Fostering Argumentation Skills - gst boces

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FIGURE 1ExplanationsScientific-argumentation cycleObservationsScientificArgumentationQuestionsandAssumptionsThe illustration in Figure 1poses an interesting quandary—which comes first, the claim or theevidence? Similar to the chicken-orthe-eggdilemma, in the formationof the claim, data and evidenceare used to generate the claim.However, in the communication ofthe claim, the evidence supportsthe claim and is usually followed bythe statement of the claim.SupportingEvidenceWhat is the structure of ascientific argument?ClaimsThe progression of a scientific argument frequentlycommences with an observable event (see Figure1). This may be presented by the teacher in the formof a demonstration, a discrepant event, an initiatingexploration, or any perplexing phenomenon thatcauses students to raise questions that they canlater investigate. The process also involves studentsdeclaring what they already know about the event(their prior knowledge) and describing severalassumptions as to the causes or promising solutionsto the question or problem. In this case, theassumption is a statement that describes a naturalphenomenon or a framework to construct a possibleanswer to the question being studied. It can lead toa tentative answer or solution (hypothesis) to thequestion.Next, students design and carry out an investigationand then collect and analyze the data to look forpatterns and relationships among the variablesexamined. From the data and patterns, one or moreclaims are constructed. The claim is an assertionor conclusion that attempts to answer the originalquestion. The claim is then supported by evidence.The evidence is extracted from that data in the form ofobservations and measurements, which supports thelegitimacy of the claim and is justified and defendedvia oral presentations or written argument-based labreports. Finally, students structure explanations duringthe presentations or reports that account for the claimsand evidence.Data versus evidenceThe difference between data andevidence is sometimes confusing.Simply, data are the informationand measurements from aninvestigation. Evidence is a particular subset of dataan investigator uses to support or refute a claim.Because many students are already familiar with forensicscience by way of crime shows such as CSI,an example for students is the crime scene, which isusually loaded with data. In the legal system, the prosecutoror district attorney uses the data to make oneclaim based on selected evidence, while the defenselawyer extracts evidence from the same set of data tomake a contrary claim. It is then the jury’s responsibilityto decide which claim is best proven basedFIGURE 2Comparing data and evidenceDataEvidenceSeptember 2011 23
Fostering Argumentation SkillsFIGURE 3upon the preponderance of the evidence. Hand et al.(2009) provide a clear relationship between data andevidence, showing that all the data collected duringan investigation may not be relevant to the questionbeing investigated (see Figure 2). See “Data VersusEvidence: Investigating the Difference” in this issuefor additional information on this topic.Argumentation in everyday lifeWhether we realize it or not, we areconstantly bombarded with claimsby today’s media. We hear claimsabout how to lose weight, how tostop smoking, the effects of globalwarming, the benefits of herbalmedicines, or how to make soundfinancial investments. During themonths leading up to an election,claims by political candidates arerepeated in infomercials and flyersthat fill mailboxes. Deciding whichcandidate is telling the truth withaccurate and relevant evidencecan be a daunting decision. Thus,understanding the connectionbetween claims and evidencebecomes a skill extending beyondthe science classroom.Fostering scientificreasoning skillsIf scientific inquiry asks, “Whatif…?,” then scientific reasoningasks, “Why…?” Scientificreasoning is the logic behindscientific inquiry. Becoming sci-Reasoning links claims to evidenceObservations Claims EvidenceFIGURE 4Day 1Day 2Day 3Day 4Day 5Days 6and 7Day 8Day 9entifically literate impliesbeing able touse scientific reasoningskills. In argumentation,students usescientific reasoningskills when explaininghow the claim and theevidence are connected.In their oral defenses,students linkthe claim to supportingevidence by using reasoning skills (see Figure 3).But, like inquiry, we should not expect that reasoningskills develop implicitly. Initially, students need to beexplicitly taught and nurtured through concrete experiencesof simple, observable discrepant events,where teachers use questions and prompts to elicit“evidence-based” explanations. Before engaging studentsin scientific argumentation, several pre-activitiespromoting scientific argumentation can be tappedReasoningDay-by-day planIntroduction and discussion of a soil profile.Discussion about the factors that promote soil fertility.Students walked around the school campus to observethe rich biodiversity there and identified rationales aboutwhat promoted growth. Safety procedures reviewed.In groups of four, students collected soil samples fromdifferent areas throughout the school.Using the school library and online resources, studentsresearched and discussed procedures to analyze the soilsamples.Students collected the required materials from the laboratoryand started to test their soil samples.Students completed the test and analysis. Students completedtheir QCEE sheets.Students prepared charts for their argument-basedpresentations.Using the QCEE sheets, groups presented their claimsand evidence while the rest of the class pointed outstrengths and limitations of the findings, often offeringalternative explanations and counterclaims.24 SCIENCE SCOPE
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