scale cultivators who turned out to bewage earners. Increase in cash crops led to shortage inessential commodities for the local consumption. So thecompany imported rice from Karaikal, Tanjore, Masulipatam,Siam and Pegu for local consumption in Pondicherry asexplained in the agricultural economy.The agrarian economy was geared to promote thecultivation of cotton textiles in the non-agriculturalsector. The production of cotton goods gave a boost to thedevelopment of certain handicrafts such as cotton cleaning,spinning, weaving, bleaching, dyeing, printing and painting.Oil pressing, and sugar manufacturing were other profession,that grew side by side in Pondicherry. The demand for thesaltpetre increased both in Europe and in India due tounstable political conditions. The company made a lot ofeffort to bring artisans and craftsmen from places likeMadras, Porto Novo and Chinnamannayakkan palayam and otherareas. This saw the migration of weavers, skilled artisanslike bleachers, cloth printers, paintors, dyers, blacksmiths,Carpenters, potmakers, shoemakers from distant villages and

temple vicinities, who settled in the urban and rural areasunder the French. Many weaving centres sprang up inpondicherry, such as Pudupet, Muthialpet, Saram, Villianurand Thilasupet. These centres were to produce more textilesin order to Supply the companys export trade. Pondicherrybecame an urban centre. Further the French companyestablished production centres on the Coromandel coast inplaces like Porto Novo, Lalapettai, etc.The artisans and craftsmen who until now were engaged inweaving and other activities related to it on a part timebasis became fulltime weavers and thus became producers forthe company. Many weavers who became capitalist in theprocess became master weavers. They engaged small-scaleweavers who turned to be wage earners.There were others who became suppliers of raw materialto the fulltime weavers. And moneyed merchants becamemiddle-men, agents between the company and the producers.The company often followed the system of giving advances tothe weavers through her agents. The weavers paid back themoney through the supply of textiles to the company. AnandaRanga Pillai as a native courtier stood as a surety for theweavers for the company. The company also supplied theparticular pattern of cloth when they gave advance to theweavers. These middle men or brokers between the actual

producer and the company merchants turned out to besupervisors Of production. The artisans became wage earnersand the merchants became direct organisors of production andowners of looms.Gradually the labour became a commodity and certainpatterns of textile goods alone were catered to, whichbrought fame to the town. The small scale producer began toloose his looms and independence.The production of cash crops, cotton textilesintensified the commercial activities of the French inPondicherry. A brisk import and export trade developed.Pondicherry became the headquarters of the French colonies inIndia. It grew as a distributing centre of both European andIndian goods. Ships from Europe and Asia came laden withtheir commercial and luxurious items. European goods wereunloaded and distributed to hinterland markets and to theSouth East Asian countries. Luxury item was in demand forthe native rulers and chieftains in India. Goods werereceived from South East Asia, West Asia, West and Eastcoasts of India and from her production centres on thehinterland.Seeing the lucrative commerce in Pondicherry many whowere not traders until1 then entered company's commerce. Forinstance Ananda Ranga Pillai who belonged agricultural

cornunity entered the company's service as Dubash becameagent of company to procure various goods for the company'sexport market. In course of time moneyed men like thechettiars, sowcars and others became traders. The Brahminstoo entered the company service as traders. This resulted inthe development of capitalist economy of a few men becomingricher and wealtheir. These wealthy men were prominentmerchants who were able to invest their capital in theexchange sector. Small scale traders became agents in thehands of these merchants. Commercial goods of finer textileswere exported to Europe and coarse goods to South Asia andhinterland markets of India.Pondicherry became busy commercial port-town in theperiod under study. She was linked to the European market,besides being connected with West Asia in Red Sea and PersianGulf. As a result intra-asian trade flourished. In theEast, the trade of Pondicherry grew with Pegu, Siam, Mergui,Batavia, Philipines, Cochin-China, and Japan. The companysometimes shipped her goods in company ship and took infreight the goods of the private merchants and at other timesthe company traded in private ships.Pondicherry was well connected with important port-townsof India, like Masulipatam, Yanam, Mahe, Surat, Madras,Cuddalur and Karaikal both on the Malabar and Coromandel

coast. It was connected with the hinterland production andmarketing centres like Salem, Kanchipuram, Tindivanam,virudachalam, Ulundurpet , Ariyalur, Chennamannayakkanpalayam,and Bangalore.It is certain, that the whole of Coromandel coast andsouth India were well inter-connected with Pondicherry whichnaturally led to the improvement in the system of transportand communication. Daily communication service betweenPondicherry and Karaikal was established. Brahmin messengerswere employed to carry messages from different places toPondicherry. Several markets such as daily market, weeklyand periodical markets gained momentum in the town ofPondicherry and its vicinity. These markets catered to theneeds of the people in the town and its surroundings.The commercial ventures of the French not only did bringa lot of money but also made Pondicherry wealthy andprosperous. The French really doubled her wealth through herAsian trade. The whole Coromandel coast became the marketarea for the European competitors to procure textiles and tosell their home product.The inflow of gold and silver affected the localeconomy. There was sufficient currency in circulation whichimproved the financial condition of the country with theestablishment of the mint. Import of luxury goods called as

toy trade in India, catered to the upper section of thesociety.Along with trade the other auxiliaries developed such asmint, banking, exchange of money, credit facilities whichgave birth to the rise of capitalism. The French taxationsystem helped to wield monetary and political power. Mintingmoney helped in simple exchange of goods in place of exchangeof commodities.As a result of the various activities of the French inthe agricultural, non-agricultural and commercial sectors,society in French Pondicherry grew into urban and ruralcentres. It had an impact upon the society and economy ofPondicherry. It had absorbed men of all faiths, culture andlanguage. The agricultural landlords, weavers, oil pressers,and sugar manufacturers contributed in their own way for thegrowth and urbanisation of Pcndicherry. The streets weremarked according to the respective professions they performedsuch as Chetty street, Vellala street, Kusava street makingthe contact easy for the company based on the profession. Itmay well be observed that the establishment of Ville Blanc(European quarters) and Ville Noir was accepted by both theEuropean and the natives.In the European quarters, Christianity alone waspractised but liberty was accorded to follow native religious

customs and ceremonies to others. Regarding population in1715 the Hindus numbered approximately 60,000 to 70,000 andthe Christians 2,500 of which about 500 were French nationalsand Eurasians. By 1725, the population of Pondicherry hadreached about 100,000. Under Lenoir Pondicherry grew as aurban centre. The increase in population was to augmentproduction in the colony. There was increase in demand forcotton and silk textiles in the French market which led toincrease in production in Pondicherry and its environs.Because Indian textiles were cheaper and were of betterquality. This would have promoted the intensification andextension of areas to be cultivated.From the very beginning of their existence inPondicherry the French were aware of the racial, cultural,religious, social and linguistic differences between them andt5e natives. The natives accepted the French way of life toa certain extent, but not completely. The French began toassimilate certain customs of the native society byencouraging matrimonial alliances.As the French women were very few in Pondicherry, theFrench entered into matrimonial relations with thePortuguese, Dutch and the English nationals who were livingin different colonies. The French crown encouraged theFrench to marry the native women in order to build up a race

of mixed blood, who would remain loyal to France speaking theFrench language, following the French manners and customs atthe same time having their roots in the native soil.Another step taken in the direction of assmilation wasconversion. The French attempted to create a section ofsociety who were totally dependent on them for their economicwell being and social status. Perhaps the French believedthat these converted christians would ensure their loyaltyand in time of need they could bank upon the support of thenew-converts. However, their religious zeal took them topass certain orders which went against the interest of theHindus and opened the exodus of the poeple from Pondicherry.The religious priests forced the French to pass certain lawsprohibiting the Hindus to celebrate certain feast when itfell on Easter or important christian festials. This broughtruin to their commercial activities and so the Frenchgovernment abolished such orders.Education was yet another means by which the Frenchtried to influence the socio-cultural life in Pondicherry.To their luck the Jesuits founded colleges and seminaries andattracted people from India and other countries to theseinstitutions. Finally when the Jesuits left the town such anopportunity was lost to the people. In order to educate thewomen, a women religious order was started by the Ursulines

de Vannes but they too did not stay permanently and went backto France. The educational institutions established by the~rench had gone a long way in assimilating the French way oflife. Through their conversion and education the Frenchwanted to emancipate the down-trodden among the local societyand to place them on a equal footing with others.The French usually participated in the marriages of thedaughters of higher native dignatries. They shared in thepan-supari of giving betel and sugar and the sprinkling ofrose water. When the French offered contract or lease withthe native merchants the custom of mutual exchange of giftswas always there.The Indo-French contact in Pondicherry influenced morethe commercial front. The patterns and designs of thetextiles that were produced both in India and France inmanufacture. French Jesuit like Courdow and naval captain,Beaulieu tried to study and learn the professional secretsand natural dye manufacturing technique and processes of theIndian textile production which they passed on to France.In the field of literature, the example of Ananda RangaPillai is a striking. Ananda Ranga Pillai must have got thisidea of maintaining his diary of registering the day to dayevents from his association with the French.

In fine it may safely be said that the French existenceduring the period under study in Pondicherry and itsdependent villages brought considerable change in theagrarian, and non-agrarian sectors of production. Thesechanges eventually had its impact on the society and economyof Pondicherry. This had its further impact on the growth ofport-towns on the Coromandel coast linking it with theInternational world market. The rise of merchant capitalalso should be counted. Pondicherry became really themeeting ground of the West and the East spreading thecultures of France and India. One can see its remenant evento-day.

G L O S S O R Y~graharam - village where brahmins live~ldee - village-1d.r - local chieftainurack de pariah - liquor distilled from jaggeryBalija - caste-name in the telugu communityBasin - a thick cotton cloth with designBazaar - marketBelle8 chites - beautiful chintzBetilledorear - a kind of famous mustin clothCadoucai - is a genuine myrobolanCadoucaipou - the europeans called it 'fleur de mirobolan'myrobolan flower. Yellow in colour.Canjee - liquid rice paste (used in weaving cotton cloth).1 Cany - 5,350 m.Chattiram or Chavadi - resting place built upon the highwaystravellers find a shelter.Chest - a wooden box used as a sort of measurementChatty - a south indian merchant caste.Chintz - glazed printed cotton or silk fabricChuliar - name of the trading muslims of South IndiaConjsmr - number of threadsCorge - a measurementCooly - daily wage earners

Dubash - literally means speaking two languages, translator,interpretor working in the European trading compnies.~hobi - washer man~damgai - lefthand -- it refers to the social division ineighteenth century, Pondicherry.Edaya - shephered comnityPanam -silver coin in south India valued at 24 kasu or oneeighth of a rupee.Firman - a written order issued by a ruler.Garase -a standard weight prevalent in north Coromandelregion, one garse equalled to 600 markals. Thisis used to assess the loadings during shipments.Goudalour - old name for Cuddalore.Guinea or guinea - cotton cloth for export to West AfricaGuingam - striped or checked clothE-s - a kind of textileHaweldar - militory officer with administrative control overtowns and subdivision.Kaikolar - tamil weaving corranunity.Kambou - millet.Kalam - a tamil measure of paddy and rice with regionalvariations.Ka1ik.n-samba - a veriety of paddyK-lars- a casteKarr - variety of paddy

Karu -a copper coin of small demonination current in tamilcountry.~inrrithor - temple car in south India.~mtty - a telugu merchant caste.~orai - a verity of grass~&bai - a subdivision of tamil muslims of Coramandel and aretraders and betel vine growers.Lambadi - a well known tribe of carriers of food grains.Lampaare - a kind of textile.~oge - trading post.Makuvaa or Pattanavas - caste of fishermen.Maniam - gift of free land.Marc - German coinMarakal - A measurement for grains used in tamil country.Marakkayar - A subdivision of tamil muslims of Coramandel.Mouchoir - handkerchief, scarf.Mudaliyar - A title of honour - A tamil cast of land owners.Nawab - a deputy or governor under Mughal Emperor.Nayanar - the native chief of police in Pondicherry region.Pagoda - a coin both gold and silver once current in southIndia, gold pagada was called carahan and alsotemple.Pannoyalr - Agriculture workers living in semi-bondage.Pattunoolkararr - literally silk thread producers.Panaupari - beda with betel, arccanut and chunam.

percale - high degree of light and fine white plain cotton~01th.perra - chintz.piartra - a foreign coin.promboc - public property.Ratty8 - owners of land.Sailcare - kombayam cloth.Salempore - plain white cloth and dyed cotton cloth aspeciality of Coromandel.Saliyar - a south Indian weaving caste.Sana - a kind of cotton textile.Sarasaa - multicoloured patterned cloth used as waist clothand curtain cloth.Ser - is also an Indian weight. The Ser is a cubic measurewith a diameter of 3 inches and equal depth. One Seris equal to eight magani, eight ser is equal to onemarakkal .Shroffs - jewellers.Socroton - a kind of textile.Sowcar - bankers.Stinkerqua - a kind of textile.Taffeta - a kind of cloth.Takkavi - a loan given to peasants before harvest.Tarnatme - a kind of textile.Tarrindam - a kind of mulsin cloth for the body.

~oile - French word means of a piece of linen cloth.Varm - cultivator's share on the harvest.varaban - gold coin.valsngai - righthand (refers to the social division inPondicherry)vazir - a principal minister.vellalar - agriculturists.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHYSource materials on the socio-economic condition of theFrench colonies in India with special reference topondicherry in the period under review are found in theseveral collections of documents and manuscripts, such as in~rchives Nationales, Paris, Bibliotheque Nationales, Paris,Archives Nationales, Depot dfOutre-Mer, Aix-En-Provence,France, British India Office Library, London and variousrepositories in India.This work is based on the study of the documentsavailable in all the above mentioned archives and librariesas well as in the libraries and archives in India speciallyin the archives of Delhi and in the French Institute, theRomain Rolland Library, Ecole d' Extreme Orient and theGovernment Museum, Pondicherry.For the sake of clarity, the Bibliography is dividedinto two divisions: I Primary Sources, I1 Secondary Sources.The section on the primary sources is divided further intomanuscript sources, printed documents, memoirs and diaries,travelogues and contemporary histories and chronicles.

I. Primary Sourcesseries - C - Campagnie des Indes(a) Manuscriptsc2-1 Inventaires analytique des papiers relatys 6 laCompagnie des Indes dgposbs au controle generaldes finances 1721-1772.c2-2 d 9 Compagnie des Indes. Administration en France,1649-1705.cZ-10 et 11 Compagnie des Indes. Legislation et arrets,1686-1709.c2-12 120 Compagnie des Indes. Administration en France,1706-1728.c2-21 Collection d16dits, declarations, reglements etarrets concernant la compagnie, 1664-1737.c2-22 640 Compagnie des Indes. Administration en France,1729-1754.c2-271 6276 Marine de la Compagnie des Indes. Organisation,reglements, privileges, documents relatifs auxvaisseaux, 1681-1786.A-1 Registre des deliberations du conseil de lacompagnie tenues 6 Pondichery a commencer le lerFevrier 1701 a 1705.

~1/2 Registre de deliberation du conseil de laconpagnie tenue d Pondichery et commence - Fevrier1701-1725.~1/3 Deliberations du Conseil Superieur du conseil dela compagnie tenu d Pondichery commencer Mai 1725d Decembre 1739, Juin 1759 - Novembre 1760.Thisis preserved in Aix-~n-Provence. A-1, A1/2, A1/3give the correspondence between France andPondicherry, besides the detailed account of theday to day events of the various contracts made bythe company at Pondicherry with the merchants andthe mutual exchange of gifts.It also gives indetail the name of the governor the -ecrivanl -writer in those daily council meetings.B.N.MSS Memoirs - of Dupleix. The companys activities in8993Pondi cherry.B.N.N.A Nouveau Acquisitions 'Compagnie des Indes' -9225Dupleix and the Company's sale in France in 1749is given in detail in this collection. The Jesuitrelations with the French are also found here.B.N.N.A9352Letters written by Caron, Blot, Baron, La Haye,Abbe Carre, Francois Martin and other leadingFrench men and their activities in India and with

Colbert Directors of the French company and thereply from the home government are available inthis collection.B.N.N.A Memoirs touchant le commerce des Indes Orientales9353- 1668. Memoirs sur la prohibition des toilespeintes .Printed DocumentsProces -Verbaux des deliberations du Conseil Superieur - dePondicherry (Pondicherry 1911-1914) Tom I, 11, 111.These volumes cover the various deliberations of theSuperior Council of Pondicherry from 1701 to 1739.Correspondence du Conseil Superieur de Pondichery et de laCompagnie (1726-1767). Volumes I1 and I11 are of greatimportance for the present study. It includes thecorrespondence that had taken place between the homeauthorities and the Superior Council of Pondicherry.Resume des lettre du Conseil Superieur de Pondichery aDivers: (du ler aout 1725 au 31e Decembre 1742 et du eeDecembre 1749 a 1 4 ~ Novembre 1760). This book byClosets dlErrey is of great importance for the study ofthe French Companys' activities in the East. He haspublished several letters written by the Superior

Council of Pondicherry to the local powers and thechiefs of the European companies.catalogue des Manuscrits des dnciennes Archives de 1 'IndeFrancaise - (Pondicherry 1933) 8 volumes. EdmundGaudart has given the contents of each document insummary form which serves our purpose.The English Factories in India (1618-1669) ed. by W.Foster13 volumes Oxford 1906-1927.Char1es.F. The English Factories in India, volume 11, NewSeries, Oxford, 1952.Memoirs, Diaries and havaloguesAlfred Martineau led) Memoirs de Francois Martin 3 volumesPondicherry, 1931-34.Pondichery en 1746Pondichery) .(This is an anonymous account ofAnanda Ranga Pillai's Diary Translated and published byJ.F.Price and Dodwell 12 volumes, Madras, 1904-1908.Ed. Charles Fawcett, 3 volumes Abbe Carre, The Travels ofAbbe Carre in India and the near East, 1672-1674.Ed. Smith, V.A.Francois Bernier, Travels in the Mogul Empire1656-1681, London, 1914.

Sen S, Indian Travels of Thevenot and Careri, New Delhi,1949.Ed.GreY, The Travels of Pietro della Valle in India, London,1892.secondary SourcesAbbe Raynal, (ed) - Justamond, 5 vols. History of theSettlements and Trade of Europeans in the East and Westof India, Edinburg, 1776.A1exander.K.C. Agrarian Tensions in Thanjavur, Hyderabad,1975.Antony Cyril, Gazetteer of Pondicherry Volume I, Pondicherry1983.Arasaratnam. C, Merchants, Companies and Commerce on theCoromandel coast, 1650-1740, Delhi, 1986.Blancard, Manuel du Commerce des Indes Orientales et de laChine, Paris, 1806.araudel, Fernaud, Civilisation and Capitalism 15th-18thcentury, The wheels of commerce, trans, Sian Reynolds,2 volumes, London, 1982.

~uchanan, F .H. A Journey from Madras through the countriesof Mysore, Canara and Malabar, volume 3, London, 1807.Cflandra Satish, Medieval India, Delhi, 1986.chaudhuri,K.N. Trading World of Asia and the East IndiaCompany 1660-1760, Cambridge, 1978.Chicherov, A.I. India Economic Development in the 16th-18thcenturies, Outline history of crafts and trade, Moscow,1971.Chitnis K.N. Socio-Economic Aspects of Medieval India,Madras, 1950.Cippolla, Carlo .M. The Fontana Economic History of Europe,the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.Dalgliesh The Company of the Indies in the days of Dupleix1722-54, Philadelphia, 1933.Divien Emmanuel 1) French Pioneers in South India 1664-1706Madras, 1961, Thesis submitted for the M.Litt Degree ofthe University of Madras.2) The Development of Tamil Society in Pondicherry1706-1898, December, 1975, Ph.D. Thesis submitted tothe University of Madras.

Dodwell, Henry Dupleix and Clive - The beginning of Empire,London, 192 0 .Deloce, Jean, (ed.) Statisque de Pondichery, 1822-1824,Pondicherzy, 1988.Errey Closet d'H, Histoire de llInde Francoise 1664-1814,Institutions Religieuse et Artisanales de 1'Inde SonFolklore, Pondicherry, 1940.Francis .W. Madras District Gazatieer, South Arcot, Madras,1906.Fosses, Castonnet des L, Inde Francaise avant Dupleix,Paris, 1887.E'urber, Holden, Rival Empires of Trade in the Orient 1600-1800, Mimesota, 1976.Ga1leti.A. The Dutch in Malabar, Madras, 1911.Garstin, J.H. Manuel of the South Arcot District, Madras,1878.Gaudart Edmund, Correspondence des Agents a Pondichery de laNouvelle Compagnie des Indes avec les Administrateur deParis, 1788-1803, Paris, 1931.

~abib.Irfan, The Agrarian System of Mughal India, Delhi,1962.Haight F.A. A History of the French Commercial Policies, NewYork, 1941.Hatalkar, V.G.Relation between the French and the Marathas1668-1815, Bombay, 1958.HAUDREREPhilippe, La Compagnie Francaise Des Indes AuXVIII~Siecle 1719-1795, Paris, 1989 I-IV vols.Jackson, William, History of India, volume VIII, Delhi,1987.Kaeppelin, Paul, La Compagnie des Indes Orientales etFrancois Martin 1664-1719, Paris, 1908.Kail O.C. The Dutch in India, New Delhi, 1981.Karashima, Noboru, South Indian History and Society, Studiesfrom Inscriptions A.D.850-1800, Delhi, 1984.Kenneth M.N. The Penguin History of Canada, London, 1969Krishnamurthy B. The French Trade with India 1664-1754,(unpublished Thesis submitted to the M.S.University ofBaroda) Baroda, 1984.

wppusamy, S, Kalvettukalil Puduvai Paguthigal Pondicherry,1974 (Tamil).~abernadie, Marguerite,V. Le Vieux Pondichery 1673-1876,Pondicherry, 1936.~ahalingam, T.V. Administration and Social Life underVi jayanagar, Madras, 1975.Malleson, G.B. History of the French in India from thefounding of Pondicherry to the capture of that place in1761, Edinburg, 1909.Martianeau, Alfred, Dupleix et L'Inde Francaise 1722-1741,Paris, 1920.Mathew,K.S. Portuguese Trade with India in the sixteenthcentury, New Delhi, 1983.Maurois Andre, A History of France, London, 1964.Moreland, W.H. India at the Death of Akbar, London, 1920.-, From Mar to Aurangzeb (reprint), New Delhi, 1972Natarajan, R. Social History of Pondicherry as evidenced byAnanda Ranga Pillai, Diary, Madras, 1989 (unpublishedPh.D. thesis submitted to the International Instituteof Tamil Studies).

RamasamY Vija~a, Textiles and Weavers in the Medieval SouthIndia, Delhi, 1985.Roberts P.E. History of British India, Delhi, 1986.~othermund, Dietmar Asian Trade and European Expansion inthe Age of Mercantilism, New Delhi, 1961.Rousse1ot.J.P. (Jacques Philibert) Memoires Geographiques,Physics et historic ... tires des lettres edifiantes etdes voyages des Missionaires Jesuites, Paris, 1768.Tom. I.Sarkar J.N. Mughal Economy, Organisation and Working,Calcutta, 1987.Sastri K.N. History of India Part 11, Medieval India,Madras, 1950.Scholberg, H and Divien, Emmanuel Bibliographic des Francaisdan 1 'Inde, Pondichery, 1973.Sen S.P. The French in India, First Establishment andStruggle, Calcutta, 1947.Stein Burton, Peasant State and Society in Medieval SouthIndia, Delhi, 1980.

Thapar Romila, A History of India, Great Britain, 1966.Thompson. Virginia, McLean, Dupleix and his letters, 1742-1754, New York, 1933.wallerstein Immanuel, The Modern World System Capitalist,Agriculture and the Origins of the European WorldEconomy in the Sixteenth century, New York, 1974.Weber Henri, La Compagnie Francaise des Indes 1664-1875,Paris, 1904.WEBBR Jacque, Les Etablissements Francais en Inde au XIX~Siecle 1816-1914, Paris, 1988 (5 vols) I-V. Tom.Wood Cock, G, Kerala a portrait of Malabar coast, London,1967.

ARTICLESAntony Cyril, Festivals celebrated in Pondicherry duringthe time of Ananda Ranga Pillai (RH) vol.X,Pondicherry, 1972.--------, Banking in 18th century (RH) vol .XI, Pondicherry,1973.Barbier La Compagnie Francaise Des Indes (RH) vo1.111,Pondicherry, 1919.M.de.Beaulieu, Method of producing painted cottons in India"- Maniere de fabrique les toiles peintes dans 1'Inde(published in Paris in 1736).Catherine .M. French Country Trade on Coromandel 1720-1750Revista Cul turd, 1991 (Father) Coeurdoux,G.L. (GastonLaurent) On Indian Cotton painting in 1742.On the same topic - 1747.Author Anonymous The method of painting cottons, aspractised in India, published in Paris in 1752.Diagou Jaganou La Situation de Pondicherry au milieu duXVIII Siecle Pondicherry, 1981-1986.Dubreuil Jouveau G La Fondation du Comptoir Francaise dePondicherry en 1617 (RH) vol.VII1, Pondicherry, 1952.

- Le Commerce des tissues de coton a Pondichery auXvIIe et XVIIIe (RH) VIII.-Lesorigines de Pondichery (RH) vol .VIII Pondichery,1952.~ivien Immanuel, Francois Martin, The Architect of theFrench settlement at Pondicherry (RH) vol .XI,Pondicherry, 1973.Habib Irfan, The Peasant in Indian History Kurukshetra,1982, (Presidential address, the Indian HistoryCongress Forty Third Session).Krishnaraja S, customs and manners in Pondicherry during thetime of Ananda Ranga Pillai, (RH) vol.X, Pondicherry,1972.Krishnamurthy B, The beginnings of Indo-French Trade: TheFrench attempts to reach India in 1668 (RH) vol.XII1,Pondicherry, 1976-1989.The Revenue System of the French AdministeredTerritories in India in the First Half of theEighteenth Century (RH) vol .XVI, Pondicherry 1989-1990.Perumal, RAnanda Ranga Pillai and Dupleix (RH) vol.X,Pondicherry. 1972 (Tamil).

~acine J.L. Esquisse D'une Histoire Commercial PondicherryJusquin 1954, (RH) vol.X, Pondicherry, 1972.L' agriculture au Coromandel dlapres un VoyageurFrancais du XVII~~~ Siecle: Pierre Poivre avec uninedit de 1763, (RH) v01 .XII, Pondicherry, 1974-75.Sinha Arvind, Paper presented on the French Trade in India,in the eighteenth century, (Seminar proceedings onIndo-French relations, History and Perspectives, TheEmbassy of France in India, New Delhi, 17th-19th April,1990.Sundaram T.Annie Coins and currency of Pondicherry duringthe French Regime (RH) vol.X, Pondicherry, 1972.Varadarajan L. Reasons leading to the establishment of theFrench East India Company, Edict of the year 1664, (RH)vol.XI1, Pondicherry, 1974-1975.

A FEW CROPS GROW IN SOUTH IUDIA AILP mIONEDSOUTHERN INDIA: The following crops were mentioned byPaes, Muniz, Garcia da Orta.FOOD GRAIWS: Rice, Wheat, Jowar, Ragi, Millets ingeneral.PULSES :Gram, Mung, Horse-gram, various pulses(unspecified)OTEER CROPS Sugar-cane, Cotton, Indigo, Till,Linseed, Pepper, Coconut, Ginger,Turmeric, Betel, Cardamom, Areca,various other vegetables.

as0 p lbld p 1'1000 p lbld p ill114.')I I yr.,1210 p Car du ronSup *I d. 1.C* "0, IIP 210

2060 p Cor du conoup er dc 1.toe "0, IID 210. . I. 1710 ~ond~oh.iry and aurar vrnng.. mr. r.nt.6 our for I para bur sumewan~ly thla durat~on was reducedto two y..rm, on tha &nand or ni. nnr.ro

ATLASAPPrnIX - C-IA GLOSSARY OF THg INDIAN TEXTILESSilk stuff worked with threads of gold andsilver in several designs like flowers andpartridge's eye; woven mainly around Hugly inBengal and Gujarat.Plain cotton cloth white as well as colouredin blue, also stripped and chequered inwhite, blue and red. There were also Baftasetroit or Narrow Baftas, produced in Gujarat,Coromandal coast and Bengal.BAJATAPAUXBASINSCotton cloth, chequered in red, blue andwhite of 10 vissar. Produced in Gujarat.Cotton cloth brocaded in colour. Used formaking robes, carpets, table cloth, tablelinen, napkins and bed cloth. Manufacturedmainly in the Coromandal coast and the bestvariety came from Goudalur (Cadaloor).Cotton cloth, stripped or coloured in white,green red and blue of 12 vissas. Produced inGujarat .

'Bmhtilhm' as mentioned in the Portugueserecords. A sort of plain thick muslin cloth,manufactured in the northern Coromandal Coastand Thiruvannamalai region.CALADARISCEASZEUSAlso called as calanrkarie; painted by kalarn(style). Produced in Gujarat and theCoromandal Coast.Striped and chequered in white and blue aswell as red and blue. Produced in Gujaratand the Coromandal Coast.Also known as Chintz, Calicl, printed andpainted of floral designs. Used as dressmaterials, curtains and furniture covers.Produced in Gujarat and the Coromandal Coast.Best varieties came from Ahmedabad andCambay.CIUVAITESStriped and embroidered in gold and colourthreads, also plain. Produced in Bengal andthe Coromandal Coast.Striped as well as plain cloth. Designelevated up the bottomside of the cloth; ofmixed colours. Manufactured in theCoromandal Coast.

DARAJXSDORCASDOREASDOUTISStriped and chequred cotton clothmanufactured in the Coromandal Coast.A sort of striped muslin produced in theCoromandal Coast.Embroidered, striped as well as chequered inseveral designs; mixed silk and cotton cloth;a medium-fine variety woven in Canicola,Chandecona, Casimbazar, Malda, and Huglyregions in Bengal and Thiruvamamalai regionin the Coromandal Coast. Best variety camefrom Cachijoura in Bengal.Dhoti or plain white cotton cloth, ordinarilyof 24 cobas in length; width of 2 cobos werecalled Begagia; 1 3/4, Ponabegagis; I%,Doigagis and 1?4, Sawagagia. Produced inGujarat .GUINEES OR Long cloth deriving its name from GuineaGUINEA-STUFFS coast of Africa were it was used forclothing of slaves; a coarse variety of whiteand blue colours produced in the CoromandalCoast, especially Yanam and in Western India.Striped cotton cloth of blue, white and redcolours; a coarse variety, which was long

lasting and enjoyed good market inPhilipines and so was called GuingamHanilla; used as dress material for makingCoats and trousers. Manufactured in Madras,Masulipatnam, Pondicherry and Karaikal on theCoromandal Coast, Balasor in Orissa and alsoin Gujarat.YOUCHOIRSStriped, chequered, embroidered and bordered(Xandkarchiefa)with gold and colour threads of differentcolours; cotton, silk as well as mixed.Ordinarily there were sixteen pieces ofkerchiefs in a standard piece.Produced inTranquebar, Masulipatnam, Pondicherry,Pulicat and Madras in the Coromandal Coastand in Bengal.NSMPAOICotton cloth of 12 vissas, chequered in blueand red by strips of white and yellowthreads; produced in Gujarat.WEKANIAS Striped in blue and white of 10 vissas; woven(Nacanias) in Gu j arat .ORGAND I SA sort of fine muslin of very clear texturebut of strong threads; used for ties,handkerchiefs and also dress materialProduced in Bengal and in the CoromandalCoast.

Nice and fine variety of cotton cloth, wovenchiefly in the Coromandal Coast and inBengal; known in Europe as 'Perses' as theycame through Ispaham and Aleppo before thediscovery of the route to India through theCape of Good Hope. Manufactured on theCoromandal Coast.SALEIIPOUILISThPISTEILINDANESWhite and blue coloured cotton cloth derivedits name most probably from Salernpur in Oudh.But according to Jouveau Dubreuil, (Ref.Revue Historique de llFrancaise, vol. 8,pp.224-33), it derived its name from Salem inTamil Nadu. Manufactured on the CoromandalCoast, especially in Salem and in theNorthern and Western India.Carpet or bed cover manufactured in Sind andPalarnpour in Gujarat.Also called as Terindines; embroidered infloral designs; a variety thicker than muslinand clearer than Tanjeb; distinguished by itsround, smooth and clear thread; classifiedbetween Tanjebs and Nainsook. Produced inBengal as well as on the Coromandal Coast.

APPENDIX + C-I1The ~reyarns arc bleached and clrled up ~n the ruo before dyclng

".&I nnr Tonn.9. vmn TO at sandy Iron To lurrv.1 Po*uriv.1 &L.POIL.L~YI@Port .IOYII 11th JYIY 1681 6th 0~tob.z 1686PI* IOYIS 10 smdy 4th June Arr~ving In arlrrany nrstop cope of good 1690 ~omsoff 5th nnrcn ,691Hop. I HaICh 1688PO~C-L~~~S co 1.1. of baud. LmfrBourbon llrh D.ulb.r 1689for Pondy' 1690 5 Ships loft Tonil 1691 L. ?Olllllon 10.. 18th 0% 1582 l Ship llD.i 10th #arch 1693 ~shlp 600POrt.Lo"i.I3 1698 PO.llll0" 6.8 I0I"&.PO*-Lou>.July - Pondich.rry1191 #nur.pae 3002 1700 D" lo>1701 v.vr1.r #.unp.l 500

,, ,106 14 July M.YI.P.. BL LOU>. PO* lovim To Pondiob.rryToi.oa d'or

.9>4 17193 161 9.4 (9150 lll l i + 1194 952 10 101. 11045 111 19 3 - 4147,B> 10

APPENDIX - F(1)FXTWICT OF THE SALE OF GOODS OF THE ORIENTAL INDIA HELD AT ROUENCN 2OTH OCTOBER 1687 AND OTHER FOLLOWING DAYS..___-------------------------------------------NUMBERNAME OF THE PIECES AND MERCHANDISES.................................................................95343.17 Toilles Dourier blancs des*99000 Toilles blancs32400.05 Baffetar blancsq00315Salemporie blancs4749 Guinee blancs7445 Betille blancs4952 Betille divers1443.10 Cravette de Meiller4992 Percalle blancs23815 Marmat20350 Tangebes11004.10 Armand11084 Sanar58094 Toilles bleue3480 Guinee bleue68191 Chittes - seranger1231.10 Chelaz rouger11761 Chintz peinture-' Piece of cotton cloth

JourrToilles peintureCoweurueusToilles blancMouchoir diverNillasGuieugand de couleurChaquelar de couleurSoucidLongis de soyeAlejar de la chineKencar a fleur rayesArmosin de divers couleurTaffetas KalquerSarine KalquerSaim diverse et offetsChintz damadabarJaponSann facon des serongedSoye crieSoye de chintz 3000Soye de BengaleCoton fileCawrisAgar j aspeedCornaline

Incens 40 sacGome gutte caisseCene 900.9 balleVitriol (Acid) 2200.23 caisseTena mevita 190Bois de sapanCaffe 55.9 ballerPoivre 1300Parcelainer 1500SaltpetreGome lame---------------------........-.........Source: c2 - 6 fols.57-59

APPENDIX - F(2)pNE BILL ISSUED BY THE FRENCH COMPANY ON THE SALE OF- ITSEXPECTED MERCHANDISES FROM INDIA, IN FRANCE, ON 13th SEPTEMBER1730.The company would have a sale of the Indian merchandisesbrought from India and its South Eastern countries at Nante on13th September 1730 and the follwing days. The list of thecommodities with its volume would be put for sale. This would beaccording to the usual rules and customs. These merchandiseswould be carried by the Vessels le Royal - Phillippe, la Sfirene,i1Argonaute, la DanaB, and 1' Alcyon, coming from China,Pondicherry and Bengal by the same company. It would arrivellOrient on 14th April, 24th June, 10, 16, and 20 July of thepresent year with those that are in the store house.The following is the text of the hand bill issued by theFrench East India Company.LA COMPAGNIE DES INDES vendra argent comptant dans la Ville deNantes le 13, Septembre 1730 & jours suivans, au plus offrant &dernier Encherisseur, sous les conditions cy-aprds, & en lamaniere accofitum6e, les Marchandises apport6es par les Vaisseaw!e Royal-Philippe, la Sirene, llArgonaute, la Dana6 & I1Alcyon,7enans de la Chine, Pondichery 6 Bengale, pour le compte deladite Compagnie, arrive2 au Port de lrOrient les 14. Avril, 24.Juin, 10. 16 & 20. Juillet de la presente ann6e, avec cellesrestantes dans ses Magasins.

S WVOIR431030. Livres Cafe de Moka.*43180. -Livres ThB verd Sonlo.3160. Lives ditto Haysuen.9670. Livres ditto Imperial.193500. Livres ditto BoBy.14700. Livres ditto Kamhou.2870. Livres ditto Pekeau.3300. Livres ditto Saotchaon.141900. Livres Poivre.2890. Livres Rhubarbe.220. Livres extrait de Rhubarbe.6615. Livres Esquine.435. Livres Aloes Socotrin.11770. Livres Gomme Laque.2084. Pieces ~oques.**600. Pieces Doreas de la cofte.4712. Pieces Doreas divers.2610. Pieces Bazins.900. Pieces Cravattes de Bengale.1554. Cravattes unies de Daca.1500, Pieces Mouchoirs de Bengale.640. Pieces Mouchoirs de Tranquebar.1280. Pieces Mouchoirs de Paliacatte.*'Cofee from MokaPieces of cotton cloth

4710. Pieces ditto de Masulipatam.1958. Pieces ditto de Pondichery. 2495. Eventails.2000. Peaw dVHermine.1000. Peaw petit gris.76. Boetes dtEncre de Nankin.4000. Pleurs de Soye.400. Cabarets de Vernis de diverses grandeurs.1. Bureau, idem.1. Table, idem.1109. Plats porcelaine de diffgrentes grandeurs & COU~~U~S.1010. Compotiers, idem.25562. Assiettes, idem.296. Pots a oille, idem.1600. Jattes, idem.15030. Livres ditto platte ou en feuille.130000. Livres Cauris.79900. Livres Salpetre.247400. Livres Bois rouge.4840. Livree Coton file.22300. Livres Soy& BcruG de Nankin.300. Paquets de Rottins.20570. Pieces Salempoutis blancs.14375. Pieces Guinks blanches.1200. Pices Percalles.540. pieces Socretons.1230. Pieces Sanas blancs.

2400. Pieces Chavonis.4240. Pieces Tarnatannes.7970. Pieces Betilles diverses.3520. Pieces Organdis divers.9985. Pieces Casses diverses.5510. Pieces Mallemolles diverses.4545. Pieces Terindames & Terindins.1880. Pieces Guingam470. Pieces Baffetas bleus.800. Pieces Sanas bleus.2161. Pieces Liman~as.3310. Pieces Fottes.561. Pieces Fottamoura.3528. Pieces Tapsels.3098. Pieces Katequis ou pagnes B carreaux.5605. Pieces Korattes.765. Pieces Lines.44. Pieces Satins Pelongs.86. Pieces Satins unis.50. Pieces ditto d fleurs.34. Pieces ditto rayez.23. Pieces ditto brodez en Soye TorSe.300. Pieces Pequins unis.50. Pieces ditto rayez.315. Pieces Gourgourans.200. Pieces Damas.

185. Pieces Juppes.450. Pieces Mouchoirs de Soye.19765. Sattes avec leurs pes, idem.48. Seaw, idem.77 . Pots de Chambre, id.177. Pots beurre, id.60. Plats barbe.88. Poivriers, id.465. Moutardiers, id.450. Pots a eau avec leurs cuvPttes, id.300. Pots a Cafe, idem.72. Pots a bierre. id.928. Sucriers, id.384. Sallieres, id.298. Theyeres, id.100. Petits Pots B lait, id.100. Pieces longues pour cueillers, id.100. Ditto quarrees, id.15641. Goblets avec leurs Soucoupes, id.28954. Tasses avec leurs Soucoupes, id.Sources: c2 - 23 fals.109.

The company of India will sell in the town of Name on 17thSeptember 1731 following days to the highest and the last bidderunder the conditions, hereafter the usual way the goods broughtby the vessels - coming from China, Pondicherry, Bengal for theaccount of the said company arrived at port L'orient 23rd May,22nd July, 24th August of the present year 1731 with those leftfrom the last sale in its store house.LA COMPAGNIE DES INDES vendra argent comptant dans la Villede Nantes le 17, Septembre 1731 & jours suivans, au plus offrant&dernier Encherisseur, sous les conditions cy-aprgs, & en lamaniere accoUtum6e, les Marchandises apport6es par les Vaisseauxle Duc de Charties, la Meduse, le Lys, le mars, LIAthalante & leNeptune, venans de la Chine, Pondichery & Bengale, pour le COmptefie la dite Compagnie, arrive2 au Port de llOrient les 23, May, 23Juillet , 24 Aoust de la presente annee, avec celles restantes dela vente derniere dans ses Magasins.Livres Caf6 de moka1000. Livres Th6 boiiy.700. Livres ditto Camhou.180. Livres ditto Pekeau.500. Livres ditto Saotchaon200. Livres ditto Sonlo.

Livres ditto Imperial.Livres ditto Haysuen.Llvres Poivre .400 . Livres Rhubarbe .100. Pots Extrait de Rhubarbe.Livres Esquine .Livres Comnelgutte.Livres Galanga .280. Livres Borax.226. Livres Aloes Socotrin.600. Livres Cinabre.660. Livres Vis-Argent.140. Livres Sucre candy.800. Livres Sucre blanc de Cochinchine.700. Livres ditto de Canton.Livres Gomme Laque en Bois.190. Livres Gomne Laque sans bois pour la teinture.Livres ditto platte ou en feuilles.Livres Toutenague .100. Livres Cauris.190. Livres Bois-rose.Livres de Bougie de Cire jaune.Livres Coton file.Livres Soye Fany.Livres ditto de Nankin.Livres Rottins Longs.

paquets de Rottins.Jets de Canne .Pieces Salempouris blancs.pieces Guinees blanches.pieces Perqales.Pieces Sottetons.pieces Chavonis.Pieces Tarnatannes.Pieces Betilles diversies.Pieces Organdis divers.Pieces Garas blancs .Pieces Adatays.Pieces Baffetas blancs.Pieces Sanas blancs.Pieces Hamans.Pieces Casses diverses .Pieces Nensouques .Pieces Tangebs divers.13684. Pieces Mallemolles.420. Pieces Serbatis.374. Pieces Attarasoye.6418. Pieces Terindannes & Terindins.1920. Pieces Dorqas de la Coste.9214. Pieces Doreas divers.5860. Pieces Basins.

pieces Tangebs Domes194. Pieces ditto Maramar241. Pieces Mallemolles Domes.482. Pieces ditto Assara.252. Pieces Terindannes Domes.900. Pieces ditto Assara.328. Pieces ditto Maramat.903. Pieces ditto Japonis.237. Pieces Nensouques Assara.44. Pieces Doreas brodez.1800. Cravattes unies de Daka.495. ditto brodees.2740. Sinquerques brodges.23979. Pieces Mouchoirs de Bengale.640. Pieces ditto de Tranquebar.960. Pieces ditto de Paliacatte.11580. Pieces dit. de Masulipatam.3995. Mouchoirs peints.2600. Pieces Mouchoirs de Pondichery.1684. Pieces Limanqas.3020. Pieces Pottes.511. Pieces Fottamoura.1324. Pieces Tapsels.2030. Pieces Kattequis, ou Pagnes d carreaux4685. Pieces Korattes.2111. Pieces Allibanis.

800. Pieces Guingans de Pondichery.1709. Pieces ditto de Madras.1861. Pieces ditto de Bengale.1100. Pieces Damas.994. Pieces Gourgourans.14. Pieces ditto Brochez.610. Pieces Pequins.200. Pieces ditto Rayez.375. Pieces ditto rayez, ouvrez & brochez.266. Pieces ditto ii fleurs.200. Pieces ditto L rayes de Pequine & Satins1050. Pieces Satins unis.200. Pieces ditto rayez.107. Pieces Lampas.100. Pieces Griseurs.2. Caisses montres de Soyeries.590. Pieces Lines ou Pelombs.300. Pieces mouchoirs de Soye.30. Pieces 1/2 Vesours divers.4790. B'ventails divers.2900. Cabarets verflis de Canton.2. Bureaux du Japan.25000. ~leurs.37. Boites dlEncre de la Chine.3. Caisses de Figures peintes sur papier.1211. Carreaw de rnarbre.

porcelaine bleue & blanche.4028. Tasses avec leurs Soucoupes.2390. Sucriers.998. Theyeres.9992. Gdblets B anses avec leurs Soucoupes.4000. ditto sans anses avec leurs Soucoupes.11730. Tasses avec leurs soucoup.489. Pots a heurre couverts avec leurs Soucoupes.210. Poivrieres1069. Salieres.2982. pots a pomades.1000. Petits Pots a anses.199. Pots de chambre.150. Nids de cinq Jattes chacun.598. Saladiers.12566. Assiettes.200. Services B The.200. ditto 2 Cafe.3itto de couleur.700. Jattes.658. Sucriers.1548. Goblets anses avec leurs SOuCOUpeS.2000. ditto sans anses, id.2991. Tasses B CafC, id.298. Theyeres.100. Pots couverts avec leurs assiettes.

244. Poivrieres.600. Salieres.900. Pots B ponunade.350. Pots B anses.100. Pots de chambre.76. Services de Porcelaines assortis.2200. Assiettes.40. Services B The.40. ditto B CafB.Adjudicataires ne pourront avoir la livraison de leursMarchandises qulapr&s qu'ils pay6 au Caissier de la Compagnie BNantes, le montant de leur Adjudication. comptant, ou Lettres dechange bien & dtiement acceptees de toute satisfaction.Le payement comptant des Marchendises sera fix6 au 20/30Octobre prochain. Le paye a usance au 20/30 Novembre aussiprochain; & celuy -3 deux usances au 20/30 Decembre 1.Elle accordera dix pour cent d'escompte pour le payementcornptant de toutes les, chandises, neuf pour cent pour lepayement 5 usance, & huit pour cent pour le paye a deux usances.Elle recevra en payement de ses Adjudicataires, des Lettresde change dans les term dessus, sur les Villes cy-apr8sseulement; sfavoir sur Paris, Roiien, la Rochelle, Saint Nantes,Bordeaux, Tours, Cadiz, Madrid, Amsterdam, Londres, Anvers, HamGenes, & autres Places estrangeres.

A l'egard de Lyon, ies Lettres en payement dl~oust serontre~iies a la Vente pour con & ne seront prises des ~djudicatairesque jusqu'au 20. Septembre; & les Lettres enferment de Saintsseront reciiBs come Lettres h deux usances.Elle n'admettra en payement aucune Lettre de change audessousde la f0mW de Mille.A 1'Bgard des Adjudicataires qui voudront payer le prix deleurs Adjudications en sur llEstranger, le Change en fera reg16au cours de Paris, & fur le pied port€ par le Cattest6 de deuxAgenS de Change, qui aura est6 adresse h Nantes aux Syndics &Directes Compagnie, & par eux re~ii l'ordinaire qui precedera lejour de la remise desdites entre les mains du Caissier de laCompagnie a Nantes.Les Negocians qui voudront deposer entre les mains de laCompagnie, des fonds en tout ou partie, pour fervir h payer lavaieur des Marchandises dont ils fe rendront cataires h la ventede Nantes, pourront s'adresser:A PARIS .......... a M. PESCHEVIN Caissier de la Compagnie.A LYON ........... d M. JACQUES BESSIERE & Compagnie.A ROUEN .......... d M. PIERRE BAUDOUIN.A BORDEAUX ....... h M. SAIGE.A MONTPELLIER .... 2 M. JEAN MOUTON.

Lesdits fonds d'avance seront re@sdans lesdites Villesjusques & compris le 30. Septembre & la Compagnie declare qu'ellene recevra aucun depost en d'autres Villes qu'en cellesnomm6es .En rapportant par lesdits Negocians les Reconnoissances quileur aurOnt este fournies fonds par eux remis dans lesdits lieu,elles SerOnt re~Otis i la vente jusqu'au 18. October pris comeargent comptant; & joiiiront de l'escompte de dix pour Cent, comecomptant sur leurs Adjudications.Les Adjudicataires ne pourront pretendre aucun escornpte pourprompt payement des sommes qutils auront depofees ausditsCaissier &Correspondans, attendu que compagnie ne pourradisposer de ces fonds qulaprSs l1Adjudication, & que le COmpte enfait avec les Adjudicataires.Et en cas que quelques-uns des Negocians ne se rendent pasAdjudicatairesla somes qu'ils auront ddposees aux Caissier &Correspondans, leur seront rendutis 2 vfi dits Caissier &Correspondans, en mbmes Especes que celles qu'ils auront8lposees; em tant par lesdits Negocians les Reconnoissances quileur en auront est6 fournies, con Bordereau desdites Especes, &apr8s avoir est6 visges d'un des Syndics & Directeurs B la Vente.Les Dividendes des Actions de la Compagnie, payables enOctobre & Novembre presente annge, seront recfis pour le payementComptant: Ceux payables en De come Lettresusance; Et ceux

pyables en Janvier 1732. comme lettres a ces, dont le S.peschevin fournira see Recepissez sur le Caissier de la vente aNantes Y estre re~lls en payement sur pied cy-dessus explique.Source: c2 - 24 folS.104

APPENDIX - F(4)CARGOS EXPECTED TO ARRIVE FROM INDIA BY VESSEL "LE DUC DECHARTRES' TO WRT L'ORIENT ON 23 MAY 1731..................................................................NUMBBR NAME RATE TOTAL IN LIVRES----------------------------------264695 Livres poivre 17.60 231,608.20.60283 Ditto gome gutte24400 Ditto fauris44000 Ditto saltpetre235235 Ditto bois rouge29376 Ditto soye tany 8.10 249,696.--.--18400 Pieces salem pouries blancs 20.-- 368,000.--.--11790 Piecesguineerblancs 45.-- 530,550,--.--2560 Pieces percalles 20.-- 51,200,--.--840 Pieces socretons 38.-- 31,920,--.--400 Pieces chavonis 8.-- 3,200.--.--2520 Pieces tarnatannes 24.-- 60,480.--.--6740 Pieces betilles divers 30.-- 202,200.--.--1940 Pieces organdis divers 43.-- 83,420.--.--720 Pieces dorea de la coste 42. -- 30,240,--.--1290 Pieces gavar blancs 16.-- 20,640.--.--2000 Pieces baffetas blancs 14.-- 28,000.--.--900 Pieces basins 30.-- 27,000,--.--1790 Pieces sanas blancs 15.-- 26,850.--.--

Pieces hamansPieces casferPieces nensonquerPieces tangebsPieces mallemollesPieces DoreasPieces tangeb domesPieces maramatPieces mallemollesPieces asfavaPieces terridames domesPieces asfavaPieces maramatPieces japonisPieces nenfonques assaraPieces cravattes uniesde DaccaPieces sinquerques brodeesPieces mouchoir de BengalePieces ditto de TranquebarPieces ditto de PaliacattePieces ditto de MasulipatamPieces ditto de PondicheryPieces halibanisPieces guingam de Pondichery

969 Pieces ditto de Madras1543 Jetdefame360 Paquet de rottinslo.-- 9,600,--.--2.-- 3,086.--.--1500 lescentpaquets 5,400.--.-------.....----3,016,813,--.-----------------Source: c2 - 272 folS.32

APPENDIX - P(5)CARGOS LOADED IN THE VESSEL LE LYS WHICH WILL ARRIVE AT PORTL'ORIENT ON 23RD JULY 1731..................................................................NUMBER NAME RATE TOTAL IN LIVRES_-----------------------------------262270 Livres poivre 17.60 229,486.--.--192700 Livres cawris 1.50 240,875.--.--6450 Livres gomes laque en bois 1:- 6,450.--.--6670 Livresplatteouenfeuille 1.10 10,005.--.--187160 Livres bois rouge 19.-- 37,422.--.--476 Livres coton file 2. -- 952.--.--31104 Livres soye 8.10 264,384.--.--9620 Livres salempouris blancs 20.-- 192,400.--.--7735 Livres guinee blancs 45.-- 342,075.--.--560 Pieces percalles 20.-- 11,200.--.--540 Pieces socretons 38.-- 20,520.--.--800 Pieces chavonis 8.-- 6,400.--.--1840 Pieces tarnatamer 24.-- 44,160.--.--3740 Pieces betille divers 30.-- 112,200.--.--2940 Pieces organdie divers 43.-- 126,420.--.--840 Pieces doreas de coste 42. -- 35,280.--.--760 Pieces garas blancs 16.-- 12,224.--.--400 Pieces sana blancs 15.-- 6,000.--.--2160 Pieces Hamanir 36. -- 77,760.--.--

Pieces casfes 36.--Pieces neusouquer 60.--Pieces tangebs 40.--Pieces mallrnolles 45.--Pieces atarsoygo.--Pieces tangebs dores 70.--Pieces maramat 60.--Pieces mallemolles doies 70.--Pieces ditto asava 65.--Pieces terindanner dores 72. --Pieces ditto asava 65.--Pieces ditto mavamat 70.--Pieces ditto japonisloo.--Pieces nensouque asfava 70.--Pieces doreas broadesloo.--Pieces cravatte brodeer 8.--Pieces basins 30. --Pieces mouchoirs de Bengale 22.--Pieces ditto de Tranquebar 20.--Pieces ditto de Masulipatam 22.--Pieces ditto de Pondichery la.--Pieces mouchoirs peints 3. --Pieces salempouris bleue 20.--Pieces guinee bleue 40.--Pieces guingam de Pondichery lo.--

800 Pieces ditto de Madras lo.-- 8,000.--.--900 Pieces ditto de Bengale lo.-- 9,000,--.--500 Pieces paquet de rottins 1500 les 7,500.--.--cent paquets4 Gallot de porcelaines evaluee 1,500.--.--Source: cZ - 272 fOlS.33

APPENDIX - F (6)CARGOES LOADED IN THE VESSEL '-'PORT L'ORIENT ON 3RD AUGUST 1731.WHICH WILL ARRIVE AT_---------------------------------NUMBER NAME RATE TOTAL IN LIVRES.--------------------------.------------------183070 Livres poivre 17.60 160,186.50.--147293 Livres cawris 1.50 184,116.50.--123298 Livres bois rouge 19. -- 23,426.--.--5391 Livres gommes laque sansbois pour la teinture 1.50 6,738.15.--10567 Ditto platte ou en feuille 1.10 15,850.10.--408 Ditto bougre cire laune I.-- 408.--.--2592 Pieces soye tamy 8.10 22,032.--.--250 Pieces salempouris blancs 20.-- 5,000.--.--100 Pieces guinee blancs 45.-- 4,500.--.--160 Pieces percalles 20.-- 3,200.--.--60 Pieces socretons 38.-- 2,280.--.--400 Pieces chavonis 8.-- 3,200.--.--800 Pieces tarnatames 24.-- 19,200.--.--1220 Pieces betille divers 30.-- 36,600.--.--620 Pieces organdie divers 43.-- 26,660.--.--8630 Pieces garar blancs 16.-- 138,080.--.--615 Piecesadatays 18:- 11,070.--.--2454 Pieces baffetas blancs 14.-- 34,356.--.--6346 Pieces sanas blancs 15.-- 95,190.--.--

Pieces HamanirPieces casfeePieces tangebsPieces mallemolles 45:- 281,340.--.--Pieces serbatas 50.-- 7,000,--.--Pieces doreas 60.-- 369,820,--.--Pieces tanges domes 70.-- 61,600.--.--Pieces ditto mavamat 60. -- 6,600.--.--Pieces ditto mallemollesdomes 70:- 6,300.--.--Pieces ditto asafava 65:- 10,400,--.--Pieces tarndasmer asfava 65.-- 31,200,--.--Pieces ditto japonis 100. -- 48,000,--.--Pieces sinquerker broder 5.10 5,500.--.--Pieces basins 30.-- 110,700.--.--Pieces mouchoirs de Bengale 22.-- 211,948.--.--Pieces ditto de Masulipatam 22.-- 52,800,--.--Pieces mouchoirs peinture 3:- 6,000,--.--Pieces guingam de Bengale lo.-- 9,610.--.--Pieces alibanis IS.-- 16,365.--.--Pieces paquets de rottins1500 lescentpaquets 6,000.--.--Source: c2 - 272 fols.32.

APPENDIX - F(7)VEWE DELA COMPAGNIE DES INDES EN 1732Estimation Deduction Vente deductionLivres 10% 10%Total amountin livresSalempuri blancsGuine6n blanchesPercallessocretonsChavanisTarnatamesBetille diversesOrquandis diversesToques fil d'orquandyGavas blanceBaf fetas blanceA dataysSanas blancerLamansCafes diverNensouquerTangets diversMallemolles diversSalasoyeAtaavasoye

Estimation deduction deVente deduction10 % 10 %Temndanaes et Termdines 316,024.--.-- 366,339.08.--TOCPeS 55,670.10.-- 74,278.02.--iravatte jil d'orquandy 2,400,--.-- 2,234.15.--D de Bengale 21,963.--.-- 21,938.05:-Doreas de la coste 20,432.--.-- 24,180.--.--Doreas de Bengale 525,433.10.-- 575,971.15.--Montou de vante parTangate DoresMallemolles DoresNeusouques DoresMallemalles AsjavaNeusouques AsjavaTangeb MavamatTerendames JaponisDores ErodesStinquevker VuiorFiubus de Doreas Vuia 3,300.--.-- 7,425.--.--Stinquevkes Brodes jur Tanqeber 8,973.--.-- 11,425.--.--Cravattes Brodeer 16,860.--.-- 19,492.15.--Basines 293,906.--.-- 117,774.18.--Mouhoir de Bengale 310,593.10.-- 383,020.04.--

Estimation deductionde 10 %Vente deduction10 tDODOde Masulipatamde PaliacateSoye ManyDo de MarnoudabatD Mousa ou fleuvetLa que sans boisD, Platte ou en feuilleBois rougePoivreSaltpetreMauchoir de PondicheryLinancasGuingam de PondyMontouGuingam de MadrasFaladarisDissousayeCoupisAlebarnisEtategasSourie

Estimation deductionVente deductionde 10 % 10 %Chalbatsce PaysSource: c2 - 25 f0lS.114-115

COMPAGNIE DES INDES - CHARGEMEKT DES VAISSEAUX LE DUC O'RLEANS ETLE PHOENIX, VENANT DE I'SLE DE BOURBON ET DE PONDY ARRIVBZ AUPORT DE L'ORIENT LES 23 ET 24EME MA1 1744Scavoir6000 Livres Cafe de Isle de Bourbon6300 Livres Poivre1400 Pieces Mochoirs de Pondy1380 Pieces Peualles1400 Pieces Mouchoirs de Pondy2639 Pieces Salempouris blancs960 Pieces Mouchoirs de Trinquebar2940 Pieces Mouchoirs de Paliacatte.along with these there were other things sent.Nous avons l'honneur de jn formee des prix des marchandise delapremier semane dela vente de la cornpagnie.Le sucre brun a etc vendu de 34.5 a 39.1 . le %Le sucre teste de forme 41.10.-- a %Le sucre terre ..... de 47.--.-- a 47.18. %Le sucre blanc ..... de 54.5 .-- a 54.18. %Le cafe de Moka 3.6 a 3. 7. 6 %Ces prix son avantageux.

'4. les directeur des vente ou proroge la france jusquau lendemaindes ferte daun lu un6 de signed gagner du temps par rapport andvaisseaux.Monseigneue attendu nous somes avec un trss profound respect.Source: c2 - 31 fols.03,04.

APPENDIX - P (9)THE COMPANY WOULD SELL IN THE COURSE OF THE YEARNOVEMBER 1749 ACTUAL SALE OF THE GOODS, THAT WAS BROUGHTFROM INDIA THAT WHICH WAS ACCORDING TO THE ORDER OF THECOMPANY'S CONTRACT STORED IN THE STORE HOUSE OFL'ORIERT, TILL NEXT MAY.THE1 - 10 Bales of Blue dyed cloth coarse variety ofPondy2 - 50 Bales of Salempuri Blue cloth3 - 50 Bales of blue cloth4 - 10 Bales of cotton5 - 10 Bales of Nagpur cloth6 - 10 Bales of Neparies cloth7 - 10 Bales of blue and white cloth8 - 20 Bales of Guingan cloth of Pondy9 - 20 Bales of Guingan cloth of Madras10 - 50 Bales of harkerchif of pondy - blue and white11 - 250 thousands of peper............................................................Source: Fols.107-108 (Nouvcaux - Acq - Fr.9225 Memoirs ofDupleix)

THE COMPANY OF INDIA WOULD SELL IN READY CASH AT PORTL'ORIBNT IN BRETAGNE, NOVEMBER 4TH 1749 AND OF THE FOLLOWINGDAYS UNDER THE CONDITIONS. HEREAPPER AND IS THE USUALMANNER THE GOODS THAT WHICH WAS FOUND IN THE STORES.1 - 23700 livres Peper2 - 6000000 livres cauris3 - 710171 lLivres Rose wood4 - 9091 Pieces Salempouris white cloth5 - 10564 piece white6 - 1286 Pieces prevale cloth7 - 118 Pieces Soerecons to 4 thread8 - 399 Pieces Chavonis9 - 980 Pieces chavonis10 - 1167 Pieces Tarnatarres11 - 180 Pieces betilles12 - 415 pieces oarras white13 - 3105 Pieces Baffetas white14 - 1606 Pieces Adatayse1 - 1035 Pieces Sanas2 - 1953 pieces HOmarS3 - 15874 Pieces varieties of cloth4 - 6664 Pieces Tajeba divers5 - 360 Pieces Allibalies6 - 451 Pieces Nensouques diveres7 - 13391 pieces varieties of mall mall cloth

8 - 100 Pieces serbatis9 - 2774 Pieces different pieces of cloth10 - 281 Pieces Tocquet11 - 6010 Pieces Dorea cloth12 - 288 Pieces bazine cloth13 - 2786 Pieces Varieties of embroiclery cloth1 - 95 Cloth of patra2 - 399 Brod cloth of Patna3 - 686 Different birds of larkerchiefs4 - 2476 Lankerchiefs of sossergati5 - 3385 Lankerchief or Pondicherry6 - 1765 Baffdas Blue cloth7 - 1764 Guingan cloth of Pondicherry8 - 5578 Guingan cloth of Madras9 - 750 Bajutapaux cloth10 - 481 Nagapattam cloth11 - 485 Chezelas cloth12 - 1940 Nekarias clothThe company informed the dealers, the buyers that theywere expecting for more ships from pondicherry and if theyarrive they would find those goods also.The dealers further wanted to dispose company goods incash all, or in part to sell the goods of the cost and incompetition.............................................................Source: Fols.107-108 (Nouvcaux - Acg - Fr.9225, Memoirs ofDupleix)

lmai PAI~~ILBBIPS IU urn m m , 1711-30''(in Pagodas)St. PierreManilla1721Pondichery5ocha1721SoucourarnaManilla1724IndienAceh1728PondicheryMocha1728Pandlchery 2500 1600 3000 2000 17,400Mocha 9.4% 6% 11.3% 7% 65.5%1729Soucourarna 3364 BOO 1000 1000 7799Manilla 2.4% 5.7% 7.1% 7.1% 55.81!729~~..~~~~.~~~..~~~.~~~~~.~~~Source: Catherine Manning, p.168.Journal, Revista de Cultura. 1991.

The contract givur to cmany urchantrThe weavers had demanded increase of payment in thecontract price for cotton cloth. Having examined theirrequest and each of the quality of cloth, after havingexplained what kind of goods that the company was in need -'qualiter par qualiter'. The company increased per courgewhich is given below. As on 16.03.1732urn 16 1 1712 ' ~ Iw I c t m u I ~ugrniairor. ACCQ& PRIX CDNTWT COOT PRIZBConZraCI PliE. In0r.a" given PAR ii CWROPI a n 60% p1 21 6 1. course €g 1 6 parwurg. RJ IS 11. 1 #O* PJ 16 ' 6 la mug. sg 1 6 parmurg. 4 17 113 r .0* pg 15 . 6 1. mu-. Pg 1. 6 parwurg. 4 26 I14 I ID* p1 2, . I 1. mu-. ~g I. 6 prrwurg. Rg 16 11

4 an lo- ~1 61 10 1. couig. RJ 1 11 p.rcourg. RJ 60 11

1." sort pJ 110 1. EOYi-9. Pg 1 6 p.rEOui-9. 4 111 61 .n PO* rn 123 la couq. 4 1 6 p.rcouqe 4 116 6I .n sort pl ilr I. couq. pg 2 6 parcourg. ~g 117 6I a n lion rn 10% 1. courg. pg 1 6 psrsruq. 4 uo 6I .n aorr pl 16 1. couqe rn 1 parcouq. Pg 17I .n so* pl IS 1. muq. q 1 p.rcouIg. pg 2s

I am sort w 70 1. arum. ~p i . s.rc~urp. RI rlDitto .- Nv 111 I16 *I .n so* w 1' I. mu-. q 2 ll parmuq. R) 19 12I .n sort PI 04 1. arum. q 2 11 parmuq. pp 86 114 mn .art F9 81 1. Pg 1 12 PaZFDYq. 5 03i .I. POIZ w 11 1. COUs, R) 1 ll p.rcouq. Pg 11 121 .n sort PI 10 n 1. mum. pp 1.12 pnrceuq. q 33 ~2I .n son P1 I$ 1. courg. sp P 12 p.imum. RI 11 12

......... mu. ... '/, .---........................................................................................................1 .r. 8011 PI 34 12 1. sours. 4 1 6 p.rcouq. 4 15 11

P .n lo- PJ II 1. mum. ss 1 11 parmurp. ss 70 11Ditto & 14 .un. .u* 1 .a. ,1 e n Son M 79 .. 1. couq. €g 1 11 p.mmunl. sg 10.11I .n Sort pg 75 lr muq. Pg 1 18 parcoum. Pg 76 18I en lo- m 74 1. couq. ss 1 18 parcouq. ~g 12 181 .n so* pg 49 I. coum. 4 1 6 P.I"YXg. q so 64 .n Sort pg 7 1. EOYq. Pg 1 6 p.rCOYme P(J (I 6Ditto d.' It .un.r 8". I/* I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I .re PO* p+ n 1. mu-. ~g L 6 . parmum. ~g 68 ia1 .n PO* PJ 'I 1. muq. q 1 6 p.rcouqe ss 66 6

i .n aorr pl 30 1. muq. ~g 1 paxcouqa RJ 121 .re Don AI 36 1. CI)Y~. 4 1 par~aurg. Pg I9Ir van n1rr.n in muncil of Po* Lour. Pondy m1gn.d Unoir i Co....................................................................................................................BourE. &Ill R.gi#tr. pp 223.226

TBP: COMPMY IW COUNCIL SIaR10 TEE CWTDACT WITE AUDYAPAILPILCEMT OP PORT0 UWO OU 28.04.1732The merchants wanted to furnish quantities of thickcotton cloth that we wanted to send to France, Mahe, Isle deFrance et Bourbon. It was decided in the council, to askAndyapa Merchant of Porto Novo - the quantities, qualitiesof cotton and sent 10,000 (par avanc) in advance for makingthose, the price, the rules.Marchandiser Ordo~eer a Andyapa260 Courjer de quinees de 18 conjons pour destinerpour France160 Courjer de sorte hollandoise for bleachingtherefore there will be two kinds here pour France100 Bn blue sorte hollandoise pour France100 Courjer Salempouris sorte hollandoise blue pourFrance100 Courjer coton cloth Porto Novo bleue and cange de32 cober pour les Isle100 Courjer guineer ordinairer in bleue pour MaheWritten, signed, orderedLenoir & Co.............................................................Source: A1/3 fols.227.

FUMING OF BETEL AUD TOBACCOTCC C0llb~ti0n at Pondichbrry from 1699-1742 in Pag0&8............................................................Year munt Duration Source............................................................1699 1,88OP* - Kaeppelin op.cit PP.538-91702 2,lOOP 2 C.S.P.V. V0l I p. 51704 2,400P 2 Ibid p.171010 2,500P 2 Ibid p.1141712 2,300P 2 Ibid1718 2,600P 2 Ibid p.1991728 4,895P 2 Cor. du Con.Sup.et de la Coe. Vol I111730 5, OOOP 2 Ibid p.1461735 5,300P - Ibid1738 8,179P 2 Ibid1740 9257P22f62c' 2 Ibid1741-2 1143P5f34c 2 Ibid pp.459-60..................................................P - pagodas f - fanams c - caosu