Encyclopedia Of Foods

ENCYCLOPEDIAof FOODSa guide to Healthy Nutrition

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ENCYCLOPEDIAof FOODSa guide to Healthy NutritionPrepared by medical and nutrition experts from Mayo Clinic,University of California Los Angeles, and Dole Food Company, Inc.Academic PressAn Imprint of ElsevierSan Diego, California

This book is printed on acid-free paper.Copyright 2002 by Dole Food Company, Inc.An Imprint of ElsevierAll rights reserved.No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic ormechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, withoutpermission in writing from Dole Food Company, Inc.Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department inOxford, UK: Phone: (+44) 1865 843830, fax: (+44) 1865 853333, e-mail: permissions@elsevier.com.uk.You may also complete your request on-line via the Elsevier homepage (http://www.elsevier.com), byselecting ‘Customer Support’ and then ‘Obtaining Permissions’.The Encyclopedia of Foods: A Guide to Healthy Nutrition provides practical and easy-to-understandinformation on issues relating to good nutrition. This book supplements, but does not replace, the adviceof your personal physician and nutrition advisor, whom you should consult for individual medical andnutrition issues. The authors of this book and their institutions do not in any case endorse any companyor product.Academic PressAn imprint of Elsevier525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, California 92101-4495, USAhttp://www.academicpress.comAcademic PressHarcourt Place, 32 Jamestown Road, London, NW1 7BY, UKhttp://www.academicpress.comLibrary of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2001093328ISBN-13: 978–0–12–219803–8ISBN-10: 0–12–219803–4PRINTED IN CHINA05 06 WP 9 8 7 6

ForewordIbelieve that knowledge is power. You can put the power of nutrition knowledge to work for you.This is the most important thing you can do to preserve and improve your mind and body. Goodhealth is the key to longevity and provides the foundation that enables you to enjoy life.The Encyclopedia of Foods: A Guide to Healthy Nutrition imparts the knowledge that eating ahealthy diet can provide the various nutrients needed to maintain fitness and prevent the manycommon diseases that affect our health and longevity. Experts at Mayo Clinic and the UCLA Centerfor Human Nutrition have contributed their knowledge and experience to this book to improve thequality of life through proper nutrition. This book is a 4-year collaborative effort by a large team ofexperts from the medical profession and the field of nutrition.It is very difficult to make up one’s mind to eat properly and avoid the temptations and healthconsequences of consuming an excess amount of calories, fats, and refined sugar. Too much of thesecan detract from healthy living and the enjoyment of life. It is now clear from many studies that whatyou choose to eat can determine whether you have heart disease, diabetes, or many common formsof cancer. An extensive array of books have been written on this subject. This book encapsulates theguidelines for eating foods that are beneficial to the body and that preserve health and longevity.I, along with most people, have not always been so concerned with health. When I became chairmanof Dole Food Company 16 years ago, I truly began to understand the meaning of nutrition and theneed for eating a well-balanced diet. A great deal of progress has been made in discovering the benefitsto our health provided by fresh fruits and vegetables, whole grains, a healthy diet, and proper exerciseand lifestyle. Dole, known as the largest distributor of fresh fruits and vegetables in the world, intendsto take a leadership role in disseminating scientific information on the benefits of fruits and vegetablesand other foods necessary for promulgating a healthy lifestyle. We intend to publish additional informationas it is being developed by institutions throughout the world. We all have the opportunity to instillin our children the knowledge that will enable them to have the healthy life we wish them to enjoy.The Encyclopedia of Foods is a practical guide and personal reference toolof food, nutrition, and health. Many physicians, doctors of philosophy,nutritionists, dietitians, researchers, writers, editors, designers, illustrators,and countless others have worked together to create a comprehensivereference book and present it in an attractive, useful, and friendly fashion.I personally hope that you will read this book and use it to make thenecessary changes in your lifestyle and diet to improve your health andlongevity.David H. MurdockChairman of the Board andChief Executive Officer ofDole Food Company, Inc.v

TAble of ContentsPart I A Guide to Healthy Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2Chapter 1 Optimizing Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5America’s Health Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6The Dietary Guidelines for Americans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8The Power of the Food Guide Pyramid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11Other Voices: Guidelines of Health Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14The Bottom Line: Optimizing Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15Chapter 2 The Nutrients and Other Food Substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17The Macronutrients: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Fats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18Carbohydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18Protein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23Fats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26The Micronutrients: Vitamins and Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33On the Nutrient Horizon: Phytochemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33Supplements: Foods, or Functional Foods? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34Nutrition and Your Stage of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39Chapter 3 The Food-Health Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47Obesity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47High Blood Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53Diabetes Mellitus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57Coronary Artery Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61Osteoporosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73Chapter 4 Planning Meals: Selecting Healthful Foods, Plus Two Weeks of Menus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79Plan to “Eat Well” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79Eat Breakfast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80What’s for Lunch? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81Snack Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83What’s for Supper? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84Grocery Shopping: Another Key to Healthful Meals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88Foods and Issues You May Have Wondered About . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90Two Weeks of Menus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95vi

Chapter 5 Preparing Healthful Meals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125Change Is Good . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125Creating Healthful Menus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128Food Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148Serving Safely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149Refrigerating or Freezing Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149Clean It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149The Bottom Line on Food Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149Part II Encyclopedia of Foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150Fruits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153Vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211Grains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269Grains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272Grain Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .282High-Protein Foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291Poultry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291Eggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296Meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .298Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .310Shellfish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .317Legumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .324Nuts and Seeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333Dairy Foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345Milk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348Cheese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353Yogurt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358Ice Cream and Dairy Desserts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359Herbs & Spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .363Beverages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377Fats, Oils & Sweeteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .389Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407Reading List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .417Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .421Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501vii

PrefaceNutrition is important to all of us. What we eat has a profound effect on our health and ourenjoyment of life. Although there is a large amount of valid scientific information dealing withvarious aspects of nutrition, there is, unfortunately, even more misinformation. The average personthus has difficulty separating fact from fiction.A team of experts from Mayo Clinic, the University of California Los Angeles, and Dole FoodCompany, Inc., wrote this book. The team included physicians, nutrition scientists, and clinicalnutritionists. The information has been subjected to rigorous peer review not only by the writing groupbut also by colleagues at our respective institutions who have special expertise in various aspects ofthe book.The book seeks to answer three main questions: What am I eating? What should I eat? andWhy? The premise of the book is that well-informed people make well-informed decisions. The themeof the book is moderation. The standard is that all recommendations be based on valid scientific evidence.If this is not possible, either because the evidence is not available or it is inconclusive at thistime, then the text is so noted and our recommendations are tentative and based on the consensus ofnutrition experts. Another premise of the book is that accurate information does not have to be boring.Most of us are curious about what is in the food we eat, where it comes from, and why one foodis supposed to be good for us whereas too much of it may be bad.The book is divided into two parts. Part I provides the reader with an overview of the principlesof nutrition, including the basis for the Food Guide Pyramid and for nutrition recommendations, howvarious nutrients differ, and how our nutrition needs differ as we progress through the different stagesof life. Part I also makes suggestions for menu planning, food preparation, and strategies for shopping,food storage, and food safety.Part II complements Part I by providing information about individual foods and their nutrientcontent. The sections are organized according to the format of the Food Guide Pyramid. Part II beginswith fruits, vegetables, and grains, foods that are at the bottom of the Pyramid and therefore shouldbe the foundation of our food choices. Part II ends with foods that are at the top of the Pyramid andtherefore should be eaten sparingly. The range emphasizes the extraordinary choices available to usall. Because of the sheer numbers of foods, those with similar nutrient contents are grouped, whereasthose with unique nutrient content are described separately. Nutrient tables also are provided so thereader can gain a greater appreciation of which foods are particularly good sources of vital nutrients.Writing a book can be both work and fun. In this instance, it was more of the latter. The bookbegan as the vision of Mr. David H. Murdock, Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of Dole FoodCompany, Inc. Mr. Murdock and his colleagues at Dole have long been advocates of good nutrition.The editors and Mr. Murdock began with a series of conversations as to how the book should beorganized and whether such a book would add anything to the large number of books already

published in the area of nutrition. We decided that Mr. Murdock’s goal was achievable, gathered ateam of enthusiastic and knowledgeable colleagues, and began to write. From the very beginning, itbecame obvious that although we all were alleged “experts,” none of us knew everything (not surprising)and there was much we could learn from one another. That is when the fun started. We also gaineda deep respect for Mr. Murdock, whose unwavering dedication to excellence, without regard forcommercial interest, served as an inspiration to us all.Good food and good nutrition can and should be synonymous. We hope you enjoy and benefitfrom this book.R. A. Rizza, M.D.V. L. W. Go, M.D.

AcknowledgmentsEditorial StaffEditors-in-ChiefAssociate EditorsAssistant EditorEditorial DirectorArt DirectorsMedical IllustratorsEditorial AssistantProduction ConsultantPhotographyRobert A. Rizza, M.D.Vay Liang W. Go., M.D.M. Molly McMahon, M.D.Gail G. Harrison, Ph.D., R.D.Jennifer K. Nelson, R.D.Kristine A. Kuhnert, R.D.Sydne J. Newberry, Ph.D.LeAnn M. SteeKaren E. BarrieKathryn K. ShepelJohn V. HagenMichael A. KingSharon L. WadleighRonald R. WardTony KubatThe vision for this book belongs to David H. Murdock, Chairman and Chief Executive Officerof Dole Food Company, Inc. Mr. Murdock brought his vision and a request for assistance inmaking it a reality to two of the authors: Robert A. Rizza, M.D., of Mayo Clinic, and Gail G.Harrison, Ph.D., R.D., University of California Los Angeles School of Public Health. They eachsaw the potential value in this vision and committed themselves to recruit scientific colleaguesand technical expertise to bring it to fruition.The authors all contributed to various stages of the evolution of this volume. Specificx

contributions are worthy of special mention. Jennifer K. Nelson, R.D., M. Molly McMahon,M.D., and Robert A. Rizza, M.D., developed the material in Chapters 1 through 5. KristineA. Kuhnert, R.D., contributed to Chapters 1 through 5 and served as project manager. JudithM. Ashley, Ph.D., R.D., provided the original draft for all of Part II (except the chapters on fruitsand vegetables). Sydne J. Newberry, Ph.D., contributed to Chapters 1 and 2 and was the editorand major writer for the fruits and vegetables chapters. Dr. Rizza oversaw the entire process andserved as one of the Editors-in-Chief. Other Editors-in-Chief were Vay Liang W. Go., M.D.,M. Molly McMahon, M.D., and Gail G. Harrison, Ph.D., R.D.Several professional staff of Dole Food Company, Inc., contributed substantially to thiswork. In particular, Lorelei DiSogra, Ed.D., R.D., contributed feedback and advice throughoutthe process of development; Roberta Wieman provided administrative and moral supportat every step of the way; and David A. DeLorenzo provided a grounding in the real world of foodproduction and marketing. Richard Utchell provided oversight of the photography. DonnaSkidmore provided expert review of many of the chapters in Part II.Susan Kaus Eckert, R.D., L.D., provided input to Chapters 3 and 4. Chapter 3 was reviewedby the following Mayo Clinic consultants: Michael D. Jensen, M.D., Sundeep Khosla, M.D.,Timothy O’Brien, M.D., Sheldon G. Sheps, M.D., and William F. Young, Jr., M.D. Specialthanks go to the following graduate students, faculty, and staff of the University of CaliforniaLos Angeles (UCLA) for their contributions to the fruits and vegetables section of Part II:Elizabeth Chacko, Ph.D., Nativita M. Dhaiti, M.S., R.D., James Dinh, M.P.H., RobertoGarces, M.P.H., Helanie Hatter, M.P.H., M.A., Yun Kim, M.S., R.D., Leda Nemer, M.P.H., HeiuNgo, M.P.H., Tuong I. Nguyen, M.P.H., James Pfeiffer, Ph.D., Karen Shih, M.P.H., JudithSt. George, Abishek Tewari, Donna Winham, M.P.H., and Osman Galal, M.D., Ph.D.Appreciation is also extended to the research dietitians at UCLA Center for Human Nutrition:Pamela Saltsman, M.P.H., R.D., Shannon Duffy, M.P.H., R.D., Melissa Sherak Resnick, M.P.H.,R.D., and Stacy Macris, M.P.H., R.D. Members of the UCLA Nutrition Education Committeeprovided input and review of sections of the book. Inkham Adams and Jolyn K. Gentemen,students from the University of Nevada Department of Nutrition, assisted with the nutrition tables.Beverly Parker provided writing expertise during the early stages of book development. JillBurcum, Anne Christiansen-Bullers, and Mike Dougherty helped with the writing of all chaptersin Part II (except fruits and vegetables). In addition, the following staff were involved with thephotography: food stylists were Susan Brosious, Sue Brue, Suzanne Finley, Robin Krause,Cindy Syme, and Abigail Wyckoff (also a prop stylist); food stylist assistants were Amy Peterson,Susan Tellen, and Teresa Thell; prop stylists were Michele Joy and Rhonda Watkins; photographersincluded Kevin Ross Hedden and Mette Nielson; production coordinator was Edward Fruin.Diane M. Knight provided her skills as a computer artist. Photographic separation was completedby Davies Printing Company, Rochester, Minnesota. Executive Chef Patrick Jamon, TheRegency Club, Los Angeles, provided culinary expertise. Administration support was providedby Jonathan W. Curtright, Mayo Clinic.xi

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2 Chapter 2A GUIDE TOHEALTHYNUTRITION

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The Nutriants and Other Food Substances 3P a r t IThe latest research shows that the foods we choose to eat—or not to eat—may increaseour life span or the quality of our lives. Not a day goes by, it seems, without feature newsstories about food and its impact on health. The message that we can reduce our chances ofdeveloping cancer, high blood pressure, diabetes, and other diseases by maintaining a healthyweight, decreasing the fat and calories in our diets, eating more vitamin- and mineral-rich fruitsand vegetables, and getting fit is becoming a familiar one. As more research is done, the linkbetween diet and the risk of developing common diseases such as heart disease or cancer isbecoming clearer and clearer. Thanks to this research, we are beginning to understand thedietary and lifestyle factors that are most likely to ensure a long, healthy life. And the goodnews is that we can incorporate these factors into our own lives without sacrificing taste orgiving up the foods we enjoy, by discovering and eating tastier, nutritious fruits, vegetables,and whole grains.Despite the well-publicized connections among diet, weight, and health, statistics showthat the prevalence of overweight and obesity is increasing at an alarming rate, particularly inchildren and teens. So why do we cling to our unhealthful habits? For many, the nutritionand fitness guidelines published by the government and by health organizations may seem overwhelming.We may have questions about why we should eat what the experts recommend,what foods are or are not nutritious, and whether it is better to obtain some nutrients fromfood or from a multivitamin or nutritional supplement. Finally, for most of us, eating ispleasurable, and familiar foods are comforting. The idea of making a major change in the kindsand amounts of food that we eat is daunting.Part I of this book provides you with an overview of the principles of good nutrition,provides you with insight as to why the experts recommend what they recommend, and thengives you some practical tips on how to change the way you eat while still enjoying goodfood. Chapter 1 begins by reviewing the current guidelines for nutrition and fitness. Chapter2 provides an overview of the basics of nutrition, including a description of the knownnutrients and other food components. Chapter 3 discusses the role of good nutrition in theprevention and treatment of common diseases. Chapters 4 and 5 providesuggestions for planning and preparing meals and selecting healthfulfoods. They give tips on eating out, shopping, reading food labels,and modifying family favorites with healthful recipe makeovers.Sample recipes are provided to show that following a well-balanced,nutritious diet can be an enjoyable undertaking, and 2 weeks ofmenus are given to help you get started.3

In this chapter, you will be introduced to the basic principles of nutrition.You will learn about the value of a diet rich in fruits, vegetables,and grains as the foundation for good health and how to selectnutritious foods that contribute to a healthful diet. You willthen be equipped to discern the best approach for yournutritional well-being.You will also learn about:• The new Dietary Reference Intakes and how they are used• Health Goals—The importance of nutrition• Dietary Guidelines—Your gateway to nutrition knowledge• The Food Guide Pyramid: A guide to eating well

C H A P T E r o n eOPTIMIZINGHEALTHWe are surrounded by a vast array of foods to eat andactivities to pursue. Every day we make choicesamong those foods and activities based on our culturalbackground, knowledge, experiences, and goals. Eachchoice may have an impact on our overall health and qualityof life. Our ancestors’ food choices were limited bywhat they could gather, catch, cultivate, and harvest.Physical pursuits were determined by the workthat needed to be done. Today, advancesin agriculture, transportation, foodpreservation, and storage bringnearly every type of food fromevery country of the world toour local supermarkets throughoutthe year. With such a limitlessarray of foods, choosingthe ones that promote health iseasier than ever, but making thesechoices requires knowledge andmotivation. This chapter explainshow the guidelines established bynationally recognized health andnutrition authorities can be usedto help you understand the foodchoices that promote health, choosethe foods that contain needed nutrients,and select appropriate serving sizes.THE DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES (DRIS)We all need the same nutrients, but the amounts we needdepend on our age, sex, and a few other factors. For example,women who are pregnant or breastfeeding need moreof most nutrients. The Food and Nutrition Board of theInstitute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, agroup of nutritional scientists from the United States andCanada, has established the Dietary Reference Intakes(DRIs), a set of recommendations for nutrient intake. TheDRIs are age- and sex-specific. With the exception of fatsand carbohydrates (whose requirements depend only onour calorie needs), a separate DRI is set for each of theknown nutrients for each of 10 different age groups. Fromthe age of 9 years, males and females have separate DRIs,and additional DRIs are set for women whoare pregnant or breastfeeding.How did the nutrient recommendationsoriginate? Concernedwith the need to provide propernutrition for newly draftedWorld War II soldiers, many ofwhom were undernourished, theDepartment of Defense commissionedthe first set of nutrient recommendations(called the Recommended Dietary Allowances)in 1941. Since then, nutrient recommendations

6 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutritionhave undergone periodic revision based on advances in ourunderstanding of nutrition.Today, nutrition research addresses not only the preventionof nutritional-deficiency diseases but also the role ofnutrients in reducing the long-term risk for diseases suchas heart disease and cancer. Taking into consideration theresulting expansion of scientific knowledge about the rolesof nutrients in health since the first recommendations wereestablished, the latest revision was begun in 1997. The newDietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) include the RecommendedDietary Allowance, the Estimated Average Requirement, theAdequate Intake, and the Upper Limit.The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is theamount of each nutrient that is sufficient to prevent nutritionaldeficiencies in practically all healthy people. TheEstimated Average Requirement (EAR) is the amount of anutrient that is estimated to meet the requirement of halfthe population of an age- and sex-specific group. For somenutrients, too little is known about them to establish anRDA. For these, an Adequate Intake (AI) is determined.This is the intake that should be adequate to meet theneeds of most people. A safe Upper Limit (UL) has beenestablished for some nutrients. Establishment of this valuereflects our growing recognition that some nutrients mayhelp promote health and prevent disease in amounts thatexceed the RDA. The UL is the maximal daily intake of anutrient that is likely to be free of the risk of adverse healtheffects in almost all individuals in the designated group.How are the DRIs used? They are the basis for all nutritionalplans used by health care facilities and providers,food services, food manufacturers, and others who plandiets. As you will learn below, the Food Guide Pyramid,the research-based food guide developed by the government,is based on the DRIs. In addition, the Daily Values,the information on food labels that helps you determinehow a food contributes to your total nutrient intake, arebased on the DRIs (see the Appendix: Dietary ReferenceIntakes, page 421).AMERICA’S HEALTH GOALSAccording to recent statistics, our eating habits—the foodswe eat and drink and those we avoid—play a major role inpreventing 4 of the 10 leading causes of death in the UnitedStates. These include heart disease, cancer, stroke, anddiabetes (see sidebar: Top 10 Causes of Death, this page). Inaddition, one in four adults has high blood pressure, aleading contributor to stroke, heart attack, kidney failure,and premature death. (See Chapter 3, page 47, for theimportant role of diet.) We didn’t always have this knowledge.But now that we do, experts in nutrition workingwith the federal government have provided us with nutritionand physical activity guidelines for staying healthy andpreventing disease.Many government and health care associations focustheir efforts on helping Americans eat well. Chief amongthem is the U.S. Department of Health and HumanServices, which created a set of national health goals entitledHealthy People 2010.Healthy People 2010The ultimate goals of Healthy People 2010 are to improvethe nation's health status and to eliminate health disparityamong segments of the U.S. population. One of the prioritiesof this initiative is to foster a change in America's eatingTOP 10 CAUSES OF DEATH* (U.S. POPULATION)Many of the leading causes of death in the United States aredirectly related to diet and excessive alcohol consumption.RANKCAUSE OF DEATH1† Heart disease2† Cancer3† Stroke4 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease(emphysema)5‡ Accidents/injuries6 Pneumonia and influenza7† Diabetes mellitus8‡ Suicide9 Kidney disease10‡ Chronic liver disease, cirrhosis*Top 10 causes of death according to the National Center forHealth Statistics, 1997.†Causes of death in which diet plays a part.‡Causes of death in which excessive alcohol consumption playsa part.

8 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutritioncontent and truthful health claims based on scientific fact.The food industry is developing healthier lower-fat andlower-calorie products, restaurants are identifying healthfulchoices on menus, and educational efforts on the importanceof good nutrition have been stepped up.5 a Day for Better HealthThe National Cancer Institute of the United States andthe Produce for Better Health Foundation (a nonprofitconsumer education foundation representing the fruit andvegetable industry) collaborated in a unique partnershipin 1991 to develop the 5 a Day for Better Health program.This is a nationwide educational effort to encourageAmericans to eat 5 or more servings of fruits and vegetablesevery day for better health. A minimum of 5 servings offruits and vegetables a day provides the RDA for many ofthe vitamins and minerals (see Chapter 2, page 29). The recommendationthat we eat 5 to 9 servings of fruits and vegetableseach day also is based on the results of numerousstudies showing the positive effects of fruits and vegetableson health as a result of their ability to reduce the risk of cancerand other diseases. Ample consumption of fruits andvegetables forms the basis of some of the Dietary Guidelinesfor Americans and the guidelines of the American CancerSociety and others, outlined below. The 5 a Day programworks through state public health departments, retail foodstores, school classrooms and cafeterias, the military, andvarious media. The goal of the program is to educate thepublic about the benefits of fruits and vegetables and todemonstrate easy and delicious ways to fit more of them intoyour diet (see Chapters 4 and 5, pages 79 through 149).Have We Made Progress?The explosion of health information and nutrition educationprograms has led to good progress on several fronts.Deaths from heart disease have declined and, to a slightdegree, so have deaths from some cancers. On average,the intake of total fat and saturated fat has decreased. Foodlabeling provides much more useful information now.Restaurants offer more low-fat and low-calorie options ontheir menus.Although consumption of grain products is on the rise,many grains are in the form of snacks such as corn chips andpopcorn. Fewer than one-third of American children andless than one-half of adults eat the recommended 5 servingsof fruits and vegetables. Overall, fat intake is decreasing(from 40 percent of calories in the late 1970s to 33 percentin the mid-1990s). However, only about a third of adultsmeet the “30 percent or fewer calories from fat” recommendationof nutrition experts.Nutritionists are now assessing our progress in meetingthe goals of Healthy People 2010. These efforts will includeevaluating healthful behaviors in the areas of fitness andnutrition, ensuring a safe food supply, and reducing and preventingdiseases such as osteoporosis, cancer, diabetes, heartdisease, and stroke.Of course, national goals are met one person at a time.Fortunately, there is a road map for achieving fitness andhealth. Scientists and nutrition experts have mapped outa sound plan for healthful eating and exercise based on themost current findings about nutrition.THE DIETARY GUIDELINESFOR AMERICANSAim for FitnessAim for a healthful weightResearch clearly shows that being overweight greatlyincreases your risk for many diseases, including heart disease,cancer, and diabetes. If you are overweight, combininga healthful eating plan with regular physical activityis the most effective way to lose weight and to sustain

Chapter 1: Optimizing Health 9the loss (see sidebar: Diet and Exercise—The Perfect Pair,page 10). If you are at a healthy weight, your goal is tomaintain that weight. Chapter 3 (page 47) provides furtherinformation on weight control.Be physically active each dayEveryone—young and old—can improve their health by beingmore active. Choose activities that you enjoy and can do regularly.Although you will gain more health benefits with highintensityexercise that lasts 30 minutes or more, low-to-moderateactivities can be part of your routine. For some people,this means fitting more activity of daily living into your usualroutine. This could include using the elevator less and usingthe stairs more, parking farther from rather than closer to yourdestination, gardening, or golfing without a cart. For others,a more structured program might be preferred, such as at aworksite or health club. Whichever you choose, the goal is toinclude at least 30 minutes of activity every day.The need for regular physical activity is so importantthat the Surgeon General of the United States has issued areport entitled Physical Activity and Health, which has its ownguidelines for achieving activity. They are the following:• Physical activity should be performed regularly.Include a minimum of 30 minutes of moderate physicalactivity (such as brisk walking) on most, if not all,days of the week. For most people, greater healthbenefits can be obtained by engaging in activity thatis more vigorous or of longer duration.• Previously sedentary people should start with shortdurations of moderate activities and gradually increaseduration or intensity.• Physical activity should be supplemented withstrength-enhancing exercises at least twice a week toimprove musculoskeletal health, maintain independencein performing the activities of daily life, and reducethe risk of falling.• Consult with a physician before beginning a newphysical activity program if you have—or are at riskfor—a medical condition (such as heart disease, highblood pressure, or diabetes), or if you are a man olderthan 40 years or a woman older than 50.Build a Healthy BaseLet the Pyramid guide your food choicesYour body needs more than 40 nutrients and other substancesfor good health. No one food can give you all the nutrients yourDIETARY GUIDELINES FOR AMERICANSThe ABCs of good healthAim for Fitness• Aim for a healthful weight• Be physically active each dayBuild a Healthy Base• Let the Pyramid guide your food choices• Choose a variety of grains daily, especially wholegrains• Choose a variety of fruits and vegetables daily• Keep foods safe to eatChoose Sensibly• Choose a diet that is low in saturated fat and cholesteroland moderate in total fat• Choose beverages and foods to moderate your intakeof sugars• Choose and prepare foods with less salt• If you drink alcoholic beverages, do so in moderationbody needs, no matter how much you enjoy it or how nutritiousthe food is. By eating a wide variety of foods each day,you will keep your meals exciting and you will achieve thebalance of nutrients that best ensures good health. (See page11 for more information on the Food Guide Pyramid.)Choose a variety of grains daily, especially whole grainsChoosing a diet rich in grains, especially whole grains,reduces your risk of many diseases. These foods providedifferent types of vitamins, minerals, and fiber, as well asphytochemicals—important plant substances that may bebeneficial to health. Rely on a wide variety of these foodsrather than supplements as your source of nutrients, fiber,and phytochemicals. Aim for 6 servings each day—moreif you are very active—and include several servings ofwhole-grain foods. (See Chapter 2, page 33.)Choose a variety of fruits and vegetables dailyFruits and vegetables are essential in your diet. They providemany vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals, and fiber, andthey are low in calories and provide no fat. The goal is tohave at least 2 servings of fruit and 3 servings of vegetablesevery day. Variety is important. Choose different colors and

10 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionDIET AND EXERCISE—THE PERFECT PAIRDiet along with exercise is the most effective way to lose weight.A deficit of 500 calories daily can add up to a loss of 1 pound a week.Here are some suggestions for skimming approximately 250 to 300 calories off your daily dietand for burning an additional 250 calories through increased physical activity.DIETDecrease usual meat intake by 3 to 4 ounces dailyCut butter, margarine, or oil by 2 tablespoons dailyEliminate two 12-ounce cans of sweetened carbonatedbeverages dailyDecrease beer intake by two 12-ounce cans dailyDo not eat a candy barEXERCISEWalk at a moderate pace for 60 minutes dailyGarden for 50 minutes dailySwim laps for 30 minutes dailyJog 25 minutes dailyBike briskly for 25 minutes dailykinds of fruits and vegetables. (See Chapters 4 and 5, pages79 through 149, for ideas on how to include these importantfoods as regular features in your meals. Part II, page150, also describes the bounty from which to choose.)Keep foods safe to eatFood safety is vital. It starts well before you purchase food.However, the steps you control also make a difference.They include making sure you have clean hands and worksurfaces—before and during the handling of food. Take careto separate raw, cooked, and ready-to-eat foods at all times.Keep hot foods hot and cold foods cold. Make sure tocook food to the proper temperature. Refrigerate perishablefoods and leftovers promptly. Follow the dates oncontainers. And finally, when in doubt, throw it out. (Forfurther discussion on food safety issues, see Chapter 5,page 148.)Choose SensiblyChoose a diet that is low in saturated fat and cholesteroland moderate in total fatFat is a nutrient that is essential for health, but too much fatin your diet, especially saturated fat, increases your risk ofseveral diseases, including heart disease. Most important,learn to identify the sources of fats, saturated fats, and cholesterol,and make healthful food choices. (See Chapter 2, Fats,page 26, and Chapter 3, Coronary Artery Disease, page 61.)Choose beverages and foods to moderate your intakeof sugarsSome foods that contain natural sugar (such as fruits, vegetables,and milk products) also contain essential nutrients. Others,such as table sugar, sugar-sweetened carbonated beverages,candy, and some baked goods, supply calories but few othernutrients. When consuming sugar, moderation is key. (SeeChapter 2, Carbohydrates, page 18.)Choose and prepare foods with less saltSodium, a nutrient, is a major part of table salt (sodium chloride).It is found naturally in many foods in small amounts.Salt and sodium compounds are also added to processedfoods, and salt may be used in cooking or added at the table.Reducing sodium intake lowers high blood pressure insome individuals. Moderation in sodium intake is recommended.(See Chapter 3, High Blood Pressure, page 53.)If you drink alcoholic beverages, do so in moderationAlcoholic beverages (beer, wine, and hard liquor) are asource of extra calories. When consumed in excess, alcoholcan impair judgment, result in dependency, and lead toseveral serious health problems. However, evidence suggeststhat a moderate intake of alcohol is associated with a lowerrisk of disease of the heart and blood vessels (cardiovasculardisease) in some individuals. Discuss the consumption ofalcohol with your health care provider. (See sidebar:Alcohol and Health, page 387.)

Chapter 1: Optimizing Health 11THE POWER OF THE FOOD GUIDE PYRAMIDThe Food Guide Pyramid, the triangular symbol you see onmany food packages, was developed by nutrition experts atthe U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) (see below).The Pyramid is an educational tool that translates nutrientrequirements into the foods you need to eat and helps youput into action the advice offered by the Dietary Guidelines.In graphic form, the Pyramid displays the variety of foodchoices and the correct proportions needed to attain the recommendedamounts of all the nutrients you need withoutconsuming an excess of calories. The Pyramid dividesall foods into six categories, based on the nutrients theycontain.THE FOOD GUIDE PYRAMIDFats, oils, and sweets (eat sparingly)Milk products: Skim or low-fatmilk, yogurt, low-fat or nonfatcheeses or cottage cheeseMeats and other high-protein foods: Lean meats,poultry, fish, eggs (3 to 4 yolks per week), cookeddry beans, peas, lentils, peanut butter, nuts,seeds, tofuVegetables: Fresh orcooked vegetables,vegetable sauces,or juicesFruits: Fresh fruit (apple, apricots,banana, berries, dates, figs, grapefruit,grapes, guava, kiwi, mango, melon,nectarine, orange, pineapple),canned fruit, juicesGrains: Whole-grain breads,bagels, English muffins,breakfast cereals (wholegrain,cooked, or readyto-eat),crackers,tortillas, pancakes,pasta, riceThe Food Guide Pyramid was developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The pyramid incorporates many principles thatemphasize a plant-based diet that is low in fat, high in fiber, and rich in important vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients.All of these factors contribute to optimal health and help you to control your weight and to reduce the risk of heart disease andsome types of cancer. The arrangement of the food groups in a pyramid shape calls attention to the kinds of foods to eat moreof and those to eat in moderation.

12 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionSIZING UP YOUR SERVINGSEven if you eat a variety of foods, serving sizes are an important part of maintaining a healthful weight.Knowing them can help you gauge if you are eating enough food — or too much.ONE SERVING EQUALSGRAINS1 slice bread1 ounce ready-to-eat cereal (large handful or check the package label)1/2 cup cooked cereal, rice, or pasta (similar to the size of an ice cream scoop)FRUITS1 medium apple or orange (size of tennis ball)1 medium banana1/2 cup cut-up, canned, or cooked fruit3/4 cup 100% fruit juiceVEGETABLES1 cup raw leafy vegetables (the size of your fist)1/2 cup other vegetables, chopped (raw or cooked)3/4 cup vegetable juiceMILK PRODUCTS(choose low-fat varieties)1 cup milk or yogurt1 1/2 ounces natural cheese (the size of a pair of diceor pair of dominoes)2 ounces low-fat processed cheeseMEATS2 to 3 ounces of cooked lean meat, poultry, or fish(about the size of a deck of cards or the palm of your hand)THE FOLLOWING ALSO EQUAL 1 OUNCE OF MEAT:1/2 cup cooked dry beans or legumes (ice cream scoop)1 egg (3 to 4 yolks per week)2 tablespoons peanut butter1/3 cup nuts1/2 cup tofuFATS, OILS, AND SWEETS(These foods add calories and are usually low in nutrients. Eat them sparingly.)

Chapter 1: Optimizing Health 13HOW MANY SERVINGS DO YOU NEED EACH DAY?This table tells you how many servings to aim for from each food group. The number of servings you need dependson your age, sex, and how active you are. The table also indicates how much fat (in grams) should beyour limit. This includes the fat you find in foods and the fat that you add to foods.CHILDREN, TEEN GIRLS,TEEN BOYS,MOST WOMEN, ACTIVE WOMEN, ACTIVE MEN,OLDER ADULTS MOST MEN VERY ACTIVE WOMENCalorie level About 1,600 About 2,200 About 2,800SUGGESTED NUMBER OF SERVINGSGrain group 6 9 11Fruit group 2 3 4Vegetable group 3 4 5Milk group 2–3* 2–3* 2–3*Meat group 2 2 3(for a total of (for a total of (for a total of5 ounces) 6 ounces) 7 ounces)Total fat(less than 30% ofcalories) 53 grams or less† 73 grams or less† 93 grams or less†*3 servings are recommended for women who are pregnant or breastfeeding, teenagers, and young adults up to age 24.†Values are rounded off.The six categories of the Pyramid are:• Grain products (bread, cereal, rice, and pasta)• Fruits• Vegetables• Milk products (milk, yogurt, cheese)• Meats and other high-protein foods (lean meats,poultry, fish, dry beans, eggs, and nuts)• Fats, oils, and sweetsThe shape of the Pyramid, widest at the base and narrowestat the tip, makes it easy to visualize the contribution that eachgroup of foods should make to your overall eating planwhen you follow the Dietary Guidelines. The emphasis ofthe Pyramid is on increasing the proportion of fruits,vegetables, and grains—those foods that form the base of thePyramid—and decreasing the proportion of higher-fatfoods—the ones at the very top—in our diets.The grain group, which includes bread, cereal, rice,and pasta, forms the broad foundation of the Pyramid toemphasize that grains should be a major contributor toour overall diet. As often as possible, our choices of grainfoods should be those made from whole grains, for themost nutritional value.As illustrated by the Pyramid, in addition to grains,our diet should include ample servings of fruits and vegetables.If our daily need is to be met for vitamins, minerals,fiber, and other important phytochemicals (plant chemicalsthat are believed to play a role in preventing disease),the bulk of our diets must come from plant foods.Because of the saturated fat they contain, meats, poultry,and seafood (the high-protein foods) and dairy products(high in protein, calcium, and other minerals) should makea smaller contribution to our daily fare. Foods that occupythe tip of the Pyramid, pure fats (cooking oil, butter, andmargarine) and high-fat, high-sugar sweets, are the onesto include only sparingly, like the proverbial icing on thecake. The Pyramid is designed to promote and encourage

14 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutritiona plant-based diet, one that is based primarily on grains,fruits, and vegetables. Yet, by including all types of foods,the Pyramid emphasizes the need for us to choose a varietyof foods and the fact that there are no “bad” foods.The Pyramid is designed to address the needs of all personsolder than 2 years by providing a range of recommendedservings for each food group (see sidebars: Sizing Up YourServings, page 12, and How Many Servings Do You NeedEach Day? page 13). The number of servings that youshould choose from each food group depends on yourcalorie needs, which in turn depend on your age, size, sex,and activity level. The lower number of servings providesa total daily energy intake of about 1,600 calories. Thiscalorie level meets the needs of most sedentary women andsome older adults. The higher number of servings, whichprovides approximately 2,800 calories, is recommendedfor physically active men, teen boys, and some very activewomen. The middle range of servings is designed to provideabout 2,200 calories, sufficient for children, teen girls,active women, and most men. These calorie estimatesassume that you choose lean meats, lower-fat dairy foods,and vegetables and grains prepared and eaten with minimaladded fat and sugar.In 1999, the USDA released a Children’s Pyramid. TheChildren’s Pyramid was designed to address the needs of 2-to 6-year-olds. It has proportionally smaller portions andnumbers of recommended servings from each group of foodsexcept fruits and vegetables. This emphasizes that children,too, need at least 5 servings of fruits and vegetables a day.Similar to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, theFood Guide Pyramid undergoes periodic updates to reflectwhat we have learned about the role of nutrition in diseaseprevention. To get an idea of the changes you might see inthe next Pyramid, let’s take a look at some other Pyramidsthat have been constructed.Other PyramidsThe risk for heart disease and some types of cancer amongpeople who live in the Mediterranean region—southernItaly, France, Spain, and Greece—is significantly lowerthan the risk in Americans. Nutritional scientists haveuncovered strong evidence that the eating, drinking, andexercise habits of the Mediterranean people play a major rolein their low risk for disease. The Mediterranean diet hasbeen illustrated as a “Mediterranean Pyramid,” based on ourown Food Guide Pyramid. It is built on a foundation ofpasta, bread, rice, and other grains, with large contributionsof vegetables and legumes (beans and peas) and smallportions of meat, poultry, seafood, and dairy products.The fat used in cooking and for dressings is olive oil, ratherthan butter. Desserts consist of fresh fruits, and meals areaccompanied by wine. This plant-based diet is naturally lowin saturated fat, higher in monounsaturated fats (from oliveoil), and rich in fiber, vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals(see Chapter 2, page 33). In addition to adhering to a plantbaseddiet (which includes generous servings of legumessuch as kidney beans, peas, and lentils), Mediterraneanpeople have a more physically active lifestyle than mostAmericans. This factor also may contribute to their lowerrisk of heart disease. The major difference between theMediterranean diet and the USDA Food Guide Pyramidlies in the distinction between the recommendation tolower total fat, which places all high-fat foods at the tip ofthe Pyramid, and the Mediterranean practice of includingmonounsaturated fats but limiting saturated fats (seeChapter 2, page 26).You also may have heard of other Pyramids, such as aVegetarian Pyramid and an Asian Pyramid. Like theMediterranean Pyramid, these pyramids were constructed toillustrate dietary practices of groups whose risk of heart diseaseand some types of cancer is lower than that of people whoconsume a typical Western diet. Not surprisingly, thesepyramids also illustrate diets that are plant-based and low insaturated fat. Still other pyramids are designed merely toshowcase foods that are native to particular regions or producedby particular companies. The Mayo Clinic HealthyWeight Pyramid and the California Pyramid, however, haveone unique feature that we may see incorporated into a futureFood Guide Pyramid, that is, the inclusion of fruits and vegetables,rather than grains, as the foundation of the Pyramid.By replacing grains with fruits and vegetables at the base, thecritical need to increase our intake of these foods is emphasized.OTHER VOICES: GUIDELINES OF HEALTHORGANIZATIONSIn addition to the Food Guide Pyramid and the DietaryGuidelines for Americans, several private health organizations(the American Heart Association, the AmericanCancer Society, and the American Institute for CancerResearch) have issued their own nutritional guidelines.When the guidelines of all the major health organizationsare compared, they are similar. Recognizing this, expertsfrom the American Heart Association, the American Cancer

Chapter 1: Optimizing Health 15Society, the American Dietetic Association, the AmericanAcademy of Pediatrics, the American Society for ClinicalNutrition, and the National Institutes of Health met in1999 to review scientific evidence and to identify practicesthat are effective against major diseases. The dietary recommendationsthat these groups have in common include:• Total fat: no more than 30% of calories• Saturated fat: less than 10% of calories• Monounsaturated fat: no more than 15% of calories• Polyunsaturated fat: no more than 15% of calories• Cholesterol: no more than 300 milligrams daily• Carbohydrates: 55% or more of calories• Salt (sodium chloride): less than 6 grams daily (4 gramsof sodium)These recommendations can be achieved by following theDietary Guidelines for Americans (page 9) and by using theFood Guide Pyramid (page 11).Mayo ClinicHealthy Weight PyramidTHE BOTTOM LINE: OPTIMIZING HEALTHThe message is clear. Nutrition experts agree that when youlower the total fat, saturated fat, and added sugar in yourdiet and increase the vitamins, minerals, and fiber by eatingmore fruits, vegetables, and grains, you can improve yourquality of life and help prevent many of the diseases that arethe leading causes of death. Now that you know the goalsand guidelines for healthful eating, we will provide youwith the nutrition and food selection knowledge you needto put those guidelines into practice.Chapter 2 explains the nutrients we all need, the rolesthey play in promoting health, the best food sources forthese nutrients, and how your nutritional needs changethroughout your life. Chapter 3 describes how your risk forserious illnesses is influenced by your diet. Chapters 4 and5 help you learn to use the Food Guide Pyramid to choosethe most nutritious foods, and they give you guidanceabout planning and preparing healthful, appetizing meals.California PyramidMonthlyRed MeatSweetsAsian PyramidA few times per monthRed MeatSweetsMediterraneanPyramidWeeklyOptional DailyEggs and PoultryFish &Shellfishor DairyA few times per weekEggsPoultryFishDailyVegetable OilsCheese and YogurtFruitsLegumes,Nuts &SeedsVegetablesDailyWine inmoderationFruitsOlive Oil (variable amounts)Beans,Legumesand NutsVegetablesRice, Rice Products, Noodles, Breads,Millet, Corn & Other GrainsPhysical ActivityBreads, Pasta, Rice, Couscous,Polenta, Bulgar, Other Grainsand PotatoesPhysical Activity

In this chapter, you will be introduced to thenutrients your body needs. You will learn the roleeach nutrient plays in your body, how much you needand how often, ideal food sources of each nutrient,and how all the nutrients work to optimize health.You will also learn about some recently identifiedsubstances in plant foods, the phytochemicals,that may promote health and help prevent disease.

C H A P T E r t w oTHENUTRIENTSAND OTHER FOODSUBSTANCESThere is no one perfect food. We need an assortmentof nutrients that can be obtained only by eating awide variety of foods. What is it that our bodies need?Scientists have identified more than 40 different nutrientsin food. These substances are essential for growth and forthe chemical reactions and processes that keep us alive andfunctioning (metabolism).Except for an extremely small number of foods thatconsist almost entirely of one nutrient, the vast majority ofthe foods we eat are mixtures of many nutrients. Nevertheless,each group of foods included in the Food Guide Pyramid(grains, fruits and vegetables, milk products, and meats)(see Chapter 1, page 11) is unique in the types of nutrientsit contributes to our diets. For example,fruits and vegetables are the mainsource of many vitamins, minerals,and complex carbohydrates in ourdiets, and the meat group (includingdry beans and legumes, eggs,poultry, and fish) is the main sourceof protein for most people.It can be difficult to understandthe difference between the nutrientsthemselves and the foods that containthem. For example, when youhear nutrition experts talk about the needto get more complex carbohydrates, what do they meanand what foods contain those nutrients? In this chapter, wefocus on the nutrients themselves—how they are digested,what happens to them in the body, and what they do for you.We also say a little about the best food sources of each nutrient,because, after all, when you go to the supermarket,you don’t look for protein, starch, fiber, and antioxidants,you look for chicken, rice, raisin bran, and orange juice.Nutrients are sorted into categories on the basis of theirchemical structures and functions. Carbohydrates, proteins,and fats contained in foods are known as the macronutrients,because they are required in the largest quantities. Inaddition to their other functions, macronutrients provideenergy in the form of calories. Vitamins and minerals areknown as the micronutrients. They arerequired by your body in much smallerquantities. Although the micronutrientshelp your body use the energy inmacronutrients, they provide no energy(calories) themselves. Water is also anessential, calorie- free nutrient. The workour bodies do each day causes us to depletesome of our stores of these essential nutrients.Only by maintaining a diet that is rich invarious nutrient-containing foods can we replacethose lost nutrients.

18 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionIn addition to the known nutrients, substances in foodsof plant origin, called phytochemicals or phytonutrients(phyto is the Greek word for plant), have been identified inrecent studies. These phytochemicals may promote healthand help prevent certain diseases. Hundreds of suchcompounds are being identified in the fruits, vegetables,nuts, beans, and grains we eat, although only a few havebeen thoroughly studied. How these various phytochemicalsinfluence our health is a promising new area of researchfor nutrition experts.THE MACRONUTRIENTS:CARBOHYDRATES, PROTEINS, AND FATSEach of the macronutrients—carbohydrates, proteins, andfats—plays various roles in the function of our bodies. Inaddition to their unique functions, all of the macronutrientssupply calories. When we eat more protein, carbohydrate,or fat than we need to replenish what we have used, theexcess is converted to and stored as fat. Calories are usedto support all muscular activity, to carry out the metabolicreactions that sustain the body, to maintain bodytemperature, and to support growth. But when we consistentlytake in more calories than we use, we gain weight.Weight is maintained when energy (calorie) intake balancesenergy output (see Chapter 3, page 48).CARBOHYDRATESThe carbohydrates are a vast and diverse group of nutrientsfound in most foods. This group includes simple sugars(like the sugar you add to your morning coffee) and complexforms such as starches (contained in pasta, bread, cereal,and in some fruits and vegetables), which are broken downduring digestion to produce simple sugars. The mainfunction of the simple sugars and starches in the foods weeat is to deliver calories for energy. The simple sugar glucoseis required to satisfy the energy needs of the brain, whereasour muscles use glucose for short-term bouts of activity.The liver and muscles also convert small amounts of thesugar and starch that we eat into a storage form calledglycogen. After a long workout, muscle glycogen storesmust be replenished. Both simple sugars and starchesprovide about 4 calories per gram (a gram is about theweight of a paper clip). Because carbohydrates serveprimarily as sources of calories (and we can get caloriesfrom other macronutrients), no specific requirement hasbeen set for them (see Chapter 1, The Dietary ReferenceIntakes [DRIs], page 5). But health experts agree that weshould obtain most of our calories (about 60 percent) fromcarbohydrates. Our individual requirements depend onage, sex, size, and activity level.In contrast to the other carbohydrates, fiber (a substancecontained in bran, fruits, vegetables, and legumes) is a typeof complex carbohydrate that cannot be readily digested byour bodies. Even though it isn’t digested, fiber is essentialto our health. Nutrition professionals recommend 25 to 30grams of fiber daily.Simple SugarsSimple sugars make foods sweet. They are small moleculesfound in many foods and in many forms. Some simplesugars occur naturally in foods. For example, fructose is thesugar that naturally gives some fruits their sweet flavor.Table sugar, the sugar that we spoon onto our cerealand add to the cookies we bake, also called sucrose, is themost familiar simple sugar. A ring-shaped molecule ofsucrose actually consists of a molecule of fructose chemicallylinked to a molecule of another simple sugar calledglucose. Sugars such as fructose and glucose are known asmonosaccharides, because of their single (mono) ringstructure, whereas two-ringed sugars such as sucrose areknown as disaccharides. Another disaccharide, lactose, thesugar that gives milk its slightly sweet taste, consists ofglucose linked to yet another simple sugar called galactose.The inability to digest lactose to its constituent sugars is thecause of lactose intolerance, a condition common to adultsof Asian, Mediterranean, and African ancestry.The table sugar that we purchase is processed fromsugar cane or sugar beets. As an additive to many differenttypes of prepared or processed foods, sucrose adds nutritivevalue (in the form of calories only), flavor, texture, andstructure, while helping to retain moisture. Today, sucroseis most often used to sweeten (nondietetic) carbonatedbeverages and fruit drinks (other than juice), candy, pastries,cakes, cookies, and frozen desserts. One of the most commonlyconsumed forms of sugar is called high-fructose cornsyrup. High-fructose corn syrup is also commonly used tosweeten sodas, fruit drinks (not juices), some ice creams, andsome manufactured pastries and cookies. Other forms ofsucrose include brown sugar, maple syrup, molasses, andturbinado (raw) sugar.

Chapter 2: The Nutrients and Other Food Substances 19Foods that are high in added sugar are often low in essentialnutrients such as vitamins and minerals. Unfortunately,these foods are often eaten in place of more nutrient-richfoods such as fruits, vegetables, and low-fat whole-grainproducts, and they may prevent us from obtaining essentialnutrients and lead to weight gain.Nutritionists are concerned by the enormous increasein sugar consumption by Americans during the past 30years, particularly because much of this sugar is in the formof soft drinks. On average, teens today drink twice as muchsoda as milk, and young adults drink three times as muchsoda as milk. As a result, their intake of calcium-rich foodsis low, a factor that is thought to contribute to lower bone“HIDDEN” SUGAR IN COMMON FOODSSome foods contain sugar that has been added duringprocessing. The following foods contain a large amountof sugar. The sugar content is shown in grams, and itsequivalents in teaspoons are also given.Try to eat high-sugar foods less frequently or in smalleramounts. Check labels and compare similar foods—choosethose that are lower in sugar content. Go easy on addingsugar to food.FOOD AMOUNT GRAMS TEASPOONSOF SUGAR OF SUGARFruit punch 12 ounces 40 10Carbonated softdrink, sweetened 12 ounces 40 10Ice cream 1 cup 40 10Yogurt with fruit 1 cup 35 9Candy bar 1 average 30 8Apple pie 1 slice 15 4Sweetened cereal 1 cup 15 4Jam, jelly 1 tablespoon 10 2 1/2Donut 1 10 2 1/2Honey 1 teaspoon 5 1Brown sugar 1 teaspoon 5 1Table sugar 1 teaspoon 5 1mass. This can lead to an increased risk of bone problemsas we grow older (see Chapter 3, Osteoporosis, page 67).The increase in sugar consumption also has been attributedto the increasing availability of low-fat versions ofsuch dessert and snack foods as cookies, cakes, and frozendesserts. Often, the sugar content of these foods is highbecause sugar is used to replace the flavor lost when thefat is decreased. Sugar promotes tooth decay, whenconsumed in forms that allow it to remain in contact withthe teeth for extended periods (see sidebar: “Hidden” Sugarin Common Foods, this page).Thus, foods that are high in sugar, or sugar and fat,and have few other nutrients to offer appear at the top ofthe Food Guide Pyramid because they should be eatensparingly. In contrast, choosing fresh fruits, which arenaturally sweetened with their own fructose, or low-fatyogurt, which contains lactose (natural milk sugar), allowsus to get the vitamins and minerals contained in thosefoods as well as other food components that contribute tohealth but may not have yet been identified.On the positive side, there is no credible evidence todemonstrate that sugar causes diabetes, attention deficithyperactivitydisorder, depression, or hypoglycemia. Noevidence has been found that sugar-containing foods are“addictive” in the true sense of the word, although manypeople report craving sweet foods, particularly those thatare also high in fat.Complex CarbohydratesFound almost exclusively in foods of plant origin, complexcarbohydrates are long chains of molecules of the simplesugar glucose. The complex carbohydrates in plant foodscan be divided into two groups: starch and fiber.Starch is the form of carbohydrate that is found in grains,some fruits and vegetables, legumes, nuts, and seeds. Itprovides energy for newly sprouting plants. Fiber is thetougher material that forms the coat of a seed and otherstructural components of the plant (see illustration on page20). Starches are digested by our bodies into their constituentglucose molecules and used for energy, whereas fiber is not.Starch, like simple sugars, provides 4 calories per gram,whereas fiber (sometimes called nonnutritive fiber) providesno calories. Like simple sugars, the role of starches in ourdiets is mainly to provide energy.Fiber is actually a family of substances found in fruits,vegetables, legumes, and the outer layers of grains. Scientistsdivide fiber into two categories: those that do not dissolve

20 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutritionendospermbranbrushwheat berrygermThe wheat kernel (or seed) consists of the fiber-rich outer branlayer; the inner endosperm, which is composed of starch, proteins,and B vitamins and is made into flour; and the germ, which isground and sold as wheat germ, a rich source of vitamin E.in water (insoluble fiber) and those that do (soluble fiber).Insoluble fiber, also called roughage, includes cellulose,hemicellulose, and lignin, found in vegetables, nuts, andsome cereal grains. Soluble fibers include pectin, foundin fruits, and gums, found in some grains and legumes (seesidebar: Plant Fibers: Insoluble and Soluble, below).Fiber-rich diets, which include ample amounts ofwhole-grain foods, legumes, and fresh vegetables and fruits,have been linked with a lower risk of several diseases.Nutrition scientists are just beginning to understand the roleof dietary fiber in maintaining health. Fiber appears tosweep the digestive system free of unwanted substancesthat could promote cancer and to maintain regularity andprevent disorders of the digestive tract. Fiber also providesa sense of fullness that may help reduce overeating andunwanted weight gain. Diets that are rich in fiber andcomplex carbohydrates have been associated with lowerserum cholesterol and a lower risk for high blood pressure,coronary artery disease, and some types of cancer. But doesthis mean that it’s okay just to take a fiber pill? No! Rather,the studies that have shown the beneficial effects of a highfiberdiet (containing 25 to 30 grams of fiber per day) havebeen those in which the dietary fiber is in the form of fruits,vegetables, whole grains, and cereals. These and otherstudies suggest that not only the fiber in these foods but alsoPLANT FIBERS: INSOLUBLE AND SOLUBLEInsoluble Fiber—also known as roughageThese fibers hold onto water, add bulk, and promote movement through the intestine.CELLULOSE HEMICELLULOSE LIGNINWhole-wheat flour Bran Woody portions of plants:Bran Whole grains such as stem of broccoli, carrotsNuts Vegetables WheatVegetables Fruits Fruits with edible seeds, such as raspberriesand strawberriesSoluble Fiber—dissolves in water and becomes gummyThese types of fibers can help lower blood cholesterol and blood glucose.GUMSOatsLegumes and dried beansBarleyPECTINApplesCitrus fruits: oranges, grapefruitsCarrots

Chapter 2: The Nutrients and Other Food Substances 21WHERE ARE THE WHOLE GRAINS?Whole-grain bread products are labeled as whole grain,whole wheat, or rye.In contrast, bread products labeled as made withwheat, cracked wheat, seven-grain, multi-grain, stonegroundwheat, or any of several other names containmostly refined flour and lack the health-promotingeffects of a whole-grain product.the vitamins, minerals, and other compounds they containcontribute to their health-promoting effects.The Dietary Guidelines for Americans (see Chapter 1,page 8) recommend that we obtain most (about 60%) ofour calories from carbohydrates, preferably complexcarbohydrates, in the form of foods such as whole grains,fruits, vegetables, and legumes. These foods are goodsources of fiber, essential vitamins, minerals, and otherphytochemicals and are also more likely to be low in fat.The average American today consumes only about athird of the recommended amount of fiber. To obtain asmany of the potential benefits as possible, you need toobtain complex carbohydrates and fiber from various foodsources. Although studies indicate that our intake ofcarbohydrates is increasing, the contribution of whole-grainfoods remains small, partly because identifying whole-grainfoods can be confusing. For ideas on what whole-grainfoods to look for in your supermarket, see the sidebarsWhere Are the Whole Grains? and Finding Fiber, this page.Foods that are naturally good sources of fiber or havefiber added are allowed to make claims on their labelsregarding their fiber content. What do the terms used todescribe fiber content mean? When you see the phrase“high fiber” on a food label, it means that 1 serving (definedon the Nutrition Facts panel) of the food contains 5 grams offiber or more per serving. A food that contains 2.5 to 4.9grams of fiber in a serving is allowed to call itself a “goodsource” of fiber, and a food label that says “more fiber” or“added fiber” has at least 2.5 grams more fiber per serving.Sugar SubstitutesFor the same reason that people have recently sought substitutesfor fat, noncaloric sugar substitutes became popularin the 1960s as people began to try to control their weight.Sugar substitutes are of two basic types: intense sweetenersand sugar alcohols.FINDING FIBERHow much fiber will you find in the foods you eat?FOOD SERVING FIBER(GRAMS)Apple with skin 1 medium 4Banana 1 medium 3Orange juice 3/4 cup Less than 1Orange 1 medium 3Strawberries 1 cup halves 4Broccoli, raw 1/2 cup 1Broccoli, cooked 1/2 cup 2Carrot, raw 1 medium 2Potato, baked with skin 1 medium 4Spinach, cooked 1/2 cup 2Spinach, raw 1 cup 1Tomato 1 medium 1Lentils, cooked 1/2 cup 8Beans, baked 1/2 cup 7White bread 1 slice Less than 1Whole-wheat bread 1 slice 2Pumpernickel bread 1 slice 2Rice, white 1/2 cup Less than 1Rice, brown 1/2 cup 2Bran cereal, 100% 1/3 cup 8Corn flakes 1 cup 1Oatmeal, cooked from 1/3 cup dry 3Popcorn, air popped 1 cup 1Spaghetti, cooked, 1/2 cup 1regularSpaghetti, cooked, 1/2 cup 3whole wheatHummus 2 tablespoons 2(chickpea dip)Intense sweeteners are also called non-nutritive sweeteners,because they are so much sweeter than sugar thatthe small amounts needed to sweeten foods contributevirtually no calories to the foods. These sweeteners also donot promote tooth decay. Currently, four such intensesweeteners are available, both for use in processed foods andfor home consumption. The U.S. Food and DrugAdministration (FDA) has set “acceptable daily intakes”(ADI) for these sweeteners. The ADI is the amount thatcan be consumed daily over a lifetime without risk.

22 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionOne of these sweeteners is aspartame (NutraSweet brand).It is manufactured by chemically modifying the naturallyoccurring amino acid phenylalanine. This sweetener can’tbe used by people with phenylketonuria (a rare congenitaldisorder that disrupts the body’s ability to metabolize phenylalanineand can result in severe nerve damage). Despiteextensive safety testing showing aspartame to be safe, itsuse has been implicated by the popular press in everythingfrom headaches to loss of attentiveness. At this time, thereis no scientific validity to these claims. Aspartame is not heatstable, so it can’t be added to foods that will be cooked orbaked, although it can be added to some foods (such ascoffee) after heating.Saccharin, a second non-nutritive sweetener, was associatedwith cancer in mice when it was fed in very largeamounts. However, further studies have found no linksbetween saccharin and human cancer. This recently ledthe U.S. government to remove it from its list of potentialcancer-causing chemicals. Although saccharin is heat stable,in some cases it cannot satisfactorily be used in bakingbecause it lacks the bulk of sugar.Acesulfame K (Sunnett), a third intense sweetener, wasapproved by the FDA in 1998 for use in soft drinks,although it was used in various food products before that.About 200 times sweeter than sugar, this noncaloric producthas been extensively tested for safety. After reviewingmore than 90 studies, the FDA deemed the sweetener safein amounts up to the equivalent of a 132-pound personconsuming 143 pounds of sugar annually (an AcceptableDaily Intake of 15 milligrams per kilogram of body weight;1 kilogram is about 2.2 pounds). Because it is not metabolized,acesulfame K can be used safely by people with diabetes.The sweetener is more heat stable than aspartame, maintainingits structure and flavor at oven temperatures morethan 390° Fahrenheit and under a wide range of storageconditions. Like saccharin and aspartame, acesulfame Klacks bulk, so its use in home baking requires recipe modification.The flavor of acesulfame K has been described asFoods contain a variety of carbohydrates,from simple to complex. Fruits,vegetables, grains, and dairy productsall contain carbohydrate.

Chapter 2: The Nutrients and Other Food Substances 23clean and quickly perceptible, although disagreement existsabout whether it leaves an aftertaste.A fourth intense sweetener, sucralose (Splenda), wasapproved by the FDA in 1998 for sale and use in commercialfood products. Sucralose is made by chemicallymodifying sucrose (table sugar) to a non-nutritive, noncaloricpowder that is about 600 times sweeter than sugar.Before approving sucralose, the FDA reviewed more than110 research studies conducted in both human and animalsubjects. It concluded that the sweetener is safe forconsumption by adults, children, and pregnant and breastfeedingwomen in amounts equivalent to the consumptionof about 48 pounds of sugar annually (an AcceptableDaily Intake of 5 milligrams per kilogram of body weight).People with diabetes may also safely consume the sweetener,because it is not metabolized like sugar. In addition,sucralose is highly stable to heat and so will not lose itssweetness when used in recipes that require prolongedexposure to high temperatures (such as baking) or whenstored for long periods. The product is currently availablein the form of a powdered sugar substitute and in somecommercial baked goods, jams and jellies, sweet sauces andsyrups, pastry fillings, condiments, processed fruits, fruitjuice drinks, and beverages, and its use is approved forvarious additional products. However, use of sucralose inhome baking is expected to be limited by its low bulk incomparison with table sugar.Foods containing intense sweeteners should not be givento infants or children, who need energy to grow and tosustain their high activity levels. Foods that contain intensesweeteners and lack any nutritive value also should notreplace nutrient-dense foods in your diet.The sugar alcohols xylitol, mannitol, and sorbitolcontain less than 4 calories per gram. These sugar alcoholsare digested so slowly that most are simply eliminated.Unfortunately, excessive consumption can cause diarrheaor bloating in some people.So-called “natural” sweeteners provide the same numberof calories as sugar and have acquired the reputation, albeitincorrectly, of being healthier than sugar, because they seemmore natural than processed table sugar. These includehoney, maple syrup and sugar, date sugar, molasses, andgrape juice concentrate. In reality, these sweeteners containno more vitamins or minerals than table sugar. Honeymay harbor small amounts of the spores of the bacteriathat produce botulism toxin and should never be given tobabies younger than 1 year.The Bottom Line on CarbohydratesCarbohydrates—sugars and starches—are the main sourceof fuel for our bodies. When we choose carbohydrate-richfoods, our best bets are fruits, vegetables, whole grains,and legumes, because these foods are also rich sources ofhealth-promoting vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals, andfiber. But like all calories, extra calories from carbohydratesbeyond those we need to replenish the energy we burnare converted to fat and stored in our fat cells. Non-caloricsweeteners seem to be a safe alternative to sugar for mostpeople, but the foods that contain them are often nutritionallyempty and their use in home cooking is limited. Theso-called natural sweeteners are no better for you than sugar.PROTEINProtein is an essential part of our diets. Proteins are large,complex molecules resembling tangled strings of beads.Each of the “beads” on the string is one of a group of smallermolecules called amino acids. Amino acids are composedof carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, and somecontain sulfur.Using the amino acids from the protein you eat, thebody makes more than 50,000 different proteins. Theseproteins are the main structural elements of our skin, hair,nails, cell membranes, muscles, and connective tissue.Collagen, the main protein in our skin, provides a barrierto the invasion of foreign substances. Proteins in cell membranesdetermine what substances can enter and exit cells.Our muscles, which contain some 65 percent of the body’stotal protein, give our bodies their shape and strength.Proteins in connective tissues such as tendons, ligaments,and cartilage enable our skeletons to function, form internalorgans, and hold the organs in place. Proteins in theblood carry oxygen to all cells and remove carbon dioxideand other waste products. The proteins in muscle,connective tissue, and blood make up most of the proteinin the body. Other proteins called enzymes accelerate metabolicprocesses, and still other proteins and amino acidsare hormones and neurochemicals, the substances thatdeliver signals throughout the body and regulate all metabolicprocesses.During periods of growth, our bodies must manufactureand store large amounts of protein. Therefore, therequirement for protein in our diets is higher during growth.But even when we are not growing, each of the unique

24 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutritionproteins in the body has a finite lifespan and must be replacedcontinuously. So the need for protein never ends.Dietary Protein and Body ProteinThe thousands of proteins that make up our bodies areassembled on demand from some 20 different amino acids.What are these amino acids, and where do they come from?The protein from the meat we ate last night is not directlyincorporated into our muscles. The proteins in the foodswe eat are digested first into small “peptides.” Some ofthese peptides are further digested into their constituentamino acids. Only amino acids and small peptides areactually absorbed by the small intestine into the bloodstream.They are then delivered to the liver, muscles, brain,and other organs, where they are used to make new proteinsor converted to other amino acids needed by those organs.Of the 20 amino acids that make up all proteins, 9 areconsidered “essential” because they cannot be made in ourbodies and must be obtained from the foods we eat. Of theremaining 11, some are essential for infants and persons withcertain diseases (see sidebar: Amino Acid Classification, page25). The rest of the amino acids are considered “nonessential,”because our bodies can make them in adequate amounts,if necessary. Nevertheless, they are easily supplied by eatinga well-balanced diet that includes a variety of foods.Most foods contain protein. Some foods are bettersources of protein than others. “Complete” proteins arethose that contain all the essential amino acids in amountsneeded to synthesize our body’s proteins. The best sourcesof complete protein are lean meats and poultry, fish, low-fatdairy products, and eggs (see Part II, High-Protein Foods,page 291, and Dairy Foods, page 345).Lean meats (including poultry and fish)and dairy products aren’t the only foodsthat contain protein. By eating a varietyof foods, including grains and legumes,you are likely to meet your needs.

26 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionThe Bottom Line on ProteinAdequate protein is critical for growth, metabolism, andhealth, but eating more protein than we need will not buildbigger muscles. Conversely, excess protein is converted tofat. Foods of animal origin are high in protein but may alsobe high in total and saturated fat. Lean meats and dairyproducts, fish, legumes, and grains are the best sources ofprotein.FATSIt’s difficult to read a newspaper or listen to the eveningnews without hearing something new about fat and itsconnection with disease. Diets that are high in fat arestrongly associated with an increased prevalence of obesity andan increased risk of developing coronary artery disease, highblood pressure, diabetes mellitus, and certain types of cancer.Health authorities recommend that we reduce our totalfat intake to about 30 percent of total calories. They alsorecommend that we limit our intake of saturated fat (thetype of fat most often found in meat and dairy products)to less than 10 percent of our fat calories and try to be surethat the fat we do eat is mostly the monounsaturated orpolyunsaturated type. These changes have been shown todecrease our risk for several diseases.Fat as a NutrientFat is an essential nutrient, because our bodies require smallamounts of several fatty acids from foods (the so-calledessential fatty acids) to build cell membranes and to makeseveral indispensable hormones, namely, the steroidhormones testosterone, progesterone, and estrogen, and thehormone-like prostaglandins. Dietary fats also permit onegroup of vitamins, the fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, andK), to be absorbed from foods during the process ofdigestion. Fats help these vitamins to be transportedthrough the blood to their destinations. The fat in ourbodies also provides protective insulation and shock absorptionfor vital organs.As a macronutrient, fat is a source of energy (calories).The fat in food supplies about 9 calories per gram, morethan twice the number of calories as the same amount ofprotein or carbohydrate. As a result, high-fat foods areconsidered “calorie-dense” energy sources. Any dietary fatthat is not used by the body for energy is stored in fat cells(adipocytes), the constituents of fat (adipose) tissue (seeChapter 3, Obesity, page 47). The Dietary Guidelines forAmericans recommend that no more than 30 percent of ourcalories should come from fat, and only a third of thatshould be saturated fat.Sorting Out the FatsOur health is influenced by both the amount and the typeof fat that we eat. Fats are molecules; they are classifiedaccording to the chemical structures of their componentparts. But you don’t need to be a chemist to understand theconnection between the various fats in foods and the effectthese fats have on the risk for disease. Some definitions will help.Dietary fats, or triglycerides, are the fats in foods. Theyare molecules made of fatty acids (chain-like molecules ofcarbon, hydrogen, and oxygen) linked in groups of three toa backbone called glycerol. When we eat foods that containfat, the fatty acids are separated from their glycerol backboneduring the process of digestion.Fatty acids are either saturated or unsaturated, termsthat refer to the relative number of hydrogen atoms attachedto a carbon chain. Fat in the foods that we eat is made upof mixtures of fatty acids—some fats may be mostly unsaturated,whereas others are mostly saturated (see sidebar:A Comparison of Fats, page 27).Monounsaturated fatty acids are fatty acids that lackone pair of hydrogen atoms on their carbon chain. Foodsrich in monounsaturated fatty acids include canola, nut,and olive oils; they are liquid at room temperature. A dietthat provides the primary source of fat as monounsaturatedfat (frequently in the form of olive oil) and includesonly small amounts of animal products has been linked toa lower risk of coronary artery disease. This type of dietis commonly eaten by people who live in the region surroundingthe Mediterranean Sea (see Chapter 1, page 14).Polyunsaturated fatty acids lack two or more pairs ofhydrogen atoms on their carbon chain. Safflower, sunflower,sesame, corn, and soybean oil are among the sourcesof polyunsaturated fats (which are also liquid at roomtemperature). The essential fatty acids, linoleic andlinolenic acid, are polyunsaturated fats. Like monounsaturatedfats, polyunsaturated fats lower blood cholesterollevels and are an acceptable substitute for saturatedfats in the diet.Saturated fatty acids, or saturated fats, consist of fattyacids that are “saturated” with hydrogen. These fats arefound primarily in foods of animal origin—meat, poultry,dairy products, and eggs—and in coconut, palm, and

Chapter 2: The Nutrients and Other Food Substances 27A COMPARISON OF FATS32%62%6%Percent polyunsaturated fat Percent monounsaturated fat Percent saturated fat79%12%9%68%21%9%62%25%13%9%77%14%60%25%15%34%48%18%22%47%31%12%47%41%10%39%51%4%44%52%5%31%64%2%6%92%CanolaoilSaffloweroilSunfloweroil*Corn oil Olive oil SoybeanoilPeanutoilChickenfatLard Palm oil Beef fat Butterfat Coconutoil*Total is not 100% because of the presence of other, minor fat compounds.palm kernel oil (often called “tropical oils”). Foods that arehigh in saturated fats are firm at room temperature.Because a high intake of saturated fats increases your riskof coronary artery disease, nutrition experts recommend thatless than 10 percent of your calories should come from saturatedfats. To find out how to calculate your fat allowance,see the sidebar Recommended Fat Intake, page 28, and todetermine the total and saturated fat contents of somefoods, see the sidebar Where’s the Fat? page 28.Omega-3 fatty acids are a class of polyunsaturated fattyacids found in fish (tuna, mackerel, and salmon, in particular)and some plant oils such as canola (rapeseed) oil. Thesefatty acids have made the news because of the observation thatpeople who frequently eat fish appear to be at lower risk forcoronary artery disease. Omega-3 fatty acids also seem toplay a role in your ability to fight infection.Hydrogenated fats are the result of a process in whichunsaturated fats are treated to make them solid and morestable at room temperature. The hydrogenation process,which involves the addition of hydrogen atoms, actuallyresults in a saturated fat. Trans-fatty acids are created byhydrogenation. An increase in consumption of these fats isa concern because they have been associated with an increasedrisk of coronary artery disease. Hydrogenated fat is a commoningredient in stick and tub margarine, commercial bakedgoods, snack foods, and other processed foods.Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance that is a necessaryconstituent of cell membranes and serves as a precursor for bileacids (essential for digestion), vitamin D, and an importantgroup of hormones (the steroid hormones). Our livers canmake virtually all of the cholesterol needed for these essentialfunctions. Dietary cholesterol is found only in foodsof animal origin, that is, meat, poultry, milk, butter, cheese,and eggs. Foods of plant origin, that is, fruits, vegetables,nuts, seeds, legumes, grains, and the oils derived from them,do not contain cholesterol. Eggs are the food most oftenassociated with cholesterol, because the average large eggcontains about 210 milligrams of cholesterol (only in theyolk), and the recommended daily cholesterol intake is300 mg or less. However, for most people, meat contributesa higher proportion of cholesterol to the diet than do eggs,because cholesterol is found in both the lean and fat portions

28 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionRECOMMENDED FAT INTAKEHealth experts recommend consuming no more than 30 percent of our calories from fat—with no more than10 percent from saturated fat. Here is a chart to help you determine how much fat you should eat.CALORIES TOTAL FAT (GRAMS) SATURATED FAT (GRAMS)Most women & older adults About 1,600 53 Less than 17Most men, active women,teen girls & children About 2,200 73 Less than 24Active men & teen boys About 2,800 93 Less than 31Note: These are guidelines for healthy individuals. If you have heart disease or high blood cholesterol or triglyceride levels,or if you are overweight, ask your health care professional to recommend the types of fat and amounts most appropriatefor you.of meat. Shellfish have acquired an undeserved reputationfor being high in cholesterol. Their cholesterol andtotal fat contents are actually comparatively low (see sidebar:Cholesterol Content of Foods, page 29).Fat SubstitutesTo appeal to our desire for lower-fat substitutes for ourfavorite high-fat foods, the commercial food industry hasdeveloped low- or lower-fat versions of many foods usingvarious fat replacers. Until recently, fat replacers alwaysconsisted of proteins or carbohydrates, such as starches orgels, but the kinds of foods that could be prepared withthese fat replacers were limited by their inability to withstandthe high temperatures of frying. In 1996, after a longperiod of development, safety testing, and governmentalreview, the first non-caloric fat, olestra, was approved by theFDA for use in the manufacture of savory (non-sweet) snacks(such as crackers and chips). Because olestra is a modifiedfat, it is the first heat-resistant fat substitute, which allowsit to be used to make fried foods. In addition, olestra givesfoods the flavor and creamy “mouth feel” of high-fat foods.FDA approval of olestra was controversial for two reasons.First, this artificial ingredient, if approved and accepted,would be the first in history to be consumed in quantitiescomparable to the quantities of fat, carbohydrates, andproteins we currently consume from food sources. In otherwords, these novel, previously unknown substances couldbecome major parts of the diets of some people, and thereWHERE’S THE FAT?Foods That May Pack More Fat Than You ThinkFOOD TOTAL FAT SATURATED CALORIES(GRAMS) FAT (GRAMS)Butter (2 Tblsp ) 23 14 200Porterhouse steak (3 oz) 21 8 270Peanuts (1/4 cup) 18 3 210Cake donut (1 large) 16 3 300Blue cheese dressing(2 Tblsp) 16 3 150Peanut butter (2 Tblsp) 16 3 190Chocolate/peanut/nougat candy bar (2 oz) 14 5 270Batter-fried chickenthigh (3 oz meat) 14 4 240Croissant, cheese (2 oz) 12 6 235Croissant, plain (2 oz) 12 7 230Ice cream(1/2 cup rich vanilla ) 12 7 180Cream cheese (2 Tblsp ) 10 6 100Milk, whole (1 cup) 8 5 150Milk, 2% (1 cup) 5 3 120Sour cream (2 Tblsp) 5 3 50Half-and-half (2 Tblsp) 3 2 40

30 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutritionfunction (see Vitamins and Minerals as Antioxidants, page31).Each of the vitamins was discovered and its requirementdetermined by its ability to cure and prevent aparticular disease or group of symptoms. For example, thediscovery that a substance in limes could cure and preventthe disease called scurvy led to the discovery that our bodiesrequire vitamin C and that scurvy is the result of vitaminC deficiency. Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) are beingestablished for each vitamin. They describe the amount ofthe vitamin that should prevent symptoms of deficiencyin most people, with a little extra added.Today, the diseases that result from vitamin deficienciesrarely occur except in severely malnourished individualsor in those with certain medical conditions. Rather, in avirtual nutrition revolution, research has progressed beyondthe identification and treatment of simple nutrientdeficiencies to the realization that some of the vitamins(or foods that contain them) may help maintain health bypreventing the development of chronic diseases such ascancer and heart disease in otherwise well-nourished people.The Food Guide Pyramid is based on the DRIs. It tellsus the number of servings, in each group of foods, that willsupply us with the recommended allowance of most of thevitamins. Nutrition research also has begun to support theidea that a few of the vitamins and minerals, notably thosereferred to as antioxidants (see Vitamins and Minerals asAntioxidants, page 31), may provide even more benefit iftaken in quantities somewhat greater than the recommendedamounts. This idea raises some questions. Is theresuch a thing as too much of a vitamin? Should these extravitamins come from food, or is it okay to take a supplementif you just can’t eat that much? And, should the recommendedamounts for these vitamins be increased? Althoughthere really is no answer to the last question yet, the answersto the first two questions depend on the type of vitamin.As we begin our discussion of vitamins, we want to emphasizethat although it is virtually impossible to overdose onvitamins from food alone, some vitamin supplements definitelyoffer too much of a good thing (see sidebar: WhatAre Daily Values? this page, and Supplement Sense, page38).The 14 essential vitamins can be classified into twogroups: water-soluble and fat-soluble. They are classified onthe basis of their molecular structure, which determinesthe way the vitamins are carried in food and in the bloodstreamand the manner in which they are stored in yourbody. The text that follows describes which vitamins fallinto which category and what that means for your health.Water-Soluble VitaminsThere are 10 water-soluble vitamins. The B complex vitaminshave various roles, some of which involve their action, inconcert, to regulate the body’s use of energy from food. Folicacid is an important factor in the regulation of growth. Duringthe early stages of pregnancy, folic acid is important forpreventing a type of birth defect known as a neural tubedefect. Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, functionsin various ways, many of which seem to be related to itsantioxidant properties (see the Appendix: A Quick Look—Vitamins, Their Functions and Food Sources, page 430).As their name implies, water-soluble vitamins dissolvein water. The body strives to maintain the optimal level ofeach of the water-soluble vitamins for its immediate needs.Surplus water-soluble vitamins are excreted in the urineand through perspiration, because they are not stored inthe body to any appreciable extent. Water-soluble vitaminsmust be replenished almost daily, preferably by eating foodsthat are rich in these vitamins. Fruits, vegetables, grains, andbeans are excellent sources of the water-soluble vitamins(with the exception of vitamin B 12 , which is found only infoods of animal origin). However, if you choose to useWHAT ARE DAILY VALUES?Have you ever wondered what “% Daily Value” means onthe Nutrition Facts label? How does it relate to theDietary Reference Intakes (DRIs)? As you may recallfrom Chapter 1, the DRIs, set by the Food and NutritionBoard of the National Academy of Sciences, are theamounts of each nutrient recommended for most healthypeople. Because DRIs are both sex- and age-specific,each nutrient has a range of DRIs. To make it easier toshow how a food meets your recommended allowance forsome of the more critical nutrients, the Food and DrugAdministration has established a Daily Value for eachnutrient, which is approximately the highest recommendedamount for that nutrient. The “% Daily Value” reportedon the Nutrition Facts label is based on a maintenancecalorie level of 2,000 calories daily. If your maintenancecalorie level is 1,500 calories, your daily values may be abit lower, so the nutrient contents of the food satisfy ahigher percentage of your daily value.

Chapter 2: The Nutrients and Other Food Substances 31multivitamins or single-nutrient supplements to get yourwater-soluble vitamins, moderation is advised (seeSupplement Sense, page 38), because high doses of severalof the B vitamins can have harmful effects, and high dosesof vitamin C may contribute to the formation of kidneystones.Fat-Soluble VitaminsThe fat-soluble vitamins, A, D, E, and K, are found in thefood you eat, absorbed into your bloodstream, and carriedthroughout your body attached to fat molecules. Becausefat-soluble vitamins can be stored in the body, they do notneed to be replenished on a daily basis. Vitamins A and Dare stored in the liver, and reserve supplies may be sufficientfor as long as 6 months. Reserves of vitamin K, however,may be sufficient for only a few weeks, and the supply ofvitamin E can last somewhere between several days andseveral months.If taken in excess, usually in the form of a supplement,fat-soluble vitamins can accumulate in the body. Largestores of vitamins A and D can actually become harmful.Fortunately, it is difficult to get an excess of fat-solublevitamins from food. For example, beta-carotene, themolecule found in some foods of plant origin that givescarrots and squash their yellow-orange color, is convertedto vitamin A in the body. But because the chemical reactionthat converts beta-carotene to vitamin A is carefullyregulated, it is nearly impossible to get vitamin A toxicityfrom eating fruits and vegetables. Foods that providevitamins D, E, and K would need to be consumed in suchquantity that achieving toxic levels of these nutrients ishighly unlikely. However, a high intake of vitamin K-containing foods may contribute to abnormal bleeding inpeople who are receiving blood-thinning (anticoagulant)medication. Therefore, it is important to keep foods that arehigh in vitamin K relatively constant. Vitamin E supplementsalso are not recommended for these individuals.The recent development of diet drugs that work byinhibiting your body’s absorption of fat has raised concernsabout the possibility that the use of such drugs could leadto deficiencies in the fat-soluble vitamins. Preliminaryresults suggest that when taken as directed, these drugsmay interfere with the absorption of beta-carotene andvitamin D from foods. If these findings are confirmed,persons who take these prescribed drugs to manage theirweight also will be required to take a daily multiple vitaminthat contains the fat-soluble vitamin.As mentioned in the discussion of fat substitutes, earlyresearch on the fat substitute olestra showed that eatingolestra-containing snack foods interferes with the body’sability to absorb some of the fat-soluble vitamins from theother foods we eat. To compensate for this effect, the manufacturersof snack foods that contain olestra were requiredto fortify these products with fat-soluble vitamins. Thus,eating olestra-containing snack foods does not seem to createa significant risk for deficiency of fat-soluble vitamins(unless you consistently choose to eat them in place ofmore nutritious foods).To learn about the many roles of vitamins, how muchof each of them you need, and the best food sources foreach one, see the Appendix: A Quick Look—Vitamins,Their Functions and Food Sources, page 430.MineralsMinerals are just what the term indicates—elements foundin the earth. Like the vitamins, minerals play a multitudeof roles in our bodies. Unlike the vitamins, some minerals—calcium and phosphorus—have a structural function. Theseminerals are the main components of our bones and teeth.Calcium has an additional critical role. Along with severalother major minerals—sodium, chlorine, potassium, andmagnesium—calcium is a regulator of cell function. Theminerals sodium, chloride, and potassium (also referred toas electrolytes) are responsible for maintaining the balanceof fluids inside and outside of cells and, along with calcium,controlling the movement of nerve impulses.Trace minerals are those that your body needs in smalleramounts, usually less than 20 milligrams daily. Theseinclude iron, chromium, cobalt, copper, fluoride, iodine,manganese, molybdenum, selenium, and zinc. Themineral iron forms the active part of hemoglobin, theprotein in your blood that delivers oxygen to differentsites in your body and picks up carbon dioxide. AlthoughDRIs have been established for some of the trace minerals,those for which too little is known to establish preciseDRIs have a recommended Adequate Intake (AI) (seethe Appendix: A Quick Look—Minerals, Their Functionsand Food Sources, page 432).Vitamins and Minerals as AntioxidantsSeveral vitamins and minerals are considered antioxidants.These include vitamins E and C, beta-carotene (which canbe converted to vitamin A), other carotenoids (some maybe converted to vitamin A and also play a role in cell devel-

32 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutritionopment), and the minerals selenium, copper, zinc, andmanganese. What are antioxidants? What do they do?Every cell in our body needs oxygen to use the nutrientsthat food provides. However, when oxygen is used by cells,by-products called free radicals are formed. If allowed toaccumulate, these free radicals can damage tissues, cells,and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA, the genetic material ofcells). The process of oxidative damage can be observed asthe browning that occurs when sliced apples or potatoes areexposed to the air or the rancid flavor that butter andcooking oils develop when stored for long periods.Environmental pollutants such as cigarette smoke andultraviolet light from the sun also contribute to the formationof free radicals in our bodies. Although not proved,studies suggest that excess free-radical production canincrease the risk of cancer, heart disease, cataracts, and theother types of cell deterioration that are associated withaging.Just as the vitamin C in lemon juice can prevent slicedapples from browning, antioxidants scavenge and neutralizethe effects of free radicals in our bodies. Each antioxidanthas its own unique effect. Vitamin C, which is water-FOOD SOURCES OF ANTIOXIDANTSCAROTENOIDSBeta-carotene—carrots, broccoli, sweet potatoes, greens(dandelion, turnip, beet, spinach), squash (butternut,Hubbard), red bell peppers, apricots, cantaloupe, mangoAlpha-carotene—greens (see above), carrots, squash(see above), corn, green peppers, potatoes, apples, plums,tomatoesLycopene—tomatoes, watermelon, pink grapefruitVITAMIN CBell peppers (red and green), guavas, greens (see above),broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, strawberries,papayas, oranges and grapefruits and their juicesVITAMIN EPolyunsaturated vegetable oils, seeds, nuts, fortified cereals,greens (see above), tomato productsSELENIUMWheat germ, Brazil nuts, whole-wheat bread, bran, oats,turnips, brown rice, orange juiceSome of the many food sources of antioxidants.

Chapter 2: The Nutrients and Other Food Substances 33Free radicalAntioxidantCellWhen oxygen is used by cells, byproductscalled free radicals arenaturally formed. Free radicalsare molecules with a missingelectron. Simply put, free radicals“want” their full share of electrons.They will take electrons fromvital cell structures, causingdamage and leading to disease.Antioxidants are able to donateelectrons. Nutrients such asvitamin C, vitamin E, or betacaroteneare antioxidants thatblock some of this damage bydonating electrons to stabilizeand neutralize the harmfuleffects of free radicals.soluble, removes free radicals from body fluids and cellstructures composed mainly of water. Beta-carotene and vitaminE are fat-soluble. They seem to be active primarily infat tissues and cell membranes throughout the body. Themineral selenium is an antioxidant that assists vitamin E.What is the best source of antioxidants? With thepossible exception of vitamin E, the best source of antioxidantsis food (see Supplements: Foods, or FunctionalFoods? page 34). Fruits, vegetables, and grains provide awide variety of both known and yet to be discoveredantioxidants that appear to protect your body’s vitalfunctions.WATERAs an essential nutrient, water is the most often overlookedand taken for granted. Yet 75 percent of our body weightis water. Water contributes to nearly every major processin our bodies. It keeps our body temperature stable, maintainsbody chemicals at their proper concentrations, carriesnutrients and oxygen to cells, and removes waste products.Water also cushions joints and protects organs and tissues.An insufficient intake of water or excessive loss of watercan result in dehydration and heat exhaustion, a conditioncharacterized by dizziness, vomiting, muscle cramps,fatigue, and confusion. Fortunately, under most circumstancesour bodies are good at telling us when we are nearingdehydration. When we feel thirsty, our bodies need water.However, as we get older, our bodies’ ability to sense dehydrationdecreases, and older adults often lose the sense ofthirst. Our need for water increases with exercise; exposureto hot or even warm, dry, or extremely cold conditions;pregnancy and breastfeeding; and the use of somemedications. Nutritionists recommend that we drink 8or more 8-ounce glasses of water daily. Many fruits andvegetables are 80 to 90 percent water. Therefore, in additionto the vitamins and minerals they supply, fruits andvegetables also contribute to our total water intake. Formore information on water, see Part II, Encyclopedia ofFoods, page 150.ON THE NUTRIENT HORIZON:PHYTOCHEMICALSCarotenoids. Isoflavones. Capsaicins. You may have heardthese words in radio advertisements for the latest supplementor seen them in last week’s newspaper. But what are they? Allof them fall into the category of substances called phytochemicalsor phytonutrients. A phytochemical is, literally,any chemical found in a plant (phyto is the Greek word for

34 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutritionplant). Armed with the knowledge that people whose dietsare rich in foods of plant origin are at lower risk for manyserious diseases, nutritional scientists have begun to try toisolate the actual chemicals in foods that may be responsiblefor promoting health and preventing disease. Nutritionistshave adopted the term “phytochemical” or “phytonutrient”to refer to any one of a growing list of substances they haveisolated that appear to prevent disease in laboratory animals.The phytochemicals identified so far are known to havevarious roles in the plants from which they originate,including capturing the energy from sunlight and conferringresistance to infection by fungi, bacteria, and viruses.How they function in our bodies, and how they may beSOY WHAT?There is increasing evidence that isoflavones, plant estrogensfound in soy foods, may have some of the sameeffects as estrogen. Beneficial effects may include:• Lower blood lipid levels—Soy may decrease totalcholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, andtriglycerides.• Decreased cancer risk—Cancer population studiesshow a decreased risk for hormone-related cancersof the breast, ovary, endometrium, and prostate incountries where plant-based diets with a high contentof phytoestrogens are consumed.• Diminished menopausal symptoms—Populationstudies show thatwomen who eatsoy as their mainprotein source mayhave far fewer distressingmenopausal symptoms.responsible (along with the known vitamins, minerals, andfiber found in plant foods) for the health-promoting effects,is just beginning to be understood.The antioxidant beta-carotene is one of a group of phytochemicalsknown as carotenoids. Beta-carotene, thesubstance that gives carrots their orange color and theirname, is converted to vitamin A (retinol) in our body.Other carotenoids include lutein and zeaxanthin (fromgreen vegetables) and lycopene (from tomatoes). Dietsrich in foods containing carotenoids have been associatedwith a reduced risk of cancer and heart disease. Researchersare also investigating whether lutein-rich diets may belinked to a lower risk for macular degeneration, a diseaseof the retina that may lead to blindness.The isoflavones found in soybeans are associated withlower blood cholesterol and a decreased risk for coronaryartery disease. In addition, isoflavones, which are alsoreferred to as phytoestrogens (estrogen-like molecules isolatedfrom plants), appear to reduce some of the symptomsof menopause and may confer a lower risk for breastand other cancers (see sidebar: Soy What? this page). Forhealth benefits, 20 to 25 grams of soy protein per day is recommended.For some of the other phytochemicals thathave been identified, see the sidebar Phytochemicals: AFood Pharmacy That May Fight Disease, page 35.Although some phytochemicals are now available inpill form, we do not yet know enough about how theyfunction to assume that any one, on its own, will promotehealth and prevent disease without the presence of thevitamins, minerals, fiber, and other, as yet unidentified,substances in plant foods. Scientists are making progressin determining how phytochemicals work, but the bestway to ensure an adequate intake of all potentially healthpromotingsubstances in foods of plant origin is to eat thefoods themselves—fruits, vegetables, beans, nuts, seeds,and whole grains. See the Appendix: PhytochemicalContents of Selected Foods, page 484.COMMON SOY FOODS PROTEIN CALORIES(GRAMS)1/3 cup roasted soy nuts 23 2601/2 cup soybeans, mature, cooked 14 1501/2 cup soybeans, green, cooked 11 1261 cup soy milk 7 803 ounces tofu, silken, firm 6 50SUPPLEMENTS: FOODS, ORFUNCTIONAL FOODS?Supplements are concentrated forms of vitamins, minerals,fiber, amino acids, fatty acids, herbal products, enzymes,plant or animal tissue extracts, or hormones. Some supplementscontain one or two known nutrients or a smallgroup of nutrients such as B vitamins or antioxidants.

Chapter 2: The Nutrients and Other Food Substances 35PHYTOCHEMICALSA Food Pharmacy That May Fight DiseasePHYTOCHEMICAL FOOD POTENTIAL BENEFITAllyl sulfidesAlpha-linoleic acidAnthocyanosidesCapsaicinsCarotenoids, including lycopene,luteinCatechinsCellulose (fiber)CoumarinsEllagic acidFlavonoids (including resveratrol)Gums (fiber)Hemicellulose (fiber)IndolesIsoflavonesIsothiocyanatesLignins (fiber)MonoterpenesPectin (fiber)Phenolic acidsProtease inhibitorsPhytosterolsSaponinsGarlic, onions, leeksFlaxseed, soybeans, walnutsEggplant, blood oranges, blueberriesChili peppersOrange, red, yellow fruits; manyvegetables, including tomatoesTea (especially green tea)Whole-wheat flour, bran, cruciferous and rootvegetables, legumes, applesCarrots, citrus fruits, parsleyStrawberries, raspberries,blueberriesCitrus fruits, onions, apples, grapes,wine, teaOats, barley, legumesBran, whole grainsCruciferous vegetablesSoybeans and soy productsCruciferous vegetablesWhole grains, oranges, pears, broccoli, flaxseedCitrus fruitsApples, citrus fruits, strawberriesBrown rice, green teaSoybeans, all plantsLegumes, cucumbersGarlic, onions, licorice, legumesMay protect against coronary arterydisease, abnormal blood clotting, cancerDecreases inflammationMay protect against cancerTopical analgesicMay protect against coronary artery disease,macular degeneration, and cancerMay protect against cancerMay protect against colon cancer,coronary artery diseaseMay protect against blood clotsMay protect against cancerMay protect against cancerMay prevent colon cancerMay prevent colon cancerMay protect against cancerMay diminish menopausal symptoms;may protect against cancer, maylower blood lipid levels, may improvebone healthMay prevent lung, esophageal cancerMay protect against cancerMay protect against cancer (pancreatic,breast, prostate tumors)May protect against cancer, coronaryartery disease, diabetesMay protect against cancerMay protect against cancerMay help prevent coronary arterydisease and breast cancerMay protect against cancer

36 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionOthers, like the well-known multivitamins, may contain anentire panel of vitamins and minerals in amounts close tothe Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs). Still other supplementsmay not contain any substances yet identified asnutrients or even demonstrated as beneficial to health.With few exceptions, foods are better sources than supplementsfor the nutrients we need. A diet based on theFood Guide Pyramid, especially one that is rich in fruits,vegetables, whole-grain foods, and legumes, will providemost of the nutrients we know we need and the ones wehave not yet identified. When we build our diet on a foundationof whole foods, we reap the added benefit ofphytochemicals (known and unknown) and all the types offiber we have begun to realize are important for health.A CLOSER LOOK: SUPPLEMENTS AND THE LAWWhen a dietary supplement is available in the store, it isnaturally assumed that it is safe. Some governmentagency has checked to make certain it is not harmful,right? Not anymore.In 1994, the Dietary Supplement Health andEducation Act removed dietary supplements from premarketsafety evaluations required of food ingredientsand drugs. Drugs and food ingredients still undergo alengthy Food and Drug Administration (FDA) safetyreview before they can be marketed, but the 1994 legislationeliminated the FDA’s authority to regulate thesafety of nutritional supplements before they go on themarket. Now, the FDA can intervene only after an illnessor injury occurs.Claims may not be made about the use of dietarysupplements to diagnose, prevent, treat, or cure a specificdisease. For example, a product may not carry theclaim "cures cancer" or "treats arthritis."The FDA can still restrict the sale of an unsafedietary supplement when there is evidence that theproduct presents a significant or reasonable safety concern.But the agency must wait for complaints about aproduct before acting.The legislation also changed guidelines for marketingsupplements. Because the nutritional supplementindustry is now largely unregulated, there is no guaranteeof product purity or of the amount of active ingredientin a supplement—even from one package to thenext of the same product.Dietary supplements can be enticing. However, becauseof a law passed in 1994, the Dietary Supplement Health andEducation Act, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)is more limited in what it can do to regulate the safety,purity, and labeling of supplements than what it does fordrugs or even foods. Supplement manufacturers arerequired to list the ingredients of their products but arenot accountable for the validity of those lists. Supplementsmay contain more or less of the active ingredient than theyclaim or may contain various impurities. Moreover,manufacturers are not required to list possible side effectsof supplements on labels or in promotional materials (seesidebar: A Closer Look: Supplements and the Law, thispage). Finally, we don’t yet know the active ingredient oringredients in many herbal supplements and plant foods,so we have no way of knowing whether the commerciallyavailable extracts of those herbs or foods will have the samebenefits as the foods themselves.Herbal SupplementsThe popularity of herbal products, those made from extractsof plants and believed to have medicinal properties, continuesto increase. Americans spend $700 million a year on herbalremedies. The use of some plant remedies dates backthousands of years, and plant materials are the basis formany of our most helpful medications, including aspirinand morphine. Scientists continue to investigate anddiscover new medicinal uses for substances in plants (seesidebar: Herbal Products, page 37).Even though some herbal remedies may show beneficialeffects, most show little evidence of providing anyhealth benefits. In fact, some may have serious health risksand may interfere with the action of some medicines.Because herbal products are considered dietary supplementsrather than drugs, the FDA is limited in its abilityto regulate these substances. Ongoing studies continue toinvestigate selected herbs for their safety and effectiveness,so that more information will be available to consumersin the future. There is no guarantee of quality control. Inthe meantime, follow these precautions when consideringa supplement:• Do not use herbal remedies for treatment of seriousillnesses.• Do not give herbal (or other) supplements to infantsand children.• Avoid all herbal supplements if you are pregnant ortrying to become pregnant.

Chapter 2: The Nutrients and Other Food Substances 37HERBAL PRODUCTSHERB POSSIBLE USE PRECAUTIONSChamomileMatricaria chamomillaComfreySymphytum officinalePurple coneflowerEchinaceaEphedra-containing compoundsMa-huangGarlicAllium sativumGingerZingiber officinaleGinkgoGinkgo bilobaGinsengPanax ginsengGuaranaPaullinia cupanaIndian tobaccoLobelia inflataKavaPiper methysticumSt. John’s wortHypericum perforatumSaw palmettoSerenoa repensYohimbe barkPausinystalia yohimbaInternally for indigestion and as ananti-inflammatory. Externally for skininflammationsExternally for bruises and sprains (whereskin is intact)Protects against coldsStimulantMay improve blood lipid levels (equalto 2 to 4 cloves a day)For loss of appetite, travel sicknessImproved blood flow to the brain andperipheral circulation; improvement inconcentration and memory deficitsTonic for fatigue and declining workcapacityStimulation due to caffeine-like content.DiureticAsthma treatment, stimulates respiratorycenter to open airways and ease breathingNervousness and insomniaFor mild depression and anxietyUrinary problems in men withnon-cancerous (benign) prostate enlargement.Does not reduce the enlargementUsed for sexual disorders, as an aphrodisiac,although it appears to be ineffectiveWeak potential for allergic sensitizationTaken internally, it contains traces ofalkaloids, which can cause liver damageand cancer riskPossibility of an excessive immuneresponse. Should not be used by personswith multiple sclerosis, AIDS, or tuberculosisHeadache, irritability, sleeplessness.High doses can cause dangerous increasein blood pressure and heart rate.Addictive over long periodsLarge quantities can lead to stomachcomplaints, rare skin allergic reactionShould not be taken with gallstoneconditionsMild gastrointestinal complaints, allergicskin reactions. Can change blood clotting;therefore, consult with physician iftaking anticoagulant therapyHigh doses can cause sleeplessness, highblood pressure, and edemaCaution advised for persons withsensitivity to caffeine, renal diseases,hyperthyroidism, panic anxietyHigh doses can cause convulsions,respiratory problems, and even deathGastrointestinal complaints, eye pupildilation, and disorders of visual equilibrium.May interact with (enhance) othercentral nervous system substances, suchas alcohol and barbituratesDigestive complaints of fullness orconstipation. Sensitivity to sunlight inlarge doses. Consult with physician iftaking antidepressant medicationsUse under a physician’s supervision, notas a substitute for medical treatmentDo not use if liver or kidney disease ispresent. Side effects include anxiety,increase in blood pressure, rapidheartbeat, tremor, and vomiting.High doses can cause heart failure

38 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutrition• If you have a medical condition, check with your healthcare provider before taking herbal supplements.• In addition, if you are taking medications, do not takeherbal supplements before discussing them with yourhealth care provider.Supplement SenseIn general, high-dose vitamin or mineral supplements addlittle to our health and may in themselves cause illness. Thosethat contain more than 100 percent of your estimated dailyneeds may result in serious nutrient imbalances or eventoxicity. Such imbalances do not occur when your source ofSupplements are not substitutes. Supplements do notreplace the hundreds of nutrients in whole foods neededfor a balanced diet, and they will not fix poor eatinghabits. If you are considering taking a supplement, heedthe following:• Do not self-prescribe.USING SUPPLEMENTS• See your doctor or health care provider if you havea health problem.• Discuss any supplement that you are taking.Supplements may interfere with medications.• Read the label. Supplements can lose their potencyover time, so check the expiration date on the label.Also, look for the initials "USP." They stand for thetesting organization, US Pharmacopeia, which establishestesting standards for compounds. The Foodand Drug Administration (FDA) does not analyzesupplements before they enter the marketplace.• Stick to the Daily Value (DV). Choose supplementsthat are limited to 100 percent or less. Take no morethan what is recommended by your doctor or healthcare provider. The toxic levels are not known forsome nutrients.• Do not waste dollars. Synthetic supplements are thesame as so-called natural types. Generic and syntheticbrands are less expensive and equally effective.• Store in a safe place. Iron supplements are the mostcommon cause of poisoning deaths among children.vitamins comes from foods rather than supplements, becausefoods contain safe amounts of multiple nutrients, and if youfollow the Food Guide Pyramid’s recommended number ofservings you will likely meet the recommended amounts formost nutrients.As discussed earlier, most Americans, including athletes,consume considerably more protein than recommended,and more than their bodies can use. Protein or amino acidpowders provide no benefit and are a poor substitute forprotein-rich foods that contain necessary vitamins andminerals. Similarly, pills that promise to deliver all thefiber we need daily are a bad risk, because these pills invariablyprovide only one type of fiber, whereas each type offiber found in foods of plant origin appears to confer uniquehealth-promoting benefits. The fatty acids we need also areavailable in more than adequate amounts in various foods.Who Needs a Vitamin or Mineral Supplement?Eating a variety of foods, especially those of plant origin,allows most of us to acquire all the known nutrients, foodsubstances, and as yet unidentified nutrients that our bodiesneed. Nevertheless, supplements may be appropriate forsome individuals. Who are these people?• Pregnant or breastfeeding women have an increasedneed for most vitamins and minerals. Folic acid is especiallyimportant early in pregnancy. Women who arecapable of becoming pregnant should ensure that theirdaily intake of folic acid from supplements and fortifiedfoods is 400 micrograms. These vitamins and mineralsare contained in the prenatal supplements that areprescribed by your health care provider.• Older adults may absorb some nutrients poorly, particularlyfolate, vitamin B 12 , and vitamin D. They thereforemay require supplements.• People on restricted diets may require supplements ofsome vitamins and minerals.• People with diseases of the digestive tract or other seriousillnesses that limit their absorption of some vitaminsand minerals may require supplements.• People taking prescription medications may have alteredneeds for a variety of nutrients.• Smokers appear to have an increased need for antioxidants,especially vitamin C. (However, even thisincreased requirement for vitamin C is easily satisfiedby eating nutrient-rich foods.)• People who drink alcohol to excess may requiresupplements.

Chapter 2: The Nutrients and Other Food Substances 39• Vegetarians who eat no animal products may not getadequate vitamin B 12 , iron, and zinc. Vegetarians whoavoid dairy products are at a greater risk for calciumdeficiency than are those who do eat dairy products.• Some evidence suggests that a daily supplement ofvitamin E may reduce the risk of heart disease.Before taking any supplement, discuss it with your healthcare provider, and be sure to mention any medications youare taking (see sidebar: Using Supplements, page 38).The Future Is Here: Functional FoodsIf your breakfast this morning included calcium-fortifiedorange juice and toast made with folate-enriched flour,you are a consumer of functional foods. Just what is afunctional food? As the fastest growing category of newfood products, these are foods or food components towhich manufacturers have added ingredients that areknown or believed to promote health and prevent disease(see Chapter 4, What Do the Terms “Fortified” and“Enriched” Mean? page 92). Although the name “functionalfoods” is new, the concept is not: when it was discoveredin the early part of the 20th century that somethyroid disease was caused by a deficiency of the mineraliodine, manufacturers began enriching table salt withiodine. Since that time, we have also seen vitamin D-fortifiedmilk, breakfast cereals fortified with a variety of vitaminsand minerals, and the addition of preservatives thatare themselves antioxidants to almost all processed foods(see Chapter 3, Cholesterol-Lowering Margarine, page66). The past few years, though, have seen a virtual explosionof functional foods, some based on careful research andsupported by nutrition experts and some with questionable,if any, potential benefits.• increase your intake of whole grains, fruits, and vegetablesas sources of vitamins, minerals, fiber, and phytochemicals• decrease your intake of foods of animal origin (meats,dairy products, eggs), particularly those that are high insaturated fat, substituting lean alternatives and plantsources of protein• limit your use of fats and cooking oils when preparing,serving, and eating foodNUTRITION AND YOUR STAGE OF LIFEChoosing to eat wisely throughout life is one of the mostimportant components of living a healthful lifestyle. Usingthe Dietary Guidelines for Americans and Food GuidePyramid as standards for your food choices and amounts, youwill be well on your way to establishing healthful eatinghabits for your entire life. Unfortunately, many peoplebecome discouraged by nutrition advice because they mistakenlythink they cannot eat their favorite foods.A more positive and encouraging approach is to considerthat no food is forbidden. Good health comes from eatinga variety of foods—meats, dairy products, and especiallyThe Bottom Line on SupplementsWith a few exceptions, most of us should get all thevitamins, minerals, fiber, essential fatty acids, protein, andphytochemicals we need from the food we eat, rather thanfrom supplements. Always consult your health careprovider before trying a supplement. A few of the functionalfoods that have recently appeared on the market haveproven benefits, although most have yet to demonstratetheir value.If your goal is to eat foods that deliver on their promiseof providing all the necessary vitamins, minerals, fiber, andother yet to be identified health-enhancing substances, youneed to:

Chapter 2: The Nutrients and Other Food Substances 41INFANT NUTRITION AT A GLANCEBreastfeeding is preferred• Meets baby's special nutrient needs• Protects against infection• May protect against food allergies• To be major part of baby's diet for at least 1 yearWhat about milk?• Whole milk may replace breast milk or formula at 1 year• Continue whole milk until age 2, then may switch tolower-fat milkWhen is baby ready for solid foods?• Baby can sit with support• Shows interest in foods others are eating• Can move food from front to back of mouth• Weight has doubled since birth• Nurses eight or more times or drinks more than 32ounces of formula in 24 hours• No earlier than 4 to 6 months of ageWhich foods, what order?• Iron-fortified, single-grain cereals• Vegetables• Fruits• Strained meats• Soft, mashed table foods• Finger foodsOther tips about solid foods and eating in general• Offer one new food about every week• Offer small amounts frequently throughout the day• Avoid encouraging baby to eat too much or too fast• Infants generally have an inborn sense to consume anadequate amount of calories• Egg whites are highly allergenic. Wait until baby is 1year or older to introduce eggs• Babies younger than 1 year old should not be givenhoney. It may contain botulism spores, which canproduce a highly toxic poison. After age 1, the digestivetract is able to render the botulism spores harmlessof meat, and a couple bites of pear. Try to feed your childat regular intervals while paying attention to cues that maysuggest that your child is hungry.Good eating habits begin early (see sidebar: InfantNutrition at a Glance, above).Preschool Years: Ages 1 to 5As babies become toddlers, they make the transition intoeating food the rest of the family eats. The rapid weight gaincharacterized during the first year levels off during thesecond, with an average gain of 5 to 6 pounds. Because achild is not growing at the same rate as during infancy, heor she may not want the same quantities of food that wereonce enjoyed. Some preschoolers may be uninterested ineating, whereas others seem finicky. Sometimes preschoolersare reluctant to try new foods or expand their food repertoirebeyond three or four favorites. There are several thingsyou can do to help overcome these challenges without forcinga child to eat (see sidebar: Tips for Feeding Toddlers,page 42).By this time, a child should be eating foods from eachof the food groups represented in the Food Guide Pyramid.However, do not expect a preschooler to eat a completelybalanced diet every day. When allowed to choose from aselection of nutritionally sound foods, most children tendto select diets that, over several days, offer the necessarybalance.Until age 2, fat should not be limited in a child's diet.Dietary fat and cholesterol are important for an infant'sgrowth. After age 2, children can begin to consume fats inmoderation just as the rest of the family does. This type ofdiet includes grain foods, vegetables, fruits, low-fat dairyproducts, lean meats, and their substitutes.Keep in mind that every child's energy needs are different.Thus, snacks are often appropriate for children, especiallyfor smaller preschoolers who cannot eat enough to satisfytheir energy needs all at once. Small amounts of variousfoods eaten frequently over the course of the day as a snackare healthful and normal. However, completely uncontrolledsnacking can diminish a child's appetite for meals.

42 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionSchool-Age Children: Ages 6 to 12The increasing independence of a school-age child may bea welcome contrast to the constant demands of a preschooler.By early school age, a child should be well on the way toestablishing healthful eating habits and regular physicalactivity to maintain a healthful weight.A normal school-age child will gain about 7 pounds ayear, and his or her height will increase by approximately2.5 inches a year. As children approach their teen years, boysand girls differ distinctly in growth patterns. Pubertygenerally begins about age 10 in girls and age 12 in boys andnormally lasts for 2 to 3 years. During these years, growthspurts occur.It is during the school-age years that the guidance ofparents is especially important to formulating good nutritionhabits. Modeling healthful eating practices such asTIPS FOR FEEDING TODDLERS• Make it comfortable for a child to eat—comfortablyseated, foot support, finger foods.• Develop a routine—schedule regular meals andsnacks.• Plan one familiar food at each meal.• Offer various textures and colors—separate them onthe plate.• Serve small portions and let the child ask for more.• Allow a child to eat at his or her own pace.• Teach and reinforce good table manners.• Remain calm if a meal is left untouched.• Set a good example.Foods with color and crunch are interesting—and fun—foryoungsters.eating foods that are low in fat and high in complex carbohydratesand fiber is important. Emphasize breakfastas an important meal. Pack healthful lunches that includefruit, vegetables, bread or some other form of starch, ameat or other protein, and low-fat milk. If a child participatesin the school lunch program, talk about how to makenutritious food choices. Provide fruits, vegetables, wholegrainbreads, or low-fat yogurts as after-school snacks. Ifa child participates in vigorous physical activity, more caloriesmay be needed.One of the major challenges for some school-age childrenis controlling weight. If a child eats more caloriesthan are used, the pounds will add up, particularly if thechild is inactive. Besides the social and emotional stressesthat may result from peers who make fun of a child's excessweight, a higher than desirable weight at this age canincrease the risk for later health problems, such as diabetes,high blood pressure, and increased blood cholesterol ortriglyceride values.Still, overweight children have the same nutrient needsas other children. The goal should be to stop or slow therate of weight gain and allow height (growth) to catch up.Do not allow a child to restrict certain foods or to try faddiets. Instead, provide healthful foods in lesser amounts.The best way to teach a child about good nutrition isto set a good example in your own eating habits.

Chapter 2: The Nutrients and Other Food Substances 43Teenage Years: Ages 13 to 19The teen years and the arrival of puberty are the secondperiod of remarkable growth for youngsters. It is a periodof profound development that has important nutritionalimplications. As a result, requirements increase for energyand all nutrients.The growth and energy requirements of the teen yearsnudge daily calorie needs upward. On average, boys 11to 14 years old need to have approximately 2,500 caloriesper day. From age 15 to 18, daily calorie requirementsincrease to 2,800 calories. Teenage girls also require morecalories, but in the neighborhood of 2,200 calories a day.Most of the calories a teenager consumes should takethe form of the complex carbohydrates found at the bottomof the Food Guide Pyramid. It is also a good idea for teensto have 3 servings of calcium-rich foods a day (milk, yogurt,cheese, certain vegetables) to make certain that needs aremet for growing bones. Iron is also important to the expandingvolume of blood in the body and for increasing musclemass. Teenage girls can be at risk for a shortage of iron asa result of iron loss through menstruation. To ensure ampledietary iron, encourage teens to eat fish, poultry (especiallydark meat), red meat, eggs, legumes, potatoes, broccoli,rice, and iron-enriched grain products.Growing, active teenagers have a real need to snackbetween meals. Encourage healthful snacks such as freshfruits and raw vegetables, low-fat yogurt, low-fat milk,whole-grain bread, popcorn, pretzels, and cereals.Several factors challenge the ability of teenagers to eatwell. The typical teen has a busy school schedule, extracurricularactivities, and often part-time employment. Thesemay lead to skipping breakfast and other meals in favor ofmore meals from vending machines and fast-food restaurants,and more snacking on convenience items. Forexample, adolescence is an especially important time toget adequate calcium. Inadequate calcium may make teensmore prone to the development of osteoporosis and otherdiseases in the future.When weight gain accompanies these habits, manyteenagers turn to fad diets for quick weight loss. All ofthese pressures may lead to nutritional excesses, deficiencies,and, at the extreme, eating disorders.Excessive weight concerns can have more serious implications.Extremes in eating patterns, either severe undereatingor excessive overeating, may result in serious—evenlife-threatening—health risks. These extremes may impairsome bodily functions, including decreased hormone production,and thereby slow sexual maturation in both girlsand boys. Consult a health care professional if an adolescenthas a problem with weight.AdulthoodThe adult body is dynamic, changing subtly as the yearsmarch by. Therefore, what was a good diet for you in yoursecond or third decade of life may no longer be a good fitat age 50 or 60.For example, your metabolism—the way in which yourbody converts the food you eat into energy—slows. Thismeans that you gradually need less food for a similar activitylevel. Fewer and fewer calories are needed as you growolder—about 10 percent less per decade from age 50onward. This slowing of the metabolism is perfectly naturaland occurs because you lose muscle mass (which utilizesmost of the energy you produce) as you age. Exercise helpsto maintain muscle mass and helps you burn calories.However, most Americans still need to reduce calories.Variety and moderation remain the keys to a healthfuldiet. A balanced diet ensures proper intake of vitamins,minerals, proteins, carbohydrates, and other nutrients.Moderation controls calories and is especially importantwith regard to consumption of alcohol. Drinking plenty ofwater, eating fiber-rich foods, and staying as active as possiblecan help to stave off constipation.Pregnancy and BreastfeedingThe best time to start thinking about good nutrition isbefore a woman becomes pregnant. Then she can be certainthat her baby will have all the essential nutrients from themoment of conception.Babies born at low weights (less than 5.5 pounds) havea greater likelihood for development of health problems.Mothers-to-be can help prevent this from occurring byeating the well-rounded diet that women their age wouldideally eat, as well as achieving an appropriate weight fortheir height. Women who are 15 percent or more underweightpresent a special risk for a difficult pregnancy andchildbirth.Before becoming pregnant, talk to your health careprovider about your need for a folic acid (a B vitamin)supplement. Doctors and scientists agree that use of folicacid supplements can reduce the occurrence of a birthdefect called a neural tube defect. One form of this defectis spina bifida, an incomplete closure of the spine. Folatelevels also may be affected by consuming alcohol and

44 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionTIPS FOR PREGNANT AND BREASTFEEDING WOMEN“Morning” sickness“Morning” sickness is not necessarily unique to mornings.About half of all pregnant women experience this duringthe first 12 weeks of pregnancy.• Eat dry toast or crackers.• Eat smaller amounts—more frequently—so that yourstomach isn't too empty or too full.• Limit or avoid spicy and fried foods.• Sip liquids. Try crushed ice or frozen ice pops to avoiddehydration if you are vomiting.• Cook in a well-ventilated kitchen.HeartburnDuring the later part of pregnancy, hormonal changes andthe pressure due to an expanding uterus pushing on yourstomach slow the rate at which food leaves the stomach.To diminish heartburn:• Eat smaller meals more frequently.• Limit or avoid chocolate and spicy and fried foods.• Limit caffeine.ConstipationIncreased pressure from the growing baby can slow downthe movement of the contents in your bowels.• Drink plenty of liquids—2 to 3 quarts daily.• Eat whole-grain breads and cereals, fresh fruits, and rawvegetables.• Exercise moderately and regularly.AnemiaPregnancy increases the risk for anemia because of an inadequateintake of iron and folate, greater needs for thesenutrients because of the baby, or both.• Eat iron-rich foods (red meat, eggs, liver, dried fruit,iron-fortified cereals).• Eat foods with folate (leafy green vegetables, orangesand grapefruit, dry beans, and cereals fortified withfolic acid).• Follow your health care provider's recommendationsabout supplements.Breastfeeding• Drink plenty of liquids—2 to 3 quarts daily.• Choose calcium-rich foods (milk, yogurt, cheese, pudding,tofu).• If you have a limited diet, check with your health careprovider about continuing your prenatal vitamin-mineralsupplement.• Exercise regularly and moderately.Toxins• If you drink alcohol, stop. If you don't, don't start.• If you smoke, stop. If you don't, don't start.• Avoid excessive salt, which may cause fluid retentionand increase blood pressure.smoking cigarettes, both of which are toxic to the developingfetus and should not be used when you are pregnant.Taking oral contraceptives is also associated with low levelsof folate.It is essential to talk with your health care provider aboutfolic acid because too much of any supplement can harmyour health. The best dietary sources of folic acid includefortified breakfast cereals and enriched grain products.Folate (the natural form of this vitamin found in foods) isfound in leafy green vegetables, oranges and grapefruit,black-eyed peas, kidney beans, and other cooked dried beans.Even if you eat a well-balanced diet, prenatal vitamins arerecommended.Research has proved that women who have a normalweight at the time of conception have the healthiest pregnanciesand babies if they gain 25 to 35 pounds. Womenwho are underweight may need to gain additional weight.Even women who are overweight should plan on gainingabout 15 to 20 pounds. During the first trimester, additionalcalories may not be needed. It is important, however, tomake sure that your diet provides the best nutrition possiblefor you and your unborn baby. In the second and thirdtrimesters, you will need about 300 extra calories per daybeyond your normal diet. Concentrate on foods such aslean meat, low- or no-fat dairy products, and dark greenvegetables, all of which provide generous amounts of

Chapter 2: The Nutrients and Other Food Substances 45formation of tissue for both your baby and the placenta.At birth, a newborn needs enough stored iron to last for thefirst 6 months of life. The best advice is to eat a healthfuldiet and take only the supplements recommended by yourcaregiver.Once a baby is born, the mother who chooses to breastfeedstill needs extra calories—typically about 500 caloriesper day. Continue to concentrate on eating nutrient-richfoods (see sidebar: Tips for Pregnant and BreastfeedingWomen, page 44).During pregnancy, choose snacks wisely—with health in mind.This snack includes 1 cup frozen yogurt topped with granola,raisins, apples, and cinnamon. (See Chapter 5, page 132,for recipe.)vitamins, minerals, and protein. If you enjoy milk anddairy products, it will be easy to meet your need for calcium,a crucial mineral during pregnancy. If you do not, askyour doctor or registered dietitian about calcium-fortifiedfoods. In some cases, a supplement may be recommended.Even with the increased need for calories, it is nearlyimpossible to get sufficient amounts of iron, which isneeded in double the amounts recommended for nonpregnantwomen. The added iron is needed for the expandedblood volume that accommodates the changes in yourbody during pregnancy. Iron is also needed for theSenior YearsMaintaining a healthful diet into older adulthood can bea challenge, particularly if part of what makes eating apleasurable experience—the senses of taste and smell—decline. Tooth loss or mouth pain can further complicatethe act of eating. The medicines that must be taken totreat chronic diseases may affect appetite, when meals areeaten, and, in some cases, how food tastes.Other life changes, including the loss of a spouse, fewersocial contacts, economic hardships, and increasing dependenceon others for day-to-day care, combine to makegetting a healthful diet more difficult, but more importantthan ever.As people become older, they can expect to need fewercalories than they did when they were younger—about 10percent less per decade from age 50 onward. Persons age70 should be eating about 80 percent of the calories theywere eating 20 years earlier. Nonetheless, older people continueto need other nutrients in the same quantities as ever.This decline in calorie intake translates into a need forfood that is rich in nutrients, to provide what you used toget with more calories when you were younger. Keepinga lower-calorie intake in mind, you can simply follow thebasics of the Food Guide Pyramid as you get older: heavyon the grain foods, fruits, and vegetables; adequate meatsand dairy products; light on the fats, oils, and sweets.Watch for signs of poor nutrition in older adults andconsult a physician, registered dietitian, or other healthcare professional to address their nutritional needs and todetermine whether supplementation with vitamins is needed.

In this chapter, you will read about theimportance of nutrition in maintainingor improving your health. Whether youare healthy, have a medical problem,have a family history of one, or know afamily member or friend with an illness,nutrition plays a major role in preventionand treatment of common diseases.

C H A P T E r t h r e eTHEFOOD-HEALTHCONNECTIONKnowing what nutrients comprise a well-balanced diet,in what foods to find them, and in what quantities toeat them are some of the first steps to good health. Applyingthis knowledge by eating nutrient-rich foods and incorporatingphysical activity into your schedule at any stage oflife are the greatest investments you can make in sustaininggood health.Although healthful eating may lower your risk for certaindiseases, there are no guarantees that adhering to the tenetsof good nutrition will prevent an illness from developing.Science has shown that not all diseases or disorders are associatedwith what you eat. However, statistics do showthat lifelong food selections may influence therisk for some diseases.Research continues to evaluate andclarify the role that diet and nutritionplay in the promotion ofhealth and in the development ofobesity, high blood pressure,diabetes mellitus, coronary arterydisease, osteoporosis, cancer, andother illnesses. The nutritionalrecommendations for preventionof many diseases are similar (seeChapter 1).In this chapter you will learnabout selected conditions in whichnutrition plays an important roleand how proper nutrition may affect and even alter thecourse of these conditions.OBESITYIf obesity were merely a matter of aesthetics, it would be ofless concern. But obesity is a health issue. It is associatedwith an increased risk of diabetes, lipid abnormalities,coronary artery disease, high blood pressure, certain cancers(such as breast, colon, and gallbladder in women and colonand prostate in men), stroke, degenerative arthritis,respiratory problems, sleep disturbances, andgallbladder disease.Obesity places a huge burden on society interms of lost lives, ongoing illnesses, emotional pain,discrimination, and economic cost (nearly $100billion annually). The most ominous burdens posed bybeing overweight are reduction of the quality of life andshortening of life span. The likelihoodof dying early (comparedwith the average age at deathof all people in the population)progressively increases the moreoverweight you are. Diseasescaused by obesity are the secondleading cause of preventable deathsin the United States.

48 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionThe Battle of the BulgeWith countless diet programs and products promising tohelp you shed pounds, losing weight should be easy. Simplyeating too much and not being active enough are the causesof most overweight problems. But you also know it is hardto lose weight and even harder to keep it off. The cause ofoverweight and obesity is a chronic imbalance of caloriesingested and calories burned. Genetic and environmentalfactors also contribute to obesity.Americans spend more than $33 billion a year onweight-loss products and services, but they are losing the“battle of the bulge.” Despite the great desire of Americansto be thinner, they have become more obese. Some haveeven declared that the United States has an “obesity epidemic.”It is estimated that more than 50 percent of adultAmericans are overweight. The prevalence of obesity alsois increasing in several other countries.Get the Terms Straight“Overweight” and “obesity” are terms that often are usedinterchangeably, but they have different meanings.“Overweight” refers to having excess body weight comparedwith the norm for a person’s height, but the termdoes not account for what tissue is making up the weight.For example, athletes are often overweight according toweight-for-height tables because they have increased musclemass. However, for most people, overweight means havingtoo much fat.“Obesity” refers to body fat in excess of what is healthfulfor an individual. In healthy women, an acceptable levelof body fat ranges from 25 to 35 percent. In contrast, anacceptable range of body fat in men is from 10 to 23 percent.How Your Body Uses FoodThe number of calories used by an individual is determinedby three factors: basal metabolic rate, the thermiceffect of the food eaten, and the calories used during physicalactivity. The basal metabolic rate is the amount ofenergy needed to maintain bodily functions when an individualis at rest. This component accounts for 60 to 75 percentof the daily calorie requirement in sedentary adults.The major determinant of the basal metabolic rate is theamount of fat-free mass in the body. Muscle is one exampleof fat-free mass. Resistance (strength) training can increasethe amount of muscle and therefore increase the basal metabolicrate. Resistance training also can help prevent theloss of lean mass that normally occurs with aging. Mentend to have more muscle than women and therefore burnmore calories.The thermic effect of food is the energy required todigest, metabolize, and store nutrients. The thermic effectof food accounts for about 10 percent of the total dailycalorie use. The number of calories burned during exercisecan vary tremendously depending on the amount of exerciseperformed. For most so-called sedentary persons, the activitiesof daily living (such as walking, talking, and sitting)account for 15 to 20 percent of the daily calorie use.Should You Lose Weight?How do you determine whether you are overweight orobese? Scientists can use sophisticated tests to measurebody composition. However, these are not necessary formost individuals. You can measure your change in weightover time. Alternatively, you can calculate your body massindex (BMI) and determine its relationship to health risks.Pinpointing Your RiskThere are risk factors that indicate a predisposition forobesity. Among these risk factors are the following:Body mass index (BMI)—BMI is defined as your weight(in kilograms) divided by the square of your height (inmeters). Simpler still, look it up in the Body Mass IndexTable on page 49. The advantage of BMI over bathroomscales and weight-for-height tables is that it normalizesweight for height and helps determine whether you have ahealthful or unhealthful percentage of total body fat.People who should not use the BMI for determininghealth risks include competitive athletes and body builders.Their BMI will be high because they have a larger amountof muscle. BMI is also not predictive of health risks forgrowing children, women who are pregnant or lactating, andfrail, sedentary older adults.A BMI from 19 to 24.9 is associated with a minimal tolow health risk. A BMI from 25 to 29.9 is considered overweightand is associated with moderate health risks. ABMI of 30 or higher is considered obese and is associatedwith a substantially greater risk for development of variousdiseases. Extreme obesity is a BMI of more than 40.Body shape—Increasing attention has been focusedon the distribution of body fat as a potential indicator ofhealth risk. Specifically, excess fat in the abdomen is associatedwith an increased risk for development of variousmetabolic illnesses, including diabetes mellitus, increasedblood lipid levels, and high blood pressure. In contrast,

Chapter 3: The Food-Health Connection 49BODY MASS INDEX TABLE*To use the table, find your height in the left-hand column. Move across to find your weight.The number at the top of the column is your BMI.HEALTHY OVERWEIGHT OBESEBMI 19 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 35 40 45 50HEIGHTBODY WEIGHT (POUNDS)4´10´´ 91 115 119 124 129 134 138 143 167 191 215 2394´11´´ 94 119 124 128 133 138 143 148 173 198 222 2475´0´´ 97 123 128 133 138 143 148 153 179 204 230 2555´1´´ 100 127 132 137 143 148 153 158 185 211 238 2645´2´´ 104 131 136 142 147 153 158 164 191 218 246 2735´3´´ 107 135 141 146 152 158 163 169 197 225 254 2825´4´´ 110 140 145 151 157 163 169 174 204 232 262 2915´5´´ 114 144 150 156 162 168 174 180 210 240 270 3005´6´´ 118 148 155 161 167 173 179 186 216 247 278 3095´7´´ 121 153 159 166 172 178 185 191 223 255 287 3195´8´´ 125 158 164 171 177 184 190 197 230 262 295 3285´9´´ 128 162 169 176 182 189 196 203 236 270 304 3385´10´´ 132 167 174 181 188 195 202 209 243 278 313 3485´11´´ 136 172 179 186 193 200 208 215 250 286 322 3586´0´´ 140 177 184 191 199 206 213 221 258 294 331 3686´1´´ 144 182 189 197 204 212 219 227 265 302 340 3786´2´´ 148 186 194 202 210 218 225 233 272 311 350 3896´3´´ 152 192 200 208 216 224 232 240 279 319 359 3996´4´´ 156 197 205 213 221 230 238 246 287 328 369 410* This table has been converted to use weight in pounds and height in feet and inches.

50 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionThe body has a nearly unlimitedcapacity to store fat. Excess fat in theabdomen can lead to illnesses, includingdiabetes, high blood lipid levels,and high blood pressure. It is alsoassociated with an increased risk forcoronary artery disease, stroke, andcertain cancers. Losing weight willreduce these risks and lessen the strainon the lower back, hips, and knees.associated with increased health risks, especially if you havea BMI of 25 or more.Measuring your waist circumference can be helpful to determinehow your body distributes fat. Fat in your abdomen increasesyour risk for high blood pressure, coronary artery disease,diabetes, stroke, and certain cancers.people whose excess fat is located in their lower body (hips,buttocks, and thighs) seem to have minimal or no increasedrisk of these diseases. Upper-body obesity also is associatedwith an increased risk for coronary artery disease, stroke, andcertain cancers.Therefore, it can be helpful to assess your health risk bymeasuring your waist circumference. A measurement ofmore than 35 inches in women and 40 inches in men isWhat Is There to Lose? To Gain?Although no one is without health risk—even the fittestperson can have a heart attack, diabetes, or cancer—healthand well-being are apt to be in less jeopardy if BMI, bodyshape, and family health history do not indicate problems.However, if your BMI is 25 or more, if your fat is primarilylocated in your upper body, and if you have a personal orfamily history of diabetes, heart disease, high blood pressure,or sleep apnea, losing weight can greatly improve your health.Keep in mind that BMI and waist circumference arejust starting points. Other factors also are important. Whenin doubt, seek a medical evaluation by your physician. Athorough history, examination, and blood studies can clarifywhether your weight is having adverse effects on your health.The appropriate plan of action then can be tailored to meetyour individual needs.

Chapter 3: The Food-Health Connection 51Getting StartedLosing body fat and keeping it off are not easy. Losingweight and then maintaining a healthful weight requirecollaboration with knowledgeable health care professionals.Obesity is not only a medical issue but also is a lifestyleissue. Your habits can help you maintain a desirable bodyweight or they can hamper your efforts to lose weight oreven cause you to gain further weight. The types andamounts of food you eat and the exercise you perform willdetermine whether you gain, lose, or maintain your weight.Therefore, experts recommend that any weight loss programshould consist of three main components: nutrition, exercise(or activity), and behavior modification. (See sidebars:Weight Management Programs: Look for These Criteria,and Special Situations, this page.)NutritionLiquid meals, over-the-counter diet pills, and special combinationsof foods promising to “burn” fat are not the answersto long-term weight control and better health. Learning toeat differently—to enjoy a well-balanced diet of fewer calories—is the best strategy to achieve health and weight goals. Youshould begin by substituting the words “healthful nutritionprogram” for “diet.”Most people try to lose weight by eating 1,000 to 1,500calories a day. In many instances, eating fewer than 1,400calories makes it difficult to eat a balanced diet containingthe recommended levels of nutrients. Therefore, nutritionprograms that are too low in calories may be hazardous toyour health.You can lose weight by eating fewer calories or byincreasing exercise. A caloric deficit of 3,500 calories isrequired to lose 1 pound of fat. Over 7 days, this can beWEIGHT MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS:LOOK FOR THESE CRITERIANearly 8 million Americans enroll in some kindof structured weight-loss program each year. Choose a safeand helpful program that meets these criteria.• Physician participation—Consult a doctor if you havea health problem or it is necessary to lose more than15 to 20 pounds.• Qualified staff—Registered dietitians can design anutrition plan. Specialists in behavior modificationand exercise are also recommended.• Nutritionally balanced diet—Any weight managementplan should ensure adequate nutrition.• Exercise—At a minimum, there should be instructionsfor starting a safe exercise program.• Reasonable weight loss goals—Weight loss should beslow and steady. A 1- to 2-pound weight loss per weekis a good start. A loss of 10 percent of starting weightis also a reasonable initial goal.• Help in changing lifestyle—Programs should helpimprove life-long eating and exercise habits. Thereshould be opportunity for follow-up support—evenafter goals are reached.achieved by cutting 500 calories each day from your usualfood intake or by cutting 250 calories each day (such asone or two fewer cookies) and burning an additional 250calories with exercise (such as by walking briskly for 30SPECIAL SITUATIONS• The only way to lose weight and keep weight off is tocombine a healthful nutrition program (“diet”) withregular physical activity. Prescription medications forweight loss may be considered in moderately overweightor obese people with weight-related health problems.Use of these medications does not eliminate the need forhealthful nutrition and activity or behavior modificationstrategies. Medical supervision is essential because thereare potential risks, in addition to benefits.• Weight-loss surgery may be considered only in clinicallysevere obesity (BMI of more than 35) with weight-relatedmedical problems or in extreme obesity (BMI more than 40).• Over-the-counter diet products are a huge financial success.Many of them promise to help you lose weight byincreasing your metabolism or decreasing yourappetite. However, these effects canbe dangerous, and any weightloss isalmost always temporary.

52 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutritionminutes). The good news is that a relatively small loss ofweight can make a big difference in reducing the risk ofhealth complications from obesity. Even a 10 percentweight loss can lead to improvement in your blood sugarlevel, lipid values, and blood pressure. Once this degree ofweight loss has been achieved, further weight loss goalscan then be set, if needed. Rather than aiming for an“ideal” weight, which may not be achievable or desirable,focus on achieving and maintaining a healthful weight.A healthful diet for controlling weight includes foodsfrom all food groups in the Food Guide Pyramid—ensuringbalance and variety—in sensible amounts (see Chapter 1,Food Guide Pyramid, page 11. Also see Chapters 4 and 5for planning and preparing healthful meals). It is helpfulLOW-FAT IS NOT NECESSARILY LOW-CALORIEFOOD (AMOUNT) CALORIES FAT (GRAMS)Cookie (1 cookie)Chocolate chipRegular 80 4.5Reduced-fat 70 3Sandwich-typeRegular 50 2Reduced-fat 55 1.5CrackersSoda (5 crackers)Regular 60 2Fat-free 50 0Wheat (15 crackers)Regular 130 6Fat-free 180 0Ice cream (1/2 cup)Regular 135 7Low-fat 120 2Potato chips(1 ounce or 1 individual bag)Regular 150 10Reduced-fat 135 6Pretzels(1 ounce or 1 individual bag)Regular 110 1Fat-free 110 0to review the energy density of the food consumed. Fat contains9 calories/gram, protein 4 calories/gram, and carbohydrates4 calories/gram. Alcohol contributes 7 calories/gram.For most people, the volume of food consumed determineshow full you feel. Therefore, eating a small amountof an energy-dense food (such as fat) is usually not filling,whereas eating a large enough amount to fill you up resultsin a very large calorie intake. To lose weight, decrease yourtotal calories by cutting back on the fat while filling up onlow-calorie high-nutrient foods such as vegetables, fruits,and grains. You also can eat lower-fat versions of foods.However, be careful, because low-fat is not always lowcalorie(see sidebar: Low-Fat Is Not Necessarily Low-Calorie,this page).Healthful eating habits also avoid the feast or faminephenomenon. Distributing food selections throughoutthe day provides nourishment to support daily activitiesand can help to eliminate energy highs and lows. Threemeals and occasional snacks also keep one’s appetite incheck.It is also important to avoid the hazards of repeatedlylosing and gaining weight. Although repeated dieting is stilla matter of debate, some studies suggest that it may lowerthe rate at which calories are burned. When a person is offthe diet and more food is eaten, the body stores fat fasterand more efficiently. This effect causes regain of the lostweight. In this circumstance, the amount of weight regainedoften is more than that lost in the first place.Physical ActivityImproved eating habits in combination with decreasedcalorie intake and calorie-burning exercise is the best wayto lose weight and maintain the results. In addition toenhancing weight loss efforts, physical activity promotes lossof body fat, increases muscle mass, and increases cardiovascularfitness. Regular exercise not only helps you loseweight by increasing the number of calories you burn butalso makes it easier to keep off the weight that you havealready lost.Walking is a good choice for getting started on anexercise plan. A daily 2-mile walk burns approximately1,000 to 1,200 calories per week. In addition, do not discountthe physical activity that is part of ordinary activitiesof daily living—housework, climbing stairs, gardening—all important forms of exercise that can contribute to weightloss. It may be easier to maintain a schedule if you exercisewith a friend.

Chapter 3: The Food-Health Connection 53Many experts recommend that you also participate inresistance (or strength) training. Resistance training canincrease your muscle mass (which, as discussed previously,increases your basal metabolic rate), your bone density(which can help protect against osteoporosis), and yourbalance and coordination (which can lower the risk ofinjury), and it can help improve your posture.People who are overweight, have been inactive, or havemedical problems should check with their physician beforestarting an exercise program. An exercise stress test may behelpful because it can measure the response of the heartto exercise and help establish a safe starting level. (SeeChapter 1, pages 8 to 10, for further discussion about thebenefits of exercise.)Behavior ModificationBehavior modification programs help identify triggers andtreatments for unhealthful eating habits—such as uncontrolledsnacking or late night eating. Such programs oftenexplore the reasons behind an inactive lifestyle. Food diariesand activity logs frequently are used to heighten your awarenessof what and how much is eaten and the type andamount of exercise done daily. These journals often provideinsight into what triggers undesirable eating and what canbe done to avoid or change this behavior.Other key behavioral elements needed for success include:Commitment—There must be personal motivation tochange—to eat healthfully and to get regular physicalactivity.Priorities—It takes significant mental and physicalenergy to change deeply ingrained habits. If other majorissues or life stresses are present, it is important to seek helpfor dealing with them. When balance in life is regained, youcan focus on healthful nutrition more effectively.Realistic goals—The best goals are those that can beachieved. Set daily or weekly goals that allow progress to bemeasured and rewarded. Aim to lose about 1 to 2 poundsweekly. It is important to know that small losses of weight—or improvements in physical activity—can improve health.Measurements of blood pressure, blood sugar level, andblood cholesterol and triglyceride values are more importantin terms of health than the number on the scale. Acceptthe fact that there will be setbacks. Instead of becomingfrustrated or angry, resume your health program once again.Group support—Joining with people facing the samechallenges can promote sharing of ideas and facilitatecommitment.Physical activity enhances weight loss efforts by promoting loss of bodyfat, increasing muscle mass, and increasing cardiovascular fitness.HIGH BLOOD PRESSUREHigh blood pressure, or hypertension, is the most commonmajor health condition in the United States. It is one of theleading causes of heart attack, heart failure, stroke, kidneyfailure, and premature death. It also can damage parts ofthe circulatory system—including blood vessels in theheart, brain, eyes, and kidneys.Sometimes called the “silent killer,” high blood pressureis a disease that can go undetected for years. The higher theblood pressure or the longer it goes undiagnosed, the worsethe outlook. More than 50 million Americans have highblood pressure. Of that number, an estimated one-third donot know they have the disease.There has been remarkable progress in detecting, treating,and controlling high blood pressure. Recently, there hasbeen a substantial increase in the number of individualswho are aware of their high blood pressure and who arebeing treated for it. At the same time, the incidences ofcoronary artery disease and stroke have significantlydecreased, partially as a result of progress in the detection,treatment, and control of high blood pressure. Despitethese efforts, most people with high blood pressure do nothave adequately controlled blood pressure. Unfortunately,high blood pressure remains a serious medical problem.

54 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionApproximately 5 percent of cases of high blood pressurecan be traced to underlying diseases, such as kidney disordersor conditions that cause narrowing of the arteries. This iscalled “secondary hypertension.” But most cases have noknown cause. This type is called “primary” or “essential”hypertension.Risk Factors for High Blood PressureThere are risk factors that indicate a predisposition for thedevelopment of high blood pressure. Among these riskfactors are the following:Family history—A family history of high blood pressureis a risk for hypertension.Age—High blood pressure becomes more commonamong all people as they grow older. After all, nearly twothirdsof Americans aged 70 or older have the disease.Sex—Although men and women are typically equallyaffected, women who use birth control pills and smokecigarettes have a greater chance of having high blood pressure.Race—As an example, high blood pressure is morecommon among blacks than whites.You either have or don’t have the above risk factors.There are also other factors that increase your risk for highblood pressure which you can do something about:• obesity—control your weight• lack of exercise—get moving• alcohol consumption—take control or abstain• excessive salt (sodium) intake—cut downCLASSIFICATION OF HIGH BLOOD PRESSURESYSTOLIC (MM HG)DIASTOLIC (MM HG)Optimal* 120 or less and 80 or lessNormal 129 or less and 84 or lessHigh-normal 130-139 or 85-89HypertensionStage 1† 140-159 or 90-99Stage 2† 160-179 or 100-109Stage 3† 180 or higher or 110 or higher*Optimal pressure with respect to cardiovascular risk.† Based on the average of two or more readings taken at eachof two or more visits after an initial screening.Measuring Blood PressureBlood pressure is the force that the blood exerts on theartery walls as the heart pumps it through the body. Theamount of force depends on various factors, including howhard the heart pumps and the volume of blood it pumps.Another factor is the amount of resistance blood encountersin the arteries—the thicker or more clogged the bloodvessels, the greater the resistance. The elasticity of arteriesalso plays a role in blood pressure. The less elastic arteriesare, the less they expand under the force of a heartbeat andthe higher the resistance.The standard way to measure blood pressure is in millimetersof mercury (mm Hg). This unit of measurementrefers to how high the pressure inside the arteries is able toraise a column of mercury. Each blood pressure measurementhas two numbers. The top number is the systolicblood pressure, or the highest pressure within the arteriesthat occurs during “systole,” when the heart is contracting.The bottom number is the diastolic blood pressure, or thelowest pressure within the arteries that occurs during“diastole,” when the heart is relaxed and filling with blood.For most people, a blood pressure of 120/80 mm Hg orlower is considered healthy.Effects of High Blood PressureRepeated blood pressure measurements that are more than130/85 mm Hg indicate a potential for problems, a greaterrisk of progressing to definite high blood pressure, and theneed to have regular blood pressure checks. A measurementof 140 systolic or more, 90 diastolic or more, or both indicateshigh blood pressure, which requires treatment. Recentguidelines stress the importance of treating to achieve apressure less than 130/85. Indeed, treating to these lowerlevels of blood pressure further reduces the incidence ofstroke, heart and kidney damage, and other vascular problems.When high blood pressure occurs, it means that theforce of the blood in the arteries is excessive and manyhealth complications can occur (see illustration on page55).HeartHigh blood pressure forces the heart to work harder thanit should to pump blood to distant tissues and organs.Another way to understand blood pressure is to think of itas a weight or a load that the heart muscle must “push” against.Like any muscle, the heart gets larger with pushing heavy

Chapter 3: The Food-Health Connection 55weights. Eventually, the heart’s pumping efficiency decreaseswhen the muscle can no longer adapt to the excessiveworkload that the high blood pressure demands. Whenthis occurs, the heart muscle may weaken and the heartcan fail.ArteriesHigh blood pressure can also accelerate the development ofplaque within the arteries, a condition known as atherosclerosis.With the narrowing of the artery walls, the riskof heart attack is increased. High blood pressure also canlead to bulges (aneurysms) in the arteries. If an aneurysmin a major artery ruptures, the results can be catastrophicand possibly fatal.Bleeding withinbrain (stroke)Bleeding withineye (hemorrhage)Enlarged (hypertrophied)heartBrainHigh blood pressure increases the risk of having a stroke,which occurs when a blood vessel within the brain eitherruptures or is blocked.KidneysThe kidneys filter waste products from the blood and maintainproper blood minerals and blood volume. When thesefunctions are impaired or compromised, so is their role inhelping to maintain blood pressure. These effects can producea destructive cycle that results in increasing blood pressureand a gradual failure of the kidneys to remove impuritiesfrom the blood.Enlargedartery(aneurysm)Shrunken(ischemic)kidneyPartiallyobstructedartery (atherosclerosis)EyesHigh blood pressure often causes problems with the eyes.Examination of the retina can reveal narrowing of thearteries, small hemorrhages, and accumulations of proteinthat have leaked from affected blood vessels (exudates).Although it is unusual for high blood pressure to impairvision, it can occur as a result of severe constriction of theretinal arteries and swelling (edema) of the retina duringepisodes of increased blood pressure. Treating the highblood pressure is the only way to reverse this vision loss.Treating High Blood PressureFortunately for many people, high blood pressure ispreventable. Even those who already have high bloodpressure or are at increased risk may be able to reduce thenumber and doses of medications needed to control it andminimize other health complications by the followinglifestyle modifications.High blood pressure can damage vital organs and result in manylife-threatening medical problems.Lose weight—If you are overweight, losing weight is themost effective non-drug method for lowering bloodpressure. A weight loss of as little as 10 pounds can significantlyreduce blood pressure in many overweight peoplewith high blood pressure. In some people, weight lossalone is sufficient to avoid the need for blood pressuremedication.Exercise—When compared with more active and fitpeers, sedentary individuals with normal blood pressurehave a 20 to 50 percent increased risk for development ofhigh blood pressure. Regular aerobic exercise such as walking

56 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutritionor biking for 30 to 45 minutes most days of the week is avery effective means of lowering blood pressure.Limit alcohol—Excessive alcohol intake is a risk factorfor high blood pressure and stroke. It also can interferewith the effects of blood pressure medications. Men whodrink should limit their intake to no more than 2 drinks aday; women should have no more than 1 drink daily (seeChapter 4, A Drink Defined, page 87).Do not smoke—Smoking a cigarette temporarilyincreases blood pressure for up to 30 minutes. Smoking isalso a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Everyone,especially people with high blood pressure, needs to quitsmoking or never start.Limit or avoid high-sodium foods—A high intake ofsodium in the diet increases blood pressure in some people.The average American consumes about 4,000 milligramsor more of sodium a day. People with high blood pressureshould limit their sodium intake to less than 2,400 milligramsa day, and many experts recommend the same limitfor everyone.THE COMBINATION DIET FROM THE DASH STUDYThis eating plan is from the "Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension" (DASH) study from theNational Institutes of Health. This diet is rich in vegetables, fruits, and low-fat dairy foods and low insaturated fat, total fat, and cholesterol. It is also high in potassium, calcium, and magnesium.SIGNIFICANT NUTRIENTSFOOD GROUP DAILY SERVINGS SERVING SIZES IN EACH FOOD GROUPGrains and grain products 7-8 1 slice bread Energy and fiber(emphasis on whole grains)1/2 cup dry cereal1/2 cup cooked rice,pasta, or cerealVegetables 4-5 1 cup leafy vegetable Potassium, magnesium, and fiber1/2 cup cooked vegetable6 ounces vegetable juiceFruits 4-5 1 medium fruit Potassium, magnesium, and fiber1/2 cup fresh, frozen,or canned fruit1/4 cup dried fruit6 ounces 100% juiceLow-fat or nonfat 2-3 8 ounces milk Calcium and proteindairy products1 cup yogurt1.5 ounces cheeseLean meats, poultry, fish 2 or less 3 ounces cooked meats, Protein and magnesiumpoultry, or fishNuts, seeds, and legumes 4-5 per week 1.5 ounces (1/3 cup) nuts Magnesium, potassium, protein, and2 tablespoons (1/2 ounce) fiber; high in caloriesseeds1/2 cup cooked legumesNote: This plan provides approximately 2,000 calories. The number of daily servings from a food group should varywith individual needs.

Chapter 3: The Food-Health Connection 57Follow a balanced nutrition program—A low-fat, highfruitand vegetable diet can lower blood pressure impressively,all by itself. A large percentage of people with highblood pressure may be able to decrease their need for bloodpressure medication if they follow the recommendations ofthe Food Guide Pyramid. A diet following this plan promotesweight loss and is high in minerals such as calcium, potassium,and magnesium, which have been associated with lowerblood pressure. Chapters 4 and 5 (pages 79 through 149)provide ideas for planning and preparing healthful meals.The National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute recentlysponsored a study testing the effects of different diets onblood pressure, called the “DASH” (Dietary Approaches toStop Hypertension) study. Participants in the study ateone of three diets: an average American diet, a diet rich infruits and vegetables, or a “combination” diet that emphasizedfruits, vegetables, and low-fat dairy products and waslow in fat and saturated fat. Sodium consumption was thesame in all three diets. Participants were asked to limitobviously salty food, to rinse canned vegetables, and tonot add extra salt to food.Both the fruit-and-vegetable diet and the “combination”diet lowered blood pressure. However, the combinationdiet was the most effective. Within that group,people with above-normal blood pressure (more than129/80 mm Hg) and those with high blood pressure (morethan 140/90 mm Hg) experienced reductions of their bloodpressure similar to those achieved with some blood pressuremedications.Researchers believe that people following the combinationdiet fared better because of the low saturated fatand high fruit and vegetable mixture that provided adequatepotassium, magnesium, and calcium. For people with normalblood pressure, the combination diet may help to avoidblood pressure problems. If blood pressure is only slightlyincreased, following this diet may actually eliminate theneed for medication. For people with severe high bloodpressure, the diet may allow reduction in blood pressuremedication (see sidebar: The Combination Diet From theDASH Study, page 56).When Medications Are NeededWhen lifestyle changes alone are not effective for loweringhigh blood pressure, medications may be required.Medications vary in the way they control blood pressure.Some types help the kidneys to eliminate sodium and water,some make the heart beat more slowly and less forcefully,and others enable the blood vessels to relax and decrease theresistance to blood flow. Your physician will determinewhich drug or combination of drugs is best suited for you.DIABETES MELLITUSEach year, the words “you have diabetes” are spoken withgreater frequency, often to unsuspecting individuals. AmongAmericans, the prevalence of diabetes has grown dramaticallyduring the 20th century. Today, more than 16 millionAmericans have diabetes—90 percent of them are olderthan 40 years. Interestingly, half of these adults do not evenknow they have the disease because symptoms developgradually and, at first, are hard to identify. Early diagnosisis important, though, because the longer diabetes goesuntreated, the greater your risk for serious complications.What Is Diabetes?Diabetes mellitus is a disorder of metabolism—the waythe body uses digested food for energy and growth. Theorigin of the name “diabetes mellitus” is Greek, referring tosweetness or honey (mellitus) that passes through (diabetes).After a meal, food is broken down into simpler forms andabsorbed by the body. Simple sugars, amino acids, andfatty acids are used by the body or converted by the liver intosugar (glucose), the preferred fuel the body burns for energy.For cells to use this form of sugar, insulin—a hormonethat is produced by the pancreas—must “unlock” the cellsto allow glucose to enter.The pancreas, a long, thin organ that is about the sizeof a hand, is located behind the stomach. Normally thepancreas produces the right amount of insulin to accommodatethe amount of sugar that is in the blood. Diabetesis actually not a single condition but a group of diseaseswith one thing in common—a problem with insulin. Ina person with diabetes, the pancreas does not producesufficient insulin to meet the body’s needs. This insufficiencymay develop if the pancreas stops producing theright amount and quality of insulin, if the rest of the body’scells do not respond properly to insulin, or a combinationof both. Insulin is required for glucose to be metabolizedproperly. If there is not enough insulin, excess glucosebuilds up in the blood, and the resulting condition is calledhyperglycemia.Persistent hyperglycemia causes almost all the symptomsthat may alert an individual to the development of diabetes.

58 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionThese symptoms can include frequent urination, extremethirst, blurred vision, fatigue, unexplained weight loss,recurrent infection, tingling or loss of feeling in the handsor feet, and hunger.With diabetes, the excess glucose spills into the urine,and the urine output increases. Consequently, the personwith diabetes becomes dehydrated and thirsty. Fatigueresults when the supply of glucose to cells is not available,causing energy levels to decline. To compensate for thelost fuel, the body burns stored fat, and weight loss andhunger may occur. Left untreated, persistent hyperglycemiais also responsible for most of the long-term complicationsof diabetes (see Long-Term Complications of Diabetes,this page).There are several types of diabetes—different disorderswith different causes. The two most common types aredescribed here.Type 1 DiabetesType 1 diabetes occurs in 1 in 10 people with diabetes. Inthese individuals, the pancreas produces little or no insulin.To control blood sugar, insulin must be taken. Most peoplewhose diabetes is diagnosed before age 30 have the insulindependenttype. It used to be called insulin-dependentdiabetes mellitus or juvenile-onset diabetes. Type 1 diabetesaffects both sexes equally. In most cases it is due to anautoimmune disease in which the body’s immune systemattacks and destroys the insulin-producing beta cells in thepancreas. This type of diabetes commonly develops in childhood,but it can occur at any age. It can develop unnoticedfor several years and then suddenly become apparent, oftenafter an illness. Some people—particularly children andteenagers—may first become aware of the disease whenthey develop ketoacidosis. This is a serious complicationin which the blood becomes more acidic because of severeinsulin deficiency.Type 2 DiabetesType 2 diabetes accounts for about 85 to 90 percent ofdiabetes in people older than 30. It was previously callednon-insulin-dependent or adult-onset diabetes. Mostpersons with type 2 diabetes are overweight or obese.For people with this type of diabetes, total absence ofinsulin is not the problem. The problem is that the body doesnot make enough insulin to meet its needs and the insulindoes not work normally to control glucose levels. This istermed “insulin resistance” and leads to hyperglycemia.Excess weight is by far the greatest risk factor for developmentof type 2 diabetes. Most people who develop type2 diabetes are overweight, a condition that appears to impairinsulin action. Someone who is overweight and has diabetesmay be able to achieve a normal blood sugar withoutmedication simply by losing weight. Losing as little as 10percent of body weight has been shown to lower bloodglucose. Surprisingly, persons who are not overweight bytraditional criteria also may be at risk for diabetes. Excessbody fat distributed mostly in the abdomen increases thechance for development of type 2 diabetes. Other riskfactors include age, race, heredity, and lack of physicalactivity.Type 2 diabetes may go undetected for many years,because hyperglycemia develops slowly and the disease maynot immediately produce the classic symptoms of diabetes.Unfortunately, even without symptoms, there are hiddendangers, including damage to major organs such as theheart and kidneys. Because the disease usually developsafter age 40, and the incidence increases more steeply afterage 55, it is important that people in middle age be screenedfor the disease and see their physician if symptoms develop.Type 2 diabetes is more common among NativeAmericans, Hispanics, African-Americans, and westernizedAsians than among people of European ancestry.Long-Term Complications of DiabetesNumerous studies have shown that keeping the bloodglucose level close to normal delays the onset and preventsthe progression of eye, kidney, and nerve diseases caused bydiabetes. Even if blood glucose has not been controlledin the past, any improvement in diabetes control may helpto avoid or delay complications of diabetes and theirprogression. Treatment of high blood lipid values and highblood pressure, which are commonly associated withdiabetes, is also important.Eye disease—In the absence of good glucose control, eyedisease develops in nearly everyone with diabetes. Diabeticretinopathy occurs because high blood sugar (especiallycoupled with high blood pressure) can damage the smallblood vessels in the retina (the light-sensitive area within theeye). Diabetes also can lead to cataracts, damage the macula(the area in the eye where the optic nerve is located), andincrease the risk of glaucoma.In addition to keeping your glucose levels under control,it is important to have regular eye examinations with anophthalmologist, who dilates the eyes and does a thorough

Chapter 3: The Food-Health Connection 59Blood sugar can be kept within normallevels by balancing the main treatmenttools for diabetes—nutrition, weight control,exercise, and medication. In some people, bloodsugar may be controlled by a combination of lossof excess weight, good nutrition, and regular exercise.Others may need medication.examination of them. A non-dilated eye test is not adequatefor screening.Kidney failure—In the absence of good glucose control,a person with diabetes is 20 times more likely to developkidney failure than someone who does not have the disease.Kidney disease results when chronic high blood sugar damagesthe small vessels in the kidneys which are responsible forfiltering waste from the blood. Ultimately, kidney failuremay occur, requiring dialysis or a kidney transplant. Peoplewith diabetes should have the function of their kidneysevaluated routinely.Nerve damage—Also called neuropathy, nerve damageoccurs in 30 to 40 percent of people with diabetes. Nervedamage can cause numbness and tingling, pain, insensitivityto pain and temperature, and extreme sensitivity to touch.Experts think the damage results from the effect of chronichigh blood sugar on blood vessels that supply nerve cells.The feet are especially vulnerable to neuropathy.Cardiovascular disease—Chronic high blood sugar isassociated with narrowing of the arteries (atherosclerosis),high blood pressure, heart attack, and stroke. It is alsoassociated with increased blood levels of triglycerides (atype of blood fat) and decreased levels of HDL (“good”)cholesterol. Unless appropriately treated, an individualwith diabetes is 5 times more likely to have a stroke and 2to 4 times more likely to have coronary artery disease. Also,smoking dramatically accelerates the development of thesecardiovascular complications. Anyone with diabetes shouldstop smoking.Infections—High blood sugar impairs the function ofimmune cells and increases the risk of infections. Themouth, gums, lungs, skin, feet, bladder, and genital area arecommon sites of infection. Nerve damage in the legs andfeet can make someone with diabetes less aware of injuriesor infection, increasing the risk of amputation. With propercare of the feet, foot complications can be minimizedor avoided.Can Diabetes Be Prevented?Although an area of active research, there is currently noproven means of preventing type 1 diabetes. However,these lifestyle changes minimize the risk of, and may actuallyprevent, type 2 diabetes:Maintain a healthful weight—Most people who developtype 2 diabetes are overweight. Aggressive efforts aimed atachieving and maintaining a healthful weight may be beneficial,especially in combination with exercise.Eat a balanced diet—A diet low in saturated fat andsugar and high in complex carbohydrates and dietary fiberalso has been linked to a reduced risk of diabetes.Exercise—People who exercise regularly have a significantlylower incidence of type 2 diabetes.

60 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionHow Is Diabetes Diagnosed?It is important that diabetes be diagnosed early, before toomuch damage is done. As a first step, the AmericanDiabetes Association recommends that everyone shouldvisit a physician and get a fasting blood glucose test at age45. A sample of blood is drawn after fasting overnight,and its glucose level is measured. A normal fasting resultis between 70 and 110 milligrams of glucose per deciliterof blood (mg/dL).A retest every 3 years is advised. If an individual hasany risk factors for diabetes or any symptoms, testing atmore frequent intervals or at an earlier age is recommended.Diabetes is diagnosed when a fasting blood glucose valueis more than 125 mg/dL or a glucose value is more than 200mg/dL accompanied by symptoms of diabetes. The diagnosisshould be confirmed by repeat testing on a different day.Tools for Controlling DiabetesPersons with diabetes can live a full life by following a fewbasic principles to control their disease. Diabetes can bemanaged with at-home blood glucose tests, healthy nutritionhabits, weight control, routine exercise, and medications (ifneeded).The most important step is to learn to control the bloodsugar value, which means maintaining it as near to normalas possible or in the goal range determined by your physician.Vigilant control of blood sugar levels may dramaticallyreduce the risk of eye, kidney, and nerve damage. Thisalso lowers the risk of heart attack, stroke, andlimb amputation, in addition to promoting a more desirable level ofblood lipids.Blood sugar can be keptwithin normal levels bybalancing the main treatment tools for diabetes—nutrition, weight control,exercise, and medication. Insome people, blood sugar maybe controlled by a combination of weightloss, good nutrition, and regular exercise. Others may needmedication.Blood Sugar LevelsThe level of glucose in the blood depends on several factors:when meals are eaten, how many calories are consumed,activity level, and the dose of medication prescribed. Thestress of an illness may also alter the level of blood glucose.Successful daily management of diabetes may prevent orminimize emergencies that may result when blood sugarlevels are too high or too low. Because these emergenciescan cause mental confusion or loss of consciousness, peoplewith diabetes should wear a medical alert identificationand acquaint family members, friends, neighbors, andcoworkers with the signs and symptoms of an emergencyand steps to a proper response.Blood sugar levels can be monitored with home testingmeters. Testing not only measures the amount of sugar inthe blood but also enables the person to identify the reasonsbehind high and low values so that adjustments can be madein the dose of diabetes medications. Frequently the personcan learn how to adjust the dose of oral medication orinsulin to achieve the desired glucose value. The healthcare team caring for the person with diabetes can determinereasonable blood sugar goals.NutritionThe old restrictive diets for diabetes no longer apply. It is nowknown that the best diet for diabetes control is consistentwith what everyone should eat for good health. How muchyou eat is just as important as what you eat in controllingblood sugar. To keep blood sugar on an even keel, peoplewith diabetes should not eat large meals or skip meals; theyshould eat smaller servings at regular intervals instead. Asfor the menu, choices should follow Food Guide Pyramidrecommendations—emphasize whole grains, legumes, andvegetables. These foods are higher in complex carbohydrateand fiber and can help control blood sugar. Eventhough fruit contains sugar, it should not be avoided.Because people with diabetes are at higher risk forcardiovascular disease, it’s important to keep the fat intaketo about 30 percent of total daily calories and to limitcholesterol-containing foods. Items at the top of the FoodGuide Pyramid—such as fats and sweets—should be eatensparingly. Research has shown that the total amount ofcarbohydrate consumed at a given time, rather than thetype of carbohydrate, is the most important factor in controlof blood sugar. Therefore, if not present in excess, sugar canbe included as a part of a well-balanced meal.Many tools are available to help with meal planning. Formost people, eating three meals at regular times and avoidingexcessive sweets are enough to control blood sugar.Dietitians may provide a simple method, such as the FoodGuide Pyramid, to encourage variety, proportion, and

Chapter 3: The Food-Health Connection 61moderation in food selections and to also ensure healthfulfood choices. Chapters 4 and 5 provide ideas for planningand preparing healthful meals. Other techniques may beneeded and recommended by your physician, registereddietitian, or certified diabetes educator.Weight ControlBecause many people who have diabetes are overweight,maintaining a healthful weight and level of activity is thekey to keeping the disease under control and minimizingthe risk for serious complications. The more overweightpeople are, the more resistant their cells become to their owninsulin; losing weight decreases that resistance. Often,weight loss of just 10 percent can improve blood sugar andhave lasting beneficial effects.ExerciseWith exercise, some people with type 2 diabetes may evenreduce or eliminate their need for insulin or oral diabetesmedication. Anyone who has diabetes should check witha physician before starting an exercise program. Studieshave shown that those at high risk for diabetes who exercisehave a 50 percent lower incidence of type 2 diabetes.Exercise helps control weight, makes cells more sensitive toinsulin, increases blood flow, and improves circulation ineven the smallest blood vessels. A leaner body also helpsburn calories more efficiently. Moreover, exercise lowersyour risk of cardiovascular disease.Exercise can affect blood sugar levels up to 24 hours. Soif insulin is a part of the treatment plan, check with aphysician to receive guidelines for frequency of blood sugartesting and insulin adjustment.MedicationsAlong with nutrition, weight control, and exercise, medicationsmay be necessary to achieve a desired glucose level.Persons with type 1 diabetes must take insulin by injection.Insulin cannot be taken by mouth because it breaks downin the digestive tract. The type of insulin and number ofdaily injections depend on individual needs. Insulin alsocan be administered by pump.In some persons, type 2 diabetes can be managed byhealthful nutrition and exercise alone. If the desired glucoselevel is not achieved, oral medications may be prescribed.There are several classes of oral medications. Some stimulatethe pancreas to produce more insulin, and some help insulinto work more effectively in the body by decreasing thesugar made by the liver and by increasing the sugar removedfrom the blood to the cells. If oral medications do notachieve the glucose goal, insulin injections may be required.CORONARY ARTERY DISEASEKnowing your blood lipid (fat) levels—the various formsof cholesterol and triglycerides—is important. But whatthese numbers mean can be confusing, and how thedifferent types of cholesterol—not to mention other bloodfats—relate to coronary artery (heart and blood vessel)disease also can be a puzzle.Coronary artery disease is the number one killer ofAmericans. Studies point to certain abnormalities in cholesteroland triglyceride levels as a major contributor tothis problem. There is plenty of good news to suggest thatpublic awareness of heart disease and its risk factors ismaking a difference. Deaths from cardiovascular diseasecontinue to decrease. Much credit for this encouragingtrend goes to improved treatments and modification ofthe risk factors for heart disease, including loweringcholesterol levels. Despite these substantial improvements,the American Heart Association reports that cardiovasculardisease still kills almost 1 million Americans each year. Thisis more than all cancer deaths combined. More than 6million Americans experience symptoms due to coronaryartery disease. As many as 1.5 million Americans will havea heart attack every year, and about half a million of themwill die.Blockage of the coronary arteries supplying the heartmuscle (which can lead to heart attack) causes more deaths,disability, and economic loss than any other type of heartdisease.AtherosclerosisThe coronary arteries are the heart’s own circulatory system.They supply the heart with blood, oxygen, and nutrients.The heart uses this blood supply for energy to perform itscontinuous task of pumping. Coronary artery disease cantake many different forms, but each has essentially thesame effect: the heart muscle does not get enough bloodand oxygen through the coronary arteries. Consequently,its own demands for oxygen and nutrients are not met.This condition can be either temporary or permanent.Most coronary artery disease is caused by atherosclerosis(also known as “hardening of the arteries”). The term

62 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutrition“atherosclerosis” comes from the Greek ather (meaning“porridge”) and sklerosis (meaning “hardening”). Healthyarteries are flexible, strong, and elastic. The inner layer ofarteries is smooth, enabling blood to flow freely.Atherosclerosis can be a silent, painless process in whichcholesterol-containing fatty deposits accumulate in thewalls of the arteries. These accumulations occur as lumpscalled plaques. As plaque deposits enlarge, the interior ofthe artery narrows, and the flow of blood is then reduced(see the illustration below). If reduced flow occurs in thecoronary (heart) arteries, it can lead to a type of chest paincalled angina pectoris.As a plaque enlarges, the inner lining of the arterybecomes rough. A tear or rupture in the plaque may causea blood clot to form. Such a clot can block the flow ofblood or break free and plug another artery. If the flow ofblood to a part of the heart is stopped, a heart attack results.If the blood flow to a part of the brain stops, a stroke occurs.A Closer Look at Blood LipidsMany factors influence the clogging of arteries, but cholesterolis a primary one. Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-likesubstance (a lipid). Although it is often discussed in negativeterms, it is an essential component of the body’s cell membranes.It also serves to insulate nerves and is a buildingblock in the formation of certain hormones. The liver usesit to make bile acids, which help digest food.Confusion about cholesterol is due in great part to theall-purpose use of the term. Cholesterol has two sources:the foods we eat (about 20%) and the cholesterol that ismade by the body (about 80%). Dietary cholesterol isfound only in animal products, such as meat and dairyproducts, or foods made with animal products. Examplesinclude all meats, fish, and poultry, eggs, and milkproducts. In addition, both the amount and the type of fateaten influence the blood cholesterol level. Both saturated(primarily from animals) and trans-saturated (oils that havebeen processed to make them more solid) fats increase theamount of cholesterol made by the liver. (See Chapter 2,page 26, for further description of dietary fats.)Atheroscleroticplaque depositsIn atherosclerosis, plaque deposits gradually accumulatein the lining of the arteries. As the deposits enlarge,blood circulation is impaired. This increases the riskfor heart attack, stroke, and other vascular problems.

Chapter 3: The Food-Health Connection 63MINI-GLOSSARY OF LIPID-RELATED TERMS• Apolipoprotein—Proteins that combine with lipids tomake them dissolve in the blood.• Cholesterol—A soft, waxy substance in the bloodand in all your body's cells. It is used to form cellmembranes, some hormones, and other needed tissues.Dietary cholesterol is found only in food derived fromanimal sources.• HDL cholesterol—About 20 to 30 percent of bloodcholesterol is carried by high-density lipoproteins(HDL). HDL carries cholesterol away from the arteriesand back to the liver, where it is removed from the body.HDL seems to protect against heart attack. This is whyHDL cholesterol is referred to as the “good” cholesterol.• LDL cholesterol—Low-density lipoprotein (LDL)cholesterol is the main cholesterol carrier in the blood.When there is too much LDL cholesterol circulatingin the blood, it can slowly build up in the walls of thearteries that feed the heart and brain. This is why LDLcholesterol is often called the “bad” cholesterol.• Lipoproteins—Lipids combined with apoproteins.• Triglycerides—Triglycerides are derived from fats eatenin foods or made in the body from other sources such ascarbohydrates. Calories ingested in a meal and not neededimmediately by tissues are converted to triglycerides andtransported to fat cells to be stored. Hormones regulatethe release of triglycerides from fat tissue to meet thedaily need for energy between meals.• VLDL cholesterol—In the fasting state, very low-densitylipoproteins (VLDL) contain 15 to 20 percent of the totalblood cholesterol, along with most of the triglycerides.Unique Roles: LDL and HDL Cholesteroland TriglyceridesCholesterol and triglycerides are fats and are insoluble in theblood. However, when they combine with protein theybecome lipoproteins and are able to dissolve in and becarried by blood throughout the body. (See sidebar: Mini-Glossary of Lipid-Related Terms, above.)Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol is the maincholesterol carrier in the blood. There is a direct relationshipbetween the level of LDL cholesterol (or total cholesterol)and the rate of coronary artery disease. When thereis too much LDL cholesterol circulating in the blood, itcan slowly build up in the walls of the arteries that feedthe heart and brain. For this reason, LDL is often referredto as the “bad” cholesterol.If there are too many LDL particles in the blood, or theliver (the normal site of metabolism) does not remove LDLquickly enough from the blood, it builds, particularly inblood vessels. It is the role of high-density lipoprotein(HDL) to counteract this effect.About a third to a fourth of blood cholesterol is carriedby HDL. HDL carries cholesterol away from the arteriesand back to the liver, where it is removed from the blood.It is therefore often referred to as the “good” cholesterol. Ahigh level of HDL seems to protect against atherosclerosisand heart attack. The opposite is also true: a low HDL levelindicates an increased risk of atherosclerosis. Thus, thegoal is to have a high HDL cholesterol level and a low LDLcholesterol level.Triglycerides in the blood are derived from fats eaten infoods or produced when the body converts excess calories,alcohol, or sugar into fat. Most triglycerides are transportedthrough the bloodstream as very low-density lipoprotein(VLDL). Some cholesterol is also present in VLDL.A certain amount of triglycerides in the blood is normal.Hormones regulate the release of triglycerides from fattissue to meet the body’s needs for energy between meals.However, at high levels, triglycerides may contribute tothe development of atherosclerosis. Increased triglyceridelevels also may be a consequence of other diseases, such asuntreated diabetes mellitus.Calories ingested at a meal and not used immediatelyby tissues are converted to triglycerides and transported tofat cells to be stored.Blood TestingThe only way to determine whether cholesterol and otherblood lipids are in a desirable range is to have them measuredby a blood test. The National Cholesterol EducationProgram guidelines recommend that total cholesterol, HDLcholesterol, and triglycerides be measured at least onceevery 5 years in all adults age 20 or older. However, your

64 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutritionphysician also may recommend that the screening includeLDL cholesterol and triglycerides.Triglycerides must be measured after an overnight fastbecause eating can have a marked effect on blood triglyceridelevels. Therefore, fast for at least 12 hours beforeblood is drawn. Do not drink alcohol for 24 hours beforethe test. If you have a risk factor(s) for heart disease, consultyour physician regarding the optimal frequency of testing.(See sidebar: Risk Factors for Coronary Artery DiseaseOther Than LDL Cholesterol, below.)In a sense, it is incorrect to think of a cholesterol (ortriglyceride) level as being strictly abnormal or normal.Although ranges of cholesterol levels have been identifiedwhich are considered “too high,” there is no “magic number”that separates risky levels from safe levels. Actually, theranges for adults are based on a consensus of experts. Theyhave identified lipid levels in the blood above which the riskfor development of coronary complications is high enoughto warrant medications or lifestyle changes.People with cholesterol or triglyceride levels in thehigher-risk zones are said to be hypercholesterolemic orhypertriglyceridemic (hyper means “high,” and emic means“in the blood”). But, as with all risk factors, being in the“high” range does not guarantee that coronary artery diseasewill develop, nor does being in the “low” range guaranteeavoiding it.Blood test numbers are only guidelines. If the numbersstray from the desirable range, a physician can provideadvice on what to do. Remember that each number takeson greater meaning in light of the other lipid results and inthe presence of other cardiovascular disease risk factors (seesidebar: Your Blood Lipid Test Results—What Do ThoseNumbers Mean? page 65).RISK FACTORS FOR CORONARY ARTERY DISEASEOTHER THAN LDL CHOLESTEROL• Age: males 45 years or older and females age 55 yearsor older, or females who have had prematuremenopause without estrogen replacement• Family history of early coronary artery disease• Current cigarette smoking• High blood pressure• Low HDL cholesterol (less than 40 mg/dL)• Diabetes mellitusThe Reasons for High Blood Lipid LevelsWhy do some people have high cholesterol and triglycerides?High levels may result from genetic makeup or lifestylechoices or both. Heredity may endow people with cellsthat do not remove LDL or VLDL cholesterol from theblood efficiently, or with a liver that produces too muchcholesterol as VLDL particles or too few HDL particles.Lifestyle factors such as a high-fat diet, obesity, smoking,and physical inactivity also can cause or contribute to highcholesterol levels, increasing an individual’s risk for atherosclerosis.For a more complete picture of cardiovascular health,other risk factors—beyond cholesterol and triglycerides—must be considered. The more risk factors an individual hasin combination with undesirable lipid levels, the greaterthe chances for development of cardiovascular disease.The risk factors for cardiovascular disease are dividedinto those that can be changed and those that cannot.Risk Factors That Can Be Changed or TreatedSmoking cigarettes damages the walls of the blood vessels,making them more receptive to the accumulation of fattydeposits. Smoking also may lower the HDL by as much as15 percent. Quitting smoking may return the HDL to ahigher level.High blood pressure damages the walls of the arteries,thus accelerating the development of atherosclerosis. Somemedications for high blood pressure increase LDL andtriglyceride levels and decrease HDL levels. Others donot. Blood pressure that is properly managed decreasesthe progression and risk for cardiovascular disease.Sedentary lifestyle is associated with a decrease in HDL.Aerobic exercise is one way to increase HDL. Aerobicactivity is any exercise that requires continuous movementof the arms and legs and increases the rate of breathing.Even 30 to 45 minutes of brisk walking every other dayhelps protect the cardiovascular system.Obesity is a risk to cardiovascular health. Excess bodyfat increases total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triglyceridelevels. It also lowers the HDL cholesterol level.Obesity increases blood pressure and the risk for diabetes,which can increase the chances of heart disease developing.Losing just 10 percent of excess body weight can improvetriglyceride and cholesterol levels.Diabetes can increase the triglyceride level and decreasethe HDL cholesterol level. Good control of blood sugarhelps reduce increased triglyceride levels.

Chapter 3: The Food-Health Connection 65YOUR BLOOD LIPID TEST RESULTS—WHAT DO THOSE NUMBERS MEAN?Use this table as a general guide. The importance of each number varies according to your sex, health status,and family history. For example, if you already have heart disease, you will want to lower yourLDL cholesterol level to less than 100 mg/dL. Your health care provider can help clarify your specific risk.LEVEL (IN MG/DL)TEST OPTIMAL BORDERLINE UNDESIRABLETotal cholesterol Less than 200 200-240 More than 240HDL cholesterolConsidered "good"—the higher, the better 60 or more – Less than 40LDL cholesterol *Considered "bad"—the lower, the better Less than 100 130-160 More than 160Cholesterol/HDL ratio Less than 4.5 4.5-5.5 More than 5.5LDL/HDL ratio Less than 3 3-5 More than 5Triglycerides Less than 150 150-200 More than 200* LDL may be measured directly or may be estimated from the other numbers if your triglyceride level is lower than 400 mg/dL.You can estimate LDL yourself by using this equation: LDL = Total Cholesterol - HDL + triglyceride level divided by 5.Estrogen deficiency and menopause increase the riskof heart disease. Conversely, estrogen replacement lowersthe risk in certain groups of estrogen-deficient women.Risk Factors That Cannot Be ChangedAging—Aging usually increases the level of LDL cholesterol,although the reasons are not understood. It couldbe the aging process itself that causes this, or an increase inbody fat with advancing age.Sex—Cardiovascular disease is not only a man’s disease, asonce thought. It is the number one killer of women, claimingthe lives of 500,000 women every year. Cardiovasculardisease occurs in women almost as often as it does in men.It just happens later in life. Before menopause, a woman’srisk of coronary artery disease is lower than that of a man.Menopause results in an increase in LDL cholesterol anda decrease in the protective HDL cholesterol. Aftermenopause, a woman’s risk of heart disease is the same as thatof a man. Treatment with estrogen helps to return the riskto premenopausal levels.Family history—A family history of abnormal lipidlevels or early heart disease increases the risk of heart attackand stroke.Lifestyle Changes to Reduce RiskThere is significant opportunity to reduce the risk of gettingcardiovascular disease. Changes in nutrition along withincreased physical activity and learning to decrease stress canimprove blood cholesterol and triglyceride levels. Makingdietary changes to improve blood cholesterol and triglyceridelevels involves these steps:Maintain a desirable weight—A diet that is high in fatalso can be unnecessarily high in calories and contribute toan unhealthy weight. Decrease the total amount of fateaten. Limit fat—saturated, polyunsaturated, and monounsaturated—toless than 30 percent of your total daily calories(see Chapter 2, pages 26 to 29, for a description of thesetypes of fat). Some individuals may need to restrict fatseven more. Because all foods with fats contain a combinationof these fats, it is important to reduce total fat.

66 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionReduce saturated fat—The major dietary culprit in anincreased blood cholesterol level and increased risk forcoronary artery disease, saturated fat is typically solid orwaxy at room temperature. Minimize your intake of saturatedfat. Foods high in saturated fat include red meatsand dairy products as well as coconut, palm, and othertropical oils (check the ingredient portion of the food label).Replace saturated fat with unsaturated fat—Polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats should make upthe remaining fat allowance. In the recommended amounts,polyunsaturated fats reduce LDL cholesterol, but at theexpense of the protective HDL cholesterol, whose levelsalso may decrease. Polyunsaturated fats are usually liquidat room temperature and in the refrigerator. Vegetable oilssuch as safflower, corn, sunflower, soy, and cottonseed oilare high in polyunsaturated fat. Monounsaturated fatstend to have the same effects on LDL cholesterol withoutlowering HDL cholesterol. Monounsaturated fats areliquid at room temperature but may start to solidify in therefrigerator. Olive, canola, and nut oils are sources ofmonounsaturated fats. (See Chapter 2, pages 26 to 29,for further discussion of unsaturated fats, and see sidebar:Cholesterol-Lowering Margarine? below.)Limit trans fat—This fat is also called partially hydrogenatedvegetable oil. This type of fat may be as harmfulto your health as saturated fat because it increases bloodcholesterol levels, among other effects. Major sources arehardened vegetable fat, such as margarine or shortening, andproducts made from these fats, such as cereals, cookies,and crackers.CHOLESTEROL-LOWERING MARGARINE?Who would have thought a person could consumemargarine and possibly lower cholesterol? This functionalfood was approved for use in the United States and wasintroduced to the grocery shelves in 1999. Two types areavailable: Benecol and Take Control. Benecol is madewith a refined form of plant sterol called stanol ester, whichis derived from wood pulp. Take Control contains sterolesters, which are made from vegetable oils, soybean, andcorn. These new margarines may help lower LDL cholesterolwhen used as directed by a physician. The margarinesmay lower LDL cholesterol 7 to 10 percent. Therefore,it is important that they be used in conjunction with ahealthful diet full of whole grains, fruits, and vegetables andone that is low in total fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol.Reduce dietary cholesterol—The daily limit for dietarycholesterol is 300 milligrams. Dietary cholesterol is foundonly in foods made from or containing animal products. Agood way to lower dietary cholesterol is to limit the amountof meat and dairy products. Organ meats and egg yolks arealso high in cholesterol. (See Chapter 2, page 27.)Eat a plant-based diet—A diet that has generousamounts of grains, vegetables, and fruits is naturally lowerin fat and has good sources of soluble fiber and antioxidants,which may protect blood vessels from damage and plaquebuildup. Chapters 4 and 5 present ideas for planning andpreparing healthful meals.Fruits and vegetables and whole-grain products are alsonatural sources for folate—a B vitamin that controls theamount of homocysteine in the blood. Homocysteine is anamino acid (a building block of protein) normally found inyour body. Your body needs homocysteine to manufactureprotein to build and maintain tissue.Problems arise when there is too much homocysteine,which can cause the tissues lining the arteries to thicken andscar. Cholesterol builds up in the scarred arteries, leadingto clogged vessels and blood clots. Adequate intake of thisvitamin can help normalize homocysteine levels and mayreduce the risk for cardiovascular disease (see sidebar: Folateand Heart Disease, page 67). There is also accumulating evidencethat vitamin E may reduce the risk of heart attack.Cardiovascular Disease and Physical ActivityUnfortunately, most of the population of the United Statesis sedentary. Sedentary people have nearly twice the risk ofhaving a fatal heart attack as active people of the same agewhen other factors—such as smoking and high cholesterol—areequal. Consult a physician before embarking onan exercise program. Then, follow these tips for maximalresults:• Choose an aerobic activity. It can be something likewalking, jogging, bicycling, or swimming.• Gradually increase the time and frequency of the exercise.Work up to exercising for 30 minutes daily.When Are Medications Necessary?If changes in lifestyle have not brought lipid values into thegoal range, medication may be necessary. Before recommendinga medication, your physician will use careful judgmentand weigh many variables—sex, age, current health,family history of early heart disease or abnormal lipids,and the side effects of medication.

Chapter 3: The Food-Health Connection 67FOLATE AND HEART DISEASEHomocysteine is an amino acid that is made from dietary protein. Too much homocysteine can damagearterial walls, allowing fatty plaque deposits to clog arteries and promote blood clotting.FOOD SERVING FOLATE AMOUNT % DAILY VALUESIZE (MICROGRAMS) (BASED ON 400(CUP)MICROGRAMS)Breakfast cereals 1/2 to 1 100-400* 25-100(check label)Lentils (cooked) 1/2 180 45Chickpeas 1/2 140 35Asparagus 1/2 130 33Spinach 1/2 130 33Black beans 1/2 130 33Kidney beans 1/2 115 29Folate can decrease homocysteinelevels. About 400 micrograms aday is enough to lower your bloodconcentration of homocysteine. Toget more folate, eat plenty of beans,fruits, and vegetables—preferablyraw or lightly cooked. Half the folatein foods can be lost in cooking.*Manufacturers of grain-based foods now fortify their products with folic acid—a synthetic form of the vitamin.OSTEOPOROSISThe word “osteoporosis” literally means “porous bones.”With osteoporosis, bones become weak and brittle—so brittlethat even mild stresses, such as bending over to pick upa book, pushing a vacuum, or coughing, can cause a fracture.The strength of your bones relates to their mass or densityand is in part due to the calcium, phosphorus, and othermineral levels. In osteoporosis, the strength is decreased ascalcium and other minerals are slowly depleted and bonedensity is undermined.Bone is living tissue that is continually changing—newbone is made and old bone is broken down, a process called“remodeling” or “bone turnover.” The cells called osteoclastsdissolve or “resorb” old bone cells, leaving tiny cavities.Another type of bone cells, called osteoblasts, line or fill thesecavities with a soft honeycomb of protein fibers that becomehardened by mineral deposits.A full cycle of bone remodeling takes 2 to 3 months.When you are young, your body makes new bone fasterthan it breaks down old bone, and bone mass increases.Peak bone mass is reached in your mid-30s.The mineral-hardened honeycomb, which accounts forbone strength, depends on an adequate supply of calcium.Estrogen also plays a key role in bone health by slowingthe resorption of old bone and promoting new growth.With aging, bone remodeling continues, but peoplelose slightly more than they gain. At menopause, whenestrogen levels decrease, bone loss accelerates to 1 to 3 percentper year. Around age 60, bone loss slows again but it doesnot stop. Men can also have osteoporosis. By an advancedage, women have lost between 35 and 50 percent of theirbone mass, and men have lost 20 to 35 percent (see illustrationon page 70).Risk Factors for OsteoporosisDespite the gloomy statistics, osteoporosis is not aninevitable part of aging. With identification of the majorcauses of the disease and their risk factors, osteoporosis canbe detected early and treated. Moreover, a greater understandingof the role of nutrients and hormones and new andcontinually emerging medications are raising hopes forprevention of the disease.How do you assess your personal chances for gettingosteoporosis? Listed below are several risk factors thatshould be considered and evaluated:Sex—One’s sex is the most significant indicator of risk.Fractures from osteoporosis are about twice as commonin women as in men. Women build less bone than men byearly adulthood. Women also generally consume lesscalcium than men. Prolonged calcium deficiency is a risk.Moreover, studies have documented a tendency for low

68 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutritioncalcium intake among adolescent girls—a time at whichcalcium is especially needed for bone development.Family history—Having a mother or sister with thedisease may increase your risk.Race—Whites are at greatest risk, followed by Hispanicsand Asians. African-Americans have the lowest risk. Whiteshave a higher risk because they generally attain a lowerpeak bone mass than the others.Age—The older an individual, the higher the risk forosteoporosis.Small body frame—In general, the smaller the bodyframe, the thinner the bone.Lifestyle choices—Smoking increases bone loss, perhapsby decreasing the amount of estrogen the body makesand reducing the absorption of calcium in the intestine.In addition, women smokers tend to enter menopause earlierthan nonsmokers—a significant risk factor in itself.Consumption of too much caffeine or alcohol can lead tobone loss. A sedentary lifestyle is a risk factor. Weightbearingphysical activity strengthens bones.Prolonged calcium deficiency does not merely meanthat newly consumed calcium is not going into the bones.Because the body also needs calcium circulating in theblood, it will “rob” calcium from the bones to provide adequatecalcium in the blood.Estrogen deficiency—The less a woman’s lifetimeexposure to estrogen, the higher her risk for osteoporosis.For example, a woman will have a higher risk if she has anearly menopause or began menstruating at a later age. Earlymenopause due to surgical removal of the ovaries alsoincreases the risk for osteoporosis.Women generally experience a sudden drop in estrogenat menopause, which accelerates bone loss. Men experiencea much more gradual decline in the production of testosterone,and therefore they do not experience as rapid a lossof bone mass. Recent evidence suggests that estrogen alsomay play an important role in bone metabolism in men.There also can be a deficiency of estrogen as a result ofvery low weight caused by eating disorders such as anorexianervosa or excessive physical activity.HOW YOU GROW SHORTERIn osteoporosis, bones become porous and weak.Bones in the spine can compress, causing loss in height.

Chapter 3: The Food-Health Connection 69Immobilization—This robs bones of the weight-bearingexercise that can help to build bone mass. Someone whois bedridden or otherwise off their feet for any extendedperiod could have such a problem.Medications—Some medications can contribute toosteoporosis. Long-term use of corticosteroids, such asprednisone, cortisone, prednisolone, and dexamethasone,is very damaging to bone. People who need to take suchmedications for other conditions (for example, asthma,rheumatoid arthritis, or psoriasis) should have their bonedensity monitored because they may require treatment toslow the rate of bone loss. Too much thyroid hormonecaused by an overactive thyroid gland or excess thyroidreplacement also can cause bone loss. In addition, othermedications also can adversely affect bone health. If youare at risk for osteoporosis, your physician will take thisinto account when prescribing medications.Bone HealthAn individual’s risk for the development of osteoporosisdepends on how much bone mass has been attained by age25 to 35 (peak bone mass) and how rapidly it is lost afterward.The higher the peak bone mass, the more bone aperson has “in the bank” and the less likely that person isto develop osteoporosis as bone is lost during normal agingor during menopause.The decrease in bone mass and the microscopic deteriorationof the skeleton can lead to an increased risk ofbone fragility and fractures, back pain, and a loss of height(see illustration on page 70). The most common fracturesresulting from osteoporosis include vertebra, hip, forearm,and wrist. Fractures can also easily occur in other bones.Fractures can severely compromise lifestyle and limitmobility. If an older woman breaks a hip, for instance,she has only a 25 percent chance of ever resuming herformer level of physical activity. A broken hip can easily bethe end of an independent way of living or even contributeto an early death from complications of operation or immobilization.Once you have had a fracture, there is anincreased risk of having another.Although osteoporosis generally is considered a diseasethat plagues elderly women, it can begin in others in their40s and 50s. This potential crippler affects 8 to 10 millionAmerican women and about 2 million older Americanmen. The cost of osteoporosis to the American economyis about $13 billion per year. Given current aging trends,these costs will increase dramatically in the coming decades.Testing for OsteoporosisPhysicians can detect early signs of osteoporosis with asimple, painless bone density test. This test uses x-ray orultrasound technology to measure bone density at likelysites for fractures. The test also can predict the risk offuture fractures. Measuring bone density helps identifyindividuals who have osteoporosis or the threat of osteoporosis.(See sidebar: Recommendations for MeasuringBone Mineral Density in Women, below.) In addition,other tests for osteoporosis are being developed and tested.Reducing the Risk for OsteoporosisAlthough osteoporosis may not be fully preventable,researchers are agreeing that the following steps can delayits onset or improve the treatment outlook and therebythe quality of life.Maximal Bone MassBuilding maximal bone mass will make bone fractures laterin life less likely. Maximal bone density depends partly onthe inherited ability to make bone, the amount of calciumconsumed, and the level of exercise.Estrogen Replacement TherapyEstrogen replacement therapy is the single most importantway for women to reduce their risk for osteoporosis duringand after menopause, provided there is understanding of theRECOMMENDATIONS FOR MEASURING BONEMINERAL DENSITY IN WOMENThe American Association of Clinical Endocrinologistsrecommends a bone density test to assess the risk ofosteoporosis in women—around the time of menopauseor after menopause—who are concerned about osteoporosisand willing to accept available treatment.This includes women who:• have x-ray findings that suggest the presenceof osteoporosis• are beginning or receiving long-term glucocorticoidtherapy (such as prednisone)• are perimenopausal or postmenopausal and haveparathyroid disease• are undergoing treatment for osteoporosis, as a wayof monitoring the effects of therapy

70 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionOSTEOPOROSIS IN MENAlthough osteoporosis mainly affects women, 2 millionmen have the disease, including one-third of men olderthan 75 years. Warning signs in men include a changein posture or sudden back pain. But the most commonway osteoporosis is diagnosed in men is because of a lossof height or a fracture.Smoking and drinking excessively are significant riskfactors for osteoporosis in men. In addition, men havemost of the same risk factors as women—use of medicationsthat accelerate bone loss, lack of exercise, smoking,excessive alcohol use, and inadequate calcium intake orabsorption. Low testosterone also may increase the risk.Your physician can determine whether a bone mineraldensity test is needed.Prevention strategies include getting adequatecalcium, vitamin D, and weight-bearing exercise andconsuming no more than 2 alcoholic drinks a day.risks and benefits of this type of therapy and it is closelymonitored by a physician. Estrogen receptors are presentin bone, and estrogen inhibits bone breakdown. Estrogenreplacement therapy can decrease or prevent bone loss andreduce the risk of spine and hip fractures by as much as50 percent. For women who already have osteoporosis (andwho have no conditions prohibiting the use of estrogen),starting estrogen replacement therapy can increase bonedensity by as much as 10 percent in the spine and 5 percentin the hip.However, there are some risks associated with estrogenreplacement therapy. Taking estrogen alone, without itsnatural balancing hormone progesterone, increases the risk ofcancer of the uterus. And there may be a small increase inthe risk of breast cancer from long-term use of estrogen.However, estrogen treatment may help decrease the riskof heart disease in certain groups and may also decreasethe risk of other diseases, such as dementia.Women who have breast or uterine cancer, uncontrolledhigh blood pressure, or a tendency to form blood clotsshould avoid estrogen. If blood triglyceride levels are high,women should consult their physicians to see if an alternativeform of estrogen is an option. There are new types of estrogen(estrogen analogs) that may prevent or slow the rate ofbone loss without the increased risk of breast cancer.However, these drugs may not be as effective as estrogen andmay not have all of the beneficial effects. In addition toestrogen and estrogen analogs, other types of medicationsare available and new ones are under development to preventand treat osteoporosis.Calcium and Vitamin DAdequate amounts of calcium and vitamin D are critical forbuilding peak bone mass in younger years and for slowingbone loss in later years (see sidebar: How Much VitaminD Is Enough? page 71).Calcium is a vital mineral in the body. In addition tobeing one of the essential building blocks of bone, calciumis essential to the function of the muscles (including theheart) and the function of the nerves, and it helps the bloodto clot in case of injury. If people fail to get enough calciumin their diets, their bodies will take calcium from the bones tokeep the blood calcium level constant. Recommendationsfor calcium vary a bit according to age and medical status.For ages 9 to 18, 1,300 milligrams of calcium daily is recommended.For ages 19 to 50, the recommendation is 1,000milligrams. Finally, for ages 51 or older, 1,200 milligramsis recommended. During pregnancy and lactation, therecommendation is 1,300 milligrams.BONE DENSITY OVER TIMEBone density, which varies by sex and race, peaks in yourmid-30s and then slowly declines with age. In general, thehigher your peak bone mass, the lower your risk of havingfractures caused by osteoporosis.Bone DensityMales0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80Age, yearsFemales

Chapter 3: The Food-Health Connection 71The richest dietary sources of calcium are milk, cheese,and yogurt. Other sources of calcium are broccoli, turnipgreens, canned fish with bones, and calcium-fortified orangejuice and tofu. Of course, if you are trying to get extracalcium through your diet, you should monitor your weight;foods such as whole milk, certain cheeses, and ice cream arerich in calories and fat (see sidebar: Food Sources ofCalcium, below). Chapters 4 and 5 also present ideas forplanning and preparing healthful meals.Depending on dietary choices and habits, food alone canprovide the recommended amounts of calcium. If you areunsure of the calcium content of foods, follow this simpleformula for estimating intake of dietary calcium: assignHOW MUCH VITAMIN D IS ENOUGH?Recommended Intake for Vitamin DAGE DAILY AMOUNT DAILY AMOUNT(YEARS) (MICROGRAMS) (INTERNATIONAL UNITS)9-50 5 20051-70 10 40071+ 15 600Pregnancyand lactation 5 200Note: 1 microgram = 40 international units (IU) of vitamin D.FOOD SOURCES OF CALCIUMFOOD ITEM AMOUNT CALCIUM CALORIES(MILLIGRAMS)MilkSkim 1 cup 300 852 percent 1 cup 300 120Whole 1 cup 300 150Nonfat, dry 1/3 cup 285 90YogurtPlain, low-fat 1 cup 400 145Fruited, low-fat 1 cup 300 225Frozen, low-fat 1 cup 200 200PuddingSkim milk 1/2 cup 150 105Ice cream 1/2 cup 90 130Ice milk 1/2 cup 90 90CheeseSwiss 1 ounce 270 110Cheddar 1 ounce 205 115Mozzarella (part skim) 1 ounce 185 70Cottage cheeseWhole milk 1 cup 125 2202 percent milk (low-fat) 1 cup 155 205American cheese (processed) 1 ounce 105 175Salmon (canned with bones) 3 ounces 205 130Sardines (canned with bones) 4 sardines 185 100Papaya 1 medium 75 120Orange 1 medium 50 60Macaroni and cheese 1 cup 360 430Pizza with cheese 1 slice 230 280Tofu (calcium-fortified) 1/2 cup 130 90Almonds 1 ounce 75 175

72 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionWeight-bearing exercise increases bonedensity, muscle strength, and coordination,which can lower your risk for osteoporosis,falls, and broken bones.approximately 300 milligrams for the baseline diet, andadd 300 milligrams for each serving of a dairy product(cup or slice) and 160 milligrams for each serving of acalcium-fortified food that you eat. If your diet is notadequate in calcium, a supplement may be indicated (seesidebar: Tips for Selecting and Taking a CalciumSupplement, below).Dietary absorption of calcium can be assessed by yourphysician. A 24-hour urine collection can measure thecalcium content to determine how well or how poorlycalcium is being absorbed from your diet.Vitamin D helps the body absorb and metabolizecalcium and deposit it in the bones. People can get vitaminD from vitamin D-fortified milk, liver, fish, egg yolks,and exposure to sunshine. Getting 10 to 15 minutes ofTIPS FOR SELECTING AND TAKING A CALCIUM SUPPLEMENTIf a calcium supplement is indicated, here are tips to help decide which type of calcium to take and how to take it.Read labels—Various types of calcium supplements containdifferent amounts of elemental calcium, which is the actualamount of calcium available for absorption.Recommendations are for elemental calcium, so lookfor how much elemental calcium is in each tablet. Ifelemental calcium is not listed on the label, the amount canbe calculated as follows:• Calcium carbonate (40 percent calcium):multiply total amount of calcium carbonate by 0.4• Calcium citrate (21 percent calcium):multiply total amount of calcium citrate by 0.21• Calcium lactate (13 percent calcium):multiply total amount of calcium lactate by 0.13• Calcium gluconate (9 percent calcium):multiply total amount of calcium gluconate by 0.09Look for “USP” on the label. The U.S. Pharmacopeia (USP)sets standards for quality that manufacturers must meet.These supplements meet the requirements for quality, purity,and tablet disintegration and will be better absorbed.Enhance calcium absorption—Various factors may affectcalcium absorption:• Take supplements with meals—Although some foodsmay interfere with calcium absorption, taking asupplement with meals is more convenient. Manyolder adults also have reduced levels of stomach acid.Eating stimulates acid production and may enhanceoverall absorption.• Add vitamin D—Be sure to get adequate vitamin Din your diet. Vitamin D helps increase the absorptionof calcium. If you are in doubt, take a standardmultivitamin, which includes 400 units, the recommendedstandard.Minimize side effects—Some forms of calcium may be gasformingand constipating. To minimize these effects, drinkplenty of water, take the supplement with a meal, and takeseveral smaller doses during the day. Try different calciumcompounds to find one with fewer side effects.

Chapter 3: The Food-Health Connection 73midday sun 2 or 3 times a week can provide sufficientvitamin D—although not from a winter sun in a northernclimate. Older adults or persons with certain diseasesoften benefit from a supplement. A multivitamin pillwith 400 international units of vitamin D provides anadequate amount.CaffeineLimiting caffeine is a prudent idea. Too much caffeine cancause extra calcium to be lost in the urine. If an individualhas only 2 or 3 cups of coffee a day and is consuming enoughcalcium in the diet, there should be no problem.AlcoholConsuming more than 2 drinks a day can inhibit boneformation and interfere with calcium absorption.SmokingSmoking decreases your body’s ability to form healthybones.Weight-Bearing ExerciseWeight-bearing exercise is any activity done while the bonesare supporting the body’s weight. It can slow bone loss,strengthen the bones and back, improve posture, and aidin balance, which helps prevent falls. Exercises in whichbone sustains repeated impact have added benefit because,for example, the leg bones respond to the impact of thefeet striking the ground by slowing bone loss. Remember,it is never too late to begin an exercise program.Bone-building exercises for prevention of osteoporosisinclude walking, jogging, running, stair climbing, skiing,and impact-producing sports. Because strong muscles exertmore force, and bones respond by becoming stronger,weight lifting (or strength training) is another excellentway to forestall osteoporosis. Of course, anyone with osteoporosismay benefit by consulting with a physician to designa safe exercise program.TraumaAvoiding trauma is a given at any stage of life, but evenmore so for persons with osteoporosis. Wear sturdy, lowheeledshoes with nonslip soles, and check your home forpotential obstacles that could cause a fall, such as low tables,loose rugs, or inadequate lighting. The broken bones thatcome from tumbles and falls can produce serious, evenlife-threatening, medical complications.CANCERMany people have a fear of cancer, perhaps because to themit is always an incurable disease. The facts do not supportthis idea.Countless numbers of Americans who are alive todayhave had cancer and are now considered to be cured.(“Cured” is defined here as being free of any evidence of thedisease for 5 years or more.) They may have the same lifeexpectancy as others of the same age and sex who havenever had cancer, and they can anticipate leading meaningfuland productive lives.Despite such impressive statistics, cancer remains aserious disease. Annually, cancer is diagnosed in more thana million people (excluding non-melanoma skin cancer)and is one of the most significant causes of mortality inthe United States.There are more than 100 different types of cancer. Somecancers affect just one organ, and others are more generalized.In each of its types, however, cancer is characterizedby the uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells(see illustration on page 74).Why cancer develops in some people who are exposedto potentially cancer-causing agents but not in others isCANCER TERMS—ANCIENT AND MODERNCancer is a disease we have known about sinceancient times. The terms used to describe cancercome from ancient languages.“Cancer” is derived from a Latin word meaning “crab”and was first described in writings attributed to Hippocratesand other Greek physicians (500 B.C. to 200 A.D.).These physicians described various tumors and classifiedthem as either “carcinos” (benign growths that do notspread) or as “carcinomas” or “crab-like” (growths thatinvade surrounding tissues and cause death). The term“neoplasm” was described by Galen (200 A.D.) as meaning“new growth that is contrary to nature.” The word“metastasis” is also a Greek word meaning “to changeplaces.” It is used to describe the ability of cancer to migrateto other tissues or organs and to form additional tumors.metastasisCancerneoplasmcarcinos

74 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutritionnot fully understood. But what is known is that manycancers develop slowly. It may be 5 to 40 years after exposureto a cancer-causing agent before there is any evidenceof the disease. Cancer of the lung, for example, may notappear until 25 years or more after sustained exposure totobacco smoke. This long delay between exposure anddevelopment of the disease may partly explain why so manypeople ignore the warnings associated with smoking.The Nutrition-Cancer ConnectionDuring the past 30 years, research has shown that nutritionplays a significant role in the development of manycancers and that proper food choices might help to reducethe risk of cancer or even prevent it. About a third ofthe 500,000 cancer deaths that occur each year in theUnited States can be attributed to dietary factors. Thegood news is that in addition to engaging in regular exerciseand not smoking, people have control over this importantfactor in cancer development—their food choices.Any number of dietary factors may be related to the riskof cancer.The Biology of CancerA biomedical revolution is advancing knowledge of thecauses of cancer, yielding new and more effective treatmentsand inspiring greater hope for cancer prevention. Thisrevolution is built on scientific investigation of the basicprocesses that cause cancer.The body is a living, growing system that containsbillions of individual cells. These cells carry out all of thebody’s functions, such as metabolism, transportation,excretion, reproduction, and locomotion. The body growsand develops as a result of increases in numbers of newcells and their changes into different types of tissue. Newcells are created through the process of cell division (mitosis).Different types of cells are created by a process called celldifferentiation, by which they acquire specialized function.Cell division results in the normal pattern of human growth;Primary tumorNormal tissue cellInvading tumor cellCancer cells, left untreated,invade and penetrate the wallsof blood and lymph vessels.Once in these systems, theytravel to other sites, such asthe lungs, bone, or brain.Blood vessel

Chapter 3: The Food-Health Connection 75cell differentiation makes possible the normal, orderlypattern of growth and development.Unlike normal cells, cancer cells lack the control mechanismsthat stop, or “switch off,” growth. They dividewithout restraint, displacing neighboring normal cells,affecting their normal function and growth, and competingwith them for available nutrients. These uncontrolledcells can grow into a mass called a tumor and invade anddestroy nearby normal tissue. They also can migrate in aprocess called “metastasis,” spreading via the blood orlymph system to other parts of the body. Not all cells thathave rapid or uncontrolled growth are cancerous. Cellsmay amass as benign tumors, which do not invade ordestroy surrounding tissues.Although science has yet to understand the processes bywhich all cells grow, divide, communicate, and differentiate,much has been learned about how normal cells are activatedor altered into cancerous cells in both inherited and noninheritedforms of cancer.The Causes of CancerCancer is caused by factors that are external (chemicals,radiation, viruses, and diet) and internal (hormones,immune and metabolic conditions, and inherited [genetic]alterations). Some of these factors are avoidable; othersare not. Scientists have identified many of thecontrollable risk factors that increase the chances of gettingcancer. A complex mix of these factors, acting togetheror in some cascade of events, promotes cancer cell growth.When the genetic programming of a normal cell isdisrupted, its malignant potential is released. Everyonecarries this malignant potential within them in normalgenes known as proto-oncogenes. Products of these genesperform useful functions, such as regulating cell division andcell differentiation. These functions, however, may becompromised with aging or by exposure to cancer-causing(carcinogenic) agents. When this happens, they may beactivated to become oncogenes, coordinating the conversionof normal cells to cancer cells.Nutrition can influence any of the steps involved inthe development of cancer. The development of cancer(carcinogenesis) and its relationship to nutrition is a complexprocess. Isolating and proving dietary cause-and-effectrelationships can be difficult. In addition, studies can be confusingand sometimes show conflicting results. Nevertheless,the potential for nutrition to increase or decrease the risk ofvarious cancers is compelling.Dietary Guidelines to Reduce the Riskof CancerJust as negative dietary and lifestyle choices can significantlyincrease the risk of cancer, evidence is mountingthat appropriate food choices can be powerful tools inreducing risk and even defensive shields in preventingcancer. The American Cancer Society offers these fourguidelines to reduce cancer risk:• Choose most of the foods you eat from plant sources.• Limit your intake of high-fat foods, particularly fromanimal sources.• Be physically active: achieve and maintain a healthfulweight (see Chapter 1, page 8).• Limit consumption of alcoholic beverages, if you drinkat all.The Society’s recommendations are consistent with theU.S. Department of Agriculture Food Guide Pyramid andthe Dietary Guidelines for Americans (see Chapter 1, pages8 and 11). Although no diet can guarantee full protectionagainst disease, the American Cancer Society believes thatthese recommendations offer the best nutrition informationcurrently available to help reduce your risk of cancer.Chapters 4 and 5 provide ideas for planning and preparinghealthful meals.Choose Most of the Foods You Eat From Plant SourcesChoosing foods from plant sources is vital to a healthful diet.Many scientific studies have shown that increased consumptionof fruits, vegetables, and whole grains reducesthe risk for cancers of the gastrointestinal and respiratorytracts and for lung cancer. This reduction is one of thereasons foods of plant origin form the basis of the FoodGuide Pyramid.Plant foods contain beneficial vitamins, minerals, fibers,and hundreds of other cancer-protective substances.Although more research is needed to understand whatspecific properties or substances in plant foods may specificallyprotect against cancer, there are already manycandidates under investigation—from vitamins and mineralsto fiber and phytochemicals (including carotenoids,flavonoids, terpenes, sterols, indoles, and phenols). Becausethe positive effects from these components may derive fromthe whole foods in which they are found, expertsrecommend food over supplements (see sidebar: FoodVersus Supplements, page 76; and see Chapter 2,Phytochemicals—A Food Pharmacy That May FightDisease, page 35).

76 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionAntioxidants found in fruits and vegetables may help toprevent cancer. These are nutrients that seem to offer thebody some protection against oxidation—damage done totissue in the course of normal cellular function which maycontribute to the effects of aging and to increased cancerrisk. Various antioxidant nutrients—including vitaminC, vitamin E, selenium, and carotenoids —may provide thebody with some defense against cancer. Researchers arestudying the protective role of antioxidants (see sidebar:Food Sources of Antioxidants, page 32, and see Appendix,Phytochemical Contents of Selected Foods, page 484).Grains provide vitamins and minerals, such as folate,calcium, and selenium, which may also protect againstcancer. Whole grains are preferable to refined grains becausethey have more fiber and an abundance of certain vitaminsand minerals. Beans and legumes are also good sources ofnutrients that have cancer-protective qualities. (See page20 for more information about fiber.)Although more research is needed to clarify the specificroles of these food components, there is still ample evidenceto support eating 5 or more servings of fruits and vegetablesa day (especially deep-green and dark-yellow to orangefruits and vegetables, those from the cabbage family, andlegumes and soy products) and 6 to 11 servings of grains(with an emphasis on whole grains).Limit High-Fat Foods, Particularly From AnimalSourcesDecreasing the intake of high-fat foods, especially fromanimal sources, is very important. Studies show that peoplewho eat a high-fat diet have increased rates of cancers of thecolon, rectum, prostate, and endometrium (lining of theuterus). Although these relationships exist, it is not clearwhether they are due to the total amount of fat in the diet,to a particular kind of fat (saturated, monounsaturated, orpolyunsaturated), or to another, unknown, factor.Because fat, by weight, contains twice the number ofcalories than protein or carbohydrate, it is difficult toseparate the effects of the fat from the effects of its calories.People who eat a high-fat diet are often heavier and tendto eat fewer fruits and vegetables, which also increasescancer risk.Consumption of red meat, a major source of fat in theAmerican diet, is linked to an increased cancer risk,particularly of the colon and prostate. Scientists are unableto determine whether the connection between red meatand cancer is due to total fat, saturated fat, or other compounds.Meat contains compounds linked to cancer, suchas heterocyclic amines, which are produced when it iscooked (see sidebar: Meat—Cooking and Cancer, page 77).This may be a link to colon cancer.FOOD VERSUS SUPPLEMENTSEvery day there seems to be a headline announcing that some nutrient or food compound has been linkedto preventing some sort of cancer. Driving this is the tremendous amount of researchexploring specific food components and their role in the cancer process.DO SUPPLEMENTS OFFER CANCER PROTECTION?A diet that contains ample amounts of fruits and vegetablesis associated with a reduced risk for cancer. There is noevidence that mineral or vitamin supplements are betterthan obtaining nutrients through whole foods. In fact,studies in which subjects received supplements of betacaroteneshowed conflicting and even harmful results.Smokers given supplemental beta-carotene had a higherincidence of lung cancer. Other studies of supplementalbeta-carotene have shown neither benefit nor harm.There are more than 500 known carotenoids. Of these,only a few have been analyzed: alpha-carotene, beta-carotene,gamma-carotene, lycopene, lutein, and zeaxanthin. At thistime, it is not known which exerts benefits—or risks.Experts recommend a diet rich in fruits, grains, andvegetables rather than taking supplements. Plants containhundreds of cancer-protective substances. It is not knownwhich of the substances may specifically protect against cancer.In addition, it is not known whether these substanceswork independently or benefit from working together.Plus, relying on supplements rather than eating a varietyof foods makes it impossible to benefit from these nowunknown food compounds.

Chapter 3: The Food-Health Connection 77MEAT—COOKING AND CANCERCooking meat at high temperatures creates chemicals that are not present in uncooked meats.Heterocyclic amines (HCAs) are chemicals linked to cancer that are formed when meat isexposed to high temperatures. Four factors influence HCA formation:TYPE OF FOODHCA is found in cooked muscle meats. Other proteinsources (milk, eggs, tofu, and organ meats such as liver)have little or no HCA naturally or when cooked.TEMPERATURECooking temperature is the most important factor inreducing the formation of HCA. Cooking in an oven at400° Fahrenheit or less or stewing, boiling, or poachingat 212° Fahrenheit or less forms one-third of HCAs versusmeats prepared by frying, broiling, or grilling.COOKING METHODFrying, broiling, and barbecuing produce the largest amountsof HCA—these methods have higher than recommendedcooking temperatures. Microwaving meats for 2 minuteshelps to decrease HCA. Meats that are microwaved beforefrying, broiling, or grilling have a 90 percent decrease inHCA content. Marinating meats before cooking alsoinhibits the production of HCA.TIMEMeats cooked well done (no pink remaining in center) havemore HCA than those cooked medium.Different fats (such as omega-3 fatty acids and vegetableoil) may have different effects on your risk of cancer.Saturated fat is a particular concern for cancer risk and forcoronary artery disease.How food is prepared is also important. Some cookingmethods, such as baking, stewing, boiling, and poaching,are healthier ways than frying, broiling, or grilling.Limit Consumption of Alcoholic BeveragesPeople who drink excessive amounts of alcohol have anincreased risk of cancer, higher than that of the generalpopulation, especially cancer of the larynx, esophagus,stomach, and pancreas.There is no question that limiting alcohol consumptionreduces cancer risk. The risk of cancer begins toincrease with an intake of as few as 2 drinks a day. Alcoholalong with tobacco use produces a combined cancer risk thatis greater than the sum of their individual effects. Therisks for cancers of the mouth, throat, esophagus, andlarynx are particularly increased.Research also has noted a connection between alcoholconsumption and an increased risk of breast cancer. Althoughthe causes are not known, scientists speculate that alcoholmay have a carcinogenic effect, perhaps reflected in itscapacity to alter hormone levels.Drinking too much alcohol also may negatively affecteating habits. The calories in alcohol—with little nutritionalvalue—are perhaps being consumed in place ofcalories in healthier foods with cancer-protective values. Ageneral rule: men should limit themselves to no morethan 2 drinks a day, women to 1. (See page 387 for afurther discussion about alcohol.)

In this chapter you will learn:• How to plan and select healthful mealswhether eating at home or away• How to shop for the healthiest foods• How to read food labels and interpretnutrient and health claims• How changes in technology, such as theuse of pesticides, irradiation, additives,genetic engineering, and organic growingmethods, affect our food

C H A P T E r f o u rPLANNINGMEALSSELECTING HEALTHFUL FOODSPLUS TWO WEEKS OF MENUSWhatever your style of eating, several simple planningtechniques will help ensure that your food is varied,nutritious, and enjoyable. In this chapter you will learnhow to plan and select healthful meals—whether preparedat home or eaten away from home. You alsowill be introduced to strategies to make your shoppingboth efficient and effective. Also discussedare some of the new (and not so new) issues infoods that are of current interest. The chapterends with 2 weeks of healthfulmenus—just to get you started.PLAN TO “EAT WELL”“Eat” and “well” are the keywords. To do so, you mustbe conscious of whatyou eat and how oftenyou eat. Try to eatat regular times.For most of us,this means eatingbreakfast, a middaymeal, and anevening meal. Healthful snacks can be part of your mealplan as well. Going for long periods without eating canaffect how you feel and how much you eat. Use the FoodGuide Pyramid to help you make healthful selections.Try to be sure that your meals and snacks are rich inplant foods (fruits, vegetables, and grains), because,ounce for ounce, plant-based meals are almost alwayslower in fat and calories than meat-based meals.Although meat and dairy foods containmany nutrients, they also can be very highin unwanted saturated fat. The key is toavoid high-fat types of meats, make aneffort to eat smaller amounts of thelower-fat meats, and focus on lowfatdairy products. Vary your foodchoices. Try foods that are newto you. Remember that fatsand sweets are at the top ofthe Pyramid, which meansenjoy them, but do soonly on occasion and inmoderation. (SeeChapter 1, the FoodGuide Pyramid,page 11.)

80 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionEAT BREAKFASTWhether at home or away, start your day with breakfast.“Breaking the fast” provides your body with both nutrientsand energy. People who eat breakfast tend to have moreenergy and, on average, are better able to regulate theirappetite during the remainder of the day than their breakfast-skippingcounterparts.Unfortunately, many Americans do not eat breakfast.Some skip breakfast because of their schedule, whereas othersdo so in a misguided attempt to control weight. However,you can eat a healthful breakfast with the time you have.There are many ways to make what is perhaps the day's mostimportant meal a nutritious, fast, and convenient one.COLD BREAKFAST CEREALSWith more than 200 brands of breakfast cereal on yourgrocer’s shelves, how do you know what’s best? Be sure toread the label.* Choose those that are higher in fiber (morethan 3 grams/serving) and lower in calories, fat, and sugar.Ingredients are listed in amounts by weight. Check forhydrogenated fats. If hydrogenated fat is listed near thebeginning of the list of ingredients, the product contains transand saturated fats, which can increase blood cholesterol levels.BRANDS CALORIES FAT FIBER SUGAR(1 CUP SERVING) (GRAMS) (GRAMS) (GRAMS)All-Bran 160 2 20 12Cracklin’ Oat Bran 150 8 8 20Fiber One 120 2 26 0Granola 450 17 6 32Grape-Nuts 400 2 10 14Raisin Bran 200 1 8 18Shredded Wheat(1 cup or 2 biscuits) 170 0 5 0Wheaties 110 1 3 4Whole Grain Total 150 1 4 7*Most breakfast cereals arefortified to provide about25 percent of most dailynutrients. Some cerealshave more. Check thelabel to make your choice.(Use of brand names doesnot indicate endorsement.)Build a Better BreakfastBreakfast is the foundation of a healthful diet. Use theFood Guide Pyramid as a practical resource for planningyour breakfasts regardless of whether you choose foods thatrequire preparation or select ones that are ready-to-go.Cereals are a good choice. Simple whole-grain cereals withno added sugar or fat are best (see sidebar: Cold BreakfastCereals, this page). A breakfast that includes a whole-graincereal, bread, low-fat milk, and a glass of orange juice is agreat starter meal. This breakfast supplies B vitamins, fiber,iron, approximately one-third of the recommended calcium,and 100 percent of the recommended vitamin C for the day.Best of all, it does so in less than 300 calories.For a change, try a breakfast bagel sandwich. Top awhole-grain bagel with 2 teaspoons of peanut butter and asliced banana. Add a cup of cold skim milk for a breakfastthat is about 400 calories. This breakfast includes foodsfrom most of the food groups, is low in cholesterol, and isa good source of iron, folate, and fiber. For even morevariety, top a flour tortilla with 2 ounces of leftover chickenbreast and tomato pieces and 1 ounce of low-fat cheese.As a vegetarian option, top with rice and beans. Wrap thetortilla tightly, microwave for a minute or so, and top withsalsa. While you are at it, drink a glass of a spicy vegetablejuice. Both of these quick-fix breakfasts contribute servingsfrom the vegetable, fruit, and grain groups in just 350calories. They also give you plenty of vitamins A and C.Maybe you prefer eggs for breakfast. The current recommendationis to limit your intake of whole eggs to 3 or4 per week. The reason to limit eggs is that the yolk of alarge-sized egg contains about 210 milligrams of cholesterol—morethan two-thirds of the daily cholesterolallowance. However, eggs also have many nutrients. Peoplewith a low blood cholesterol level probably can safely eat afew more eggs than those who have a high level.Create an omelet with 1 whole egg plus 2 egg whites,sweet peppers, and onions. Serve with oven-brownedpotatoes and a slice of whole-grain toast topped lightlywith butter or margarine. Or, better yet, top with jam orjelly as a no-fat alternative. Remember to include fruitor juice. This 500-calorie meal—although it containscholesterol—is a good source of iron and is high in fiber,folate, and vitamin C.Breakfast OutMany people are too busy to sit down and eat breakfast athome. The next best bet is to eat breakfast on-the-run,

Chapter 4: Planning Meals 81which at times can pose a nutritional challenge. Fortunately,if you know what you are looking for, a nutritious breakfastcan be found almost anywhere food is served. If you aretraveling and have time for a “sit-down” breakfast, choose arestaurant that offers a varied menu. If not, try bagel shops,fast-food establishments, the company cafeteria, or even anearby vending machine. Some may have a “buffet breakfast”that has everything you need, including hot and coldcereals, breads, bagels, fresh fruit and fruit juices, low-fatmilk, and yogurt. Others also may offer options such aslow-fat burritos, low-fat granola, or low-fat muffins. (Seesidebar: Best Bets When Eating Breakfast Out, below.)WHAT’S FORLUNCH?The midday meal is the meal most often eaten away fromhome. Your options include bringing a lunch from homeor purchasing foods in a cafeteria, vending machine, orlocal delicatessen.The same rules apply for “eating well” at lunch: plan toeat foods low in saturated fat and high in nutrients. Thismidday meal helps you meet your goal of 5 fruits and vegetablesevery day, and it is the perfect time to include wholegrains. Lunch helps you to distribute your intake of caloriesand nutrients evenly throughout the day. It can keep energylevels high and help prevent unplanned snacking on foodsthat may not be the best choices.Brown BaggingBringing a lunch to work can save you money and helpyou eat what you really want to eat. To be sure that yourlunch tastes good and is good for you, try to incorporateeach of the food groups in your lunch. If you bring toolittle food, you will likely be hungry later in the day. Youthen increase the chance that you will snack before supperor eat too much at supper.To keep brown-bag fare interesting and healthful, packmore variety. Think of the options:Grains—Instead of the usual sandwich bread, try pita(pocket) bread, tortilla wraps, crackers, pretzels, or ricecakes. Or, try salads made with nutritious grains.Fruits—Include fresh fruits. Every now and then,choose an “exotic” fruit to add interest. Try star fruit, kiwi,papaya, mango, or passion fruit. (See Part II, Fruits, page153.) Fruit juices can be nutritious and refreshing.Vegetables—Expand your repertoire from raw carrotsand celery sticks to potentially more satisfying vegetablesoups and salads. Stuff pocket bread with a variety ofcooked vegetables. Use vegetables to make your sandwichmore filling: fresh spinach or romaine, and slices of cucumber,tomato, mushrooms, and sweet or chili peppers. Avegetable juice makes a great lunchtime drink.Dairy—Some days drink milk. Other days eat yogurtor a bit of cheese. Choose the low-fat forms more frequentlyto be sure your meal is rich in nutrients and not fatand calories.BEST BETS WHEN EATING BREAKFAST OUTCHOOSE THESEINSTEAD OF THESECALORIES FAT (GRAMS) CALORIES FAT (GRAMS)Toast (2 slices) 150 2 Doughnut (1) 250 12English muffin (1) 135 1 Bran muffin (1 medium) 360 10Bagel (1 half) 150 1 Croissant (1 small) 230 12Hard roll (1) 100 1 Sweet roll (1 small) 350 15Cold cereal, bran type (1/2 cup) 160 2 Granola (1/2 cup) 250 104-inch pancake, plain (1) 74 1 Hash browns (1/2 cup) 170 9Egg substitute (1/4 cup) 30 0 Scrambled egg (1) 100 7

82 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionMeat — Meat (which includes poultry, fish, and alsobeans, legumes, and nuts) is good for you, but rememberthat “moderation” is the key word. To help take meat offcenter stage, be sure that you also include plenty of fruits,vegetables, and grains in your lunch. Eat only lean meats.When possible, instead of meat, try to substitute foodssuch as hummus, lentils, beans, tofu, and nut spreads,which contain large amounts of plant protein (see sidebar:Sandwich Fixings, below).Vary the temperature of your lunch by including bothhot and cold items. A thermos will preserve heat moreeffectively if you first rinse it with hot water. Likewise,rinsing with cold water will help keep foods cold longer. IfSANDWICH FIXINGSAMOUNT CALORIES FAT(GRAMS)BreadsWhole wheat 1 slice 70 1Raisin 1 slice 70 1Pita, whole wheat 1 (6.5 inch) 170 2Kaiser roll 1 (3.5 inch) 170 3Bagel 1 (3.5 inch) 200 1FillersOnion, lettuce,cucumbers, tomatoes 2-5 pieces 10 0Chicken or turkey 2 ounces 60 1Tuna, water pack 2 ounces 66 TraceHam 2 ounces 75 2Roast beef 2 ounces 100 2Hummus 1/4 cup 105 5Bologna 2 ounces 180 16Peanut butter 2 Tblsp 190 16Salami 2 ounces 220 16your workplace does not have a refrigerator, a thermallunch bag can help keep your food fresh and safe. A frozenbox of juice can help keep your lunch cold, and the juicewill thaw by lunchtime.Going Out for Lunch?If you know what you are doing, eating lunch out increasesyour options rather than your temptations. Most fast-foodrestaurants, eager to please the ever-growing number ofpeople who insist on eating more nutritious foods, nowoffer “lighter” fare such as salads and chicken. But be carefulthat you don’t choose foods that are healthful in name only.Many foods that at first glance seem to be good choices infact are loaded with fat and calories.Salad SavvySimple salads are best. To construct a nutritious salad,incorporate lots of fresh vegetables and fruits. Rememberthat the word “salad” is not synonymous with “healthful.”Try to eat salads that are low in calories and fat but high inmuch-needed nutrients (see sidebar: Salad Fixings, page 83).Many taco salads contain at least 900 calories, more thanhalf of which comes from fat. High-fat meats and cheesesheaped on a chef salad can dominate the vegetables.Chicken and seafood are low in fat; however, this advantageis lost when they are covered with high-fat dressings and oils.Many of today’s salad bars look like delicatessens. Pastasalad, potato salad, guacamole, and tortellini are popularitems. Depending on how they are made, they too can behigh in fat and calories.Unless used sparingly, some dressings can provide up to400 calories to your salad. Watch for packaged dressingsthat contain more than “1” serving; check the label to seeSpreadsHorseradish 1 Tblsp 6 0Fat-free mayonnaise 1 Tblsp 10 0Mustard 1 Tblsp 10 0Ketchup 1 Tblsp 15 0Fat-free cream cheese 1 Tblsp 15 0Reduced-fat margarine 1 Tblsp 50 6Cream cheese 1 Tblsp 50 5Margarine 1 Tblsp 100 11Mayonnaise 1 Tblsp 100 11Butter 1 Tblsp 110 12

Chapter 4: Planning Meals 83how many servings are in the package. In some instances,the listed ingredients are those contained in a half-ounceserving, even though the package may hold up to 5 servings!A generous-sized ladle can easily drown an otherwise healthfulsalad with a quarter-cup of dressing (300 calories ormore). Instead of using high-fat dressings, try squeezinglemon on your salad, request low-calorie or fat-free dressings,or ask that the dressing be placed on the side.Burgers and SandwichesBeware of burgers and sandwiches that are described as“jumbo,” “double,” or “deluxe.” Many contain about 1,000calories and the majority of your fat allowance for the day.Ask for a regular-sized burger. Stick with lean meat withoutmayonnaise or cheese. If salt is not a concern, ketchup ormustard adds very few calories. Request extra lettuce or toppingssuch as tomatoes, cucumbers, onions, or sweet peppers.SALAD FIXINGSCALORIES FAT SODIUM(GRAMS) (MILLIGRAMS)Go for the basicsMixed greens (2 cups) 20 0 10Broccoli, green pepper,mushrooms (1/4 cup) Trace–6 0 0–6Carrots, shredded(2 tablespoons) 2 0 2Onion (1 tablespoon) Trace 0 0Tomato (1/4) 5 0 2Extras: proceed with cautionBacon bits (1 tablespoon) 40 2 225Fried noodles (4 tablespoons) 40 2 30Cottage cheese, fat-free(1/2 cup) 80 0 370Croutons (2 tablespoons) 30 1 40Egg, hard boiled (1) 80 6 60Garbanzo beans(2 tablespoons) 35 1 2Olives (5 large) 25 3 200Pasta salad (1/2 cup) 200 15 560Potato salad (1/2 cup) 180 10 660SNACK TIMECarefully chosen, snacks can be healthful and nutritious.Check out the options. Look for “food machines” stockedwith fresh fruit, juices, cut-up vegetables or mini-salads,nonfat or low-fat milk, yogurt, cereals, or small bagels.Snack items such as pretzels or baked chips, although highin salt, are relatively low in calories. Negotiate with yourcoworkers: instead of doughnuts and sweet rolls (which canprovide about 250 calories and up to 15 grams of saturatedfat), offer to bring fresh fruits, vegetables, mini-sized bagels,or bread with a low-fat cream cheese. Candy bars mayseem convenient, but they are almost always high in bothfat (mostly saturated) and calories (typically 200 to 300Dressings (2 tablespoons)Blue cheese, French,ranch, Italian 140–180 14–20 325–440Blue cheese, French,ranch, Italian: reducedcalorie/lite/fat-free 50–100 0–8 250–300Lemon juice 8 0 0Tips for salads• Go for fresh vegetables and fruit• Go easy on “extras” that add unwanted calories, fat,and sodium• Put dressings on the side. Even “lite” and “free” dressingsadd up.A variety of vegetables makes for a nutrient-packed low-calorielunch. Remember to have the dressing served “on-the-side.”

84 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionSNACKS WITH ABOUT 100 CALORIESFRUIT GROUP1 large orange1 medium apple or pear1 small banana1 whole grapefruit2 medium plums24 grapescalories and 10 to 20 grams of fat per bar). In some situations,snacks from home are the best solution (see sidebar:Snacks With About 100 Calories, this page).Remember that your weight is stable only when thecalories you eat equal the calories you burn. If you are heavierthan you want to be, just one “extra” portion or snack—ifconsistently eaten—can keep you from losing weight.Important questions to ask yourself are “Am I really hungry?”“Do I really want a snack?” If you do choose to eat a snack,be sure it is planned, and be sure it is nutritious.VEGETABLE GROUPUp to 2 cups of any cut-up, raw vegetables:carrot or celery stickssweet bell pepper stripsbroccoli and cauliflower floretssummer squash slicesmushroomsradishestomato wedgessalsa (1 cup)GRAIN GROUPOne-half English muffin1 slice whole-grain bread2 rice or popcorn cakes2 pretzel rods3/4 cup cereal (ready-to-eat,low-fat, no added sugar)4 bread sticks4 cups air-popped popcorn12 baked tortilla chips1 ounce (mini-bag) pretzel sticksMILK GROUP1/2 cup sugar-free puddingmade with skim milk1/2 cup low-fat cottage cheese1/2 cup frozen yogurt1 cup fat-free yogurt1 cup skim milk or 1 percent2 1-ounce sticks of string cheese(part-skim mozzarella)WHAT’S FORSUPPER?The evening meal is often the only time of the day whenthe family sits down together. Unfortunately, a leisurelysupper usually gives way to evening demands such as aschool meeting, a child’s soccer game, or your own “homework.” Sometimes the very thought of preparing a nutritioussupper seems overwhelming after a hectic day.However, with a little planning, you can still eat well.Make Time for the Evening MealIf possible, make time for supper. The evening meal isoften the main meal of the day. It therefore can go a longway to ensure that you get all of your daily nutrient requirements.In addition, a satisfying supper decreases yourchances of eating an unplanned after-supper snack.Enticing Evening MealsTry to incorporate food from each food group into yourevening meal. Make an effort to eat more plant-basedfoods. These nicely complement smaller servings of leanmeats and low-fat dairy products. Try cuisine from otherparts of the world—particularly those that feature grains,vegetables, and fruits as the centerpiece of the meal. Makeyour meals interesting by varying the colors, textures, andshapes of foods. You do not have to be a great chef to givesupper the visual appeal that everyone wants to eat. Fruitsand vegetables add color and all the vitamins, minerals,and fiber your body needs.Breads come in a broad variety of shapes and textures—from long, thin French baguettes to braided challah breadto the blackest of pumpernickels. The same goes for pasta.In addition to your usual favorites, try whole-wheat spaghetti,farfalle (bow-tie), fusilli (little springs), orzo (rice-shaped),or ziti (large tubes). For more color, try spinach or tomato-

Chapter 4: Planning Meals 85flavored (and colored) pastas. Instead of plain white rice,try basmati, jasmine rice, or nutrient-rich brown rice. Wildrice (not really a “rice” but a seed from a type of grass) addsboth crunch and a nutty flavor to a meal.Instead of red meat, eat fish and poultry more often.Seafood cases are stocked with a wide variety of fish filletsand “steaks” from around the world. In addition to domesticchicken or turkey, poultry choices include wild gamebirds and small “hens.” When you choose a red meat, eata lean cut and vary the seasonings. Try to have some meatlessmeals. A supper containing legumes, beans, and othervegetarian fare is high in protein and low in saturated fat.Top off the evening meal with fresh fruit and a selectionof low-fat cheese, a fresh whole-grain cake, frozen low-fatyogurt, ice cream, or sherbet. A fine wine, a cup of café aulait, and a delicious dessert, if part of the day’s meal plan, cannicely complement a well-prepared and well-presented meal.Make It QuickEvening meals can be quick and yet still contain the freshestof ingredients. Keep in mind that fruits and vegetablesare tasty, nutritious, and easy to prepare. Quick buthealthful suppers can be made from carefully selected dried,canned, frozen, or bottled foods. Plan to eat leftovers at timeswhen you know you won’t have time to cook. Cooking morewhen you are able, freezing a portion or two, and having iton hand when time is tight all can help you avoid skippingsupper or grabbing something that you know you shouldnot eat.Dining OutEating out is an American passion. In fact, Americansspend almost half their food dollars in restaurants. Withthe wide array of restaurants that are available in most communities,dining out should be a pleasure rather than athreat to your resolve to eat well.Listed here are five points to remember when you eat out.Think of these as five tips for eating well when eating out.Choose restaurants that help you achieve your daily 5or more servings of fruits and vegetablesChoose restaurants that offer a wide selection of fruits andvegetables. Look for fruit and vegetable selections in theappetizer, entrée, and dessert menus which are preparedwithout added fat. Choose ethnic and vegetarian restaurantsthat feature grain- and vegetable-based meals.

86 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionLower the fat in four waysWhen ordering, consider these four methods to lower theamount of fat in your meals:Cooking method—If the menu item is described as friedor sautéed, ask that it be baked or broiled. This simplerequest can save 10 to 30 grams of fat and about 100 to 300unwanted calories.“On the side”—Ask for the sauce, condiment, saladdressing, or topping to be put “on the side.” If a dish is preparedwith a high-fat sauce (such as Alfredo, cream sauce,cheese, or gravy), request that it be placed on the side or askfor a lower-fat alternative such as a marinara sauce. Otherhigh-fat condiments and toppings (such as butter or sourcream) should also be on the side so you can control howmuch you use.Serving size—Bigger is not necessarily better, especiallywhen it comes to calories, fat, and your health. Terms suchas “mammoth,” “deluxe,” and “hearty” are your tip-offs.Order smaller portions. Ask for a “take-home” container,or plan to share your meal with your dinner companion soyou do not feel obligated to eat it all.Substitute lower-fat choices—Make sure that your mealhas plenty of grains, vegetables, and fruits. Take meat awayfrom center stage by starting with a tossed salad. Ask forextra steamed vegetables. The bread basket generally offersa whole-grain choice. Don’t forget to finish the meal withfresh fruit, sherbet, or sorbet and a glass of low-fat milk. Tryto avoid the high-fat, calorie-rich desserts that you willlater wish you had not eaten.Limit meat to 3 ounces per serving (or no more than6 ounces per day)Health experts agree that Americans eat too much meat(including poultry and fish), especially in light of the factthat our bodies need only a relatively small amount ofprotein. Large portions of meat almost invariably contributeexcess calories, fat, and cholesterol to the meal. A 3-ounceportion is about the size of a deck of cards. Whenever youeat meat, poultry, or fish, try to be sure that you eat a totalof only 6 ounces per day (see sidebar: “Cut” Your Portionsof Meat, this page).Limit alcohol to 2 drinks (1 if you are a woman)Most authorities suggest that alcohol be limited to 2 drinksper day if you are a man, 1 drink per day if you are a woman.All alcohol-containing drinks contain calories (see sidebar:A Drink Defined..., page 87).Make eating well your number 1 priorityRestaurants are in the business of satisfying their customers.Ask your server to recommend the most healthful foodsthe kitchen can prepare. Do not rely on “heart-healthy”symbols on the menu. These foods may be low in cholesterol,but they still may be high in total fat, saturated fat,and calories. Feel free to request low-fat foods or that morevegetables and fruits be added to your meal. Ask yourserver to clarify unfamiliar terms and to answer any ofyour questions.Ethnic Cuisine: Your Passportto Healthful MealsEthnic restaurants and grocery stores offer a wide variety ofculinary alternatives. Often, ethnic cuisines are plantbased,and thus many people assume they are healthful.However, that is not always the case. Some guidelinesbelow, in addition to the suggestions previously mentioned,will help you to savor the exotic flavors while keepingcalories, fat, cholesterol, and sodium under control.Asian cuisine features rice, noodles, and vegetables withlittle or no meat. However, it may not be as healthful as onebelieves. For example, fried rice is just what it says—fried.Therefore, white rice or, even better, brown rice would bea healthier option. If you are dining at an Asian restaurant,make sure to request that little oil be used in preparation,“CUT” YOUR PORTIONS OF MEATNote the savings in calories and fat with smaller portions of meat.8-OUNCEPORTION3-OUNCEPORTIONCALORIES FAT CALORIES FAT(GRAMS) (GRAMS)Prime rib of beef 960 83 360 31Lamb chop 775 66 298 25Sirloin beef steak 745 59 280 22Pork chop 454 20 175 8Roasted chickenbreast (withoutskin) 380 8 145 3Broiled fish 240 2 90 Trace

Chapter 4: Planning Meals 87and if your portion is large, split it with someone. Stirfry,grilled meat, or chicken skewers are healthful choices.To decrease sodium, limit foods with soy sauce, salt, andmonosodium glutamate (MSG).Many staples of the Middle Eastern, Indian, andPakistani cuisines are low-fat, low-sodium items such aspita bread, rice, couscous, and lentils. However, keep inmind that these foods often are combined with largeamounts of butter, coconut oil, or palm oil. Request foodswithout the added fats and that sauces be put on the side.Healthful selections include kabobs or fish that is grilled, rice,couscous, or orzo.Greek and Mediterranean food is based on pasta, bread,and rice. It is often the sauce that accompanies the grainthat adds calories and fat. Sauces to watch out for includepesto and cream-based sauces. Red sauces are usually quitelow in calories and fat. If ordering a pizza, remember thatthe meat and cheese are the culprits for calories and fat.Order a pizza with one meat item at the most, request halfthe cheese, and load on the vegetables.Finally, Caribbean, Mexican, and Central and SouthAmerican cuisine includes whole grains, corn, rice, flourtortillas, beans (pinto, red, black), and salsa. CondimentsA DRINK DEFINED…Health professionals recommend no more than 2 drinksdaily for men, 1 drink for women. A drink is equal to 12ounces of beer, 5 ounces of wine, 1.5 ounces of 80-proofspirits, or the equal amount of alcohol in other beverages.Alcohol can impair judgment. Never drink and drive.CALORIESALCOHOL (GRAMS)Beer—12 ouncesBeer 150 13Light beer 100 12No-alcohol beer 60 traceWine—5 ouncesWine 100 14Light wine 80 8Spritzer (12 ounces) 120 17Spirits—1.5 ounces80 proof 100 14Remember—mixes such as sweetened sodas, juices, and sugarysyrups mean extra calories.

88 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutritionare an issue, so be sure to request less cheese, and have sourcream and guacamole on the side. Grilled fish and chickenare best bets as main courses. Fresh vegetables and fruitsaccompany most meals.GROCERY SHOPPING:ANOTHER KEY TO HEALTHFUL MEALSWhen it comes to eating at home, your meals can only beas good as the food you have in your kitchen. Stock yourkitchen with foods that help you eat well. Be sure youhave plenty of fruits, vegetables, and whole grains on handso you translate your plan for healthful eating into enjoyableand nutritious meals.Make a ListMake a grocery list. A mental list may work, but a structuredplan generally is more effective. A written list helpsensure that you select the ingredients and foods that youwant rather than things you select on impulse. A checklistalso can save time by avoiding the need to come back to pickup forgotten items.At the StoreMost Americans make one or more trips to the grocerystore every week. Some people consider grocery shoppinga form of entertainment, but others regard it as a chore. Nomatter how you feel about shopping, a few strategies canmake your investment of time worthwhile.Use labels to compare similar foodsand to make the healthiest choices.Shop the perimeter—The freshest foods generally arelocated along the perimeter of the store. These includefresh fruits, vegetables, breads, dairy products, and meats.Choose whole-grain breads from the bakery, low-fat productsfrom the dairy section, and lean cuts from the meat section.Higher-fat foods often are stocked in the interior of thestore. However, grains, legumes, pastas, and canned fruitsand vegetables also are frequently located in the interior.Shop from your list—A list helps ensure that you stickto your plan. Items purchased on impulse generally aremore expensive and less nourishing than foods from a wellplannedshopping list.Do not shop when hungry—If you go to the storewith a growling stomach, you are apt to make purchases tosatisfy your immediate hunger rather than what you willneed in the days ahead. You also tend to buy more.Shopping on a full stomach helps you stick to your list andto keep your resolve.Make bargains count—A bargain is only a bargainwhen you buy what you want rather than what someone elseis trying to sell you. Select bargains that fit your menu, suchas in-season fruits and vegetables or bulk quantities of rice,beans, and legumes. Use coupons to reduce the cost offoods that you intend to buy.Label SmartsUnderstanding food labels helps you become a savvy shopper.The U.S. Department of Agriculture has establishedrequirements for food labels in order to make nutritioninformation accurate, clear, consistent, and useful to consumers.Food labels provide four different types of information:nutrition facts, a list of ingredients, nutrients,and health claims.Nutrient facts and ingredientsLabels tell you almost everything you need to know aboutwhat is contained in the food. The Nutrition Facts paneltells you how many calories and how much fat, cholesterol,protein, and carbohydrate are in a single serving of thefood. It also tells you the fiber, vitamin (A and C), andmineral (sodium, potassium, calcium, and iron) contentsof the food. This information allows you to compare thenutrients found in similar foods. For example, you cancompare two yogurts for their calorie and fat content.Ingredients are listed in descending order by weight, withthe first item listed being the predominant one in the food.By reading the label, you can tell which foods have added

Chapter 4: Planning Meals 89saturated fats or ingredients to which you may be intolerant.Use the label to select the best choices—foods that arehigh in nutrients and low in calories and fat.To help you make the wisest choices, acquaint yourselfwith each of the components of the label (see sidebar:Anatomy of a Food Label, below). Some foods, such asfresh fruits, vegetables, and bulk items, do not have nutritionlabels. The nutrition information for these foods generallyeither is on display nearby or is available elsewhere in thestore as a handout. When in doubt, ask the store personnelfor assistance.Nutrient and health claimsIn addition to the amounts of various nutrients and ingredientsfound in foods, food labels may carry other typesof information. The label may state that the food is a “goodANATOMY OF A FOOD LABELAt first glance, a food label may look intimidating. But as you become familiarwith the format, you’ll see how the label can help you compare products for nutritional quality.SERVING SIZE:Nutrition informationis based on consistentand realistic servingsizes that includeboth household andmetric measures.This makes it easierto compare products.NUTRIENTS:At a minimum, allcalories, caloriesfrom fat, total fat,saturated fat, cholesterol,sodium, totalcarbohydrate, dietaryfiber, sugars, protein,vitamins A and C,calcium, and ironare listed. Expertsbelieve that too muchor too little of thesenutrients has thegreatest impact onyour health.{CALORIES PER GRAM:This shows the caloriecontent of the energyproducingnutrients.Nutrition FactsServing size 1/2 cup (114 g)Servings per container 4Amount per servingCalories 90 Calories from fat 30Percent Daily Value*Total fat 3 g 5%Saturated fat 0 g 0%Cholesterol 0 mg 0%Sodium 300 mg 13%Total carbohydrate 13 g 4%Dietary fiber 3 g 12%Sugars 3 gProtein 3 gVitamin A 80% Vitamin C 60%Calcium 4% Iron 4%*Percent Daily Values are based on a 2,000-calorie diet. Your daily valuesmay be higher or lower depending on your calorie needs:Calories 2,000 2,500Total fat Less than 65 g 80 gSaturated fat Less than 20 g 25 gCholesterol Less than 300 mg 300 mgSodium Less than 2,400 mg 2,400 mgTotal carbohydrate 300 g 375 gFiber 25 g 30 gCalories per gram:Fat 9 Carbohydrate 4 Protein 4CALORIES FROM FAT:This informationunderscores the fatcontent per servingof foods to help youmeet the recommendationof nomore than 30 percentof calories from fat.Remember, it’s yourtotal fat intake overa period of time(such as 24 hours),and not the amountin one food or meal,that’s important.PERCENT DAILY VALUE:The percent dailyvalues show thepercentage of anutrient that isprovided by thisproduct serving,based on a 2,000-calorie diet. Usethe percent dailyvalue figures tocompare productseasily and to tellwhether a foodis high or lowin nutrients.

90 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutritionsource” of a given nutrient. Nutrient claims help guide youmore quickly to certain products. Products also may claimthat they benefit certain health conditions. Health claimsmay suggest that eating a food alters your risk for certaindiseases such as heart disease, cancer, or osteoporosis. Thegovernment regulates these claims so they are truthful andmeet certain criteria. Manufacturers are not required by lawto carry nutrient or health claims. (See sidebars: NutrientClaims, page 92, and Health Claims, page 93.)FOODS AND ISSUES YOU MAY HAVEWONDERED ABOUTFarming methods are rapidly evolving. New foods andnovel ingredients are continuously being introduced into themarketplace. Pesticides and fertilizers are used to increaseyields. Genetic engineering potentially can produce safer,more nutritious, and cheaper forms of foods. Substitutes(such as sugar, fat, and salt substitutes) enable some peopleto eat foods that would otherwise endanger their health.However, not everyone would agree that these changes arean advance because many have been accompanied by uncertaintyand, in some instances, controversy. What aboutadditives? Organic foods? Irradiated foods? What does itmean when a food is enriched or fortified? Read on.What About Pesticides?Pesticides and modern pest management practices havehelped to ensure that we have a reliable, affordable, varied,nutritious, and safe food supply. Pesticides are chemicalsthat kill or prevent the growth of weeds (herbicides), bacteria(disinfectants and antibiotics), molds and fungi (fungicides),and harmful insects (insecticides). Some pesticidesoccur naturally in soil, whereas others are found in compoundsisolated from particular plants. Many farmers tryto control pests in the most effective, least disruptive mannerby practicing what is known as integrated pest management.This approach includes companion planting withplants that contain natural pesticides, crop rotation, useof sterile strains of insects or insect pheromones (to alterreproduction patterns and thereby reduce the insect population),natural insect predators, pest-resistant plant strains,mathematical forecasting techniques, and, when necessary,chemical pesticides.Should you worry about pesticide residues? The answeris a qualified “no.” The upper limit of the amount of pesticideresidue permitted on both raw and processed foods hasbeen carefully established and is enforced by several governmentagencies. These upper limits are far less than thelevels of exposure that are considered harmful. However,to reduce your exposure to pesticide residues further, youcan take the following steps:• Carefully select the produce you buy (avoid cuts, holes,or signs of decay).• Thoroughly wash all produce with water (not soap)to remove surface residues.• Scrub carrots and potatoes and other root vegetablesthoroughly. Wash other fresh fruits and vegetableswith a brush. Resist the temptation to peel apples,pears, cucumbers, potatoes, and other produce withedible skin, because peeling removes a valuable sourceof fiber.• Remove the outer leaves (and any inner leaves thatappear to be damaged) from leafy vegetables such aslettuce and cabbage.• Eat a variety of foods rather than large amounts of asingle food.What About Food Additives?Contrary to what many of us think, food additives havebeen used for centuries (and until the past 100 or so years,without much regard for health considerations). Additivesplay various roles in foods. Some additives act as preservatives,preventing spoilage, loss of flavor, texture, or nutritivevalue. These include antioxidants such as vitamin E,BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole), BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene),citric acid, and sulfites; calcium propionate; sodiumnitrite (which prevents infection by the dangerousbacteria that causes botulism); and other antimicrobials(germ-fighting additives). Other additives are used asemulsifiers to prevent foods from separating. Emulsifiersinclude lecithin from soy, egg yolks, or milk and monoglyceridesand diglycerides. The leavening agents sodiumbicarbonate (baking soda and powder) and yeast allowbaked goods to rise. Stabilizers and thickeners create andmaintain an even texture and flavor in foods such as icecream and pudding. Many foods are also fortified orenriched with vitamins, minerals, or proteins or their componentamino acids (see page 25).The government strictly regulates food additives. Thesafety and effectiveness of each newly proposed additivemust be rigorously tested. Some 700 additives belong toa group of substances referred to as GRAS substances

Chapter 4: Planning Meals 91(Generally Recognized As Safe) becauseextensive testing and use have shown no evidenceof adverse effects. Continued approvalrequires that all additives, including GRASsubstances, must be reevaluated regularly withthe latest scientific methods. According tolaw, additives and preservatives must be listedon food labels. People who are sensitiveto certain additives such as sulfites or monosodiumglutamate should be sure to readlabels for additive information.Organic Foods:Are They Really Better?If pesticides and food additives pose anypotential risk at all, would we be better offeating only “organically grown” foods? Whatis an organic food? Organic farming methodsare those that use only nonsynthetic products(substances that are naturally found in theenvironment).Can you be sure that the organic products you buy arereally grown and produced organically? In 1998, Congressenacted the Organic Foods Production Act, which regulatesproduction and processing standards for organic foods.This act specifies that foods sold as “organically grown” or“organically processed” must be certified by the U.S.Department of Agriculture. However, organically producedfoods may not be 100 percent organic. By law, theymust have at least 50 percent of their ingredients producednaturally, and organically processed foods must contain atleast 95 percent organically produced ingredients.Are these foods better? Not necessarily. Nutritionally,organically grown foods may not be significantly differentfrom the same products grown with conventional farmingtechniques. The nutrient content of a product is determinedby many factors, including the composition of the soil, thegenetic makeup of the plant, the degree of maturity atharvest, and methods of handling after harvest. The tasteof organic products may or may not differ from that ofconventionally grown foods. Organic methods tend to bemore costly (in terms of both labor and materials),production is lower, and consumer prices tend to be higher.In addition, organic methods are not always safer. Somepesticides reduce the risk of exposure to certain harmfulorganisms that represent a much greater potential risk thandoes exposure to the pesticide. In most instances, personalpreference rather then proven benefit determines whetheryou choose to eat an organic food.What About Irradiated Foods?Until the 1800s, soaking in salt and natural fermentationwere the most commonly used methods for food preservation.This changed with the introduction of canning in the 1800s.Pasteurization began to be used in the late 1800s to kill harmfulbacteria, freezing in the early 1900s to extend the shelflife of foods, and freeze drying in the 1960s to preserve foods.Food is irradiated when it is passed through a beam ofradiant energy. Irradiated foods are not radioactive.Irradiation does not diminish the importance of safe foodhandling (see Chapter 5, Food Safety, page 148), nor doesit improve the quality of food. However, irradiationcan extend the shelf life, reducefood wastage, and reduce food prices.Most importantly, irradiation candestroy bacteria that cause foodborneillness. Food irradiation isstrictly controlled by the Food andGovernment regulations require irradiated food at the retaillevel to be labeled "Treated with Radiation" or "Treated byIrradiation" and to bear this international logo, the radura.

92 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionTERMFreeReducedLite, lightLowHighGood sourceHealthyLeanExtra leanNUTRIENT CLAIMSPER SERVING SIZE ON LABELContains no, or only “physiologically orinconsequential” amounts of, fat, saturatedfat, cholesterol, sodium, sugars,and caloriesAt least 25 percent lower in the nutrientthan the standard productAt least 50 percent less fat50 percent less sodium; one-third fewercalories (must also contain less than50 percent of calories from fat)Low fat: 3 grams or lessLow cholesterol: 20 milligrams or lessLow saturated fat: 1 gram or lessLow sodium: 140 milligrams or lessVery low sodium: 35 milligrams or lessLow calorie: 40 calories or less20 percent or more of the Daily ValueFiber: 5 grams or morePotassium: 700 milligrams or moreVitamin A: 1,000 IU or moreVitamin C: 12 milligrams or moreFolate: 80 micrograms or moreIron: 3.6 milligrams or more10 to 19 percent of the Daily ValueFiber: 2.5 to less than 5 gramsPotassium: 350 to less than 700 milligramsVitamin A: 500 to less than 1,000 IUVitamin C: 6 to less than 12 milligramsFolate: 40 to less than 80 microgramsIron: 1.8 to less than 3.6 milligramsFood that is low in fat and saturated fat,480 milligrams or less sodium, and at least10 percent Daily Value for vitamin A,vitamin C, calcium, iron, protein, or fiberLess than 10 grams total fat, 4.5 gramssaturated fat, and 95 milligrams cholesterolper 100 grams (about 3 ounces)Less than 5 grams total fat, 2 grams saturatedfat, and 95 milligrams cholesterolper 100 grams (about 3 ounces)Drug Administration (FDA). All irradiated foods carry asymbol and the phrase “Treated by Irradiation.” However,when irradiated foods are used in a restaurant, they are notrequired to be labeled.What About Genetically Engineered Foods?Modern genetic-engineering techniques are a refinement oftraditional plant-breeding methods. Genetic engineersfirst select a desired plant trait. They then isolate andmodify the gene(s) responsible for the trait. Finally, theyattempt to introduce the altered gene into other plants.In essence, genetic engineering accelerates the natural mixingof genes that normally would occur among variousplant species.Genetic engineering of plants has yielded severalbenefits. Farmers can protect crops against weeds withgenetically engineered biodegradable herbicides that needfewer applications. Genetic engineering also can extend thetime before spoilage begins, enabling growers to harvestfoods closer to peak freshness. Crops can be geneticallyengineered to be drought- and temperature-resistant.Genetic engineering can increase crop yields and enableplants to tolerate a wider range of climates. Genetic engineeringalso can increase the amount and quality of proteinin beans and in grains such as rice.Although there are benefits associated with geneticallyengineered foods, there also are lingering questions aboutthe long-term effects on the environment and the abilityof producers and the government to ensure the safety ofthe process. Therefore, the debate continues regardinghow genetically engineered foods should be developed andregulated.What Do the Terms “Fortified” and“Enriched” Mean?Do you know the difference between the terms “fortified”and “enriched”? Both words indicate that nutrients havebeen added to the food. Fortified means that nutrientswere added that were not there originally. Enriched meansthat nutrients lost during processing are replaced. Fortifiedand enriched foods have helped eliminate many oncecommonnutritional deficiency diseases.Salt was the first commercial food item in the UnitedStates to be fortified with additional nutrients. Since 1924,potassium iodide has been added to table salt to help preventgoiter (an enlarged thyroid that may result from iodinedeficiency).

Chapter 4: Planning Meals 93HEALTH CLAIMSThe Food and Drug Administration (FDA) strictly regulates health claims. They must be supported byscientific evidence to appear on food labels. The foods must also meet specific nutrient requirements.Below are several examples of FDA-approved health claims.DISEASE/NUTRIENT OR FOODOsteoporosis/calciumCancer/fatCancer/fiber-containing foodsCancer/fruits and vegetablesHeart disease/fiber-containing foodsHeart disease/saturated fat and cholesterolHypertension/sodiumBirth defects/folic acidEXAMPLE OF A HEALTH CLAIMRegular exercise and a healthy diet with enough calcium help teens andyoung adult white and Asian women maintain good bone health and mayreduce their high risk of osteoporosis later in life.Development of cancer depends on many factors. A diet low in total fatmay reduce the risk of some cancers.Low-fat diets rich in fiber-containing grain products, fruits, and vegetablesmay reduce the risk of some types of cancer, a disease associated withmany factors.Low-fat diets rich in fruits and vegetables (foods that are low in fat andmay contain dietary fiber, vitamin A, or vitamin C) may reduce the riskof some types of cancer, a disease associated with many factors. Broccoliis high in vitamins A and C, and it is a good source of dietary fiber.Diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol and rich in fruits, vegetables,and grain products which contain some types of dietary fiber, particularlysoluble fiber, may reduce the risk of heart disease, a disease associatedwith many factors.While many factors affect heart disease, diets low in saturated fat andcholesterol may reduce the risk of this disease.Diets low in sodium may reduce the risk of high blood pressure, a diseaseassociated with many factors.Healthful diets with adequate folate may reduce a woman’s risk of havinga child with a brain or spinal cord defect.Vitamin D was first added to milk in 1933. Rickets, adeforming bone disease, can result from too little vitaminD. Rickets was very common during the early part of thecentury when working children were deprived of nutritiousdiets and sunlight.Flour, and products made with flour, were first fortifiedwith vitamins and iron in 1940 at the start of World WarII. The goal was to build strong, healthy armies by feedingtroops well-fortified diets.Most breakfast cereals are fortified to provide about 25percent of most daily nutrients. Many of these vitaminsmay dissolve into the milk that you pour over the cereal, soit is important to drink the milk at the bottom of the bowl.(Plus, milk itself provides its own nutrients.)Most recently, folic acid has joined the list of fortifiersadded to grain-based (bread, cereal, pasta, rice) foods tohelp meet nutrient needs and to reduce the incidence ofbirth defects and possibly the risk of heart disease.

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Chapter 4: Planning Meals 95Two Weeks of MenusThe following pages contain 14 days’ worth of nutritionally balanced menus. The menus emphasize whole grains,fresh fruits, and vegetables. They are low in fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol, moderate in sodium, and highin taste. In addition, they are a great source of health-enhancing phytonutrients.The actual guidelines for the menus are listed below.The serving sizes are based on the Food Guide Pyramid (seeChapter 1, page 11). For each day, the breakdown of servingsfrom the Food Guide Pyramid is provided.Accompanying each menu, there is one recipe. Use thesemenus as a guide to begin to eat a more nutritiously balanceddiet. As needed, make adjustments to suit your needs. If youneed additional (or fewer) calories, simply add or take awaya serving. If you need to add servings, we suggest addinga whole grain, piece of fresh fruit, or more vegetables.These menus take the information that has beendiscussed throughout the book and help you put it onthe table. Bon appetit.MENU GUIDELINESCalories 1,800-2,000Fat (less than 30% of calories)Less than 60 gramsSaturated fat (less than 8% of calories)Less than 16 gramsCholesterolLess than 300 milligramsDietary fiber20-35 gramsSodiumLess than 2,400 milligramsFOOD GROUPSTARGETED NUMBER OF SERVINGS/DAYSweetsSparinglyFats, oils (emphasis on monounsaturated) About 3Meat, poultry, fish, legumes, nuts, seeds(emphasis on poultry, fish, legumes, nuts, and seeds)2 servingsDairy (emphasis on low fat) About 3+Vegetables (emphasis on fresh) About 4Fruits (emphasis on fresh) About 4Grains (emphasis on whole) About 8Note: A chef and a registered dietitian planned the menus and recipes. The dietitian analyzed the recipes and menus fortheir nutrient contents.

96 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutritionday 1Nutritional Analysis for Entire DayActual GoalCalories 2,000 1,800-2,000Fat (g) 58 Less than 60Saturated fat (g) 13 Less than 16Cholesterol (mg) 80 Less than 300Fiber (g) 24 20-35Sodium (mg) 1,800 Less than 2,400Food ServingsActualSweets 1Fats 1Legumes/nuts 3Meat, poultry, fish 3 ouncesMilk 3Vegetables 5Fruit 3Grains 7Breakfast2 whole-wheat pancakes—top with 1/2 cup unsweetened applesauce1 cup nonfat fruit-flavored yogurtCoffee—regular or decaffeinatedNoonSouthwest Caesar Salad (see recipe below)6 wheat crackers1 fresh orange1 cup skim milkEveningBroccoli and walnut stir fry (1 tsp sesame oil, 1 cup broccoli florets,1/2 cup chopped red or yellow pepper, 1/2 tsp soy sauce, 3 ounces tofu,1/3 cup chopped walnuts)1 cup cooked brown rice1 whole-grain roll1 Tblsp honeyHerbal teaSnack (anytime)1 1/2 ounces low-fat cheddar cheese2 crisp rye wafers6 ounces pineapple juiceDay 1 RecipeSouthwest Caesar SaladServes 4Per servingin this recipeCalories 220Fat (g) 3Saturated fat (g) 1Cholesterol (mg) 25Fiber (g) 2Sodium (mg) 2308 cups romaine lettuce1/2 cup fat-free croutons2 cups cubed cooked chicken breast1 can (14 to 16 ounces) low-sodium kidney, black, or pinto beans, drained1 can (8 ounces) low-sodium whole-kernel corn, drained1 medium tomato, cut into wedges1 medium red, yellow, or green bell pepper, thinly sliced1/2 medium onion, thinly sliced1/4 cup fat-free Caesar dressing2 Tblsp Parmesan cheese, gratedCombine romaine lettuce and croutons with chicken, beans, corn, tomato, bell pepper,and onion in a large serving bowl. Pour dressing over salad; toss to coat evenly. Topwith Parmesan cheese.

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Chapter 4: Planning Meals 99BreakfastHerbed scrambled eggs (1 egg, 2 egg whites, 2 tsp chopped chives or 1/4 tsp dill)2 slices whole-wheat toast1 tsp soft margarine1/2 grapefruit1 cup skim milkCoffee—regular or decaffeinatedNoonTuna salad on whole-wheat bread (3 ounces flaked tuna,* fat-free mayonnaise,lettuce, cucumber, tomato slices, and a few sliced olives as toppings)1 cup tossed spring greens2 Tblsp fat-free herbed salad dressing1 kiwi fruit1 cup skim milkEvening2 Tacos With Sautéed Vegetables and Smoky Salsa (see recipe below)1 cup Spanish rice1 cup tossed green salad2 Tblsp fat-free red wine vinaigrette dressing1/4 cantaloupeHerbal teaSnack (anytime)1 cup low-fat vanilla yogurt1 sliced banana*Reduced sodium and water-packed variety recommended.day 2Nutritional Analysis for Entire DayActual GoalCalories 1,850 1,800-2,000Fat (g) 40 Less than 60Saturated fat (g) 7 Less than 16Cholesterol (mg) 270 Less than 300Fiber (g) 29 20-35Sodium (mg) 2,375 Less than 2,400Food ServingsActualSweets 0Fats 4Legumes/nuts 1Meat, poultry, fish 5 ouncesMilk 3Vegetables 5Fruit 4Grains 9Day 2 RecipeSoft Tacos With Sautéed Vegetables and Smoky SalsaServes 41 Tblsp olive oil1 medium red onion, chopped1 cup yellow summer squash, sliced1 cup green zucchini, sliced3 large garlic cloves, finely chopped4 medium tomatoes, seeded and chopped1 jalapeno pepper, seeded and choppedKernels from 2 ears of corn (1 cup)1/2 cup fresh cilantro, chopped1 cup canned pinto or black beans, rinsedand drained8 corn tortillas (7-inch diameter)1/2 cup smoky-flavored salsaPer servingin this recipeHeat oil in large skillet; add onion and cook until tender. Add squash and zucchini, stir,and continue cooking about 5 minutes. Add garlic, half the tomatoes, and all of thejalapeno pepper. Reduce heat to medium-low and cook until vegetables are tender.Add corn kernels; stir and cook until kernels are tender crisp. Add cilantro, remainingtomatoes, and beans. Stir together and remove from heat. “Warm” the tortillas in ahot, dry skillet. Fill each tortilla with the vegetable mixture. Top with salsa and serve.Calories 350Fat (g) 8Saturated fat (g) 1Cholesterol (mg) 10Fiber (g) 8Sodium (mg) 450

100 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutritionday 3Nutritional Analysis for Entire DayActual GoalCalories 1,810 1,800-2,000Fat (g) 40 Less than 60Saturated fat (g) 10 Less than 16Cholesterol (mg) 120 Less than 300Fiber (g) 26 20-35Sodium (mg) 2,225 Less than 2,400Food ServingsActualSweets 2Fats 2Legumes/nuts 1Meat, poultry, fish 5 ouncesMilk 3Vegetables 4Fruit 4Grains 8Breakfast1 spiced muffin2 Tblsp fruit spread1 banana1 cup skim milkNoonHamburger on bun (3 ounces extra-lean ground beef, tomato slices,shredded lettuce, whole-grain bun)1 ounce (individual bag) pretzels2 cups tossed salad (lettuce, cucumbers, mushrooms, bell peppers)2 Tblsp fat-free French dressing15 grapesSparkling waterEveningChicken and Couscous Vegetable Salad (see recipe below) on baby greens1 whole-grain roll1 Tblsp honeyMoro orange (blood orange)1 cup skim milkSnack (anytime)4 crispy rye wafers1 1/2 ounces reduced-fat Swiss cheeseDay 3 RecipeChicken and Couscous Vegetable SaladServes 6Per servingin this recipeCalories 237Fat (g) 6Saturated fat (g) 1Cholesterol (mg) 29Fiber (g) 6Sodium (mg) 3401 1/2 cups low-sodium chicken broth1 cup uncooked couscous (pearl type)1 1/2 cups cooked chicken or turkey,chopped1/2 pound asparagus, cut into 2-inchpieces, cooked and drained1 1/2 cups chopped green or yellowbell pepper1 medium tomato, chopped1/2 cup celery, diced1/2 cup fat-free Italian dressing2 Tblsp sliced almonds, toastedPour broth into saucepan; bring to a boil. Stir in couscous. Remove from heat; cover,and let stand 5 minutes. Stir with fork.Stir together couscous, chicken, asparagus, bell pepper, tomato, and celery in a bowl.Add dressing. Stir evenly to coat. Serve at room temperature or chilled. Just beforeserving, sprinkle with toasted almonds.

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Chapter 4: Planning Meals 103Breakfast1 English muffin2 Tblsp fat-free cream cheese1 cup fresh strawberriesCoffee—regular or decaffeinatedNoonGreek salad (2 cups mixed greens, cucumber slices, cherry tomatoes,onion slices, 1 1/2 ounces feta cheese, 5 ripe olives, 1/4 cup dates,lemon juice, 1 tsp olive oil, vinegar, oregano, to taste)2 bread sticks1 fresh pear1 cup skim milkEveningQuick Pork With Pineapple-Orange-Basil Sauce (see recipe below)1 cup cooked brown rice with chopped apples1 cup steamed baby carrots1 whole-grain roll1 Tblsp fruit spreadHerbal teaSnack (anytime)1 cup frozen low-fat yogurt1/2 cup berriesday 4Nutritional Analysis for Entire DayActual GoalCalories 1,900 1,800-2,000Fat (g) 36 Less than 60Saturated fat (g) 14 Less than 16Cholesterol (mg) 146 Less than 300Fiber (g) 30 20-35Sodium (mg) 2,200 Less than 2,400Food ServingsActualSweets 1Fats 2Legumes/nuts 0Meat, poultry, fish 4 ouncesMilk 3Vegetables 5Fruit 6Grains 7Day 4 RecipeQuick Pork With Pineapple-Orange-Basil SauceServes 41 pound pork tenderloin, cut into 1/4-inchslices (may also substitute turkey breast)1 tsp vegetable oil1 cup pineapple juice2 garlic cloves, finely chopped2 tsp cornstarch1 1/2 tsp dried basil leaves, crushed1 tsp grated orange peel2 oranges, sliced into rounds1 green onion, choppedIn large skillet, cook and stir pork over medium-high heat in hot oil 3 to 5 minutesor until pork is no longer pink. Remove pork, drain.Stir together juice, garlic, cornstarch, basil, and orange peel in skillet until blended.Bring to a boil; cook 2 minutes or until sauce is slightly thickened. Return pork toskillet; cook 1 minute or until heated through.Arrange pork slices along with orange slices on dinner plates; sprinkle with greenonion. Top with sauce. Serve immediately.Per servingin this recipeCalories 230Fat (g) 5Saturated fat (g) 2Cholesterol (mg) 80Fiber (g)TraceSodium (mg) 60

104 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutritionday 5Nutritional Analysis for Entire DayActual GoalCalories 1,900 1,800-2,000Fat (g) 45 Less than 60Saturated fat (g) 6 Less than 16Cholesterol (mg) 70 Less than 300Fiber (g) 20 20-35Sodium (mg) 1,350 Less than 2,400Food ServingsActualSweets 1Fats 2Legumes/nuts 0Meat, poultry, fish 3 ouncesMilk 3+Vegetables 5Fruit 5Grains 7Breakfast1 cup old-fashioned oatmeal—topped with 1 Tblsp brown sugar1 slice whole-wheat toast1 tsp soft margarine1 banana1 cup skim milkCoffee—regular or decaffeinatedNoonSouthwestern Turkey Pocket Fajita (see recipe below)1/2 cup fresh vegetables (baby carrots, celery sticks, broccoli florets)1 peach1 cup frozen low-fat yogurtSparkling waterEvening1/4 12-inch pizza (whole-wheat crust, chunky tomato sauce,sliced bell pepper, onion, mushrooms, zucchini, 6 ounces mozzarella cheese,thyme and basil, to taste)1 cup tossed greens2 Tblsp fat-free Italian salad dressing1 cup mixed fresh fruitIced teaSnack (anytime)1 ounce (individual bag) pretzels6 ounces orange juiceDay 5 RecipeSouthwestern Turkey Pocket FajitaServes 41 cup nonfat plain yogurt1 tsp grated lime peel1 can (20 ounces) pineapple tidbits or chunks12 ounces turkey breast, cut into 1-inchcubes (may substitute pork tenderloin)1 Tblsp lime juice1 tsp cumin1/2 cup onion, thinly sliced1 medium green or red bell pepper, cutinto 2-inch strips4 (6-inch) whole-wheat pita breads, cutin half crosswise to make pocketsPer servingin this recipeCalories 395Fat (g) 5Saturated fat (g) 1Cholesterol (mg) 60Fiber (g) 2Sodium (mg) 432Stir together yogurt and lime peel in a small bowl; set aside.Drain pineapple; reserve 2 Tblsp juice.Combine reserved juice, turkey, lime juice, and cumin in non-metallic dish. Cover andmarinate 15 minutes in the refrigerator.In a non-stick skillet, combine the turkey mixture and onion and cook over mediumhighheat, stirring until turkey is slightly browned. Add bell pepper and pineapple;cook and stir 2 to 3 more minutes or until the vegetables are tender crisp and theturkey is no longer pink.

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Chapter 4: Planning Meals 107Breakfast1 whole-wheat bagel2 Tblsp peanut butter1 nectarine1 cup low-fat yogurtCoffee—regular or decaffeinatedNoonRoasted vegetables on herbed focaccia bread (1 cup total of red pepper,eggplant, and zucchini topped with 1 1/2 ounces of part-skimmozzarella cheese)12 baked tortilla chips1 apple1 cup skim milkEvening4-ounce grilled steak topped with 1 cup sautéed mushrooms1 medium baked potato topped with 1 Tblsp fat-free sour creamand snipped chives1 cup steamed Brussels sprouts1 whole-grain dinner roll1 tsp soft margarinePoached Pears in Red Wine (see recipe below)Herbal teaSnack (anytime)2 cups popcorn6 ounces cranberry juiceday 6Nutritional Analysis for Entire DayActual GoalCalories 1,940 1,800-2,000Fat (g) 45 Less than 60Saturated fat (g) 14 Less than 16Cholesterol (mg) 133 Less than 300Fiber (g) 30 20-35Sodium (mg) 1,425 Less than 2,400Food ServingsActualSweets 1Fats 2Legumes/nuts 1Meat, poultry, fish 4 ouncesMilk 3Vegetables 5Fruit 4Grains 7Day 6 RecipePoached Pears in Red WineServes 44 whole pears1 fresh lemon1/2 bottle red wine1/2 cup sugar1/2 stick cinnamon (1 tsp ground)Pinch of nutmegPeel pears, leaving stem. Remove core from the bottom. Lightly rub pears with cutlemon to prevent browning.In a heavy saucepan, combine wine, sugar, cinnamon, and nutmeg. Add pears andbring to a boil. Turn pears frequently to coat with mixture. Reduce heat and simmerfor about 30 minutes or until pears are tender but still firm (a butter knife should goin easily).Remove from pan and chill in the sauce until serving. Serve on decorative plates andtop with sauce.Per servingin this recipeCalories 255Fat (g) 0Saturated fat (g) 0Cholesterol (mg) 0Fiber (g) 4Sodium (mg) 5

108 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutritionday 7Nutritional Analysis for Entire DayActual GoalCalories 2,000 1,800-2,000Fat (g) 45 Less than 60Saturated fat (g) 13 Less than 16Cholesterol (mg) 160 Less than 300Fiber (g) 33 20-35Sodium (mg) 2,220 Less than 2,400Food ServingsActualSweets 0Fats 2Legumes/nuts 1Meat, poultry, fish 5 ouncesMilk 2Vegetables 5Fruit 4Grains 9Breakfast1 cup bran cereal—top with 1/2 cup dried mixed fruit1 cup skim milkCoffee—regular or decaffeinatedNoon1 cup split-pea soup*Sub sandwich (6-inch Italian bread, 2 tsp mustard, chopped lettuce,sliced tomato, onion, bell peppers, 2 ounces lean ham, 1 1/2 ouncesSwiss cheese)4 soda crackers1 appleSparkling waterEveningGrilled Chicken With Tomato and Corn Salsa (see recipe below)1 cup Spanish rice1 cup steamed broccoli with lemon zest1/2 cup sliced mangoHerbal teaSnack (anytime)1 cup raw vegetables (baby carrots, celery sticks, cauliflower florets)2 Tblsp fat-free ranch dressing (for dip)*Homemade or reduced sodium variety is recommended.Day 7 RecipeGrilled Chicken With Tomato and Corn SalsaServes 44 boneless, skinless chicken breasts1 tsp oilPer servingin this recipeCalories 340Fat (g) 15Saturated fat (g) 3Cholesterol (mg) 83Fiber (g) 2Sodium (mg) 86Kernels from 2 cobs of cooked corn (about 1 cup)2 tomatoes, peeled, seeded, and chopped1 shallot, chopped1/2 cup balsamic vinegar2 Tblsp olive oil4 basil leaves, choppedBrush the chicken breasts with oil. Grill until no longer pink in center.In the meantime, combine all of the salsa ingredients. Spoon over the grilled chickenand serve immediately.

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Chapter 4: Planning Meals 111Breakfast1 cup mixed fresh fruits (melon, berries, banana, pear, cherries)—top with 1 cup low-fat yogurt and 1/3 cup toasted almonds2 slices whole-wheat toast1 Tblsp honeyHerbal teaNoon1 cup vegetable soup*6 wheat crackersTarragon chicken sandwich on whole-wheat bread (2 slices whole-wheat bread,1 Tblsp fat-free mayonnaise, lettuce leaf, sliced tomato, alfalfa sprouts,2 ounces shaved chicken, tarragon, to taste)1 apple1 cup skim milkEveningGrilled Ahi Tuna With Mango-Pineapple Chutney (see recipe below)1/2 cup small steamed red potatoes in skin1 cup tossed greens2 Tblsp fat-free cucumber salad dressing1 whole-wheat roll1 Tblsp honey1 cup sparkling waterSnack (anytime)2 graham crackers1 cup skim milk*Homemade or reduced-sodium variety is recommended.day 8Nutritional Analysis for Entire DayActual GoalCalories 2,000 1,800-2,000Fat (g) 60 Less than 60Saturated fat (g) 9 Less than 16Cholesterol (mg) 100 Less than 300Fiber (g) 28 20-35Sodium (mg) 2,300 Less than 2,400Food ServingsActualSweets 2Fats 2Legumes/nuts 1Meat, poultry, fish 5 ouncesMilk 3Vegetables 4Fruit 5Grains 7Day 8 RecipeGrilled Ahi Tuna With Mango-Pineapple ChutneyServes 44 tsp olive or vegetable oil2 ounces fresh ginger, peeled, cored,and mashed1 jalapeno pepper, seeded and diced1 red onion, finely chopped1/4 cup packed brown sugar1/4 cup rice wine vinegar1 cup fresh pineapple, peeled, cored,and finely chopped1 mango, peeled and chopped1 small bunch fresh cilantro,washed and chopped1/4 tsp salt (use sea salt for different flavor)4 pieces ahi tuna fillets, about 4 ounceseach, 1 1/2 inches thickCracked pepper, to tasteChutney: Measure and prepare all ingredients before assembly. In a large sauté pan, overmedium heat add 2 tsp of the oil with ginger, jalapeno pepper, and onion. Cook untilonions become transparent. Add brown sugar. When sugar is dissolved, add rice winevinegar, pineapple, and mango. Simmer for about 5 minutes. Turn off heat. When mixtureis cool, add the cilantro and season with salt. Cover and refrigerate until serving time.Tuna: Brush tuna with 2 tsp oil and grill approximately 4 to 5 minutes on each side.Season with cracked pepper to taste.Per servingin this recipeCalories 325Fat (g) 10Saturated fat (g) 2Cholesterol (mg) 43Fiber (g) 2Sodium (mg) 310

112 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutritionday 9Nutritional Analysis for Entire DayActual GoalCalories 1,900 1,800-2,000Fat (g) 45 Less than 60Saturated fat (g) 6 Less than 16Cholesterol (mg) 95 Less than 300Fiber (g) 32 20-35Sodium (mg) 1,200 Less than 2,400Food ServingsActualSweets 1Fats 1Legumes/nuts 1Meat, poultry, fish 4 ouncesMilk 3Vegetables 4Fruit 5Grains 7BreakfastFrench toast (2 slices whole-wheat bread, 2 egg whites, 1/4 cup skim milk,1/4 tsp vanilla)—top with 1/4 tsp sugar and 1/4 tsp cinnamon1/2 grapefruit1 cup skim milkCoffee—regular or decaffeinatedNoonSpinach salad (2 cups fresh spinach, a sliced pear, 2 Tblsp red wine vinaigrette,4 Tblsp sunflower seeds)12 wheat crackers1 cup skim milkEveningTurkish Chicken With Spiced Dates (see recipe below)1 cup cooked couscous1 cup sautéed root vegetables (such as carrots, beets, potatoes, onions)Herbal teaSnack (anytime)1/2 cup frozen yogurt—top with 1/2 cup pineapple4 gingersnapsDay 9 RecipeTurkish Chicken With Spiced DatesServes 4Per servingin this recipeCalories 330Fat (g) 4Saturated fat (g) 1Cholesterol (mg) 82Fiber (g) 5Sodium (mg) 904 boneless, skinless chicken breasts(may also substitute 1 poundturkey breast slices)Vegetable cooking spray1 cup low-sodium chicken broth1/2 cup onion, chopped1 box (8 ounces) chopped dates or pitteddates that have been chopped2 Tblsp apricot or peach fruit spread1/2 tsp ground cinnamonParsley sprigs4 fresh apricots, cut into wedgesCoat a large skillet with non-stick cooking spray. Cook chicken over medium heatabout 5 minutes on each side or until chicken is no longer pink in the center. Removechicken from skillet; cover and keep warm.To the skillet, add broth, onion, and dates; bring to boil, stirring occasionally. Reduceheat to low; cook until liquid is reduced by half (about 8 minutes).Stir apricot spread and cinnamon into sauce until blended; spoon over chicken.Garnish with parsley and apricots. Serve immediately.

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Chapter 4: Planning Meals 115day 10Breakfast1 cup wheat flakes—top with 1 peach, sliced2 slices whole-wheat toast2 Tblsp honey1 cup skim milkCoffee—regular or decaffeinatedNoonChicken, fresh pineapple, and black bean salad on spring greens (3 ouncesgrilled chicken, 1/2 cup pineapple, 1/2 cup black beans, 2 cups greens)1 ounce (1 individual bag) baked tortilla chips (about 12)1 cup skim milkEvening1 bowl (2 cups) minestrone soup*Bruschetta Pomodoro (see recipe below) on 2 slices of Italian or French bread1/2 cup fresh vegetables (baby carrots, broccoli florets, celery)2 Tblsp ranch dressing—for dip1 appleHerbal teaSnack (anytime)1 cup frozen yogurt1/2 cup mixed berriesNutritional Analysis for Entire DayActual GoalCalories 1,850 1,800-2,000Fat (g) 23 Less than 60Saturated fat (g) 5 Less than 16Cholesterol (mg) 75 Less than 300Fiber (g) 30 20-35Sodium (mg) 2,350 Less than 2,400Food ServingsActualSweets 2Fats 1Legumes/nuts 2Meat, poultry, fish 3 ouncesMilk 3Vegetables 4Fruit 4Grains 7*Homemade or reduced-sodium variety is recommended. See recipe on page140, Chapter 5.Bruschetta PomodoroMakes about 4 cupsDay 10 Recipe7 to 9 Roma tomatoes, peeled, seeded, diced3 to 4 garlic cloves, finely chopped1/2 cup fresh basil, chopped3 Tblsp virgin olive oil1/4 tsp salt (use sea salt for different flavor)Fresh cracked pepper, to tasteCombine all ingredients. Cover and refrigerate. Serve about 2 tablespoons over a sliceof Italian or French bread.Note: This also may be used as a topping over penne pasta.Per serving (2 Tblsp)in this recipeCalories 20Fat (g) 1Saturated fat (g) traceCholesterol (mg) 0Fiber (g)traceSodium (mg) 65

116 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutritionday 11Nutritional Analysis for Entire DayActual GoalCalories 1,950 1,800-2,000Fat (g) 44 Less than 60Saturated fat (g) 8 Less than 16Cholesterol (mg) 95 Less than 300Fiber (g) 28 20-35Sodium (mg) 2,120 Less than 2,400Food ServingsActualSweets 1Fats 3Legumes/nuts 0Meat, poultry, fish 3 ouncesMilk 4Vegetables 5Fruit 5Grains 8BreakfastBanana Raspberry Smoothie (see recipe below)2 slices cinnamon toast (toasted whole-wheat bread, 1 tsp soft margarine,1/2 tsp sugar, 1/2 tsp cinnamon)Coffee—regular or decaffeinatedNoonLemon pepper chicken on rye sandwich (2 slices rye bread, 1 Tblsp fat-freemayonnaise, shredded lettuce, 3 ounce roasted chicken breast seasonedwith lemon pepper)1 ounce (individual bag) baked potato chips2 plums1 cup skim milkEveningPasta verde (2 cups cooked linguine, 2 tsp olive oil, 2 cups steamed greenvegetables—asparagus tips, scallions, snow peas, broccoli florets).Top with 1 Tblsp Parmesan cheese1 cup romaine lettuce2 Tblsp fat-free red wine vinaigrette1 cup (about 10) fresh cherriesHerbal teaSnack (anytime)1 1/2 ounces low-fat cheddar cheese6 wheat crackersDay 11 RecipePer servingin this recipeCalories 230Fat (g) 1Saturated fat (g) 0Cholesterol (mg) 0Fiber (g) 5Sodium (mg) 55Banana Raspberry SmoothieServes 21 1/2 cups pineapple juice1 cup low-fat vanilla yogurt or frozen low-fat yogurt1 cup raspberries2 ripe medium bananas, peeled and cut into chunksCombine juice, yogurt, raspberries, and bananas in blender. Cover; blend untilsmooth. Pour into glasses and serve.

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Chapter 4: Planning Meals 119day 12Breakfast2 slices banana bread1 tsp soft margarine1/4 cantaloupe1 cup skim milkNoonBagel sandwich (1 whole-wheat bagel, 2 Tblsp fat-free cream cheese,sun-dried tomatoes, cucumbers)1/2 cup raw vegetables (broccoli florets, celery sticks, green pepper strips)2 Tblsp fat-free ranch dressing (for dip)1 apple1 cup skim milkEveningGrilled Beef Kabobs (see recipe below)1 cup quinoa with carrots and herbs1/2 cup steamed spinach with lemon and garlic2 slices grilled pineappleHerbal teaSnack (anytime)1 1/2 ounces cheddar cheese4 crispy rye wafers6 ounces cranberry juiceNutritional Analysis for Entire DayActual GoalCalories 1,800 1,800-2,000Fat (g) 24 Less than 60Saturated fat (g) 7 Less than 16Cholesterol (mg) 100 Less than 300Fiber (g) 20 20-35Sodium (mg) 2,000 Less than 2,400Food ServingsActualSweets 0Fats 3Legumes/nuts 0Meat, poultry, fish 3 ouncesMilk 3Vegetables 6Fruit 4Grains 7Day 12 RecipeGrilled Beef KabobsServes 412 ounces top sirloin beef steak6 Tblsp fat-free Italian dressing8 cherry tomatoes2 green bell peppers, cored and seeded and cut into 1-inch chunks1 onion, cut into 1-inch chunksCut meat into 1-inch cubes. Place meat in non-metallic dish, and pour half of the dressingover to coat. Cover; refrigerate for 20 minutes. Turn to coat evenly. Discard marinade.Thread skewers alternately with meat, cherry tomatoes, green pepper, and onions. Grill,basting with remaining fat-free dressing. Serve immediately when cooked.Per servingin this recipeCalories 195Fat (g) 5Saturated fat (g) 2Cholesterol (mg) 60Fiber (g) 2Sodium (mg) 280

120 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutritionday 13Nutritional Analysis for Entire DayActual GoalCalories 1,850 1,800-2,000Fat (g) 40 Less than 60Saturated fat (g) 7 Less than 16Cholesterol (mg) 80 Less than 300Fiber (g) 22 20-35Sodium (mg) 2,250 Less than 2,400Food ServingsActualSweets 1Fats 3Legumes/nuts 1Meat, poultry, fish 3 ouncesMilk 3Vegetables 4Fruit 5Grains 9Breakfast1 cup low-fat cottage cheese—top with 1 cup sliced peaches2 slices toasted oatmeal bread1 tsp soft margarineCoffee—regular or decaffeinatedNoonRustic Wrap (see recipe below)1 cup grapes1 kiwi fruit6 ounces pineapple juiceEveningPasta with marinara sauce (1 cup linguine, 1 cup marinara sauce*)—top with 1 Tblsp Parmesan cheese1 cup romaine lettuce2 Tblsp fat-free Caesar dressing1 sourdough roll—to soak up sauce1 cup berriesHerbal teaSnack (anytime)4 cups popcorn1 cup skim milk*Reduced-sodium variety is recommended. See recipe on page 143, Chapter 5.Day 13 RecipeRustic WrapServes 4Per servingin this recipeCalories 445Fat (g) 8Saturated fat (g) 1Cholesterol (mg) 60Fiber (g) 6Sodium (mg) 1402 cups mushrooms, sliced1/2 cup chopped green onions1 Tblsp orange juice2 cups cooked wild rice12 ounces smoked turkey, shredded or chopped1/2 cup cranberry relish4 medium-sized tortillas (7-inch diameter)1/2 cup chopped pecansIn a non-stick skillet, sauté mushrooms and onion over medium heat in 1 Tblsp orangejuice. Add cooked wild rice and smoked turkey to warm through. Remove from heat.Spread tortillas with cranberry relish. Top each tortilla with equal amounts of turkeyricemixture. Top with chopped pecans. Roll up and serve.

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Chapter 4: Planning Meals 123day 14BreakfastBreakfast parfait (put in layers: 1/4 cup wheat flakes, 1/4 cup low-fat yogurt,1/4 cup raisins, 1/4 cup low-fat yogurt, 1/4 cup uncooked rolled oats,1/4 cup low-fat yogurt, 1/4 cup dried apricots, 1/4 cup low-fat yogurt,sprinkle with nutmeg)Coffee—regular or decaffeinatedNoonMediterranean Pasta Salad (see recipe below) on romaine lettuce leaves1 crusty seven-grain roll1 tsp soft margarine1 cup lemon sherbet (top with 1 cup raspberries)6 ounces apple juiceEvening3 ounces grilled salmon with lemon and dill1 cup braised baby vegetables (baby carrots, pattypan squash, red potatoes)1 whole-grain roll1 tsp soft margarine1 cup skim milkSnack (anytime)1 cup skim milk2 medium chocolate chip cookiesNutritional Analysis for Entire DayActual GoalCalories 1,990 1,800-2,000Fat (g) 40 Less than 60Saturated fat (g) 7 Less than 16Cholesterol (mg) 65 Less than 300Fiber (g) 26 20-35Sodium (mg) 2,225 Less than 2,400Food ServingsActualSweets 1Fats 2Legumes/nuts 0Meat, poultry, fish 5 ouncesMilk 3Vegetables 4Fruit 6Grains 7Day 14 RecipeMediterranean Pasta SaladServes 41 package (8 ounces) refrigerated or frozen cheese tortellini3 cups broccoli cut into florets (may substitute cauliflower or use both)1 can (8 ounces) pineapple chunks2 Tblsp balsamic or red wine vinegar1 Tblsp olive oil1/4 pound fresh link turkey sausage, cooked, drained, sliced1 medium red, yellow, or green bell pepper, cored, seeded, and cut into 1-inch piecesPrepare tortellini as package directs. Add broccoli during last 2 minutes of cooking.Drain pineapple, reserve 1/4 cup juice. Combine reserved juice, vinegar, and oil inlarge serving bowl. Drain tortellini and broccoli. Add tortellini, broccoli, sausage,bell pepper, and pineapple to serving bowl. Toss well to coat evenly. Serve at roomtemperature or chilled.Per servingin this recipeCalories 276Fat (g) 8Saturated fat (g) 2Cholesterol (mg) 28Fiber (g) 2Sodium (mg) 435

Preparing healthful meals can be fun.In this chapter you will learn:• Ways to modify recipes to be lowerin calories, fat, sugar, and salt and yetbe nutritious and flavorful• Ways to create menus that bringhealthier, plant-based foods — fruits,vegetables, and grains — to center stage• How to prepare, serve, and store food safely

C H A P T E r f i v ePREPARINGHEALTHFUL MEALSMuch has been learned about how to prepare healthfulfoods that are enjoyable, convenient to make, andeconomical. Many of the leading chefs of Europe and theUnited States have abandoned cooking styles that oncedepended on fats and oils and are now using healthiercooking methods. This “new” cuisine uses the cook's culinaryskill to create delicious meals that bring fruits, vegetables, andgrains to center stage.Simple yet innovative techniques can be used to modifyfavorite recipes to maximize the nutritious value of themeal without jeopardizing its taste. When you modify anexisting recipe, it is generally best to start slowly, making onechange at a time. Persistence, willingness to experiment, anda few tried-and-true hints can help you prepare healthfuland flavorful meals.CHANGE IS GOODRecently, fat, sugar, and salt have been vilified for the rolesthey play in increasing the risk of certain diseasessuch as obesity, diabetes, coronary arterydisease, and high blood pressure. However,they are only “bad” when eaten in excess. The keyis not to banish them from the kitchen but touse them in moderation.Fat provides flavor, substance,and a mouth-pleasing creamytexture. Sugar adds sweetness,crispness, tenderness, and color.Salt heightens the flavor of foodsand is necessary in baked goodsmade with yeast.The art of cooking is to put the proper amounts of theseingredients in each food. Recipe modification is one of themore useful cooking skills. In some instances, modificationof the fat, sugar, or salt content actually can make the foodtastier, moister, and more satisfying than it was originally.When Should a Recipe Be Modified?Sometimes it is difficult to know whether a recipe can beadjusted without sacrificing taste, texture, and appeal.Try modifying a recipe if you answer “yes” to any of thefollowing questions:• Is the recipe high in fat, sugar, or salt?• Is this a food I eat frequently?• Is this a food I eat in large amounts?Keep in mind that not every recipe needs to be modified.If, for example, a certain high-fat dessert is a family favoriteand it is prepared infrequently, there is no need to changeit. As long as it is treated as an item from the top of theFood Guide Pyramid (see Chapter 1, page11)—the occasional food—enjoy it in itsfamiliar form.ExperimentBecause every recipe is different,experimentation is necessary. Thereare numerous ways to make a recipehealthier. Of course, not every experimentworks. It may take several attemptsto achieve the desired taste and consistency.Once the modified recipe meets your expectations,file it for future use.

126 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionAs a start, try these five methods:• Reduce the amount of fat, sugar, or salt.• Delete a high-fat ingredient or seasoning.• Substitute a healthier ingredient.• Change the method used to prepare the recipe.• Reduce the amount of meat in the recipe.Can the Amount of an Ingredient Be Reduced?Start by reducing the amount one ingredient at a time. Inmost baked goods, sugar generally can be reduced by onethirdto one-half without substantially changing consistencyor taste. Because sugar increases moisture, as a rule retainone-fourth cup of sugar, honey, or molasses for every cupof flour in baked goods. To maximize the sweetness offoods, when appropriate, serve the dish warm or at roomtemperature rather than cold. In addition, there are spicesthat can enhance sweetness. Some possibilities includecinnamon, cloves, allspice, nutmeg, and vanilla and almondextract or flavoring. Eliminating a cup of sugar in a recipesaves about 800 calories.Fat also can be reduced by one-third to one-half in bakedgoods. Use puréed fruit or applesauce to replace the fatin a 1:1 ratio. For example, use one-half cup of oil plus onehalfcup of unsweetened applesauce (instead of 1 cup of oil).Eliminating 1 cup of oil or fat saves about 2,000 calories and225 grams of fat. Another way to decrease fat and cholesterolis to substitute egg whites or egg substitute for a whole egg.For every egg, use 2 egg whites or a quarter cup of eggTIPS FOR USING SPICES AND HERBS• Conversion: 1 tablespoon fresh herbs = 1 teaspoon dry= 1/4 teaspoon powdered• Use sparingly: 1/4 teaspoon per pound of meat or pintof sauce. You can always add more.• When doubling a recipe, add only 50 percent moreseasoning.• Crush or rub dry herbs between your fingers toenhance flavor before adding them to a recipe.• In long-cooking entrées such as stews, add herbstoward the end of the cooking time.• In chilled foods such as dips, salads, and dressings, addherbs several hours before serving.• For maximal freshness, purchase herbs in small quantitiesand store in airtight containers away from light and heat.substitute. With this replacement, approximately 5 gramsof fat, 2 grams of saturated fat, 200 milligrams of cholesterol,and 60 calories are saved.Reduce but do not totally remove salt because a smallamount of salt frequently is required to facilitate the chemicalreactions that occur during cooking. Salt is alwaysrequired with yeast-leavened items. The cooler the food,the saltier it will taste. Try under-salting hot foods thatwill be chilled before serving. Using a half teaspoon of saltinstead of 1 teaspoon in a recipe saves about 1,200 milligramsof sodium. (See sidebar: Tips for Using Spicesand Herbs, this page.)Can an Ingredient Be Omitted?Determine whether any ingredients can be omitted. Sugar,fat, and salt are likely candidates because in many instancesthey are used mainly for appearance or by habit. To reducesugar, omit candy coatings, sugary frostings, and syrups.Nuts, although nutritious, are high in fat and contribute significantcalories. Additional condiments that add unwantedfat and calories include coconut, whipped cream, mayonnaise,butter, margarine, and sour cream. Pickles, catsup,olives, and mustard are low in calories. However, becausethese condiments are high in salt, persons who have highblood pressure or heart disease generally should limit their use.Can a Substitution Be Made?Substituting ingredients that are lower in fat, sugar, andsalt can make a significant difference in a recipe. For example,use skim milk rather than whole or 2 percent milk.Products made from pureed prunes and apples or mashedbananas often can be used as a replacement for butter,margarine, or oil. These products also can be used inhomemade baked goods or box mixes. (See sidebar:Choose These Alternatives to Reduce Fat, Sugar, and Salt,page 127.)Be cautious when using fat-free spreads (such as fatfreemargarine or cream cheese), “artificial” sweeteners, orsalt substitutes in cooked foods. Most fat-free spreads containa significant amount of water. This can change the outcomeof the recipe by affecting its leavening or by leaving thefood runny. Some sweeteners (such as aspartame) losetheir sweetness when exposed to heat. Heat can makesome salt substitutes (such as those containing potassiumchloride) strong or bitter tasting. For these reasons, theseproducts generally should be restricted to recipes that do notrequire cooking or are used as condiments when foods are

Chapter 5: Preparing Healthful Meals 127served at the table. In most instances, success depends onpatience and a bit of creativity. If one substitution does notyield the desired result, try again. Another substitute or adifferent amount of the same substitute may work better.Would Another Cooking Method Be Healthier?The choice of cooking technique is important. If the usualmethod of cooking uses fat, try grilling, broiling, braising,or roasting the food instead. Instead of deep-fat frying,try oven baking. French “fries” seasoned with chili powderor oregano are both tasty and low in fat when baked.Although stir “frying” can be a healthful cooking technique,use of generous amounts of oil negates some of the possiblebenefit. Always measure the oil to be used or, better yet,replace it with wine or a broth that adds flavor but little fatand only a few calories. Cooking food for the proper time(avoiding overcooking) not only makes it taste better butalso preserves nutrients.CHOOSE THESE ALTERNATIVES TO REDUCE FAT, SUGAR, AND SALTTry these ideas for decreasing fat, sugar, and salt when preparing or eating foods.FOR FATTY FOODSChoose:Two percent, 1 percent, or skim milk; low-fat or fat-free yogurt;low-fat or fat-free sour cream or cheeseLean, trimmed cuts of the loin and round; remove the skin frompoultry before eatingApplesauce or fruit purée in place of half the oil or shorteningthat is normally used; use the rest of the fat as instructedPuréed vegetables (carrots or potatoes), mashed potato flakes,or puréed tofu as a thickening agentWine, fruit juice, broth, or balsamic vinegarVegetable sprayTwo egg whites or egg substituteRoasted garlic; jam, jelly, or honey (although high in sugar,they have half the calories of butter or margarine and no fat)Salsa, low-fat sour cream with chives, low-fat cottage cheese,yogurt, herbs, or spices on baked potatoesFat-free mayonnaise or salad dressing, mustard, cranberrysauce, chutneyInstead of:Full-fat milk, yogurt, sour cream, or cheeseFatty and highly marbled meatShortening, butter, margarine, or oil in bakedgoodsCreamed soups and gravy-based stewsOil-based marinadesButter, oil, or margarine to prevent stickingA whole egg in a recipeButter or margarine on bread or crackersButter or sour creamMayonnaise or butter on a sandwichFOR FOODS WITH A HIGH SUGAR CONTENTChoose:Fruit purée, chopped fresh fruit, or applesauceFruit canned in its own juice, fresh fruitInstead of:Sugar, syrup, or honeySweetened fruitFOR FOODS WITH A HIGH SALT CONTENTChoose:Lower-sodium versionsHerbs, spices, or marinadesInstead of:Soups, sauces (barbecue, soy, tartar, cocktail),canned meat or fish, and crackersSalt

128 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionMany cooking techniques make it possible to preparemore colorful, flavorful, and healthier dishes. These includethe following:Braising—Food is browned, then cooked in a tightlycovered pan in a small amount of liquid at low heat over along period.Broiling—Food is placed beneath the heat source; bastingmay be needed.Grilling—Food is positioned above the heat source;basting may be needed.Microwaving—This is a quick way to cook food withlittle added liquid or fat.Poaching—Food is cooked in a liquid at the simmeringpoint.Oven roasting—Food is cooked in an uncovered panby the free circulation of dry air, until the exterior is wellbrowned.Steaming—Food is placed on a rack in a basket aboveboiling liquid. Food should not touch the liquid.Stir frying—Small pieces of food are cooked over highheat and constantly stirred. Use wine, broth, or fruit juiceas the liquid instead of the traditional oil.Marinating food adds flavor and does not have to addfat. Some tips for successful marinating include piercing largecuts of meat, poultry, or fish with a fork to help the marinadepermeate the food. Always marinate food in a glass or ceramicdish in the refrigerator. Never place the food in a metalcontainer. Most marinades feature an acid base that mayreact with metal and change the flavor. Finally, a food safetytip: reserve some of the marinade before you put meat in it.Marinade that has been in contact with raw meat should notbe used to baste meat, poultry, or fish during the last 15 minutesof cooking. If you plan to use leftover marinade as a tablesauce, it must be boiled for 5 minutes to eliminate bacteria.There is more that can be done once the food is out ofthe oven or off the stove. Skim the fat off pan juices, stews,and soups. Instead of topping vegetables with butter ormargarine, sprinkle them with lemon juice or herbs. Removeany visible fat (and any skin from poultry) before serving.No special, expensive equipment is needed to cookhealthful foods. A good set of non-stick pans, a skillet, aroasting pan, a baking sheet, measuring cups and spoons,and sharp knives are enough to get you started. Quality,durability, ease of use, and cost should be the primary considerationswhen outfitting a kitchen.Can the Amount of Fruits, Grains, andVegetables in the Recipe Be Increased?Increasing the amount of vegetables, grains, and fruits ina recipe can both improve taste and increase the nutritionalquality of the food. For example, when cooking a soup orstew, use three times as many vegetables (by measure) as meat.Add generous portions of mushrooms, tomatoes, broccoli,and green pepper to pizza. Make pizza even lower in fat andcalories by omitting or decreasing the cheese. Alternatively,choose a lower-fat cheese, such as mozzarella (made fromskim milk), and use less of it. If possible, eliminate themeat or add only a small amount of lean meat. If you aremaking your own crust, make it thin and use whole-grainflour. Pizza, if served with a salad and eaten in moderation,can be an enjoyable and nutritious meal.To get at least 5 servings of fruits and vegetables a day,add them to foods that do not typically include these ingredients.For example, add chopped pieces of fruit or vegetablesto rice, add fruit toppings to toast or pancakes, or top meatswith chopped vegetables. For each serving of meat (a servingis 2 to 3 ounces of meat), try to eat at least 1 serving eachof fruit, vegetables, and grains. When possible, start yourmeal with a healthful salad. This often helps you decreasethe amount of high-calorie food that you eat later in the meal.The more servings of grains, vegetables, or fruit, the better,because these are both filling and high in nutrients (see sidebar:Nutrition Boosters, page 129).CREATING HEALTHFUL MENUSPlan menus so that each meal complements what you planto eat later in the day or what you have eaten earlier in theday. Include plant-based entrées as often as possible.Examples that can result in satisfying meatless meals includepasta with marinara sauce and lots of vegetables, stir-friedvegetables with tofu over rice, or lentil soup with a side dishcontaining grains, beans, or vegetables. Plant-based entréescan be tasty, filling, and nutritious.When you choose to eat meat, fish, or poultry, rememberthat your goal is to eat 6 ounces or less per day. If you ate meatfor lunch, appropriately decrease your dinner portion. Avoidred meats that contain a large amount of fat. Instead,emphasize poultry or fish. When you eat red meat, choosea “choice” grade and a cut from the loin or round, becausethese generally are the leanest types of meat. The skin onpoultry holds in moisture and flavor during cooking.

Chapter 5: Preparing Healthful Meals 129However, the skin is high in fat and calories. Contrary topopular belief, the skin does not need to be removed beforecooking. There is minimal fat absorption if the skin is left on.Just make sure to remove the skin before the poultry is eaten.Many fish are low in fat. Those that are not low in fatgenerally contain omega-3 fatty acids that may help preventheart disease. However, remember, all fats are high in calories,so the less fat added during cooking, the better.Condiments and sauces can add nutrition and enhanceflavor. Keep in mind, however, that some are high in fat,sodium, and calories (see Chapter 4, “On the Side,” page 86).An example of a high-fat sauce is gravy over mashed potatoes.Instead, try sprinkling mashed potatoes with garlic orother herbs.When choosing a topping, look for a lower-fat alternative.If none are available, then use less of the original topping.Sliced, chopped, or puréed vegetables can make a nourishinglow-fat condiment. Fruits are a delicious complementto almost any meal. They can top meats, enrich salads, or beserved for dessert.A dessert can be a pleasant end to a healthful meal.However, a dessert should not be an “extra.” Be sure it isincluded in your overall meal plan. Make the dessert abonus by emphasizing fruit, whole grains, and lower-fatitems. If you do not have a recipe that emphasizes fruits andwhole grains, look for one that can be readily modified.Sorbets and low-fat frozen yogurts or ice creams are goodchoices. Even cookies, pies, cakes, and chocolates have theirplace. However, remember, becausethese desserts generally are high in fat andsugar, they are at the pinnacle of the FoodGuide Pyramid. Therefore, they shouldbe the exception rather than the rule. Ifyou plan to eat a dessert, take a smallportion. If you are preparing a dessert fora special occasion, make just enough toserve you and your guests. Leftoverdessert is a powerful temptation.With a little thought and planning,you know what foods to emphasize andwhat foods to limit. You are ready tomake a commitment to improve the wayyou and your family eat. Now it is timeto put your plan into action. To help youget started, examples of “makeovers” forbreakfast and noon and evening mealsare shown on the following pages.Instead of:Syrupon pancakesSugar onbreakfast cerealWith or in:Chicken breastTraditional orcornbread stuffingRiceCasserolesMeat-based stewsand soupsPastaNUTRITION BOOSTERSThere are many ways to help you get more fruits, vegetables,and grains in the foods you eat. Try these ideas.Substitute:Sliced fruit or a purée of a favoritefruit such as apples, berries,pineapple, or peachesFresh fruit or low-fat yogurtUse:Kabobs with fruit and vegetablesWhole-grain breads, cookedapples, raisins or other dried fruitDiced vegetables, dried fruit, orother grains or legumesDecrease meat and add morevegetables, grains, bran, legumes,or dried fruitDecrease meat, and add morevegetables, legumes, or grainsIn place of meat sauce, use a meatlesstomato sauce and addsteamed vegetablesPizza with less meat and cheese and more vegetableor fruit toppings is enjoyable and nutritious.

130 Part I: A Guide to Healthy Nutrition

Chapter 5: Preparing Healthful Meals 131Breakfast—Makeover 1Original Meal6 ounces apple juice1 spiced muffin2 tsp butter1 cup 2% milkCoffee2 tsp cream1 tsp sugarMeal analysis: 565 calories, 29 g fat, 12 g saturated fat,77 mg cholesterol, 1 g fiber, 395 mg sodiumModified Meal1 nectarine and 1/2 cup raspberries1 spiced muffin2 tsp marmalade1 cup fat-free yogurtHerbal teaMeal analysis: 420 calories, 8 g fat, 1 g saturated fat,4 mg cholesterol, 7 g fiber, 320 mg sodiumSPICED MUFFINSOriginal Recipe2 cups wheat flour1 1/4 cups sugar2 tsp baking soda1 tsp cinnamon1/2 tsp salt3 large eggs1 cup vegetable shortening, melted1/2 cup coconut1 tsp vanilla2 cups peeled and chopped apples1/2 cup raisins1/2 cup grated carrots1/2 cup chopped pecansModified Recipe1 3/4 cups wheat flour3/4 cup sugar2 tsp baking soda2 tsp cinnamon1/4 tsp saltcholesterol-free egg substitute(equivalent to 4 eggs)1/2 cup canola oil1/2 cup unsweetened applesauce(Omit coconut)2 tsp vanilla2 cups chopped apples (unpeeled)1/2 cup raisins3/4 cup grated carrots2 Tblsp chopped pecansPreheat oven to 350° Fahrenheit. Spray muffin tin with non-stick spray or use paper muffin liners. In a large bowl, mix togetherthe flour, sugar, baking soda, cinnamon, and salt. Mix well. In another bowl, combine the egg substitute, oil, applesauce, andvanilla. Stir in the apples, raisins, and carrots. Add to the flour mixture and stir until just blended. Spoon batter into muffintins, filling 2/3 full. Sprinkle with chopped pecans and bake for 35 minutes or until springy to the touch. Let cool for 5 minutes,then remove from the pan to a rack and let cool completely. Note: These freeze well and may be rewarmed before serving.Yield: 18 small muffinsRecipe Analysis (per muffin)Original ModifiedCalories 270 175Fat (g) 15 7Saturated fat (g) 4 1Cholesterol (mg) 35 TraceFiber (g) 1 2Sodium (mg) 185 165

132 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionBreakfast—Makeover 2Original Meal6 ounces pineapple juice1/2 cup granola with 1 cup 2% milk2 slices white toast2 tsp butterCoffee2 tsp creamMeal analysis: 731 calories, 27 g fat, 12 g saturated fat,42 mg cholesterol, 6 g fiber, 500 mg sodiumModified Meal1/2 cup fresh pineapple1/2 cup reduced-fat granola with 1 cup fat-free plain yogurt2 slices whole-wheat toast2 tsp jellyHazelnut-flavored coffeeMeal analysis: 560 calories, 7 g fat, 1 g saturated fat,4 mg cholesterol, 14 g fiber, 500 mg sodiumGRANOLA WITH RAISINS, APPLES, AND CINNAMONOriginal Recipe4 cups old-fashioned oat cereal1 cup bran cereal1 cup slivered almonds1 cup coconut1 cup raisins1/3 cup honey1/4 cup oil1 Tblsp vanillaModified Recipe3 cups old-fashioned oat cereal3/4 cup bran cereal1/4 cup slivered almonds (toasted)3/4 cup dried apple pieces1/2 cup golden raisins1/4 cup honey1/4 cup unsweetened applesauce1 Tblsp vanilla extract1 Tblsp cinnamonPreheat oven to 350° Fahrenheit. Place oat and bran cereals into a large bowl. Toss well. In a small bowl combine thehoney, applesauce, vanilla, and cinnamon. Pour over the oat mixture and toss. Don’t break clumps apart. Pour onto nonstickbaking sheet, spread evenly, and bake for about 25 to 30 minutes, stirring occasionally. Remove when golden brown.Combine almonds, apple pieces, and raisins and stir into hot oat mixture. Cool completely. Store in an airtight container.Yield: 11 half-cup servingsRecipe Analysis (per half cup)Original ModifiedCalories 300 235Fat (g) 11 4Saturated fat (g) 3 1Cholesterol (mg) 0 0Fiber (g) 5 8Sodium (mg) 40 38

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Chapter 5: Preparing Healthful Meals 135Breakfast—Makeover 3Original Meal6 ounces orange juiceSouthwestern scramble2 slices white toast2 tsp butter1 cup 2% milkCoffee2 tsp cream1 tsp sugarMeal analysis: 845 calories, 47 g fat, 25 g saturated fat,540 mg cholesterol, 2 g fiber, 1,400 mg sodiumModified Meal6 ounces orange juiceSouthwestern scramble1 piece cornbread1 Tblsp honey1 cup skim milkChicory-flavored coffeeMeal analysis: 460 calories, 11 g fat, 2 g saturated fat,120 mg cholesterol, 4 g fiber, 600 mg sodiumSOUTHWESTERN SCRAMBLEOriginal Recipe1/2 cup diced lean ham4 whole eggs2/3 cup cheddar cheese, shreddedModified Recipe1/2 cup green and red bell pepper, diced1/4 cup mushrooms, sliced1 whole egg plus 3 egg whites2 Tblsp cheddar cheese, shredded1/2 cup salsaSpray a heavy skillet with cooking spray. Place over medium heat and cook vegetables until tender; remove vegetables and keepwarm. Combine whole egg and egg whites. Pour into skillet and scramble over medium heat until set. Spoon onto plates.Top with cooked vegetables and sprinkle with cheese. Serve with salsa. Yield: 2 servingsRecipe Analysis (per serving)Original ModifiedCalories 410 120Fat (g) 31 6Saturated fat (g) 16 2Cholesterol (mg) 500 114Fiber (g) trace 1Sodium (mg) 940 380

136 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionNoon Meal—Makeover 1Original MealTuna salad sandwich1 ounce (individual bag) potato chips12 ounces colaMeal analysis: 925 calories, 59 g fat, 12 g saturated fat,40 mg cholesterol, 3 g fiber, 970 mg sodiumModified MealCurried tuna salad with pita triangles1/2 cup grapes1 cup skim milkMeal analysis: 300 calories, 2 g fat, trace saturated fat,34 mg cholesterol, 6 g fiber, 415 mg sodiumTUNA SALAD SANDWICH VS CURRIED TUNA SALAD WITH PITA TRIANGLESOriginal Recipe (sandwich)1 can (6 ounces) oil-packed tuna1/2 cup diced celery1 tsp lemon juice1 cup mayonnaise4 lettuce leaves8 slices breadModified Recipe (salad)1 can (6 ounces) water-packed tuna, drained1/2 cup diced celery3/4 cup chopped apple1/4 cup raisins2 Tblsp thinly sliced green onion1 tsp lemon juice1/2 cup fat-free mayonnaise1/2 tsp curry powder1/4 tsp garlic powderdash of cayenne (red) pepper, if desired4 lettuce leaves2 whole-wheat pita bread rounds (about 6-inch diameter)In a small bowl, flake the tuna. Add the celery, apple, raisins, and green onion. In a separate bowl, combine the lemon juice,mayonnaise, and spices. Add the tuna mixture and combine. Serve on lettuce leaves along with pita bread that has been cutinto triangles. Yield: 4 servingsRecipe Analysis (per serving)Original ModifiedCalories 625 165Fat (g) 50 1Saturated fat (g) 10 traceCholesterol (mg) 40 30Fiber (g) 2 5Sodium (mg) 800 288

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Chapter 5: Preparing Healthful Meals 139Noon Meal—Makeover 2Original MealSpinach salad with bacon and mushrooms2 bread sticks1 cup 2% milkMeal analysis: 640 calories, 29 g fat, 6 g saturated fat,25 mg cholesterol, 4 g fiber, 1,460 mg sodiumModified MealCitrus spinach salad with honey yogurt dressing1 slice sourdough bread1 Tblsp honey1 cup skim milkMeal analysis: 425 calories, 3 g fat, 1 g saturated fat,5 mg cholesterol, 7 g fiber, 610 mg sodiumSPINACH SALAD WITH BACON AND MUSHROOMSVSCITRUS SPINACH SALAD WITH HONEY YOGURT DRESSINGOriginal Recipe6 cups spinach leaves6 strips bacon1/2 pound sliced mushrooms3 thin slices sourdough (croutons)2 Tblsp sugar2 Tblsp cider vinegar1/2 cup olive oil2 ounces brandyModified Recipe6 cups spinach leaves1 cup fresh orange segments1 tart apple, thinly sliced1 small red onion, thinly sliced1 cup plain, nonfat yogurt2 Tblsp honeyWash and dry spinach, remove stems. Arrange spinach, orange segments, apple, and onion slices onto plates. In a small bowl,combine the nonfat yogurt and honey. Whisk until smooth. Spoon over salads. Yield: 6 servingsRecipe Analysis (per serving)Original ModifiedCalories 306 110Fat (g) 22 traceSaturated fat (g) 3 traceCholesterol (mg) 5 traceFiber (g) 2 4Sodium (mg) 243 134

140 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionNoon Meal—Makeover 3Original Meal1 cup minestrone soup4 soda crackers2 cups tossed salad2 Tblsp Italian dressing2 chocolate chip cookies1 cup 2% milkModified Meal1 cup minestrone soup6 multigrain crackers1 cup fresh fruit mixed with mint1 cup skim milkMeal analysis: 815 calories, 47 g fat, 15 g saturated fat,65 mg cholesterol, 6 g fiber, 2,095 mg sodiumMeal analysis: 400 calories, 8 g fat, 1 g saturated fat,9 mg cholesterol, 11 g fiber, 534 mg sodiumMINESTRONE SOUPOriginal Recipe3 Tblsp olive oil1/2 cup onion, chopped1/2 cup ham, diced1 carrot, diced1 clove garlic, minced1 quart chicken broth1 can (14 ounces) tomatoes, chopped1/2 cup spinach, chopped1/2 cup canned kidney beans1 cup grated Parmesan cheeseModified Recipe1 Tblsp olive oil1/2 cup onion, chopped1/3 cup celery, diced1 carrot, diced1 clove garlic, minced1 quart defatted, reduced-sodium chicken broth2 large fresh tomatoes, seeded and chopped1/2 cup spinach, chopped1 can (16 ounces) chickpeas or redkidney beans, drained and rinsed1 small zucchini, diced1/2 cup dry small-shell pasta2 Tblsp fresh basil, choppedIn a large saucepan over medium heat, cook the onion, celery, and carrot in the olive oil until softened. Add garlic and continuecooking for another minute. Add broth, tomatoes, spinach, chickpeas or kidney beans, and pasta. Bring to a boil over highheat. Reduce heat and simmer for 10 minutes. Add zucchini. Cover and cook for 5 minutes. Stir in basil and serve.Yield: 4 servingsRecipe Analysis (per serving)Original ModifiedCalories 380 190Fat (g) 22 4Saturated fat (g) 8 traceCholesterol (mg) 33 5Fiber (g) 3 8Sodium (mg) 2,500 400

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Chapter 5: Preparing Healthful Meals 143Evening Meal—Makeover 1Original MealSpaghetti with meatballs2 cups romaine lettuce2 Tblsp Italian dressing1 hard roll1 tsp butter1 cup ice creamHerbal teaMeal analysis: 1,246 calories, 68 g fat, 28 g saturated fat,165 mg cholesterol, 4 g fiber, 1,580 mg sodiumModified MealPasta with marinara sauce and grilled vegetables2 cups romaine lettuce2 Tbsp fat-free Italian dressing1 whole-grain roll (to soak up sauce)Frozen grapes with toasted pecans4 ounces red wineMeal analysis: 355 calories, 15 g fat, 2 g saturated fat,5 mg cholesterol, 10 g fiber, 830 mg sodiumSPAGHETTI WITH MEATBALLSVSPASTA WITH MARINARA SAUCE AND GRILLED VEGETABLESOriginal Recipe1 quart ready-made spaghetti sauce1 pound hamburger1/2 tsp garlic salt1/2 cup onion8-ounce package of spaghettiModified Recipe2 Tblsp olive oil10 large, peeled, diced, fresh tomatoes1 tsp salt1/2 tsp garlic, minced2 Tblsp onion, chopped1 Tblsp fresh basil, chopped (1 tsp dried)1 tsp sugar1/2 tsp oreganoblack pepper, to taste2 red peppers, sliced into chunks1 yellow summer squash, sliced lengthwise1 zucchini, sliced lengthwise1 sweet onion, sliced into 1/4-inch-wide rounds2 bundles fresh garlic, halved8-ounce package of whole-wheat spaghettiHeat oil in a heavy skillet. Add tomatoes, salt, minced garlic, onion, basil, sugar, oregano, and black pepper. Cook slowly,uncovered, for 30 minutes or until sauce is thickened. In the meantime, brush peppers, squashes, onion, and fresh garlicwith oil. Place under broiler and cook, turning frequently until browned and tender. Remove to a covered bowl. Keepwarm. Cook spaghetti according to package directions. Drain well and portion onto plates. Cover with equal amountsof sauce. Top with equal amounts of vegetables. Serve immediately. Yield: 4 servingsRecipe Analysis (per serving)Original ModifiedCalories 535 270Fat (g) 24 6Saturated fat (g) 9 1Cholesterol (mg) 66 0Fiber (g) 1 4Sodium (mg) 1,045 380

144 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionEvening Meal—Makeover 2Original MealFried chicken1 cup white rice1 cup green beans1 dinner roll1 tsp butter1 piece apple pie1 cup 2% milkMeal analysis: 1,455 calories, 55 g fat, 17 g saturated fat,220 mg cholesterol, 7 g fiber, 1,548 mg sodiumModified MealBalsamic roasted chicken1 cup roasted vegetables and fruit (new potatoes, onions, pears)2 cups tossed greens2 Tblsp low-fat red wine vinaigrette1 slice crusty Italian or French bread1 sliced fresh peach sprinkled with nutmeg1 cup skim milkMeal analysis: 810 calories, 27 g fat, 4 g saturated fat,195 mg cholesterol, 9 g fiber, 410 mg sodiumFRIED VS BALSAMIC ROASTED CHICKENOriginal Recipe1 4-pound whole chicken,cut into pieces1/2 cup flour1 tsp salt1/2 tsp cracked pepper1/4 cup vegetable oilModified Recipe1 4-pound whole chicken1 Tblsp fresh rosemary (1 tsp dried)1 garlic clove1 Tblsp olive oilblack pepper4 sprigs fresh rosemary1/4 cup balsamic vinegar1/2 tsp brown sugarPreheat oven to 350° Fahrenheit. Rinse chicken inside and out with cold running water. Dry it with paper towels. Mincetogether the rosemary leaves and garlic. Loosen the skin from the flesh, then rub the flesh with the oil and then the herbmixture. Sprinkle with black pepper. Put two fresh rosemary sprigs into the cavity of the chicken. Truss the chicken. Placeit in a roasting pan and roast for 20 to 25 minutes per pound (about 1 hour and 20 minutes). Baste frequently with pan juices.When browned and juices run clear, transfer the chicken to a serving platter. In a small saucepan, combine the vinegar andthe brown sugar. Heat until warm—do not boil. Carve the chicken (remove skin). Top it with the vinegar mixture. Garnishwith remaining rosemary. Yield: 4 servingsRecipe Analysis (per serving)Original ModifiedCalories 603 432Fat (g) 31 16Saturated fat (g) 7 3Cholesterol (mg) 192 192Fiber (g) 0 0Sodium (mg) 693 163

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Chapter 5: Preparing Healthful Meals 147Evening Meal—Makeover 3Original Meal8-ounce grilled steak1 medium baked potato2 Tblsp sour cream1 cup green peas and onions1 dinner roll1 tsp butter1 piece frosted devils’ food cakeCoffee—regular or decaffeinatedMeal analysis: 1,480 calories, 64 g fat, 32 g saturated fat,230 mg cholesterol, 5 g fiber, 1,203 mg sodiumModified MealSteak with steamed vegetablesand soba noodles1 seven-grain roll1 Tblsp honey1 star fruit, sliced over 1/2 cup sherbet2 fortune cookiesGreen teaMeal analysis: 900 calories, 24 g fat, 9 g saturated fat,70 mg cholesterol, 14 g fiber, 1,040 mg sodiumGRILLED STEAKVSSTEAK WITH STEAMED VEGETABLES, SOBA NOODLES, AND GINGER SAUCEOriginal Recipe4 8-ounce steaks8 Tblsp steak sauceModified Recipe1 12-ounce loin steak1/2 pound soba noodles2 cups fresh asparagus cut into 1-inch segments2 cups broccoli floretsSauce1/2 cup reduced-sodium soy sauce1/3 cup rice wine vinegar1 Tblsp sesame oil1 1/2-inch piece fresh ginger, peeled, grated1 tsp sugarcracked black pepper, to tasteCook steak —grill, broil, or fry in a non-stick pan until medium rare. Set aside on covered platter to keep warm. Cooksoba noodles according to package directions. While noodles are cooking, steam the vegetables until tender crisp. Combinesauce ingredients, heat through. Drain soba noodles, rinse, and redrain. Toss vegetables with the noodles. Place onto plates.Slice steak across grain into thin strips. Arrange on top of vegetables and noodles. Top with sauce. Serve immediately.Yield: 4 servingsRecipe Analysis (per serving)Original ModifiedCalories 790 495Fat (g) 44 19Saturated fat (g) 22 8Cholesterol (mg) 175 58Fiber (g) 0 58Sodium (mg) 900 775

148 Part I: A Guide to Healthy NutritionFOOD SAFETYYou have learned how to select healthful foods, to modifyrecipes appropriately, and to make attractive and goodtastingmeals. The final step is to ensure that the food youserve is safe to eat.Bacteria in the KitchenApproximately 7 million cases of food poisoning are reportedevery year in the United States. Many other cases are mistakenfor stomach flu or some other infection and thereforeare never reported. Food poisoning can be a serious andpotentially fatal illness. Fortunately, such severe cases arerare. Bacterial contamination of food can occur if food ishandled improperly. Thus, food safety is of paramountimportance.Kitchens are replete with chances for passing along thebacteria (germs) that cause food poisoning. It is the responsibilityof the person preparing the meal to make certain thatfoods and utensils are washed properly. Unclean kitchenutensils can promote food poisoning by growing unwelcomebacteria (see sidebar: Sources of Bacteria, below).BACTERIA SOURCECutting boardsSponges, dish cloths,and towelsKnives and utensilsCountertopsSOURCES OF BACTERIASOLUTIONKeep two on hand—one formeat and the other for produceor breads*Change and wash frequentlyUse separate knives and utensilsfor raw and cooked foods.Wash all utensils with hot waterand soapWash frequently with soap andhot water, particularly afterworking with meat, poultry,and fish*A simple cleaning solution that helps to keep bacteriain check is to mix 1 tablespoon of bleach to 1 gallon ofwater. Generously spray the surface and let it stand forseveral minutes. Rinse and dry with a clean towel.Hand WashingSometimes in the rush to prepare meals, it is easy to overlookone of the simplest and most important rules in foodpreparation: wash your hands before handling any food.Bacteria tend to accumulate on your hands, especiallyaround the cuticles and under the fingernails. To actuallykill the bacteria, it would take water so hot that it wouldharm your skin. At least 10 seconds of vigorous rubbingwith soap or detergent and warm water is required to ridyour hands of germs. You also should wash your handsduring meal preparation if they become contaminated bythe food you are handling.Cross-ContaminationCross-contamination can lead to food poisoning. Ifuncooked food has been on a plate or cutting board, thatplate or cutting board could transfer a potentially infectiousagent to any other food that comes in contact with it.Therefore, always use separate utensils, plates, and cuttingboards for raw and cooked foods.Ensuring Food SafetyFood safety begins as soon as you purchase the food. Ideally,perishable foods should be promptly taken home andimmediately refrigerated or frozen. However, if you needto make a stop before reaching home, plan to store meat,fish, poultry, and dairy products in a cooler on ice. Alwaysobserve the refrigeration recommendations on packagedfoods. To decrease the total amount of bacteria found onraw chicken and other poultry, thoroughly rinse, insideand out, under cold water. After a complete rinse, use hotwater and soap to wash out the sink. Before freezing meat,poultry, or fish, divide it into the portion size that you willneed to prepare one meal. When you need to cool a foodthat you have cooked, quickly transfer it to a shallowcontainer. Cover it and refrigerate it immediately. Bacteriathrive at temperatures between 40° and 140° Fahrenheit,potentially doubling in number every 20 to 30 minutes.Therefore, the most important food safety rule in thekitchen is: Keep hot foods hot and cold foods cold.Defrosting FoodThaw poultry, fish, and meat in the refrigerator. Defrostingat room temperature promotes thawing on the outsidewhile the core remains frozen. The soft outer portion providesa fertile site for bacterial growth. Instead, put frozenfood in the refrigerator (which is cool but above freezing)

Chapter 5: Preparing Healthful Meals 1491 or 2 days before it is to be used. For faster thawing, runcold water over the item or use a microwave for quickdefrosting.Marinade SavvyMarinate poultry, seafood, and meat in the refrigerator. Toplay it safe, set some of the marinade aside (to use for bastingor as a sauce at the table) before adding it to the raw meat.Avoid using the liquid that the raw meat has been marinatingin for basting. If you do, discontinue basting at least 15minutes before the meat is done so that the marinade canbe heated to a high enough temperature to kill any bacteriathat may be present. Do not use the leftover marinade asa sauce unless it has not come in contact with the raw meator you have boiled it for at least 5 minutes.Cooking FoodAlways be sure to cook recipes at the appropriate temperature.Cooking foods to an internal temperature of at least160° Fahrenheit kills most dangerous bacteria. Uncookedor undercooked meat can harbor pathogens such as thenotorious E. coli bacteria (see sidebar: Cooking It Safe,this page).Using Slow CookersUsing a slow cooker is a popular way of preparing soups,stews, roasts, and other hearty dishes. Because this devicecooks at relatively low temperatures—compared with theoven or stovetop—it is vital to exercise safe cooking habits.For example, thaw meat thoroughly and cut it into smallpieces. Use recipes that call for plenty of liquid. Bring toa boil quickly and then reduce heat to simmer. Do notoverfill the cooker. Be sure to use a thermometer to makecertain the temperature stays at 160° Fahrenheit or higher.SERVING SAFELYAfter taking care to prepare and cook food as safely aspossible, don’t contaminate it while it is being served. Hereare a few tips. Avoid letting cooked foods cool on the table.Do not allow foods that contain perishable ingredients(such as raw eggs, homemade sauces, eggnog, or homemadeCaesar dressing) to remain at room temperature forlonger than a few minutes. Once finished serving, alwayspromptly place cooked or perishable foods in the refrigeratoror freezer. At a picnic or party, keep cold foods onice and hot foods properly heated.TYPE OF FOODDishes, serving bowls, or other items made of glazedlead-containing pottery can cause poisoning, particularlyin young children. Make sure that the container that isused for cooking and serving is properly glazed (manufactureby a domestic pottery dealer should ensure this). If indoubt, use the pottery for decoration rather than for cookingor serving food.REFRIGERATING OR FREEZING FOODIf warm or hot food is headed for storage in the refrigeratoror freezer, do not allow it to cool on the countertop. Placewarm or hot food into a shallow pan to facilitate cooling andthen put it directly into the refrigerator or freezer. If thequantity of food is large, distribute it in two or morecontainers to enable quicker cooling.CLEAN ITCOOKING IT SAFETEMPERATURE(DEGREES FAHRENHEIT)Fish and seafood 145Red meat or pork(including ground) 160Ground chicken or turkey 165Poultry—breast 170Whole poultry and thighs 180EggsCook until egg white andyolk are firm, not runnyWhen you have finished eating, thoroughly wash pots andpans, utensils, and all kitchen surfaces (counter, stove tops,and sink) with soap and hot water. Let cutting boards andutensils air dry. Wash or replace sponges and dish towelsfrequently. If you have an automatic dishwasher, it may behelpful to have two sponges so you can wash one with eachload of dishes.THE BOTTOM LINE ON FOOD SAFETYWith a little care, you can minimize the risk that you orothers will develop a food-borne illness.

ENCYCLOPEDIAOFFOODS

P a r t I IPart I of this book reviewed the relationship of diet to health and provided recommendationsfor choosing foods and planning diets that contribute to health. The healthiestdiets are based on a variety of plant foods—whole grains, vegetables, fruits, legumes, andnuts. Animal products and added fats and oils, sugars, and other sweeteners are best consumedin small quantities. The Food Guide Pyramid reviewed earlier in this book graphicallyemphasizes the proportions of these foods in the daily diet. Accordingly, we have arrangedthis section with priority given to grains, fruits, and vegetables—those items that shouldpredominate at every meal and that most people need to consume in greater quantities.Animal products—meat and other high-protein foods and dairy foods—are also discussed.However, these are the foods that should make up relatively smaller parts of our diets.Part II introduces you to many foods from which you can choose and provides you withknowledge about the nutrients these foods have to offer. In addition, we provide informationabout the sources of the foods you purchase and eat—the individual plants and animals,how they are processed to the products that appear on store shelves, and some of the historyof these foods in our diet.Before we introduce the foods themselves, we want to explain the arrangement andpresentation of food items in these sections. Because this book is written for a North Americanaudience, we have included food products that are available to most North Americans.Within the sections on Fruits and Vegetables, we have listed items by their common namesin alphabetical order; when a food has more than one common name, the index should helpin locating the item. Where there is a difference between the cultural or common use orperception of an item and its botanical nature, we have listed it according to common usageand mentioned the difference in the text. For example, although cucumbers, eggplant,squash, and tomatoes are botanically fruits, they are listed withinthe vegetable section, because most American consumersthink of them as vegetables.The nutrient compositions of foods are derivedfrom the current version of the U.S. Departmentof Agriculture (USDA) nutrient compositiondatabase. This database is maintained and updatedregularly by USDA laboratories and is the basis ofmost systems for estimating the nutrient contentof foods and diets.151

152 Part II: Encyclopedia of Foods

153FruitsOur earliest ancestors built their diets entirely of vegetables, fruits, seeds, grains, legumes, andnuts. Throughout history, “fruit” has referred to any plant used as a food. More recently,“fruit” has come to mean the edible pulp or fleshy layer around a seed. In the 18th century, theword acquired a botanical definition: the organ derived from the ovary and surrounding theseed. At the same time, culinary custom defined fruits by their sweetness (or the balance of sweetto sour) and by how they are used in the meal, primarily as dessert. Thus, even though eggplant,cucumber, squash, and tomatoes are technically fruits, we call them vegetables.Until recently, the availability of a fruit during the year depended on its growing season. Forexample, strawberries appeared in April and May, melons in August and September, whereassome fruits, such as apples and bananas, were available year-round. Today, reliable transportationbrings fruit of every type to our markets year-round, although some imported fruits may bemore costly during the winter than their domestic counterparts are in the summer when theyare in season.The revised Dietary Guidelines for Americans includes as 1 of its 10 principles the advice toeat a variety of fruits (and vegetables) daily. (For a discussion of the Dietary Guidelines and the5 a Day program, see Chapter 1, page 8.)To help you to be better informed and better plan your menus, this section provides informationon the origin and nutrient content of many fruits. [(See the Appendix, page 434, for furtherinformation about the nutrient content of fruits.)] Fruit is a valuable source of fiber, vitaminC, some of the B vitamins, vitamin A, and other antioxidants and phytonutrients. (See theAppendix, Phytochemical Contents of Selected Foods, page 484).The tables of nutrient values in the Fruits section are based on serving sizes specified by theU.S. Department of Agriculture Food Guide Pyramid. Nutrient values are rounded (milligramsand micrograms tend to be rounded to one decimal point, grams are rounded to whole numbers).Nutrient claim statements listed beneath the common name of each fruit are based on the servingsize specified and the definitions in Chapter 4 (see sidebar: Nutrient Claims, page 92). Forexample, 1 medium apple is considered a good source of vitamin C, because an apple provides 13percent of the Daily Value for vitamin C. A food that is high in a particular nutrient provides 20percent or more of the Daily Value for that nutrient per serving.

154 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsAcerolaAcerolas are round or oval, cherry-like fruits that range from 2 to 4 inches indiameter. When ripe, the skin turns bright red. The soft, juicy flesh is yellowand has a slightly tart flavor.Family MalpighiaceaeScientific name Malpighia punicifolia L.,Malpighia glabra L.Common name Barbados cherry, WestIndian cherry, cereza♥ High in vitamin C♥ A good source of vitamin A(beta-carotene)Nutrient compositionAcerolas contain the most concentratedsource of natural vitamin C of any knownfruit, 100 times the vitamin C contentof oranges and 10 times that of the guava.Green (unripe) fruits have twice the vitaminC content of ripe fruits. They arealso a good source of vitamin A (betacarotene).VarietiesThe Florida Sweet variety, commonlygrown in California, yields large, juicyfruits that have a taste similar to apples.Manoa Sweet, a variety developed inHawaii, has orange-red fruits that are especiallysweet. A dwarf variety, which growsto a height of only 2 feet, can tolerate lowertemperatures than the other varieties andis suited for container cultivation.Origin & botanical factsThe acerola is believed to have originatedin the Yucatán peninsula of Mexico.Since its discovery, the plant has beenintroduced throughout the tropical andsubtropical regions of the world, but it isstill primarily grown in and around theWest Indies.The acerola is a large, bushy shrub thatcan attain a height of 15 feet. Althoughthe plant grows best in hot tropical lowlandswith medium to high rainfall, it isalso very drought-tolerant. Acerolas needprotection against frost and winds becausetheir root system is shallow and they canbe toppled by high winds. The leaves arecovered with hair, are light to dark green,and become glossy when mature. Thesmall, white to pink flowers bloomthroughout the year. Because up to 90percent of the blossoms fall from theplant, only a few of the flowers set fruit.When grown from seed, plants begin tofruit after 2 or 3 years. An 8-year-old treemay yield 30 to 60 pounds of fruit a year.UsesBecause acerolas deteriorate quickly andundergo rapid fermentation once removedfrom the tree, they should be refrigeratedif not used immediately. Unrefrigeratedfruits can develop mold within 3 to 5days. Acerolas can be eaten raw, madeinto jams and jellies, or puréed into juice.They have been used as a supplementalsource of vitamin C, to make baby food,and as an ingredient in ice cream.SERVINGSIZE:1 cupNutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 31Water (%) 91Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 8Protein (grams) 0Minerals (mg)Calcium 12Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese –Potassium 143Magnesium 18Phosphorus 11Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A75 REVitamin C 1,644Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0.1Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate14 μgVitamin E 0Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

Fruits 155AppleThe apple is a pome, a round fruit that consists of firm, juicy flesh covered by athin, tough, edible skin and surrounding a cartilaginous, seeded core. The skincolor of apples can range from dark green to yellow to bright red, or somecombination of these colors. Apples that arejust ripe are crisp and juicy, whereasthose that are overripe attainan aromatic flavor and aslightly mealy texture.Family RosaceaeScientific name Malus pumila,Malus sylvestris, Pyrus malusCommon name apple♥ Good source of pectin, a soluble fiberthat helps reduce blood cholesterol♥ A good source of vitamin CVarietiesThousands of varieties of apples are grownworldwide. As a result, apples are availablein a seemingly endless array of colors,crispness, texture, size, sweetness, and aroma.Some of the more popular varieties in theU.S. marketplace are the Red and GoldenDelicious, Granny Smith, Fuji, Gala, andRome Beauty.Origin & botanical factsThe apple is native to Asia and easternEurope. The earliest recorded descriptionof apples appears in Greek literatureof the 4th century B.C. The first applescultivated in the New World were grownfrom seed brought by the Pilgrims.Today, the leading apple-producingnations are Russia, China, the UnitedStates, Germany, France, and Italy. Inthe United States, nearly half the domesticcrop is grown in Washington, and NewYork, California, Michigan, Pennsylvania,North Carolina, and Virginia produce formuch of the rest of the domestic market.Apples can grow virtually anywherewith a moderate climate, although somevarieties are better suited to a particularregion. Because fruit-bearing seasons varyby variety and region, apples are availableall year. Standard-sized trees reach aheight and spread of 25 feet and require5 to 10 years to fruit. Recently, dwarfand semidwarf trees have emerged; theserequire as few as 2 years to bear fruit.UsesWhen selecting apples, choose those withfirm flesh and tight skin that is free ofbruises, soft spots, and holes. Largerapples tend to be more mealy than smallones. To ripen apples, keep them at roomtemperature. Apples store well for longperiods refrigerated or in a cool, dry place.Sliced apples quickly turn brown on exposureto air; however, this can be preventedby dipping the fruit into acidulatedwater (dilute lemon juice).As one of the most popular fruits inthe United States, apples are widespreadin the American cuisine. They are usedin salads, alongside meats, and in pilafs,desserts, preserves, juices, cider, pies,breads, cakes, and alcoholic beverages(such as the liqueur calvados). Driedapples make tasty snacks or additions tobreakfast cereal. Characteristics of flavorand texture determine the optimal varietiesfor each use. Crisp, crunchy, juicy, sweetor sweet-tart apples such as the GrannySmith, Fuji, Gala, or Red Delicious arebest for eating. In general, firm-fleshed,tart apples such as the Golden Deliciousand Rome Beauty are best for bakingwhole. Tart or slightly sour varieties aregood for pies and applesauce.Nutrient compositionA medium-sized fresh apple is a goodsource of vitamin C; however, most ofthe vitamin C is lost when the apple iscooked or made into juice.Apples are a good source of dietaryfiber in the form of pectin.SERVINGSIZE: 1 medium (138 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 81Water (%) 84Dietary fiber (grams) 4Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 21Protein (grams) 0Minerals (mg)Calcium 10Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 159Magnesium 7Phosphorus 10Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A7 REVitamin C 8Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0.1Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate4 μgVitamin E 0

156 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsApricotThe apricot is a round, fleshy fruit that is closely related to the peach, plum,almond, and cherry. It has a single seed enclosedin a stony shell. The edible, pale-orange skinis smooth and velvety. The fleshis drier than that of mostother fruits.Family RosaceaeScientific name Prunus armeniacaCommon name apricot♥ Good source of vitamin C♥ High in vitamin A (beta-carotene)VarietiesApproximately 12 varieties of apricotsexist, with flesh that varies from yellowto deep orange. Some of the betterknown varieties are the Blenheim, theTilton, the Patterson, and the Castlebrite.Origin & botanical factsThe world’s leading producers of apricotsare Turkey, Italy, Russia, and Greece.Ninety percent of the U.S. domesticmarket is supplied by growers inCalifornia; Utah and Washington supplythe rest. During the off-season, apricotsare imported from Chile and NewZealand. Apricot trees grow to about 20feet in height and spread to a width of 30feet. The white or pink flowers appear inearly spring and give way to fruits in latesummer. Because of this early flowering,apricot yield may be limited by late froststhat kill the flowers. The domestic cropis available from mid-May to mid-August,and imports arrive in December andJanuary.UsesApricots are best when purchased ripe orslightly underripe and allowed to ripenin a paper bag. Green-tinged fruits willnot ripen properly and should be avoided.Ripe apricots can be stored in the refrigeratorup to a week, but apricots that aresoft and juicy should be eaten within aday or two of purchase. Apricots shouldbe washed just before they are eaten.They are excellent eaten out of hand orused in any recipe that calls for peaches ornectarines. Apricots should not becooked for an extended time because theytend to lose their flavor rather quickly;poaching is an ideal cooking method.Dried apricots are a convenient, nonperishablesnack.Nutrient compositionFresh apricots are high in vitamin A (betacarotene)and are a good source of vitaminC. (See the Appendix, page 434, forthe nutrient content of dried apricots.)SERVINGSIZE:2, raw (70 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 34Water (%) 86Dietary fiber (grams) 2Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 8Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 10Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 207Magnesium 6Phosphorus 13Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A183 REVitamin C 7Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate6 μgVitamin E 1

Fruits 157AvocadoThe avocado is a pear-shaped fruit with skin that can be thick or thin, greenor purplish black, and smooth or bumpy, dependingon the variety. The flesh of the avocado is paleyellow-green and has the consistency of firmbutter and a faint nut-like flavor.Family LauraceaeScientific name Persea americanaCommon name avocado, alligator pear♥ Rich source of monounsaturated fat♥ Good source of fiberVarietiesThe two most commonly sold varietiesof avocados in the United States are theHass and Fuerte, both grown in California.The Guatemalan Hass avocado, the mostpopular variety, has a thick, pebble-texturedand purplish skin and usuallyweighs no more than 12 ounces. TheFuerte avocado, a Guatemalan-Mexicanhybrid, has a more pronounced pearshape and is slightly larger than the Hass.It has a shiny, thin, dark-green skin withsmall, raised, pale spots. Florida-grownvarieties, which are Mexican in origin andinclude the Booth, Waldin, and Lula, arelarger, less costly, and more perishablethan California avocados. In addition,they contain less fat and fewer caloriesand lack the rich, creamy flavor of theCalifornia varieties.Origin & botanical factsThe avocado, native to the tropics and subtropicsof Central America, was first cultivatedin the United States in the mid-1800s in Florida and California. Ninetypercent of today’s domestic crop of avocadosis grown in California. With a harvestof 168,000 tons, the United States isthe second-largest grower of avocados inthe world, behind Mexico at 718,000 tons.The avocado tree, a popular shade treein rural and suburban Hawaii, California,and Florida, is a dense evergreen that mayreach a height of 80 feet.Avocados do not ripen on the tree;ripening is inhibited by hormones producedby the leaves. This delay in ripeningis a commercial advantage becausethe fruit may be left unharvested for longperiods (up to 7 months). However, overripeavocados may seed internally andbecome moldy.UsesAvocados that are unblemished and heavyfor their size are best. Ripe avocados yieldslightly to finger pressure, but if the fingerleaves a dent, the avocado may be overripe.Ripening can be hastened by enclosingthe fruit in a paper bag and leaving atroom temperature. Ripe avocados shouldbe refrigerated and used within 1 to 2 days.Because cooking destroys the flavorof avocados, it is not recommended.Fresh avocados can be sliced and addedto cooked dishes just before serving. Theycan be diced and mixed into salads,mashed to use in toppings or dips, puréedto use in cold soups and desserts, orjulienned to include in sushi rolls. Whenexposed to air, avocado flesh discolorsquickly. Addition of lemon or lime juiceto mashed or puréed avocados can delaydiscoloration. Placing an avocado pit ina bowl of mashed avocados will notprevent discoloration.Nutrient compositionAvocados are known for their high fatcontent; however, most is monounsaturatedfat. They are low in saturated fat and aresodium- and cholesterol-free. Avocados area good source of dietary fiber. They alsocontain lutein, one of the carotenes that is aphytochemical with antioxidant properties.SERVINGSIZE:1 medium (200 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 324Water (%) 74Dietary fiber (grams) 10Fat (grams) 31Carbohydrate (grams) 15Protein (grams) 4Minerals (mg)Calcium 22Iron 2Zinc 1Manganese –Potassium 1,204Magnesium 78Phosphorus 82Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A123 REVitamin C 16Thiamin 0.2Riboflavin 0.2Niacin 3.8Vitamin B 6 0.5Folate124 μgVitamin E 3Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

158 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsBananaThe banana is an elongated, curved, tropical fruit with a smooth outer skinthat peels off easily when the fruit is ripe. Bananas are harvested whilestill green but may be ripened under controlled conditions beforebeing delivered to the grocery store. Yellow bananas are fullyripe when the skin has small flecks of brown. The fleshof the ripe banana has a distinctcreamy texture and sweetfragrance.Family MusaceaeScientific name Musa paradisiaca L.Common name banana, plantain♥ High in vitamin B 6♥ A good source of vitamin C,potassium, and fiberVarietiesThe familiar yellow banana sold in theUnited States is the Cavendish variety,which is 5 to 10 inches in length andavailable all year. Red bananas from LatinAmerica are slightly wider and are heavierand sweeter than yellow bananas. Theirred skin turns purple when ripe. Manzanobananas (also called finger or applebananas) are short and chubby with amild, strawberry-apple flavor. They turnfully black when ripe. Plantains (also calledgreen or cooking bananas), thick-skinnedbananas that range from green to yellowto brown-black, are a staple food in manyparts of the world. When unripe plantainsare cooked, they have no bananaflavor; however, when cooked ripe, theyhave a sweet banana taste and a slightlychewy texture.Origin & botanical factsOriginating in the Malaysian region about4,000 years ago, the banana was not introducedto the Americas until the PhiladelphiaCentennial Exhibition of 1876. Today, thebanana is the leading fresh fruit sold inthe United States and the second leadingfruit crop in the world. The United Statesgrows about 4,000 tons of bananas annuallyand imports a total of 1.6 million tonsannually from South America. Worldwide,India is the largest banana grower, followedby Africa, where bananas are mostly keptfor local use.A banana tree is technically not a tree,but rather a tree-like herb that belongs tothe grass family. It can attain a height of10 to 40 feet when fully grown. The bananais actually a berry that has been cultivatedto have no seeds. The non-woody bananastalk develops a flowering stem and sevento nine buds that each sustain one cluster(hand) of 10 to 20 bananas (fingers). Thestalks are cut after producing the fruit, andnew stems grow from buds in the rootstock.UsesRipening of green bananas can be hastenedby putting the fruit into a paper bag. Ripebananas can be stored in the refrigeratorfor up to 2 weeks; although the skin turnsdark brown, the fruit remains edible.Unripe bananas should not be refrigerated.Bananas become sweeter as theyripen (as most of the starch converts tosugar) and are most often consumed rawor in desserts such as puddings, pies, andsweet breads. Banana slices should bedipped into acidulated water (dilutelemon juice) to prevent browning.Puréed banana can be added to pancakebatter. Because they are rich in tannins,plantains are bitter and must be cookedto be palatable.Nutrient compositionBananas are high in vitamin B 6 and are agood source of vitamin C, potassium, andfiber. Red bananas and plantains are goodsources of vitamin A. (See the Appendix,page 436, for the nutrient content ofplantains.)SERVINGSIZE:1 medium, raw (118 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 109Water (%) 74Dietary fiber (grams) 3Fat (grams) 1Carbohydrate (grams) 28Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 7Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 467Magnesium 34Phosphorus 24Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A9 REVitamin C 11Thiamin 0.1Riboflavin 0.1Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0.7Folate23 μgVitamin E 0

Fruits 159BerriesBerry is a general term for fruits that are usually small, rounded, andpulpy with seeds embedded in a juicy flesh. The term is loosely appliedto a range of fruits belonging to vastly diverse botanical families. Asidefrom the more popular berries such as the blackberry, blueberry,cranberry, currant, raspberry, and strawberry, there are a host ofless common species, each with its own distinctive shape, color,fragrance, and taste. Berries were a staple in the diets ofour hunting-and-gathering ancestors and still play animportant role in the culinary traditions of manypeoples around the world. American Indians usedvarious types of berries as food, medicine, dyes, and foodpreservatives. Early American settlers developed a taste forthe many varieties growing wild in woods and fields of NorthAmerica, and they learned to use the berries for food and medicine.Research has shown that several berries have medicinal properties.(Cranberries and blueberries help prevent urinary tract infections.)Most berries contain generous amounts of vitamin C, and someare a good source of fiber because of the skin and seeds.BlackberryFamily RosaceaeScientific name Rubus fructicosus(European), Rubus villosus (American)Common name blackberry, bramble berry,dewberry, goutberryAlso called bramble berries because theygrow on thorny bushes (brambles), blackberriesrange from one-half to an inchlong when mature and are purplish black.Like raspberries, to which they are related,blackberries are oblong and are made upof small edible seeds that are encased injuicy globules adjoining a fleshy base.The most common varieties of blackberryare the Cherokee (a sweet variety) andthe Marion (a tart variety). Boysenberries,loganberries, ollalaberries, sylvanberries,and tayberries are hybrids of blackberriesand raspberries.Blackberries are found throughoutthe temperate zones of the world, growingwild in meadows and at the edge of forests.The bushes flower in spring and bear fruitthroughout the summer. Borne in looseclusters on stems that grow from thecanes, the berries change from green tored and then to purplish black as theyripen. Blackberry bushes are so vigorouslyinvasive that they are considered aweed in some areas.Plump, deeply colored blackberriesare the most delicious to eat, and immaturered berries are tart. Blackberries are bestused immediately, because they spoilquickly. They can be lightly covered andrefrigerated for 1 to 2 days. Blackberries canbe eaten fresh; used as a topping foryogurt, ice cream, and pancakes; tossedinto a fruit salad; puréed to make a dessertsauce; or made into blackberry pie. About98 percent of commercially producedberries are processed into jams, fillings,juices, wines, and brandies.Blackberries are high in vitamin C, area good source of dietary fiber, and containellagic acid, a phytochemical that may helpprevent cancer.BlueberryFamily EricaceaeScientific name Vaccinium myrtillisCommon name blueberryBlueberries, a species native to NorthAmerica, grow in shades varying from lightblue to dark purple. Round to oval, theberries have a smooth skin that is somewhatwaxy and covered with a powdery silver film

160 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsBerriesor “bloom.” Blueberries were once calledstar berries because of the star-shaped calyxon the top of each fruit. Cultivated blueberriescan be as large as 3/4 inch in diameter,although the “wild” varieties are only1/4 to 1/2 inch in diameter.At least 50 species of blueberries, bothcultivated and wild, have been identified.The two types of cultivated blueberries arehighbrush and rabbiteye. Highbrushblueberries, V. corymbosum L., are grownthroughout North America, whereas therabbiteye varieties, V. ashei Reade, are betteradapted to southern regions of the UnitedStates. Lowbush (wild) blueberries, V.angustifolium Ait., grow naturally in Maine,Nova Scotia, and Quebec. These plantsproduce blueberries that are prized for theirintense flavor. The lowbush (wild) blueberryvarieties grow to about 3 feet inheight, whereas the highbush and rabbiteyecultivars can grow to more than 10 feet ifnot pruned. The desirable flavor, color,and texture of today’s cultivars are the resultof nearly 100 years of hybridization.Blueberries have been used as a sourceof food and folk medicine for thousands ofyears. Early explorers of North America,such as Lewis and Clark, noted thatAmerican Indians smoked the berries to preservethem for winter and pounded theberries with beef to make a jerky called pemmican.Blueberries were also appreciatedby the early American settlers as both a foodand a medicine.The blueberry plant is a compact,woody shrub that is related to the bilberry,cranberry, and huckleberry. Blueberriesgrow in clusters, but because the berriesripen at different times, they must behandpicked to harvest the best of the earlyfruit. Later, a harvesting machine is usedto gently shake each bush so that only theripe berries fall off. The blueberry seasonlasts only from mid-April to lateSeptember, beginning in the southernstates and moving north as the seasonprogresses. The berries are very perishableand easily damaged by improper handlingand extreme temperatures.Blueberries are one of the most popularberries in the United States, secondonly to strawberries. They can be eatendried or fresh as a snack food; added tocereals, salads, yogurt, or ice cream; usedas an ingredient in pancakes, muffins,pies, breads, or sauces or as cake topping;or puréed to make jam or jelly. Althoughthe blueberry season is short, berries canbe bought in the off-season in frozen,canned, or dried form.Blueberries are a good source ofvitamin C.Recent research has shown that blueberriesmay help prevent urinary tractinfection by increasing the acidity ofurine, which helps destroy bacteria, andby preventing bacteria from colonizingon the bladder walls.CranberryFamily EricaceaeScientific name Vaccinium macrocarpon,Vaccinium oxycoccusCommon name cranberry, bounceberry,lingonberryCranberries, which are native to NorthAmerica, are small, smooth-skinned, roundberries that are glossy deep red to red-maroon. About one-third of an inch indiameter and half-inch to an inch long, thecranberry has seeds that are attached to thecenter of the fruit and are surrounded by atart white pulp. Also called bounceberries,because they bounce when ripe, cranberriesbelong to the same family as blueberriesand huckleberries; but unlike these fruits,cranberries are too tart to eat raw.Cranberries are divided into threetypes. The most common is the largeVaccinium macrocarpon, grown for commercialpurposes. Vaccinium oxycoccus,commonly called the mossberry or smallcranberry, is found wild in some areas.Vaccinium vitis-idaea, or the lingonberry,grows well in very cold climates and iscurrently being developed as a crop inseveral eastern European countries.Cranberries grow on a flat, woody,evergreen “vine” that thrives in acidic soil.Cranberry vines are planted in peat bogsprepared in a way that allows the plantsto be covered with water to protect themfrom cold damage. The pink or purplecranberry flowers can be self-pollinated,but crop yield is much greater when beesare used to facilitate pollination. Theberries are borne on short uprights 6 to 8inches in length that rise from a densemass of stems on the soil surface.Cranberries are extensively cultivatedfor commercial use in the northern states.Massachusetts is the largest producer,followed by Wisconsin, New Jersey,Washington, and Oregon. Cranberrycultivation is also common throughoutCanada. Harvested between Labor Dayand Halloween, cranberries enjoy theirpeak market season from Octoberthrough December.The Pilgrims dined on cranberrydishes at the first Thanksgiving in 1621.Once only a traditional holiday food,cranberries are now consumed throughoutthe year as juice drinks, dried snacks,sauces, and relishes. Because of their sour

Fruits 161taste, they must be combined with sweetfoods such as sugar or orange juice tomake them palatable. Only about 10 percentof the commercial crop is sold fresh;the rest is processed into juice or cannedcranberry sauce.Cranberry juice cocktail is consideredeffective for preventing or treating urinarytract infections, in part because of its highacidity and its ability to inhibit bacteriafrom adhering to the lining of the urinarytract.Fresh cranberries are a good source ofvitamin C. In addition, they contain bioflavonoids,plant pigments with antioxidantproperties.CurrantFamily SaxifragaceaeScientific name Ribes rubrum, Ribesvulgare, Ribes petraeum, Ribes sativum,Ribes nigrum, Ribes ussurienseCommon name currant (red, pink, white,black, and Asian)Currants are small, spherical berries withthin, translucent skin that can be red, pink,white, or black. They have a soft, juicypulp that contains several edible seeds.The flavor of currants varies from slightlyto exceedingly tart. True currants are notto be confused with the zante currant, avariety of small, dried grape (raisin).Currants are categorized by theircolor. Common red currants include theRed Lake, a mild-flavored, bright-redberry, and the Perfection, a medium tolarge, flavorful variety. The WhiteImperial, a small, round, white berry thatgrows on a spreading bush, has the lowestacid content of any currant. The mostcommon pink currant is the Gloire desSablons, an ancient French variety withpink flesh and colorless skin. TheBoskoop is a well-flavored black currant,produced on a vigorous, upright bush. TheWilloughby is a mild, black Canadiancurrant that is hardy to cold and sun andresists mildew.Currants appear to have originated innorthern Europe, northern Africa, Siberia,and in the Western Hemisphere, wherethey were eaten by American Indians wellbefore their first contact with Europeans.American Indians historically have usedcurrants for both food and medicinalpurposes. The Coast Salish Indians ofVancouver Island boiled the fruit and driedit into rectangular cakes for use as a winterfood. The Woodlands Cree Indiansused currant jam as a condiment for fish,meat, and bread. Before 1550, the Englishcalled this fruit ribes, a name of ancientIndo-European origin. Subsequently, theberries came to be called currants, a wordderived from the berry’s resemblance tothe dried Greek raisins that are made fromsmall seedless grapes. English andEuropean colonists in the Americas foundcurrants growing wild in woods and fieldsand quickly developed a taste for them.Today, currants are commonly cultivatedin Europe, Canada, New Zealand, and theUnited States. Europeans and Canadiansseem to prefer black currants, and the lesstart red and white varieties are more popularamong Americans.Currant plants are fast-growing,deciduous, perennial shrubs that canreach 5 feet in height and width. Theirleaves resemble those of the maple treein shape, but they are pale green on blackcurrant bushes and dark blue-green onred currant plants. Some varieties areupright, and others spread. The selffertilizingflowers that give rise to redcurrants are green, and those thatproduce black currants are pink. Plantsare generally pollinated by insects. Theberries, averaging about a fourth of aninch in diameter, hang in clusters fromdelicate, drooping stems called strigs.Currants prefer cold climates, heavy,moist, enriched soil, and full sun or lightshade. Although they can be propagatedby seed in the spring or by cuttings inthe early fall, bushes grown from seedproduce no fruit for 2 to 3 years.Pruning to remove wood that is morethan 3 years old encourages the growthof new shoots.Black currants are harvested selectivelyas they ripen and before they shrivel andfall from the bush. Red and white currantsare pulled by the cluster to avoiddamaging the delicate fruit. If the berriesare going to be used for jams or jellies,they must be picked before they ripenfully because that is when the fruit pectinlevels are highest. Berries grown for eatingare allowed to ripen on the bush forseveral weeks after achieving full color.A mature currant bush can produce upto 4 quarts of fruit each year.Because of their tartness, currants,particularly black currants, are rarely eatenas fresh fruit. Instead, they are made intojams and jellies or used in pies and sauces.Black currants are sometimes soaked inbrandy or made into wine, sometimesmixed with honey and spirits. Black currantsare the basis for the French liqueurcrème de cassis. An infusion of the youngleaves of the black currant shrub makesa drink similar to green tea.Currants are high in vitamin C. Blackcurrants are a good source of potassium.

162 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsBerriesElderberryFamily CaprifoliaceaeScientific name Sambucus canadensis,Sambucus coeruleaCommon name elderberryElderberries are tiny berries that rangefrom purple-red to blue and purple-black.The elderberry tree is an Americanversion of the common elder tree that is foundon European, Asian, and northern Africansoils. The eastern elderberry Sambucuscanadensis and the Western Sambucuscoerulea are two common varieties.The elder tree, which belongs to thehoneysuckle family, has been around forcenturies and may date back to the StoneAge. The Egyptians harvested its flowersand extracted their essence to use asmedicine and to beautify the skin. In theMiddle Ages, it was believed that the eldertree was home to witches and that cuttingit down would create trouble bydisturbing those residing in the branches.In contrast, the Russians and the Englishbelieved that the elder tree warded off evilspirits. Hence, it was considered goodluck to plant an elder tree near one’shome. The Sicilians believed that sticksof elder wood could kill snakes and driveaway thieves.The plant is an evergreen that liveseither as a large shrub, no more than 12feet in height, or as a small tree, up to 20feet in height, with hollow stems thatsupport large compounded leaves. Idealgrowth conditions include rich, sandysoil and direct sunlight or medium shade.The plant can be found growing wild inmeadows or pastures or along roadsides.The plant produces sprays of small, whiteflowers, up to 6 inches in diameter, thatgive way to large clusters of berries, 6 to9 inches wide.Because of the tartness of the freshfruit and a toxic alkaloid that is containedin the seeds (which is destroyed by heat),the berries are always cooked beforeeating. Alternatively, the berries can beadded to pies or made into jam or wine.Elderberries are high in vitamin C,fiber, and bioflavonoids, plant pigmentswith antioxidant properties.GooseberryFamily SaxifragaceaeScientific name Ribes hirtellum (Americangooseberry), Ribes grossularia (Europeangooseberry)Common name gooseberryGooseberries are round fruits that varyfrom white to yellow, green, pink, red,purple, and nearly black. The color ofthe fruit is most intense in full sunlight.The fruit consists of a translucent skintightly surrounding a white pulp thatencloses several small seeds. The berriesrange from a fourth to an inch in diameter.Most varieties of gooseberry availablein the United States are hybrids of the twomain species, European and American.The fruits of the European variety areabout 1 inch in diameter. The Americanvariety is smaller and rounder and is pinkto purplish-red when mature.The European gooseberry is nativeto the Caucasus Mountains and northernAfrica, and the American variety is nativeto the northeastern and north centralregions of the United States. Gooseberrieshave been cultivated in Europe since the15th century. The plants are very resistantto cold temperatures and grow wellin cool, temperate climates.Gooseberry plants are small, deciduous,woody shrubs, about 4 to 5 feet inheight, with prominent thorns at thenodes. The fruits are produced along thestems singly or in small groups of two tofour. The fruits generally drop from theshrub when they are overripe.Because of their tartness, gooseberriesare usually cooked with sugar and noteaten fresh. This tart but versatile berrycan be used by itself or blended with otherfruits to make pies, jams, or jellies.Gooseberry sauce prepared from underripeberries complements such dishes asroasted goose or duck. Gooseberries arealso made into wine or vinegar. Fordesserts, the larger, thinner-skinned,sweeter types are picked when fully ripe.The European gooseberry is usually preferredto the American type.Gooseberries are high in vitamin Cand are a good source of fiber andbioflavonoids, plant pigments withantioxidant properties.

Fruits 163MulberryFamily MoraceaeScientific name Morus speciesCommon name mulberryBotanically, the mulberry is not a berrybut a collective fruit. After the flowersare pollinated, they and their fleshy basesswell and become succulent and full ofjuice, like the drupes of a blackberry,which the mulberry resembles in size andshape.There are three principal species, thenames of which refer not to the color ofthe fruit but to the color of the buds. Theblack mulberry (M. nigra) is native towestern Asia and has been grown inEurope and the Middle East since ancienttimes for its fruits. Large, juicy, and bluishblack, the black mulberry is no doubt themost flavorful, with its refreshing combinationof sweetness and tartness. TheAmerican, or red, mulberry (M. rubra),indigenous to the eastern United States,grows wild from Massachusetts to the GulfCoast. Usually a deep red-purple, the redmulberry is not as tasty as its black cousin.The white mulberry (M. alba) is the leasttasty of the three, with an unpleasantsweetness that lacks the pleasing tartnessof the black mulberry. The plant is nativeto eastern and central China, where thetree has long been cultivated for its leaves,which are the essential food for silkworms.The white mulberry became naturalizedin Europe, and both the trees and the silkwormswere introduced to the UnitedStates in early colonial times in an attemptto start a silk industry.Mulberries can be eaten raw or used tomake jams, jellies, sorbet, ice cream, frozenmeringue, pudding, and sauces. Slightlyunripe, tart berries are best for making piesand tarts. Mulberries also make aninteresting wine and are excellent as driedfruits. In medieval England, the berrieswere puréed to make murrey, which wasadded to spiced meats or used as a pudding.Mulberries are high in vitamin C.RaspberryFamily RosaceaeScientific name Rubus idaeus, RubusstrigosusCommon name raspberryRaspberries are small aggregate fruits,composed of numerous, small drupelets,each containing a small seed andclustering together around a central core.They range from a half to an inch or morein diameter. When the berry is pickedfrom the stem, the core remains behind,leaving a hollow cavity in the fruit.Raspberry varieties are distinguished bycolor. Red berries are the most commonand popular, black raspberries are somewhatsmaller and less round, and goldenberries, which are available only in limitedquantities, can vary from yellow to orange,amber, and even white. Raspberries arefragrant and sweet, with a slight tartness.The raspberry is sometimes consideredthe most intensely flavored of the berryfamily.Traces of wild raspberries have beenfound at prehistoric sites in Asia, andAmerican Indians used wild raspberriesmedicinally. Red raspberries have beencultivated in Europe for more than 400years, brought home by Crusaders whofound them growing in the Mount Idaregion in Turkey. During the 18thcentury, the cultivation of raspberriesimproved, and by the 19th century, theywere being grown widely throughoutEurope and North America. By the 1860s,more than 40 varieties were known. Today,about 90 percent of all domestic raspberriesare grown in Oregon, Washington,and California, with some imported fromCanada and Chile during the off-peakseason.Raspberries are thorny, perennialbushes that can reach heights of 10 feet.They prefer cool summers, mild winters,and a dry harvest season. Three years isrequired for the bushes to begin producingthe delicate white flowers from whichthe berries form on erect stalks or canes.Mature berries must be handled carefullybecause they are fragile and easily damaged.Some are packed in small containers forthe fresh market, but the bulk of the harvestis processed into frozen, concentrated,or canned forms.Raspberries are best eaten within 1 to2 days of purchase. If possible, they shouldnot be washed, because they absorb water

164 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsBerriesand become mushy, but they can be rinsedquickly just before serving. Whole berriescan be frozen for up to 1 year.Fresh raspberries make a delicious toppingfor cereals, pancakes and waffles,yogurt, puddings, cake, and ice cream; acolorful, sweet addition to fruit or greensalads; and an excellent snack eaten rightout of hand. They can be preserved inbrandy or syrup or added to vinegar to makea delicious salad dressing. Raspberries makewonderful tarts, jams, jellies, compotes,wine, and beer and are an elegant additionto champagne and punch. Cooked raspberries,mixed with a touch of lemon ororange juice to enhance their color, makea tasty sauce for chicken and fish dishes.Raspberries are high in vitamin C andare also a good source of both soluble andinsoluble fiber.STrawberryFamily RosaceaeScientific name Fragaria vesca, FragariaamericanaCommon name strawberryThe sweet, juicy, bright-red strawberryis actually not really a fruit in thebotanical sense but a swelling of theplant’s stalks that occurs after the flowersare pollinated. The real fruits are the 200seeds, called achene, that cover the berry’ssurface. The plant itself is a low-growingperennial that produces horizontalrunners, or stolons, that spread out fromthe base and take root to form new plants.The hundreds of varieties of strawberriesin the United States, which vary insize, color, and taste, are distinguishedprimarily by their locale. Some Californiavarieties include Chandler, Selva,Seascape, and Camaroso. Florida varietiesinclude the Florida 90, with large,red, flavorful fruit; the Tioga, a large,vigorous plant with medium-qualityberries; the Florida Belle, a disease-resistantvariety with red, conical fruit; andthe Sequoia, with high-quality fruit thattends to be soft when ripe.Strawberries, which are native toEurope and North and South America,thrive in temperate zones throughout theworld and have a history more than 2,000years old. Wild strawberries, which aresmaller but more fragrant and flavorfulthan cultivated varieties, grew in Italy asearly as the 3rd century B.C. AmericanIndians are known to have cultivatedstrawberries by the 17th century to eatfresh and also dried and added to wintersoups. They also used them medicinally,to make dyes, and as preservatives forother food. In the early 18th century, theFrench developed larger strawberries bycrossing two wild varieties. These plantsare believed to be the source of the largecultivated strawberries we enjoy today.Although the source of the name“strawberry” is unknown, it may derivefrom the practice of placing straw aroundthe plants for protection, from therunners that the plant sends out, or fromthe Anglo-Saxon verb “to strew,” whichcould have led to names such as streabergen,streberie, straibery, and, finally,the English strawberry.Strawberries prefer well-drained,moist, sandy soils, warm days, and coolnights. The flowers, usually white butsometimes pink, give rise to berries thatripen about a month after the blossomsform. Most varieties of strawberry continueto bloom and produce fruitthroughout the harvest season. The fruitis picked at the peak of its freshness anddoes not ripen after harvesting. Becausestrawberries are easily bruised, they arecarefully hand-picked, sorted, and packedin the field and then rushed to coolingfacilities. They are stored for only 24hours before being shipped in refrigeratedtrucks to markets.In California, where strawberries havebeen cultivated since the early 1900s, thefruit grows 10 months of the year, fromJanuary through November; the peakseason falls between April and June. Infact, California produces more than 80percent of all domestic strawberries, about1 billion tons per year. In Florida, thesecond-largest producing state, strawberriesare grown in the winter monthsonly, and Oregon cultivates berries mostlyfor frozen products. Although other statesproduce strawberries, they usually areavailable only in the warm summer monthsfor local markets. Some strawberries arealso imported from Mexico and NewZealand.The freshness and flavor of strawberriescan be preserved if they are notwashed until just before they are to be eaten.Fresh strawberries are most frequentlyserved sliced over small shortcakes, toppedwith whipped cream; used as a garnishfor appetizer and cheese platters; or addedto fresh fruit tarts. Whole, long-stemmedstrawberries dipped in chocolate make anelegant dessert. Strawberries are alsoadded to rhubarb pies and made into preserves.Mixed in a blender with low-fatmilk or yogurt, honey, and other fruits,they make a refreshing, nutritious shake.Strawberries are high in vitamin C.

Fruits 165SERVINGSIZE:1/2 cupNutrient ContentBlack- Blue- Cran- Currant Elder- Goose- Mul- Rasp- Strawberryberry berry (red) berry berry berry berry berryEnergy (kilocalories) 37 41 23 31 53 33 30 30 22Water (%) 86 85 87 84 80 88 88 87 92Dietary fiber (grams) 4 2 2 2 5 3 1 4 2Fat (grams) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Carbohydrate (grams) 9 10 6 8 13 8 7 7 5Protein (grams) 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0Minerals (mg)Calcium 23 4 3 18 28 19 27 14 10Iron 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0Zinc 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Manganese 1 0 0 0 – 0 – 1 0Potassium 141 65 34 154 203 149 136 93 120Magnesium 14 4 2 7 4 8 13 11 7Phosphorus 15 7 4 25 28 20 27 7 14Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A (RE) 12 7 2 7 44 22 2 8 2Vitamin C 15 9 6 23 26 21 25 15 41Thiamin 0 0 0 0 0.1 0 0 0 0Riboflavin 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.1 0Niacin 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0Vitamin B 6 0 0 0 0 0.2 0.1 0 0 0Folate (μg) 24 5 1 4 4 5 4 16 13Vitamin E 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrient value is not available.

166 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsBreadfruitBreadfruit is a large oblong or round fruit, 8 to 10 inches in diameter and up to10 pounds in weight, with a thin, bumpy skin that turns green-brown to yellowas the fruit ripens. The meat is cream-colored, mealy, and starchyin texture, and it is blandly sweet, similar to the potato.Thus, it is not eaten as a fruit but as a highcarbohydratevegetable. Mature breadfruitis dark, dull, greenish brown, withstains on the surface from the milkysap that is exuded by the fruit.Family Moraceae (fig or mulberry)Scientific name Artocarpus communis,Artocarpus altilisCommon name breadfruit♥ High in vitamin C and dietary fiber♥ A good source of potassiumVarietiesOn the island of Maui in Hawaii, almost100 varieties of breadfruit, called “ulu,”are grown at Kahanu Gardens of theNational Tropical Botanical Garden.Origin & botanical factsNative to the Pacific, particularly Polynesiaand southeast Asia, the beautiful, smoothbarkedbreadfruit tree grows to about 60feet tall, with dark-green, palmate leavesup to 3 feet long. Breadfruit was veryimportant in the lives of early Polynesianpeople, who carried it with them in theircanoes and planted trees wherever theysettled throughout the Pacific Islands. InHawaiian tradition, breadfruit is a symbolof creation and of the creator’s generosityand love. Today, however, the largest producersof breadfruit are the CaribbeanIslands.Each breadfruit actually is composedof thousands of small fruit growingtogether around a core. Breadfruit is generallypicked while it is firm and beforeit ripens, becomes overly sweet, and fallsto the ground.Breadfruit grows in hot, wet, tropicallowlands, tolerating a variety of welldrainedsoils. The fruit is propagated fromshoots that develop from the tree’s roots,or from root cuttings themselves. Thetree produces an extensive root system,so it must be planted where it will haveroom to grow. It does not transplanteasily. Trees bear fruit 5 to 7 years afterthe shoots are planted, and generally twocrops of fruit mature during the year, oncebetween April and June, and oncebetween October and January.Breadfruit must be harvested by hand,by climbing the tree and cutting or snappingoff the stem close to the branch. Ifknocked from the tree, bruises will causerapid softening. Because individual breadfruitsdo not develop at the same rate,each tree must be harvested several timesduring the season.UsesBreadfruit that is slightly soft with ayellow to tan rind and no bruises shouldbe chosen. The fruit can be stored up to10 days if wrapped in plastic and placedin a cool area. Like squash or potatoes,breadfruit can be peeled and boiled,steamed, baked, grilled, stir-fried, or madeinto a salad resembling potato salad. Italso can be preserved through fermentation.In Hawaii it is sometimes poundedinto a paste called “ulu poi.” (Hawaiianpoi usually is made from taro root.)Despite its name, it is not used to makebread. In the Pacific, the sap and woodof the breadfruit plant have various nonculinaryuses. Breadfruit is sold fresh insome ethnic markets or specialty stores, orit is sometimes available canned.Nutrient compositionBreadfruit is high in vitamin C and fiberand is a good source of potassium.SERVINGSIZE:1/4 small (96 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 99Water (%) 70Dietary fiber (grams) 5Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 26Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 16Iron 1Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 470Magnesium 24Phosphorus 29Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A4 REVitamin C 28Thiamin 0.1Riboflavin 0Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate13 μgVitamin E 1

Fruits 167CALAMONDINCalamondin, also called “acid orange,” is a citrus fruit resembling a miniatureorange. It is a slightly oblong fruit about 1 to 1.5 inches in diameter. The ediblepeel is smooth and tender and varies in color, ranging from yellowish green whenpremature to deep orange when ripe. The fleshis juicy and orange and forms a segmentedcrown around a small semi-hollowaxis. Calamondin contains asmall number of seeds withgreen cotyledons. The fruitis extremely sour but canalso be very bitter if pickedbefore maturity.Family RutaceaeScientific name Citrofortunella mitisCommon name calamondin♥ No nutritional information is availableVarietiesCalamondin is one of several hundredsubspecies of the genus Citrus. It belongsto the family that includes lemons, limes,and kumquats. Cross-breeders believethat it may be a hybrid of lime and mandarin.Others think it resembles a crossbetween the kumquat and the tangerine.It is a close relative to the “kalamansi,”also known as “musk lime,” which is usedextensively in southeast Asian cuisine.Origin & Botanical factsCalamondin is a native of the Philippinesbut has its origin in China. The fruitwas brought to Florida from Panama viaChile in the late 1800s. It is cultivated inFlorida and in California and is mostlyrecognized for its ornamental value.According to ancient Chinese beliefs, aflourishing calamondin tree will bringgood luck to the household. Unlikemany of its cousins in the citrus family, itis able to withstand mild cold temperatures.However, it thrives best in filteredsunlight and acidic soil at temperaturesranging between 60° and 85° Fahrenheit.Excess moisture may damage its roots.The dwarf tree produces very decorative,fragrant white flowers about an inch indiameter, and it is valued as an ornamentalhouseplant whose beauty lasts throughthe year. Its golden fruits can take up to12 months to mature and ripen.UsesAside from its use as a garnish, calamondinis appreciated for its distinctiveflavor. The entire fruit, except for theseeds, can be consumed. The fruit is bestused within a week of harvesting when itis still green. Once it reaches deep yellow,it must be kept refrigerated to retain itscrispness and aroma. The fruit can bekept refrigerated up to 2 weeks. This tinyfruit releases a highly acidic (almost causticin taste) juice that works wonderfully asa flavor enhancer in a variety of dishes,from fish to noodles, soups, sauces, anddesserts. It also is used to make preserves.Calamondin juice serves as a base in manybeverages.

168 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsCARAMBOLAThe carambola is an oval to elliptical fruit with a thin, shiny, waxy surface and agreenish yellow skin. Its length ranges from 2 to6 inches with four to six prominent vertical lobes(cells) that result in star-shaped slices when cutcrosswise. The flesh is light to dark yellow,crunchy, juicy, and translucent. The flavorresembles a blend of the flavors of manyfruits. Up to 12 small, thin, edible seeds arecontained in each fruit, enclosed by a thingelatinous pocket.Family OxalidaceaeScientific name Averrhoa carambolaCommon name starfruit, carambola, starapple♥ High in vitamin C♥ Good source of vitamin A(beta-carotene) and fiberVarietiesTwo types of carambola are available: thetart varieties and the sweet. The leadingcommercial variety, the Arkin, is sweetand has a bright-yellow to yellow-orangeskin and flesh. Another common varietyis the Golden Star, a fruit that is slightlylarger than the Arkin and mildly tart.Other varieties include the Fwang Tung,Hoku, Kaiang, Maha, Sri Kembanqan,Wheeler, Thayer, and Newcombe.leaves are compound structures composedof smaller ovoid to oblong leaflets. Theleaves are spirally arranged on the branchand are sensitive to light and suddenmovements (they fold up during the nightor when the tree is abruptly shaken).Although classified as a subtropical plant,the tree can tolerate short periods of frostwith little damage.If picked before ripening, greencarambola fruit eventually turns yellow.However, the fruit is sweetest if allowedto ripen on the tree.Usesare often used as garnishes for light summerentrées. Rubbing a very small amountof salt onto the exposed flesh will preventthe darkening that is caused by exposureto the air. Other uses for the fruit includepickling, adding it to salsa and salads,puréeing it for chutney, grilling it onskewers with seafood or chicken, using itas a garnish, and adding it to puddings,tarts, stews, and curries. In Hawaii,carambola juice is mixed with gelatin,sugar, lemon juice, and boiling water tomake sherbet.Nutrient compositionCarambolas are high in vitamin C andare a good source of vitamin A (betacarotene).The fruit is also a good sourceof dietary fiber.SERVINGSIZE:1, raw (127 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 42Water (%) 91Dietary fiber (grams) 3Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 10Protein (grams) 1Origin & botanical factsThe carambola has been cultivated insoutheast Asia for many centuries and isthought to have originated in what is nowSri Lanka or in Malaysia. The carambolawas introduced into Florida around 1887,and later Hawaii. Currently, the majorsuppliers worldwide include Taiwan,Malaysia, Guyana, India, the Philippines,Australia, and Israel.The carambola tree is a slow-growing,short evergreen (25 to 30 feet highand 20 to 25 feet wide) that can be singletrunkedor multitrunked. CarambolaCarambolas are easily damaged, and it isbest to choose fruits that are firm andshiny. The fruit can be refrigerated in amoderately humid area for about 3 weekswithout damage or loss in fruit quality.When transferred to room temperature,fruits that have been picked before fullyripe will turn yellow. The sweet variety isgenerally eaten fresh, either whole or sliced.Juiced, preserved, dried, and canned versionsalso are available. The tart varietyis used for making jams. Before the fruitis served, the darker edge of the cells (orridges) should be removed and the fruitsliced crosswise. The star-shaped sectionsMinerals (mg)Calcium 5Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 207Magnesium 11Phosphorus 20Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A62 REVitamin C 27Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate18 μgVitamin E 0

Fruits 169CherimoyaThe cherimoya is a large compound fruit, about 4 to 8 inches long and weighingup to 6 pounds, with a conical or heart shape. Its relatively thin skin may besmooth with fingerprint-like markings or covered with scale-like overlappinglobes. The fruit can be green or bronze,turning almost black as it ripens.The fragrant, juicy white flesh isstrewn with black, almond-shapedseeds, has the texture of firmcustard, and has a flavor resemblinga mixture of pineapple, papaya,and banana.Family AnnonaceaeScientific name Annona cherimolaCommon name cherimoya, custard apple♥ A good source of vitamin C♥ Provides some dietary fiberVarietiesOf the more than 50 varieties of cherimoya,most were developed in California.The Bays, from Ventura, California, is amedium-sized fruit with a lemony flavor,and the Booth, which tastes like papaya,is one of the hardiest.Origin & botanical factsAs with other members of the Annonaceaefamily (such as atemoya, soursop, andsweetsop), the cherimoya is believed tohave originated in the inter-Andean valleysof Ecuador, Colombia, and Peru. The seedswere brought to California in 1871 andplanted in the area of Carpinteria, southof Santa Barbara. Today, cherimoyas aregrown in many parts of the tropical andsubtropical world, including El Salvador,Mexico, Malaysia, the Philippines, andVietnam. California is the only NorthAmerican producer of the cherimoya, andthe fruit is not exported to other states.The cherimoya tree is a dense, fastgrowing,subtropical or mild-temperateevergreen that can grow to 30 feet tall ifnot pruned. The large, dark-green leaveshave velvety undersides and prominentveins. Cherimoya trees can grow in a widerange of soil types but seem to grow bestin well-drained, medium soil of moderatefertility. They do not flourish in hot, humidclimates, but prefer sunny exposure, lightcoastal air, and cool nights. The trees cantolerate a light frost and require somechilling to produce well.Cherimoyas generally are propagatedby seed or grafting. A tree grown fromseed will produce fruit after 5 or 6 years,but grafted trees will produce fruit in 3to 4 years. The greenish brown flowersof the cherimoya tree open first as femaleflowers for 36 hours, and later as maleflowers. However, they usually are handpollinated.The fruits are clipped fromthe tree while they are still firm, becausethey usually crack open and decay if leftto ripen on the tree.UsesBecause the pulp of the cherimoya is theonly edible portion, the peel and seedmust be removed before eating. Unripefruits can be ripened at room temperature.Ripe fruits tend to ferment quicklyand should be stored in the refrigeratorfor no more than 1 to 2 days. Careshould be used when handling the fruits,because cherimoyas are very fragile. Thefruit is best served chilled. The ripe fruitis cut in half or quartered and the fleshspooned out, cubed, or sliced and addedto fruit salads. The pulp also can be puréedand used as a topping for puddings andfrozen desserts or made into refreshingsorbets, ice creams, or milk shakes. Thefruit itself also can be served frozen.Nutrient compositionThe cherimoya is a good source of vitaminC and provides some dietary fiber.SERVINGSIZE:1/8 (68 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 64Water (%) 74Dietary fiber (grams) 2Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 16Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 16Iron 0Zinc –Manganese –Potassium –Magnesium –Phosphorus 27Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A1 REVitamin C 6Thiamin 0.1Riboflavin 0.1Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 –Folate –Vitamin E –Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

170 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsCherryCherry fruits are round with a depression at the stem.They are a fourth to an inch in diameterand have a smooth, thin skin that adheresto the fleshy pulp. The color of theskin, as well as the pulp, can rangefrom yellow to red to near black,depending on the variety. Eachfruit has a hard seed at its center.Family RosaceaeScientific name Prunus aviumCommon name cherry, sweet cherry♥ Sour cherries are a good sourceof vitamin C and vitamin A(carotene)♥ Contain terpenes, phytochemicalsthat may help prevent cancerVarietiesCherries are categorized as “sweet” or“sour” according to their flavor. Bing andLambert are popular dark-red, sweetcherries. Rainier and Royal Ann are sweetvarieties that are golden with a slighttouch of red. Sour cherries are smaller,softer, and more globular, and the bestsellingvarieties are Early Richmond,Montmorency, and Morello.Origin & botanical factsNamed after the Turkish town of Cesaruswhere they were first cultivated, cherriesare believed to have originated in northeasternAsia. They were mentioned byTheophratus, a Greek philosopher andnaturalist, in the History of Plants, writtenin 400 B.C. Currently, the United Statesproduces about 90,000 tons of cherriesannually, with Washington, Oregon,Idaho, and Utah producing 70 percentof the nation’s crop. Worldwide, Europeis the leading producer.Cherries are related to other deciduousflowering fruit trees such as the peach.Until recently, cherry trees were difficultto grow in a home garden because of theirlarge spread and height: a cherry tree canreach 40 feet in height. This problemhas been eliminated by the developmentof new self-fertilizing hybrids that reachno more than 6 to 8 feet in height.Cherry trees provide a spectacular displayof white or pink blossoms in spring, andsome varieties are grown purely for theirornamental value.Domestically grown cherries are availableonly from late May through earlyAugust. After August, cherries thatappear in the market often have been keptin cold storage. In addition, small quantitiesare imported from Chile and NewZealand during the off-season.UsesWhen selecting cherries, choose thosethat are firm, bright, and shiny. Soft orshriveled fruits with darkened stems area sign of old age or poor storage conditions.After purchase, cherries should becovered and refrigerated if not usedimmediately, because they tend to absorbodors. Fresh cherries can be stored in therefrigerator for up to 1 week or frozen forup to 1 year.Sweet cherries are usually eaten fresh.They can be used to top ice cream,yogurt, or pancakes and waffles, or theycan be tossed into a fruit salad. Pittedsour cherries are used as a pie filling ormade into delicious compotes and jams.Candied cherries are an important ingredientin baked items such as fruitcake andBlack Forest cake. Dried cherries are alsoavailable for snacks or to be added todesserts or baked goods.Nutrient compositionSour cherries are higher in vitamin C andvitamin A (carotene) than the sweet varieties.They also contain terpenes, phytochemicalsthat may help prevent cancer. (See theAppendix, page 434, for the nutrient contentof sour cherries.)SERVINGSIZE : 1/2 cup sweet cherries(73 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 52Water (%) 81Dietary fiber (grams) 2Fat (grams) 1Carbohydrate (grams) 12Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 11Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 162Magnesium 8Phosphorus 14Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A15 REVitamin C 5Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate3 μgVitamin E 0

Fruits 171CoconutThe coconut is the fruit of the coconut palm. Roughly oval, the fruit is up to 15inches long and 12 inches wide. Each coconut has several layers: a smooth outercovering; a fibrous husk; a hard, brittle, dark-brown, hairy shell with threeindented “eyes” at one end; a thin brown skin; the ediblefleshy white coconut meat inside this skin; and theclear coconut “milk” at the center. The unripecoconut is usually green, although somevarieties have a yellowish covering.Family Arecaceae or PalmaceaeScientific name Cocos nuciferaCommon name coconut♥ High in saturated fatVarietiesThere are several types of coconut palm,varying from genetically engineered dwarfvarieties to the familiar tall varieties, whichattain heights of 80 to 100 feet.Origin & botanical factsThe coconut palm is found throughoutthe tropics, although experts believe it isa native of the West Pacific and IndianOcean islands. It is cultivated in the hot,wet lowlands of South and CentralAmerica, India, and Hawaii and throughoutthe Pacific Islands. Because this palmtolerates brackish soils and salt spray, itis typically found along tropical, sandyshorelines. In the United States, thecoconut palm is found in Hawaii, thesouthern tip of Florida, Puerto Rico, andthe Virgin Islands.The coconut palm is tall and slender,with a cluster of leaves at the top of aslightly curved trunk. The tree has aswollen base and a strong, flexible, ringedtrunk. The yellowish green, pinnate,compound leaves that form the crownare 15 to 17 feet in length, made up oflanceolate leaflets that can reach lengthsof 3 feet. The tree typically begins to bearfruit when it is about 7 years old. Thefruits are produced in clusters near thebase of the leaf fronds at the rate of about50 per year. Thus, during its lifetime of70 to 100 years, the coconut palmproduces thousands of fruits. Freshcoconuts are available year-round, withthe peak season from October throughDecember. Coconuts that are availablefor sale in the United States almost alwayshave the two outer layers removed. Uponripening, the flesh of the coconut transformsfrom a translucent yellow gel to afirm, white meat.UsesWhen selecting coconuts, choose thosethat are free from cracks and heavy fortheir size and sound full of liquid whenshaken. The “eyes” should be dry andclean. Unopened coconuts can be storedat room temperature up to 6 months.Thecoconut is opened by piercing two of theeyes. The thin, slightly sweet coconutwater inside the nut can be mixed withlemon or lime juice and used as abeverage. Chunks of ripe coconut meatcan be grated or chopped and eatendirectly or substituted for dried, pack-aged coconut in recipes. Grated freshcoconut can be refrigerated tightly sealedup to 4 days or frozen up to 6 months.Coconut milk and cream are made byheating water and shredded fresh or desiccatedcoconut. Both coconut milk andcream are used in cooking and in preparingdrinks. Dried coconut meat, calledcopra, is pressed to extract coconut oil.Nutrient compositionCoconut meat provides some fiber but ishigh in fat, a substantial amount of whichis saturated fat. Coconut oil has thedubious distinction of being one of themost highly saturated of all plant-basedoils and is best consumed in limitedamounts.SERVINGSIZE:1 piece, raw(1 1/4 x 1 in.) (23 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 80Water (%) 47Dietary fiber (grams) 2Fat (grams) 8Carbohydrate (grams) 3Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 3Iron 1Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 80Magnesium 7Phosphorus 25Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A0 REVitamin C 1Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate6 μgVitamin E 0

172 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsDateThe date is a small, oblong fruit of the date palm tree that grows in clusters of asmany as 200. The mature date is approximately 2 inches long and 1 inch wideand has a somewhat wrinkled skin and asingle, central pit. Dates can beyellow to orange, red, green,or brown.Family PalmaceaeScientific name Phoenix dactylifera L.Common name date♥ A good source of fiberVarietiesFresh dates are classified as “soft,” “semisoft,”and “dry,” depending on their moisturecontent. The most common type is“semisoft,” a well-known example ofwhich is the large, flavorful Medjool fromMorocco. Other “semisoft” varieties arethe firm-fleshed, amber Deglet Noor andthe small, golden Zahidi. The Barhi,Khadrawy, and Halawy are “soft” dates.“Dry” varieties contain relatively littlemoisture when ripe. Thus, the term “dry”does not mean “dehydrated” or “dried.”Origin & botanical factsDates originated somewhere in the desertarea that stretches from India to NorthAfrica. Cultivation seems to have begunat least 8,000 years ago, when settlementbegan along the Jordan River and aroundthe Dead Sea. Archaeological evidenceindicates that cultivation of dates was wellestablished by 3000 B.C. in what is nowIraq.The northern coastal region of theMiddle East was originally calledPhoenicia, a name that may be the sourceof the early Greek term for the date,phoenix. The word “date” appears tohave been derived from the Greekdaktylos, which is related to part of thefruit’s scientific name, dactylifera.Dactylifera means “the finger-bearer,” anapt description of the date palm, with itsbrown bunches of finger-like fruit.Dates were first brought to theAmericas in the 18th century by Spanishmissionaries, who planted date palmsaround their missions. Some of theseoriginal trees still stand in southernCalifornia and in Mexico. Today,although the Middle East supplies threefourthsof the world’s dates, much of theAmerican demand is supplied by datesfrom California and Arizona. Seventyfivepercent of California dates are of theDeglet Noor variety, but some Medjoolsare grown along the Colorado River.The date palm grows to about 100feet in height. The tree itself can thrivein almost any warm climate, but fruitproduction requires a hot, dry environmentwith an underground water supply.Humidity prevents the fruit from setting,and temperatures below 70° Fahrenheitprevent ripening.UsesThe dates most often available in storesare either fresh or partly dehydrated.These may be difficult to distinguish,because fresh dates are rather wrinkled,and both types are usually packaged incellophane. Covered and refrigerated,both types should keep indefinitely.Fresh dates can be eaten as a snack orchopped and added to dry and cookedcereal, yogurt, puddings, breads andmuffins, cookies, and ice cream. MiddleEastern recipes include dates in stews,poultry stuffing, and pilafs.Nutrient compositionOne serving of dates provides minimalamounts of vitamins and minerals, butdates are a good source of dietary fiber.SERVINGSIZE:5, dried (42 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 114Water (%) 22Dietary fiber (grams) 3Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 31Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 13Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 271Magnesium 15Phosphorus 17Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A2 REVitamin C 0Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate5 μgVitamin E 0

Fruits 173DurianThe durian varies from olive-green to yellow to brown and can be pendulous,round, or oblong. The fruit ranges in length from 20 to 35 cm and can weigh upto 10 pounds. The semihard shell of the durian is covered with short, pointedspines that make the fruit difficult to open. The hard shell protects the fruit frombruises and damage when the ripe fruit drops from the tree. The fruititself is a capsule that divides intofive lobes, or segments, when ripe.Each segment contains one ormore brown seeds that arecovered with a thick, creamy,strong-smelling pulp, the ediblepart of the fruit.sticky is the best indication that the fruitis ripe. Durian is generally eaten fresh ormade into desserts such as milk shakes, icecream, or custard. In Indonesia, fermenteddurian is wrapped in palm leaves andserved as a popular side dish called“tempoya.” The fruit also is mixed withrice and sugar to make a dessert called“lempog.” In addition, durian seeds canbe roasted or cut into slices and fried inspiced coconut oil. They are then eatenwith rice or mixed with sugar to make asweet.Family BombacaceaeScientific name Durio zibethinus MurrCommon name durian♥ A good source of vitamin CVarietiesIn Malaysia, more than 100 durian varietieshave been developed, and they areidentified only by number. The bettervarieties of fruit have a thick, well-flavoredpulp with a creamy custard-like consistency.The pulp varies from deep cream,yellow, and orange to a violet-swirledyellow. This swirled variety is noted forits flavor, which alternates between bitterand sweet.Origin & botanical factsCommercial production of durian is concentratedin its native Thailand, Malaysia,and Indonesia. Thailand is by far the largestproducer of durian, followed by Malaysiaand Indonesia. However, Malaysia is thelargest exporter of fresh durian. Othersoutheast Asian countries such as thePhilippines also produce durian but ona smaller scale and mostly for domesticmarkets. Fresh durians are usually shippedto nearby countries such as Singapore,Hong Kong, and Taiwan. Nearly all ofthe small quantity of frozen durianexported from Thailand is shipped to theUnited States, Australia, and Canada.The durian tree can reach a height ofabout 125 feet and may bear fruit twicea year. The crop is heaviest between Juneand August. The fruits take 3 months todevelop. The yield increases with the ageof the tree, beginning with 10 to 40 fruitsduring the 1st year, increasing to about100 fruits during the 6th year, andcommonly reaching a yield of 200 afterthe 10th year. Ripe fruits are usuallyallowed to fall and are collected daily.The fruits also may be harvested directlyfrom the tree, a common practice inThailand. Harvested fruits taste betterand have a shelf life of 9 to 11 days,compared with 2 to 5 days when the fruitis allowed to drop from the tree.UsesDurian can be stored at room temperature2 to 5 days. The ripeness of durianmay be indicated by the emission of astrong, but not sour, smell when a knifeis inserted into the center of the fruit;however, an inserted knife that comes outNutrient compositionThe durian is a good source of vitamin C.SERVINGSIZE:1/4 cup, raw (61 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 89Water (%) 65Dietary fiber (grams) 2Fat (grams) 3Carbohydrate (grams) 16Protein (grams) 0Minerals (mg)Calcium 4Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 265Magnesium 18Phosphorus 23Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A3 REVitamin C 12Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate –Vitamin E –Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

174 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsFEIJOAThe feijoa, also called pineapple guava, is an oval fruit that grows up to about3 inches in length. It has a thin, waxy, blue-green to olive skin that at times hasa red or orange blush. The flesh is creamy white and somewhat granular andsurrounds a translucent, jelly-like center that encloses 20 to 40 tiny, edible, oblongseeds. Feijoa has a fairly complex flavor thatis often compared to that of pineapplebut also contains hints of strawberry,guava, quince, and mint.Family MyrtaceaeScientific name Feijoa sellowiana O.Common name feijoa, pineapple guava♥ High in vitamin C♥ A good source of folateVarietiesMost varieties of feijoa cultivated todayoriginated in Australia, New Zealand, orCalifornia. The Choiceana from Australiais a small to medium-sized fruit with asmooth skin and pleasant flavor. Selectedfrom Choiceana seedlings, the Mammothis a larger variety from New Zealand withthick, wrinkled skin. The most widelycultivated variety in California is theCoolidge, a small to medium-sized fruitwith wrinkled skin and mild flavor.Origin & botanical factsThe feijoa is native to South America,specifically the cool subtropical and tropicalhighland areas of southern Brazil,Uruguay, Paraguay, and Argentina. Theplant was introduced to California in the1890s, and even though the feijoa is notin great demand commercially, 1,000acres in California are dedicated to itscultivation. Some fruit is imported to theUnited States from New Zealand.The feijoa is a slow-growing evergreenshrub that can be retrained to be a smalltree or pruned to form a dense hedge orscreen. Unpruned, it can reach 15 to 20feet in height and in width. Its thick,oval leaves are green on top and silveryunderneath, a feature that makes it anattractive plant when ruffled by a breeze.The flowers of the feijoa, formed singly orin clusters, have white petals with bristly,scarlet stamens.Feijoas thrive in a variety of soils, butthey do best in well-drained, non-salinesoil. They prefer cool winters and moderatesummers; the fruit is less flavorfulin warm climates. Propagation is mostsuccessful by cuttings and by layering andgrafting. Trees propagated from seed donot produce fruit until they are 3 to 5years old, and the fruit may be inferiorin quality.Feijoas mature 4 1/2 to 7 months afterthe flowers bloom, depending on the climate.Fruit that is picked when it is stillfirm will ripen at room temperature, butfeijoas are most flavorful when allowedto remain on the tree until they are readyto drop. Harvesting is accomplished byshaking the tree and letting the fruit fallonto a tarpaulin to prevent bruising.UsesFeijoas should be firm and unblemished.They should be eaten within 3 to 4 daysof purchase or refrigerated up to a month.Feijoas should be peeled before eating,because the skin is bitter. Immersing thepeeled fruit in water and fresh lemon juicekeeps it from turning brown. Feijoasusually are eaten fresh as desserts or usedas garnishes or in fruit salads. They canbe stewed or baked in puddings, pies, andpastries or made into jellies and preserves.Nutrient compositionFeijoas are high in vitamin C and are agood source of folate.SERVINGSIZE:3, raw (150 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 74Water (%) 87Dietary fiber (grams) –Fat (grams) 1Carbohydrate (grams) 16Protein (grams) 2Minerals (mg)Calcium 26Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 233Magnesium 14Phosphorus 30Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A0 REVitamin C 30Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate57 μgVitamin E –Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

Fruits 175FigThe fig is a pleasantly sweet fruit that consists of a soft flesh pursed around a largenumber of tiny edible seeds. It can be eaten whole, peeled or unpeeled. Undercertain circumstances, the natural sugars crystallize on the surface of the fruit,making the fruit sweeter. Figs aresmall, about 1 to 3 inches long.The shape varies from plainround or oval to gourd shaped,and the color ranges frombrown to purple-black toalmost white.Family MoraceaeScientific name Ficus caricaCommon name fig♥ Raw figs are a good source of vitaminB 6 and are high in fiber♥ Dried figs are high in fiberVarietiesHundreds of varieties of figs existthroughout the world. Although theyvary in shape and color, all have the samefleshy, gelatinous pulp. The most wellknownvarieties are the greenish Adriaticfig, which has a white flesh; the Smyrna,a familiar pear-shaped Turkish purplebrownfig; the Kadota; the Celeste; theMagnolia or Brunswick; and the Mission.Most domestic figs are grown in theFresno area of California. These varietiesinclude the Calimyrna (a Californianversion of the Smyrna), the Mission, theAdriatic, and the Kadota.Origin & botanical factsThe fig is believed to be as old as humankind.In the Bible, fig leaves served as thefirst clothing for Adam and Eve in theGarden of Eden. Fig remnants have beenfound in excavation sites dating to 5000B.C., and among the ancient Greeks,Romans, Egyptians, and Muslims, the fighad a symbolic and spiritual significance.The fig’s origin has been traced to westernAsia and to Egypt, Greece, and Italy.Today, figs are found in all warm, dryclimates, especially sunny areas of theMediterranean. Rainy seasons are notfavorable to the fruit’s development. Excessmoisture can split the skin and acceleratedecay. Figs were brought to the Americasby Spanish conquistadors in the 16thcentury. The fruits arrived in Californiathrough Catholic missions and were plantedin areas around San Diego and Sonoma.The fig is a broad, irregular, picturesquedeciduous tree that generally reaches 10to 30 feet in height but can sometimesreach 50 feet. The leaves are large, brightgreen,and hairy on both sides. Fig treesare valued for their shade.Fig tree blossoms do not appear onthe branches. Instead, the flower growsinside the fruit, which is actually a flowerthat is inverted into itself. The seeds areactually underdeveloped, unfertilizedovaries of the real fruit which impart theresin-like flavor associated with figs.Because figs will not continue to ripenafter harvest, they must be allowed toripen fully on the tree. Because fresh figsare delicate, highly perishable, and verysensitive to cold, 90 percent of all harvestedfigs are dried. Dried figs are avail-able year-round, but the peak season forfresh figs lasts from June to October.UsesFresh figs should be plump and fairly softbut free of bruises. Figs are quite perishableand should be refrigerated no morethan 7 days. Delicious as a snack, figsalso can be diced and added to salads andother dishes or used for pie fillings andpreserves. Figs also add sweetness andmoisture to baked goods.Nutrient compositionRaw figs are a good source of vitamin B 6 andare high in dietary fiber. (See the Appendix,page 434, for the nutrient content of driedfigs.)SERVINGSIZE:3 medium, raw (150 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 111Water (%) 79Dietary fiber (grams) 5Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 29Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 53Iron 1Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 348Magnesium 26Phosphorus 21Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A21 REVitamin C 3Thiamin 0.1Riboflavin 0.1Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0.2Folate9 μgVitamin E 1

176 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsGrapefruitThe grapefruit, one of the largest members of the citrus family, measures up to 5 or6 inches in diameter. It is a plump, imperfectly round fruitwith thick, glossy skin that varies from yellow to pinktingedyellow. Like all citrus fruits, the flesh of thegrapefruit is segmented and each segment is tightlywrapped in a semiopaque, thin, fibrous membrane,the albedo. The segments are arrangedspherically around a solid axis.The juicy flesh has a refreshingtart taste.Family RutaceaeScientific name Citrus paradisiCommon name grapefruit♥ High in vitamin C♥ Contains antioxidants thatmay help prevent certainforms of cancerVarietiesThe varieties of grapefruit are categorizedby the colors of their flesh, which rangefrom white to bright pink or red. Thewhite grapefruit has pale-yellow skin andflesh, whereas the pink or red grapefruithas rose to bright-pink flesh and pinktingedyellow skin. The flavor varies froma biting, bitter tang to honey-sweet; thewhite is the more bitter. The mostcommon variety of white grapefruit is theWhite Marsh, and the most popular pigmentedvarieties are the Flame, the RioRed, and the Star Ruby. Some less familiarvarieties are the Duncan and the Golden.Origin & Botanical factsCitrus fruits have been part of the humandiet since the Stone Age, but the origins ofthe grapefruit are a mystery. Some evidencesuggests that grapefruit may have originatedin China 4,000 years ago and itsseeds spread worldwide by insects. Othersbelieve the grapefruit may be a descendentof the pomelo, dropped on Jamaicanland by seagulls traveling from the islandof Barbados, where the fruit was broughtby a captain who worked for one of the EastIndian trading companies. Disagreementeven exists about the origins of the name“grapefruit.” One theory holds that itwas so named because the growing fruitsresemble a cluster of grapes.The grapefruit tree is a large evergreenwith dark, glossy, green leaves. The grapefruitprefers warmer climates and thereforethrives best in the southern states.Today, Florida, Texas, and Californiasupply 90 percent of the world’s grapefruit.Because the fruits ripen at differenttimes in different areas, the fruits areavailable year-round.UsesFresh grapefruit may be left at room temperaturein a well-ventilated area for up toa week or kept up to 6 to 8 weeks in thecrisper of a refrigerator. Exposure toethylene gas from other ripening fruitsmay accelerate decay.Fresh grapefruit halves are refreshingat breakfast, for a snack, or as a first coursebefore dinner. Grapefruit that has beenlightly sprinkled with sugar and broiledmakes a pleasant, old-fashioned dessert.Grapefruit sections can be added to fruitor vegetable salads, paired with avocado,or served as a complement to seafoodsalad. Grapefruit skin can be candied orused to make marmalade.Nutrient compositionGrapefruit is high in vitamin C. The pinkand red varieties contain vitamin A (betacarotene)and lycopene, an antioxidant thatmay help prevent cancer.Grapefruit contains a chemical that canalter intestinal absorption of some medicationsand lead to higher than normalblood levels of some drugs and potentialproblems. Individuals who take prescriptionmedications and who frequently drinkgrapefruit juice or eat grapefruit shouldnotify their health care practitioners.SERVINGSIZE:1/2 medium, raw (128 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 41Water (%) 91Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 10Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 15Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 178Magnesium 10Phosphorus 10Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A15 REVitamin C 44Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate13 μgVitamin E 0

Fruits 177GrapesMore grapes are grown than any other fruit in the world. These popular berriesare produced in thousands of varieties, growing in clusters on climbing vines andlow shrubs throughout most of the world’s temperatezones. Grapes have juicy, sweet flesh andsmooth skins that range from paleyellowish green to purplish black.Family VitaceaeScientific name Vitis speciesCommon name grapes♥ Contain phytochemicalsthat may reduce heart diseaseseedless are served fresh or frozen.Concord grapes are made into preserves,jams, jellies, and juices. Others are driedinto raisins and currants or crushed tomake juice and wine, depending on variety.Red and purple wine or grape juice ismade by including the skins in the processingof the grapes, whereas the skinsare removed to make white wine and juice.Nutrient compositionVarietiesThe thousands of varieties of grapes can bedivided into two basic types: European(Vitis vinifera) and American (Vitis labrusca).Both are grown in the United States, butthe European varieties are the more popular.Most American grapes (such as the Concord)are slip-skin types, meaning that the skinsslide off easily, whereas the skins of mostEuropean grapes cling tightly to the flesh.Grapes are classified by whether they haveseeds or are seedless. They also can be classifiedby their uses, such as for the makingof wine (such as cabernet), for commercialfoods (such as concord grapes for jelly), orfor eating at the table (such as Thompson).Origin & botanical factsGrapes are among the oldest cultivatedfruits. Fossil evidence indicates that grapeswere consumed, and possibly cultivated,as early as 8,000 years ago near what isnow northern Iran, between the Blackand Caspian seas.In precolonial America, native grapes(Vitis girdiana) grew wild along the banksof rivers and streams, but these grapes werevery sour. Spanish missionaries travelingnorth from Mexico in the late 18th centuryare believed to have brought the cultivationof European grapes to California.Today, California produces about 97 percentof all domestic grapes.Grapes can grow in almost any climate,but they thrive in temperate regions withaverage annual temperatures above 50°Fahrenheit. Although modern farmmachinery is used, some aspects of grapegrowing, or “viticulture,” are still doneby hand. Grapevines generally are propagatedfrom grafts and cuttings ratherthan from seed. Five years is required fora young grapevine to reach optimal production.The woody vines must be stakedto support the weight of the fruit. Likemost fruit, grapes develop sugar as theyripen, but they do not get sweeter afterthey are picked. Domestic grapes areavailable from May through January orMarch, and imported grapes fill the gapduring late winter and spring.UsesWhen selecting grapes, it is best to choosethose with a powdery-looking coatingcalled “bloom.” Green grapes should havea slight gold cast, and dark grapes shouldbe uniform in color. Grapes can be refrigeratedin a perforated plastic bag for upto 3 days. Table grapes such as ThompsonSome varieties of grapes are good toexcellent sources of vitamin C, whereasothers are not. Moderate consumption ofred wine, which contains the phytochemicalresveratrol, along with a heart-healthydiet may contribute to the prevention ofheart disease. (See the Appendix, page 436,for the nutrient content of raisins.)SERVINGSIZE:European type, raw,1/2 cup (18 fruits)(80 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 57Water (%) 71Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 14Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 9Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 148Magnesium 5Phosphorus 10Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A6 REVitamin C 9Thiamin 0.1Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate3 μgVitamin E 0

178 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsGuavaGuavas are usually round or oval and approximately 2 to 4 inches in diameter.Embedded in the center of the pulp are numerous (100 to 500) tiny, peachcolored,round edible seeds. Theseeds encircle a pulp that is softer,sweeter, and less granular than theouter part of the fruit. The thin skin,green and tart when unripe, can takeon shades of yellow, white, pink,or light green when ripe and edible.Family MyrtaceaeScientific name Psidium guajavaCommon name guava, guyava♥ High in vitamin C and fiber♥ A good source of vitamin A(beta-carotene)VarietiesGuavas differ greatly in flavor, and thepulp can vary from white to pink, yellow,or red depending on the variety. The varietiesfound most often in U.S. marketsare the common, lemon, and strawberryguava. The juice varieties usually havedeep-pink flesh and hard, inedible seeds.Origin & botanical factsThe guava is believed to have originatedin an area extending from southernMexico through parts of Central America.Today, the guava is grown throughoutthe tropics and subtropics and is animportant fruit in many parts of theworld, including Mexico, India, andsoutheast Asia. Domestically, guavas aregrown in Hawaii, Florida, and parts ofsouthern coastal California.The evergreen guava tree grows to aheight of about 35 feet with spreadingbranches. The leaves are long, leathery,and aromatic when crushed. The fruit,technically a berry, generally matures 90to 120 days after flowering. Although itcan survive outside subtropical areas, theguava prefers warm, frost-free climates.Fruits grown in cooler climates tend tobe inferior in flavor.UsesThe softest, yellowest guavas, free ofblemishes, are best for purchase. Theycan be ripened at room temperature andrefrigerated in a perforated plastic bag.Mature but green guavas can be keptrefrigerated for several weeks and willripen at room temperature in 1 to 5 days.The ripening process can be acceleratedby placing the fruit in a paper bag. Ripefruit that has changed color should beeaten within a couple of days because itwill bruise easily and rot quickly. Thejust-ripened fruit is crisper in taste thanthe fully ripe fruit. Guavas can be frozenfor extended periods of storage. The fleshof the guava can be eaten with a spoonor peeled and sliced. Puréed guava is usedas a marinade or a dessert sauce or tomake smoothies or sorbet. Commercially,guava is often made into juice.Nutrient compositionGuavas are a good source of vitamin A(beta-carotene) and are rich in vitaminC, although much of the vitamin C is inthe rind of the fruit. Guavas are also highin dietary fiber and contain lycopene, acarotenoid with antioxidant properties.SERVINGSIZE:1, without seed (90 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 46Water (%) 78Dietary fiber (grams) 5Fat (grams) 1Carbohydrate (grams) 11Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 18Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 256Magnesium 9Phosphorus 23Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A71 REVitamin C 165Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate13 μgVitamin E 1

Fruits 179JackfruitThe jackfruit is the largest tree-borne fruit in the world, reaching 80 pounds inweight, up to 36 inches in length, and 20 inches in diameter. This oval fruit has apale-green to dark-yellow rind when ripe and is covered with short, sharp, hexagonal,fleshy spines. The interior consists of large, soft, yellow bulbsthat taste like banana. The fleshencloses hundreds of smooth,oval, light-brown seeds.Family MoraceaeScientific name Artocarpus heterophyllusCommon name jackfruit, jakfruit♥ A good source of vitamin C♥ Provides a moderate amountof vitamin A (beta-carotene)VarietiesA relative of breadfruit, jackfruit comesin two main varieties. One variety has afibrous, soft, sweet flesh with a texturesimilar to that of raw oysters. The other,more commercially important, variety iscrisp and almost crunchy with a flavorthat is not quite as sweet. This lattervariety is more palatable to western tastes.Origin & Botanical FactsBelieved to be indigenous to the rainforests of India, the jackfruit has spread toother parts of India, southeast Asia, theEast Indies, the Philippines, central andeastern Africa, Brazil, and Suriname.Although adapted to humid tropical andnear-tropical climates where it can reachthe size of a large eastern oak, the maturejackfruit can withstand bouts of frost,unlike its cousin, the breadfruit.Jackfruits mature 3 to 8 months afterflowering, as indicated by a change infruit color from light green to yellowbrown.After ripening, the fruits turnbrown and spoil very quickly.UsesThroughout Asia, unripe jackfruit is oftenboiled, fried, or roasted. The ripe fruit,which emits a pleasant smell and has asweet taste, is usually eaten fresh as adessert, or fermented and distilled to producea liquor. Jackfruit also is preservedby drying or canning. Jackfruit seeds areroasted or boiled and eaten like chestnutsor, in India, used in curries.Nutrient compositionThe jackfruit is a good source of vitaminC. One serving also provides a moderateamount of vitamin A (beta-carotene).SERVINGSIZE:1/2 cup (83 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 78Water (%) 121Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 20Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 28Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 250Magnesium 31Phosphorus 30Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A25 REVitamin C 6Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0.1Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate12 μgVitamin E 0

180 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsJujubeThe jujube may be round or oblong and about the size of an olive or a date,depending on the variety. As the fruit ripens, maroon spots begin to appear onthe thin, shiny, green skin until the entire fruit is reddish brown or almost black.Shortly after turning color, the crunchy fruit beginsto soften and wrinkle. The yellow or greenflesh surrounds a single hard stonethat contains two seeds.Although not particularlyjuicy, the flesh is sweet,especially when the fruithas changed color.Family RhamnaceaeScientific name Ziziphus jujubaCommon name jujube, Chinese jujube,Chinese date, red date, Tsao♥ Fresh jujube is high in vitamin CNutrient compositionOne serving of raw jujube is high in vitaminC. (See the Appendix, page 436,for the nutrient content of dried jujube.)VarietiesOf the more than 400 jujube types, Li andLang are the two most commonly available.Li, an early ripening variety, yieldsround fruits that are best picked and eatenwhile still green. Lang produces pearshapedfruits that are most flavorful whenleft to brown and dry on the tree.Origin & botanical factsThe jujube is native to China, where ithas been cultivated for more than 4,000years. Jujube plants were brought toEurope around the year 1 A.D. and subsequentlybecame widely cultivatedthroughout the Mediterranean region.From Europe, the jujube was introducedto the United States in the early 19th century.Although most of the jujube supplyin the United States is imported fromChina, some is grown on the West Coast.Growing up to 40 feet in height, thedeciduous jujube tree is graceful andornamental with small, shiny green leavesand drooping, zigzag-shaped, thornedbranches. The tiny, somewhat fragrant,flowers are produced in large numbers,but only a small number set fruit.Although capable of withstanding a widerange of tropical and subtropical climates,the tree nevertheless requires summer sunand heat to maximize fruit production.UsesJujubes can be used fresh, dried, canned,or preserved. Fresh jujubes should befirm and free of blemishes. Ripe jujubesshould be refrigerated in a perforatedplastic bag. Dried jujubes should beheavy and wrinkled and are usually soakedbefore being used. They can be candied;added to cakes and other desserts, soups,stews, or stuffings; or substituted in recipesthat call for raisins or dates. Poachedjujubes can be added to fruit compotes.A candy called “jujube,” which ismade from jujube paste, is available inthe United States. Jujubes also can bepressed to make juice or fermented tomake an alcoholic beverage.SERVINGSIZE:Jujube, fresh (100 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 79Water (%) 78Dietary fiber (grams) –Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 20Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 21Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 250Magnesium 10Phosphorus 23Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A4 REVitamin C 69Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate –Vitamin E –Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

Fruits 181KiwiThe kiwi is a small fruit (approximately the size and shape of a large hen’s egg)with a brown, hairy skin. Its flesh is bright green, with tiny, black, edible seedsarranged in circular rows. The fruit has a mild, sweet flavor, which has variouslybeen described as resembling citrus, melon,and strawberry, with a hintof pineapple.Family ActinidiaceaeScientific name Actinidia deliciosaCommon name kiwi, kiwi fruit,Chinese gooseberry♥ High in vitamin C♥ A good source of fiberVarietiesThe most common variety of kiwi growncommercially is the Hayward, a domesticvariety with little cold tolerance butcomparatively large size, full flavor, andexcellent keeping quality.The Actinidia arguta and Actinidiakolomikta varieties are more winter hardythan Actinidia deliciosa. However, despitesweeter taste and superior hardiness, thesevarieties have not been commerciallysuccessful because of smaller size, softerconsistency, and shorter shelf life.Origin & botanical factsKiwi originated in China’s Yangtze RiverValley, where its vines grow wild on treesand bushes (thus its original English nameof “Chinese gooseberry”). Introduced toNew Zealand in the early 1900s, the fruitgot its common name from its resemblanceto the small, brown, fuzzy-lookingnative bird. The fruit was introducedto the United Kingdom, Europe, and theUnited States about the same time.Widespread planting began in the 1960sin California, where kiwi is now a majorcommercial crop. Kiwi also is suppliedby China and South Africa.Kiwi grows on woody, deciduousvines with large, thick leaves. Strong trellisingis necessary to support the size andweight of the plant when it is heavy withfruit. The plants are dioecious, meaningthat male and female flowers develop ondifferent plants. Thus, both male andfemale plants are needed for pollination.The male plant does not produce fruitbut is sometimes used as a landscape decorationbecause of its attractive flowers.Kiwi is propagated by seeds, cuttings,and grafting. Plants grown from cuttingsor grafting take 1 year to produce fruit,whereas vines propagated from seeds needmore time to mature and will producefruit only after 2 to 3 years. The plantsrequire a long, frost-free growing season ofabout 220 days for fruit ripening. InCalifornia, the vines leaf in mid to lateMarch and flower in May. Although thefruit may achieve full size in midsummer,it is not sufficiently ripe for picking untillate October or early November. If temperaturesfall below 29° Fahrenheitbetween leafing and harvesting, the leaves,blossoms, and fruit will be damaged.UsesWhen selecting ripe kiwi, look for thosethat are plump and slightly soft. Unripekiwi can be ripened in 2 to 3 days by placingin a paper bag with a ripe apple andleaving at room temperature. Kiwi canbe stored in the refrigerator in a plasticbag for up to 2 weeks. Kiwi can be peeledand eaten fresh, cooked, frozen, or canned.Its juice can be consumed alone or in combinationwith other beverages. Kiwi alsocontains enzymes that are similar topapain, an enzyme in the juice of unripepapayas which digests protein and can beused as a meat tenderizer.Nutrient compositionKiwi is high in vitamin C and a goodsource of fiber.SERVINGSIZE:1 large (91 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 56Water (%) 42Dietary fiber (grams) 3Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 14Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 24Iron 0Zinc –Manganese –Potassium 302Magnesium 27Phosphorus 36Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A16 REVitamin C 89Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate35 μgVitamin E –Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

182 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsKUMQUATThe kumquat is a small fruit, about 1 to 2 inches in diameter, round or oval, thatresembles a small orange in flavor and appearance. Its name is derived from theChinese word “kam kwat,” meaninggold orange. Its thin, bright-orangeskin has a sweet, spicy taste,and its slightly dry flesh,which contains numeroussmall white seeds, is quitetart. The kumquat hasa distinctive flavor that isboth sweet and sour.Family RutaceaeScientific name Fortunella japonica,Fortunella margaritaCommon name kumquat♥ High in vitamin C and dietary fiberVarietiesThe two major varieties of kumquat arethe oval Fortunella margarita and theround Fortunella japonica. A commonoval type is the Negami kumquat, a hardyvariety grown in the United States.Origin & botanical factsKumquats are native to China, but theyalso have been cultivated in Japan, southeastAsia, and Java for centuries. Todaythe kumquat tree remains a sacred symbolof the Chinese lunar New Year. The fruitsignifies gold and good fortune. Thecultivation of kumquats has spread toAustralia, Israel, Spain, and the Americas.In the United States, California andFlorida are the leading producers.Kumquats are resistant to cold butgrow best in mild, temperate climates.The tree is a small, shrub-like evergreen,usually from 6 to 12 feet high, thornless,with glossy, dark-green leaves and whiteflowers that resemble orange blossoms.The tree also can thrive in a pot, but it maybe sensitive to overwatering. The fruitripens in the fall. One tree can produceas much as 40 pounds of fruit annually.Although kumquats are not classifiedbotanically as citrus fruits, they are closelyrelated and can hybridize well with citrus.Recently, they have been crossed withlimes and oranges to create limequats andorangequats. The calamondin, anothersmall, orange-like fruit used in Philippinecooking, may be a cross between thekumquat and the mandarin orange.UsesKumquats that are plump, not shriveled,should be chosen. Kumquats are deliciouseaten fresh and whole. Because theskin is also edible, the fruit should bewashed before eating. The bright-orangefruits, fresh, candied, or preserved insyrup or brandy, also make an attractivedecoration for cakes and other desserts.Kumquats soaked for several months ina mixture of vodka and honey are usedas a garnish or snack. Cooked kumquatscan be made into jams, preserves, andmarmalades; used as garnishes for greensalads and main courses; or substitutedfor oranges in sauces for meat and poultry.Kumquats also can be pickled and madeinto relish. Kumquat trees often are usedas ornamental plants.Nutrient compositionKumquats are high in vitamin C anddietary fiber.SERVINGSIZE:4, raw (76 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 48Water (%) 82Dietary fiber (grams) 5Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 12Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 33Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 148Magnesium 10Phosphorus 14Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A23 REVitamin C 28Thiamin 0.1Riboflavin 0.1Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate12 μgVitamin E 0

Fruits 183LemonThe lemon is a small, oval, bright-yellow citrus fruit that bulges at the blossomend. The flesh is tart and acidic and is not usually eaten out of hand. Lemons areavailable year-round, butproduction is slightly higher inthe spring and summer.Family RutaceaeScientific name Citrus limoniaCommon name lemon♥ High in vitamin C and fiber♥ Contains bioflavonoids (antioxidants)that may help prevent cancerVarietiesLemons can be acid or sweet, but onlyacidic lemons are grown commercially.The two most common varieties of commerciallygrown lemons are the largeEureka, which has a pitted skin and fewseeds, and the Lisbon, which is smaller andhas a smooth skin and no seeds. Sweetlemon trees are used almost exclusively byhome gardeners as ornamental plants.Origin & botanical factsLemons originated in southeast Asia,between south China and India. Theymay have been grown in the Mediterraneanregion as early as the 1st or 2nd century,because they appear in Roman artworkof the period. From there, they werebrought to the rest of Europe about thetime of the Crusades. ChristopherColumbus brought lemon seeds to theAmericas, and by the 17th century,lemons and other citrus fruits were wellestablished in what is now Florida.Throughout the 1800s, however, Floridalemon groves were repeatedly destroyedby frost. California lemon cultivationbegan during the Gold Rush to alleviatethe shortages of fresh fruits and vegetablesthat led to scurvy, a disease caused byvitamin C deficiency. Today, Californiais the primary source of lemons in theUnited States, and Arizona ranks second.Other countries with significant commerciallemon crops are Italy, Mexico,Spain, Brazil, Argentina, Iran, Turkey,India, and Egypt.Lemon trees are tropical plants andcan grow only in frost-free regions. Theycan be standard or dwarf size, and likeother citrus trees, they have large, darkgreen,evergreen leaves and produce veryfragrant white flowers. Although theybloom most abundantly in the spring,they also may flower at other times of theyear, depending on the climate. Onlyabout 2 percent of the blossoms producefruit, but that number still can bring alarge harvest. Lemon and other citrustrees can live and continue to bear fruitfor as long as 100 years.UsesWhen selecting lemons, choose those thatare heavy for their size and bright yellow.Lemons can be kept up to 2 weeks inplastic bags in the refrigerator.Although lemons are too tart andacidic to eat as fresh fruit, they are amongthe most versatile and widely used fruits.The juice and grated peel are used toflavor a wide variety of foods and beverages.Spread on the surface of cut fruits(such as apples) and vegetables (such aspotatoes), lemon juice prevents browningthat results from oxidation. Frozenlemon juice, but not the processed type(labeled as “reconstituted”), is an acceptablesubstitute for fresh juice.Nutrient compositionLemons are high in vitamin C and fiberand contain bioflavonoids (antioxidants)that may help prevent cancer.SERVINGSIZE: 1, raw without seeds(108 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 22Water (%) 87Dietary fiber (grams) 5Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 12Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 66Iron 1Zinc 0Manganese –Potassium 157Magnesium 13Phosphorus 16Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A3 REVitamin C 83Thiamin 0.1Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate –Vitamin E –Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

184 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsLimeThe lime is a small citrus fruit with thin, smooth, dark-green skin,measuring about 1 to 1.5 inches in diameter. The pulp is palegreen and is divided into 10 to 12 segments.The fruit has an aromatic taste but is tootart for eating out of hand. Itsprimary use is to flavorother foods.Family RutaceaeScientific name Citrus aurantifoliaCommon name lime♥ High in vitamin C♥ Contains antioxidants that promotehealthVarietiesThe many varieties of lime are nearly identicalin shape and appearance, but theirdegree of acidity ranges from nearlyneutral to extremely tart. Among thehigh-acidity varieties are the small Mexicanor Key lime, which has a sweet-tart taste.The Tahitian lime comes in two strains, thePersian and Bears, all of unknown originand nearly seedless. These limes are growncommercially in California and the coastalareas of Florida. The Rangpur lime is highlyacidic and is somewhat different in appearancefrom the others, with its pale-yellowpeel, orange-red pulp, and green cotyledons.It is very seedy but has ornamental value.The Palestine “sweet” lime, less acidic thanthe others, also grows in south Florida.Origin & botanical factsLimes may have originated in Asia, in thevicinity of India, Burma, and Malaysia.The silhouette of the lime can be observedin 2nd- to 3rd-century Roman art, andlimes appear to have been popular inEurope around the time of the Crusades.Limes probably were brought to the NewWorld along with other citrus species byColumbus. The Key lime was broughtto the Americas by the Spaniards andcultivated in Mexico, the West Indies,some Central American countries, and theFlorida Keys. The lime became popularin the West as a preventive and treatmentfor scurvy among British sailors. For thesame reason, its popularity rose furtherin the United States during the CaliforniaGold Rush of 1849 and the constructionof the transcontinental railroad. Fourdecades later, lime production ceased aftera damaging freeze in the 1890s but underwenta resurgence after World War I.The lime tree is small and crookedwith thorny branches. Like its cousins inthe citrus family, the tree produces smallwhite flowers that later become the fruits.In the United States, lime trees grow bestin the southern states. Southern Florida isthe source of more than 85 percent ofNorth American limes. Limes are availablethroughout the year, but the supply ismost plentiful from May to October.UsesWhen choosing limes, select those thatare brightly colored and smooth-skinned.Uncut limes can be refrigerated in aplastic bag for up to 10 days. Cut limescan be tightly wrapped in plastic andrefrigerated up to 5 days.Lime juice is an excellent meat tenderizerand flavor enhancer, and it is wellknown as an ingredient in the mixeddrink known as the margarita. Lime alsohas many nonculinary uses, including themanufacture of perfumes, suntan products,and cattlefeed (lime seeds are believedby some farmers to keep cattle’s coats shinyand to prevent the appearance of parasitessuch as ticks).Nutrient compositionLime juice is high in vitamin C and containssome antioxidants that promote health.SERVINGSIZE:1 (2” diameter),raw (67 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 20Water (%) 88Dietary fiber (grams) 2Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 7Protein (grams) 0Minerals (mg)Calcium 22Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 68Magnesium 4Phosphorus 12Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A1 REVitamin C 19Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate5 μgVitamin E 0

Fruits 185LONGANThe longan is a small fruit similar to the lychee.The fruit, which develops in drooping clusters,is about 1 inch in diameter and has asmooth, yellow-brown skin. Inside isa single black seed surrounded bywhite, translucent flesh that has asweet, slightly musky flavor.Family SapindaceaeScientific name NepheliumlonganaCommon name longan♥ High in vitamin CNutrient compositionLongans are high in vitamin C. Fresh longansare significantly higher in vitamin Cthan the dried form. (See the Appendix,page 436, for the nutrient content of driedlongan.)VarietiesThe most popular varieties of longan arethe Blackball, cultivated in China, the EBure, E Dol, and E Haw from Thailand,the Shek Kip from Hong Kong, and theKohala, which was developed in Hawaii.Origin & botanical factsThe longan is native to southern China,where it remains a popular fruit. In 1903,the United States Department of Agricultureintroduced the Chinese varieties of thelongan to Florida, and cultivation wasbrought to Bermuda, Cuba, Puerto Rico,and Hawaii. Today the longan is cultivatedthroughout southeast Asia, in CentralAmerica, and in the United States, wherethe leading producers are Hawaii andFlorida.The longan tree is a tropical to subtropicalevergreen that can reach heightsof up to 35 feet and widths to 45 feet.Although it prefers warm weather, themature tree can tolerate brief exposure totemperatures slightly below freezing. Thetree’s large leaves, up to a foot long, createa dense, dark green foliage. The treeblooms once a year with small, greenishyellow flowers. The fruit develops inlarge, drooping clusters over about a 4-month period. Even in the best growingconditions, fruit yield can be erratic.The tree is propagated easily fromseed, but because the tree must be 6 to 9years old before bearing fruit (and eventhen the quality is not predictable),commercial propagation is usually accomplishedby air layering or grafting.UsesThe longan is particularly popular inChina and southeast Asia, where it iseaten fresh, dried, and canned. The fruitalso stores well when frozen. Because itis similar to the lychee, the longan can beused as a substitute in a variety of recipes.In addition to providing delicious fruit,the longan tree is an attractive additionto the garden, furnishing significant shadebecause of the length and density of itsfoliage.SERVINGSIZE:About 10,raw (32 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 19Water (%) 83Dietary fiber (grams) 0Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 5Protein (grams) 0Minerals (mg)Calcium 0Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 85Magnesium 3Phosphorus 7Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A –Vitamin C 27Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 –Folate –Vitamin E –Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

186 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsLoquatThe loquat is a small pear-shaped fruit that grows to about 3 inches in length andhas thin yellow skin that is sometimes covered with a fine down. When the fruitis ripe, the skin peels easily from the flesh. The flesh is juicy, translucent white toorange, and slightly tart, although immaturefruits can be quite sour. Each fruitcontains about three to five large,smooth, dark-brown seeds.Family RosaceaeScientific name Eriobotrya japonicaCommon name loquat, May apple,Japanese medlar, Japanese plum♥ High in vitamin AVarietiesUsesLoquats are available in fresh, dried, andcanned forms in Asian markets. Freshfruits can be stored at room temperatureor, if very ripe, can be refrigerated in aplastic bag. With or without the skin,loquats are refreshing as a snack. Theirtangy flavor livens up poultry dishes.They can be added to fruit salads or pies,made into jams and jellies, candied, ormade into a liqueur.Nutrient compositionLoquats are high in vitamin A.Loquats are available in two varieties:orange-fleshed and white-fleshed. Orangefleshedvarieties include Gold Nugget,Strawberry, and Tanaka; white-fleshedtypes include Advance, Champagne, andVista White. Gold Nugget fruits have aflavor similar to that of an apricot, whereasStrawberry fruits have a flavor similarto that of strawberries. Tanaka varietiesbear long-lasting, very large, firm, orangefruits with an aromatic, sweet flavor. Thetranslucent white-fleshed Advance fruitsare juicy and pleasantly flavored. VistaWhite fruits have pure white flesh and ahigh sugar content.Origin & botanical factsAlthough the loquat is indigenous tosoutheastern China, the Japanese havecultivated the plant for more than 1,000years and have considerably improvedand popularized the fruit. Loquats wereintroduced to Europe in the late 18thcentury, where they were grown initiallyfor purely ornamental purposes. It isbelieved that the plants were introducedto Hawaii by the Chinese.The loquat tree is a large evergreen thatbelongs to the same family as the apple,peach, and plum and can grow up to 30feet in height. Easy to grow, the plant isoften used as an ornamental plant becauseits long, boldly textured, dark-green leavesadd a tropical look to the garden. Smallwhite flowers with a sweet fragrancebloom in fall or early winter, and thefruits appear in clusters in early spring.The loquat has adapted to subtropicaland mild-temperate climates, but the treewill not bear fruit if the weather is toocool or excessively hot and humid. Thewhite-fleshed varieties are better adaptedto cool coastal areas than are the orangefleshedtypes. Today, loquats are grownin China, Japan, India, Central and SouthAmerica, the Mediterranean, the MiddleEast, and the United States, where theleading producers are California andFlorida. Worldwide, Japan is the leadingproducer, followed by Israel and Brazil.Because fresh loquats bruise and perisheasily, they usually are found only in theregions where they are grown. Consequently,they are not as popular or commerciallysuccessful as some other fruits.SERVINGSIZE:1/2 cup (75 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 35Water (%) 87Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 9Protein (grams) 0Minerals (mg)Calcium 12Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 198Magnesium 10Phosphorus 20Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A114 REVitamin C 1Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate10 μgVitamin E 1

Fruits 187LycheeThe lychee is a small spherical fruit, 1 to 2 inches in diameter, with a rough,inedible, bright-red shell. Inside the shell, the creamy translucent flesh surroundsa single dark, shiny seed. The texture issmooth, chewy, and sweet.Family SapindaceaeScientific name Litchi chinensis Sonn.Common name lychee, litchi♥ High in vitamin CVarietiesOf the nearly 75 varieties of lycheecommonly grown today, the two mostcommon types in the United States arethe Brewster and the Mauritius, introducedfrom China and South Africa,respectively.Origin & botanical factsLychees originated in southern China,where the fruit is considered a symbol oflove.The lychee tree is a long-lived evergreenthat reaches heights of up to 40feet. Its leaves are pale green with tingesof pink when young, and they turn darkgreen and leathery when mature. Inspring, large sprays of yellowish greenflowers cover the trees. For the best flavor,fruits should ripen on the trees approximately60 to 90 days. The tree requiresmoist, well-drained soil and a climate thatis cool and dry for several months precedingflowering and hot and humid forthe rest of the year. Most of the worldproduction of lychee is concentrated inAsia, with Taiwan being the leadingexporter. Australia, Israel, Mexico, andthe United States also produce lychees.American production is concentrated inFlorida, Hawaii, and California.UsesAlthough lychees are usually eaten freshin tropical countries, the canned versionsare more often found in U.S. markets.Fresh lychees should be brightly coloredand full (not shriveled) with shells thatare intact and free of blemishes and withthe stem still attached. The fruits can beplaced in a plastic bag and stored in therefrigerator for 2 to 3 weeks or in thefreezer for up to 6 months. Lychees canbe eaten on their own, sprinkled withlemon or lime juice, or combined withberries and other fruit in a salad. InHawaii, lychees are often stuffed withlow-fat cream cheese, topped withcrushed nuts, and served as an appetizer.Used in cooking, the sweet, aromaticflavor of the fruit complements entréesmade with ham, chicken, fish, or beef.Nutrient compositionLychees are high in vitamin C. (See theAppendix, page 436, for the nutrientcontent of dried lychee.)SERVINGSIZE:10, raw (96 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 63Water (%) 81Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 16Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 5Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 164Magnesium 10Phosphorus 30Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A0 REVitamin C 69Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0.1Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate13 μgVitamin E 1

188 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsMangoThe mango is an oval fruit with a smooth, inedible skin that varies from green toyellow to red. The fruit ranges from 2 to 9 inches long. The yellow to orangeflesh of a mango is soft and very juicy. The flesh encloses one large, fibrous seed.When ripe, the fruit exudesa rich smell and theflavor is both sweetand sour.coconut to make a tropical fruit salad.Mangoes can be used to top waffles orpancakes and can be blended with yogurtand ice to make smoothies. Puréedmango can be used to make marinade forgrilling meats or a dessert sauce.Mangoes are generally consumedfresh, but canned and preserved versionsand juices of the fruit also are available.Nutrient compositionFamily AnacardiaceaeScientific name Mangifera indica L.Common name mango, mangot, manga♥ High in vitamin A (beta-carotene)and vitamin CMangoes are high in vitamin A (betacarotene)and vitamin C.VarietiesMangoes are available in two main types,the Indian and the Indochinese (sometimesreferred to as the Philippine).Between these two types, more than 100different varieties are grown worldwide.Origin & botanical factsMangoes are indigenous to southeast Asiaand India. Around the 5th century B.C.,they were brought from India to otherparts of tropical Asia, from where theircultivation spread to other parts of theworld. The Portuguese may have introducedthe fruit to the New World whenthey brought seeds and seedlings to Brazil.From there, the mango found its way intoFlorida in the late 18th century.The mango belongs to the same familyas the cashew and pistachio; it is a mediumsizedto large evergreen tree. Classified asa drupe (a fruit with a single seed), mostpopular commercial varieties of the fruithave been cultivated to be less fibrous andmore flavorful than their predecessors.Mangoes are as popular in the tropicsas the apple is in the United States. MostU.S. imports come from Mexico, withsmaller numbers from Haiti, Brazil, andPeru. Puerto Rico produces most of theU.S. crop, and Florida and Californiaproduce the rest.Worldwide, India is the leading producerand consumer of the fruit. Mexicois second to India in production and isthe leading exporter of mangoes today.Pakistan, Indonesia, Thailand, and Brazilare also major producers.UsesMangoes are picked for shipping whilestill firm and green. The ripe fruit yieldsto slight pressure and has an intense floweryfragrance. Partially ripe mangoes willripen at room temperature in about 3 to5 days. Ripe fruit will keep for 2 to 3days in the refrigerator.Sliced or cubed, mango is oftencombined with papayas, bananas, andSERVINGSIZE:1/2, raw (104 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 67Water (%) 81Dietary fiber (grams) 2Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 18Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 10Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese –Potassium 161Magnesium 9Phosphorus 11Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A403 REVitamin C 29Thiamin 0.1Riboflavin 0.1Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate14 μgVitamin E 1Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

Fruits 189MelonsMelons, sweet-flavored members of the family that includes squash, cucumber,and gourds, come in an array of shapes, colors, sizes, and textures. They range indiameter from 3 inches to more than 3 feet. The skin may be white, green,yellow, orange, tan, or even black andhas a surface texture that is smooth,ribbed, grooved, or netted. Insidethe thick rind, the flesh may bepink, red, orange, yellow, green,or white and usually containsnumerous seeds.Family CucurbitaceaeScientific name Cucumis melo (melon),Cucumis melo L. indorus (honeydewmelon), Cucumis melo var. reticulatus(cantaloupe), Citrullus lanatus (watermelon)Common name melon, honeydew,cantaloupe (muskmelon), watermelonOrigin & botanical factsMelons are believed to have originated inAfrica, Persia, and India. Egyptian hieroglyphicsthat date to 2400 B.C. provideevidence that melons have been cultivatedand enjoyed for thousands of years.Melons were introduced by the SpanishMoors to most of Europe and were laterintroduced to the Americas in the late15th century.The cantaloupe is thought to benamed either for Cantaloup, a village insouthern France, or Cantaluppi, a papalsummer residence near Rome, Italy. Thetrue cantaloupe is a European melon thatis not exported to the United States, andAmerican “cantaloupes” are actually atype of muskmelon.VarietiesSweet melons are generally divided intotwo broad categories, dessert melons andwatermelon. Dessert melons are furthersubdivided into smooth (or winter)melons, a group that includes the honeydewand casaba and the lesser knowncanary, Crenshaw, and Santa Claus; nettedmelons, including cantaloupe (alsoknown as muskmelon) and Persianmelon; and the much less familiar tropicalmelons, including Haogen and Galia.Popular melons include cantaloupe,honeydew, casaba, and watermelon.Honeydew melons (Cucumis melo L.indorus) weigh 4 to 8 pounds and arecharacterized by a slightly oval shape andsmooth, creamy-yellow rind. Two typesof honeydew are available, those withgreen flesh and those with orange flesh.The orange-fleshed varieties are similarto cantaloupe in flavor and texture.Casaba melon (Cucumis melo var.) isglobular with a pointed stem end andusually weighs 4 to 7 pounds. Casabarind is chartreuse-yellow with longitudinalwrinkles, and the flesh is smooth, palegreen, and subtly sweet.The netted melons are generally ovaland range from 5 to 8 inches in diameter.When ripe, the fruits have a raised “netting”on a smooth, grayish beige skin.The juicy, fragrant flesh is pale to brightorange and contains numerous whiteseeds.Watermelons (Citrullus lanatus) average15 to 35 pounds and may be roundor oval. The rind may be two-toned greenor gray-green and variegated or striped,and the sweet, juicy flesh (usually red,but also occasionally orange, yellow, orwhite) contains rows of shiny, black seeds,although some newer varieties are seedless.Over 200 varieties of watermelonexist, with some 50 varieties grown in theUnited States. Varieties tend to be localizedto specific regions. Smaller varietiesare referred to as Icebox or apartmentsizemelons.SERVINGSIZE:watermelon,1/2 cup, diced (76 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 24Water (%) 92Dietary fiber (grams) 0Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 5Protein (grams) 0Minerals (mg)Calcium 6Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 88Magnesium 8Phosphorus 7Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A28 REVitamin C 7Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate2 μgVitamin E 0

190 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsThe watermelon appears to be nativeto Africa, where in ancient times the fruitwas valued as a source of portable water.Like the other melons, cultivation spreadto India, China, and Egypt, where 5,000-year-old pictures of watermelon adornancient tombs. By the 1600s, watermelonswere cultivated in England, Spain, andbeyond. Watermelons also may be nativeto North America, because early Frenchexplorers found American Indians cultivatingthe plants in the Mississippi Valley.Thomas Jefferson grew watermelons atMonticello, and during the Civil War theConfederate army boiled down watermelonsto produce sugar and molasses.Melons grow on annual vine plantsthat creep along the ground, attaininglengths of 6 to 10 feet. Their leaves formSERVINGSIZE:1/8 honeydewmelon (125 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 44Water (%) 90Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 11Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 8Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 339Magnesium 9Phosphorus 13Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A5 REVitamin C 31Thiamin 0.1Riboflavin 0Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate8 μgVitamin E 0a canopy over the fruits. Although melonscan thrive in many kinds of soil, the highestyields and the best melons are producedwith fertile, well-drained, slightlyacidic sandy or silt loam. A long, frostfreeseason with ample sunlight, warmtemperatures, and low humidity is idealfor melons. With such climatic requirements,it should not be surprising that inthe United States, all but a few varietiesare grown only in the south. Florida,Texas, Georgia, and California are theleading domestic producers.Melons are ready to harvest about 70to 120 days after seeds are sown. Theripeness of honeydew melons is determinedsolely by rind color. A change incolor from predominantly green to predominantlywhite indicates the melonsare ready for harvest. The maturity ofcantaloupe is indicated by a thick, raisednetting on the surface. In contrast, theripeness of watermelons is difficult tojudge; however, mature melons tend tohave a hollow ring, the spot on the melonthat touches the ground turns from whiteto yellow, and the leaves closest to thefruit dry and turn brown.UsesUnripe melons can be ripened in a paperbag at room temperature. Because somemelons readily absorb the odor of otherfoods even when uncut, they should bewrapped with plastic if kept in the refrigeratorfor more than a day. Melons keepwell in the refrigerator up to 1 week.Most melons can be used interchangeablyin a variety of ways. They canbe sliced and, if desired, the flavor can beenhanced with lemon or lime juice. Theflesh can be cubed or scooped out andmixed with other fruits to make a salad.Puréed melons also make toppings for icecream and can be used as a base for coldsoups. Watermelon is always eaten freshor puréed to make a refreshing drink. Therind is pickled to make a condiment, andin Asia the roasted seeds are eaten as asnack similar to sunflower seeds.Nutrient compositionHoneydew melon is high in vitamin Cand is a good source of potassium. Watermelonis high in vitamin C. Cantaloupeis high in vitamin C and is a good sourceof vitamin B 6 and vitamin A. Watermelonis a source of lycopene, an antioxidantthat may help protect against cancer.SERVINGSIZE:1/4 mediumcantaloupe (138 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 48Water (%) 90Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 12Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 15Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese –Potassium 426Magnesium 15Phosphorus 23Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A444 REVitamin C 58Thiamin 0.1Riboflavin 0.1Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0.2Folate23 μgVitamin E 0Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

Fruits 191NectarineNectarines, often called “peaches without the fuzz,” are generally the same size,shape, and color as their counterparts. However, nectarines tend to be sweeter,and because their flesh is firmer than that of peaches, nectarines are less juicy.The skin of a ripe nectarine is a brilliant,golden yellow with generous blushesof red. Because they contain a pit,or “stone,” nectarines areclassified as drupes.Family RosaceaeScientific name Prunus persica var.nectarinaCommon name nectarine♥ High in vitamin A (beta-carotene)♥ A good source of vitamin C♥ Contains phytochemicals thatpromote healthBaked nectarine halves can be served withbaked chicken or ham, and they make adelicious dessert.Nutrient compositionNectarines are high in vitamin A (betacarotene)and are a good source of vitaminC. The pit of the nectarine containsamygdalin, a compound that is convertedto cyanide in the stomach. Although notlikely, swallowing an occasional pit accidentallyis not harmful.VarietiesOf the more than 150 varieties ofnectarines, the most popular are Fantasia,Summer Grand, Royal Giant, and MayGrand. Early nectarine varieties weresmall and white-fleshed, and the skinswere uniformly green, red, or yellow.Today’s modern cross-breeding techniques(in which nectarine varieties are crossbredwith one another and with peaches)have yielded larger, more peach-likenectarines with a gold and crimson skinand yellow flesh.Origin & Botanical FactsThe nectarine is indigenous to Asia, fromwhere it made its way to Europe and finallyto the Americas. The name “nectarine”is thought to be a derivative of the nameof the Greek god Nektar, and the juiceof the fruit has been referred to as the“drink of the gods.” The nectarine is amember of the rose (Rosaceae) family.About 98 percent of the domestic cropis grown in California, where cultivationbegan just over 130 years ago. These nectarinesare available throughout the summer,reaching their peak in July andAugust. Smaller quantities are importedfrom South America or the Middle Eastin winter and early spring.UsesSlightly underripe nectarines can beripened at room temperature in a paperbag. Ripe fruit should be refrigerated andused within 5 days. Nectarines can beeaten out of hand or used in salads, in avariety of fresh and cooked desserts, andas a garnish for many hot and cold dishes.At breakfast, they can be eaten sliced andtopped with yogurt and crunchy cereal, orused as a topping for waffles, pancakes,or French toast. Because cooking softensthe fruit and enhances its sweetness, nectarinesare sometimes used in recipes thatrequire baking, grilling, broiling, orpoaching. Nectarines can be substitutedin any dish that calls for peaches or apricots.SERVINGSIZE:1 medium,raw (136 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 67Water (%) 86Dietary fiber (grams) 2Fat (grams) 1Carbohydrate (grams) 16Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 7Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 288Magnesium 11Phosphorus 22Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A101 REVitamin C 7Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0.1Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0Folate5 μgVitamin E 1

192 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsOlivesAlthough considered more of a condiment, the olive is an oblong fruit, slightlypointed at one end, one-half to an inch in length. The edible skin is thin andsmooth in unprocessed fruits but can be smooth or wrinkled in processed fruitsand varies from the yellow-green of unripe olives to dull green,red, yellow, tan, rosy brown, and black, depending onvariety, ripeness, and method of processing. Theskin covers flesh of the same color, enclosing ahard pit. The flavor of fresh olives is alwaysbitter, but the final flavor depends on bothvariety and method of processing.Family OleaceaeScientific name Olea europaeaCommon name olive♥ A source of monounsaturated fatVarietiesOlive varieties are usually divided by useinto table olives and those that are pressedfor oil. The oil varieties significantly outnumberthe table varieties.Table olive varieties grown in Greeceinclude the slender, oval, purple to blackKalamata, the dark-green, crackednaphlion, and the reddish Royal (Greekblack and oil-cured olives are the resultof alternative methods of processing).Italy grows the brownish black Gaeta, thetartly flavored Sicilian Green, the tanCalabrese, the firm black Lugano, andthe piquant brown-black Liguria. Franceproduces the tiny brown Nicoise. Tableolives grown in the United States includethe Manzanilla, Sevillano, and Mission.Origin & botanical factsThe olive is one of the oldest known cultivatedfruits; cultivation of what hadbeen wild olive trees predates recordedhistory and probably began on the Greekpeninsula of Attica. In the early 18thcentury, Spanish explorers brought olivecuttings to Peru, from where they werecarried to Mexico by Franciscan monks,who later brought them to California.The cultivated olive tree is a long-livedevergreen that requires a mild climate withwarm summers and relatively cold winters.Its relative drought resistance has enabledit to thrive in the Mediterranean climateand in California. Olive trees bloom inMay, producing delicate cream-coloredflowers, and the fruit is harvested fromearly autumn to winter. The Mediterraneancountries account for 95 percent of theworld’s olive cultivation.UsesFresh olives contain tannins that renderthem inedible; hence, all olives areprocessed or cured. Table olives areprocessed by four methods. With theSpanish method, unripe olives are fermentedin brine for up to 7 months. Thebrine-soaking method is used on Italianand Greek olives such as Kalamatas, oftenadded to Greek salads. Brief soaking (1to 2 weeks) produces crunchy olives, andprolonged soaking (a month or more)results in chewier, sweeter olives. A thirdmethod, typically used in Greece, involvespacking and aging olives in salt or oil,which produces olives with shriveled skinsand flesh. The fourth method, developedand practiced solely in the United States,is the rapid soaking of ripe olives in lye,followed by boiling in iron (for color preservation)and canning, to produce thefamiliar bland, soft black olive.Unopened cans or jars of olives can bestored at room temperature for up to 2years. Loose olives and opened cans shouldbe loosely covered with plastic wrap andrefrigerated for no more than 2 weeks.Nutrient compositionAlthough olives are among the fruits withthe highest fat content, it is mostlymonounsaturated. (See the Appendix,page 436, for other nutrients found inolives.)SERVINGSIZE:10 large ripe olives,1/3 cup (44 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 51Water (%) 80Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 5Carbohydrate (grams) 3Protein (grams) 0Minerals (mg)Calcium 39Iron 1Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 4Magnesium 2Phosphorus 1Sodium 380Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A18 REVitamin C 0Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate0 μgVitamin E 1

Fruits 193OrangeThe orange is a reddish yellow, round fruit of the citrus family with a rich, juicypulp that varies in flavor from very sweet to sour. The pulp of the orange is asegmented ball, each segment wrapped tightly in a thin semi-opaque membranecalled the albedo. The flesh is encased in a sturdy, glossy skin composedof two layers. The outer layer, called the zest, has apungent but pleasant fragrance, and the innerlayer, called the pith, is white, spongy,and bitter. Although some varietiesare seedless, most have seeds.Family RutaceaeScientific name Citrus aurantium L.,Citrus sinensis L.Common name orange, sweet orange,sour orange♥ High in vitamin C♥ A good source of folate and fiber♥ Contains antioxidants that promotehealthgood guide to quality because someoranges are artificially colored to preserveshelf life and to enhance appeal andmarketability.The fruit is a great snack, althoughmost Americans consume oranges in theform of juice. Oranges are a versatilecooking ingredient. The skin is usedcommercially in candy and is the base forvarious liqueurs and cordials.Nutrient compositionOranges are high in vitamin C and are agood source of folate. Oranges (but nottheir juice) are good sources of fiber. Bothcontain antioxidants that promote health.VarietiesThere are two common types of oranges:the sweet orange, which is the morecommon, and the sour orange. The sourorange has a thick skin and is used predominantlyin making marmalades andliqueurs. The sweet varieties are prizedboth for eating and for their juice. Thetwo most common varieties of sweetorange are the navel and the Valencia.The navel orange has a thick, easy-to-peelskin, is seedless, and has a mild flavor.Valencia oranges are more commonlyknown as juice oranges because of theirabundant juice content and thinner skin,which makes them easy to squeeze. Othersweet oranges include the blood orange,with its red pulp, and the Jaffa, importedfrom Israel.Origin & botanical factsThe name orange, “naranga” in Sanskrit,comes from the Tamil “naru” and means“fragrant.” The orange is a native ofSoutheast Asia. The seeds and seedlingsof this golden fruit were brought to theNew World by European conquerorsaround 1520. By the 1820s, the orangewas a flourishing crop in Florida.Oranges survived the severe freeze duringthe winter of 1894-1895 to becomethe most popular fruit in the UnitedStates after apples and bananas.Oranges grow best in areas that havea subtropical to semitropical climate. Theorange tree is a lush evergreen that thrivesin warm climates and can simultaneouslyproduce flowers, fruit, and foliage. Forthis reason, it is nicknamed the “fertilitytree.” When in full bloom, the tree has afragrant smell.UsesOranges may keep up to 7 days in therefrigerator or in cool room temperaturesin ventilated areas. Skin color is not aSERVINGSIZE:1 medium,raw (131 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 62Water (%) 87Dietary fiber (grams) 3Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 15Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 52Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 237Magnesium 13Phosphorus 18Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A28 REVitamin C 70Thiamin 0.1Riboflavin 0.1Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate40 μgVitamin E 0

194 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsPapayaPapayas are round to oval fruits that havea smooth, thin skin. When ripe, papayashave yellow skin and firm, sweet flesh thatranges from yellow-orange to salmon pink.Numerous tiny black seeds are clustered inthe center of the fruit.Family CaricaceaeScientific name Carica papayaCommon name papaya, tree melon♥ High in vitamin Ctemperature permanently halts the ripeningprocess, unripe fruits should not berefrigerated.Papaya is usually eaten raw. Its cool,bland flavor complements spicy foods.Green papayas contain latex and shouldnot be eaten raw, but they can be cookedand used in salsa or added to stews andsoups. Papayas cannot be used in gelatindesserts because an enzyme in the fruitprevents the gelatin from solidifying.VarietiesOf the two types of papayas, Hawaiianand Mexican, the Hawaiian is the smaller,pear-shaped type that is generally foundin supermarkets. A whole Hawaiian papayaweighs about a pound. The Mexicanpapaya is usually larger and more elongated,often weighing up to 10 pounds.This variety usually has darker flesh and,although the flavor is less intense thanthat of its Hawaiian counterpart, it is stillquite juicy and delicious. Mexicanvarieties include Mexican Yellow andMexican Red, named for the flesh color.The most common Hawaiian variety iscalled the Solo.Origin & botanical factsAlthough the papaya is native to southernMexico and Central America, it is nowgrown in every tropical and subtropicalcountry. Brazil is the leading producer ofpapayas in the world, dominating exportsto Europe. Mexico is the largest supplierof papayas to the United States andCanada. The United States crop is concentratedin Hawaii and is used to supplypapayas to Japan and Canada.Technically an herb, the papaya treecan grow to 10 or 12 feet in height.Mexican varieties are usually taller. Athin, cylindrical, non-woody trunk istopped off by spiraling leaves that containfive to nine main segments each. All partsof the plant contain large amounts oflatex. The fruits, which hang from short,thick peduncles at the base of the leaves,are usually harvested at color break (whena streak of yellow appears in the green)and should still exhibit some green in thesupermarket.Papaya plants exist in one of three sextypes: male, female, and hermaphrodite.Male plants have tubular flowers but bearno fruit. Female plants have round flowersand bear round fruits. Hermaphroditeplants have characteristics of both maleand female flowers and produce the pearshapedfruit that is preferred by consumers.Some plants produce flowers of more thanone sex type, depending on climatic factors.High temperatures seem to favor maleflowers. Papaya seeds can remain viable foryears if storage conditions are dry and cool.UsesPapayas ripen in 3 to 5 days at room temperature,and ripe fruit can be stored inthe refrigerator for a week. Because coldNutrient compositionPapayas are high in vitamin C and containbeta-cryptoxanthin, a phytochemical thatpromotes health.SERVINGSIZE:1/4 medium (76 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 30Water (%) 89Dietary fiber (grams) 2Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 8Protein (grams) 0.5Minerals (mg)Calcium 18Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 196Magnesium 8Phosphorus 4Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A22 REVitamin C 47Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0Folate29 μgVitamin E 1

Fruits 195Passion FruitShaped like an egg, the passion fruit ranges from 2 to 8 inches long. As the fruitripens, the inedible leathery skin, which can be purple or yellow, darkens,wrinkles, and becomes brittle. The yellow pulp has a jelly-like consistency andcontains many edible grape-sized, flesh-covered, blackseeds that are somewhat like those of a pomegranate.The pulp’s flavor is sweet-tart and lemony,and it is highly fragrant.Family PassifloraceaeScientific name Passiflora edulisCommon name passion fruit, granadilla♥ High in vitamin C♥ A good source of vitamin A(beta-carotene)♥ High in fiberVarietiesWith more than 400 varieties, about 30of which are edible, passion fruits aredivided into three main categories: purplepassion fruit (Passiflora edulis Sims),yellow passion fruit (P. edulis f. flavicarpaDeg.), and giant granadilla (P. quadrangularisL.). The purple varieties bear darkpurple to black fruits that are about 2inches long. The yellow varieties bearslightly longer (about 2 1/2 inches) deepyellowfruits. Less commonly found arefruits of the giant granadilla varieties,which can reach 8 inches in length.Origin & botanical factsPassion fruit is native to the SouthAmerican tropics. Spanish missionaries,upon discovering the plant in SouthAmerica, are said to have given the fruitits name, because its flowers resembledinstruments of the Passion and crucifixionof Christ, such as the crown of thorns,hammers, and nails.Being a tropical to subtropical fruit,the passion fruit is best grown in frost-free climates. In addition to SouthAmerica, New Zealand, Africa, the WestIndies, Malaysia, and the United Statesalso grow passion fruit. California andFlorida account for the majority ofdomestic production of the purple varieties,whereas Hawaii produces mainlythe yellow varieties. As a commercial item,fresh passion fruit is currently considereda specialty, low-volume item in the UnitedStates. The fruit is more commonly usedas an ingredient in commercial food anddrink products.The plant is a vigorous, climbing vinethat can grow 15 to 20 feet a year onceestablished. Each fruit develops from asingle fragrant flower that is 2 to 3 incheswide with green and white petals. Thefruits quickly turn from green to purple(or yellow) when ripe and fall to theground within a few days. They can bepicked from the vine when ripe orharvested off the ground.UsesWhen ripe, passion fruits are heavy withwrinkled skin. Fruits that are heavy andfirm should be chosen. Unripe fruits canbe left at room temperature to ripen. Ripefruits can be refrigerated up to 1 week.The fruit’s pulp can be eaten plain orspooned over ice cream, cakes, and otherdesserts. Passion fruit also makes deliciousjams and jellies, to which the seeds adda crunchy texture. The fruit also can bepressed to extract a highly fragrant juicethat adds a pleasant flavor to beveragessuch as iced tea, punch, and cocktails.Nutrient compositionPassion fruit is high in vitamin C anddietary fiber if the seeds are consumedalong with the pulp. In addition, it is agood source of vitamin A (beta-carotene).SERVINGSIZE:4 fruits, raw (72 g)(pulp only)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 68Water (%) 73Dietary fiber (grams) 8Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 16Protein (grams) 2Minerals (mg)Calcium 8Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese –Potassium 252Magnesium 20Phosphorus 48Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A52 REVitamin C 20Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0Folate12 μgVitamin E 1Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

196 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsPeachPeaches are round to oblong with a slight tip. Because of the hard seed, or“stone,” at their core, they are known as a “stone fruit,” or drupe. The fuzzy skinof peaches is the only characteristic that distinguishes them in appearance fromthe smooth-skinned nectarine. Ripe peaches can assume a range of colors fromcreamy-white to light-pink, yellow, orange, andred. The flesh also can range from a pinkishwhite to an intense yellow-gold. Thefirmness and juiciness of a peach dependlargely on variety and on thedegree of ripeness.Family RosaceaeScientific name Prunus persicaCommon name peach♥ A good source of vitamin A(beta-carotene) and vitamin CVarietiesPeaches are generally classified into oneof two categories: “freestone” or “clingstone,”although some are also considered“semi-freestone.” Freestone peaches, theones more commonly available, are thosewhose pits are easily removed, whereasthe pit of clingstones is enmeshed withinthe flesh. Both freestone and clingstonepeaches have numerous varieties thatdiffer in skin color, flesh color, firmness,and juiciness. Two of the most popularvarieties of yellow-fleshed freestonepeaches are Elegant Lady and O-Henry.Other varieties include the Hale, Rio OsoGem, and Elberta.Origin & botanical factsA native of China, where they have beengrown for more than 2,500 years, peacheswere once revered as a symbol of longevityand immortality. The fruit made its wayto Europe by way of Persia. Spanishexplorers brought the plant to the NewWorld, where Spanish missionariesplanted the trees in California. Since theearly 1800s, peaches have been growncommercially in the United States, whichnow produces one-fourth of the world’smarket crop. Other major producers ofpeaches include Italy, Greece, and China.Georgia was once the largest producer ofpeaches in the United States, earning itthe nickname “Peach State.” Today, thefruit is grown in more than 30 states, andCalifornia is the largest producer. Peachesare related to other deciduous floweringfruit trees, including plum, cherry,apricot, and almond. Although originallygrown only in moderate climates,the many new varieties make it possiblefor peaches to be grown throughoutmuch of the United States.Standard trees may grow as high as 30feet and can live up to 40 years. Somedwarf varieties may reach no more than 3feet. Beautiful flowers, ranging from palepink to red, appear in the spring and giveway to fruits that usually ripen in midsummer.An 8- to 10-year-old tree canproduce up to 6 bushels of fruit annually.UsesPeaches that are slightly soft to firm whenpressed and are free of blemishes or softspots should be chosen. To hasten theripening process, underripe peaches canbe left in a loosely closed paper bag atroom temperature for 2 to 3 days. Onceripe, they can be kept at room temperaturefor about 3 to 4 days or slightlylonger in the refrigerator.For cooking purposes, the skin of apeach can be easily peeled by blanchingfor 30 seconds.Nutrient compositionPeaches are a good source of vitamin A(beta-carotene) and vitamin C.SERVINGSIZE:1 medium peeled,raw (98 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 42Water (%) 88Dietary fiber (grams) 2Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 11Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 5Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 193Magnesium 7Phosphorus 12Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A53 REVitamin C 6Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0Folate3 μgVitamin E 1

Fruits 197PearPears are bell-shaped fruits, wide and round at the bottom, narrowing toward thestem; however, some varieties are nearly round. Pears range in size from less than1 inch to 3 inches in diameter. They have a smooth, thin skin that may be green,yellow, brown, or red when ripe. The juicy, sweet flesh is usually white with atinge of yellow. The flesh of some pears is sandy intexture. Enclosed within the flesh is a cartilaginouscore that contains asmany as 10 seeds.Family RosaceaeScientific name Pyrus communis(common or European pear),Pyrus pyrifolia (Asian pear)Common name pear, common pear,European pear, Asian pear, sand pear♥ A good source of dietary fiber andvitamin CUsesFirm pears, such as the Bosc, are best forbaking and poaching. Because pears arepicked while still green, they should beripened at room temperature until thestem end yields slightly to pressure. Onceripe, pears should be refrigerated. Slicedpears should be sprinkled with lemon juiceto prevent browning.Nutrient compositionRaw pears (with the skin on) are a goodsource of vitamin C and dietary fiber.VarietiesHundreds of pear varieties, varying inshape, size, color, texture, flavor, aroma,and time of ripening, grow throughout theworld. In the United States, the four mainvarieties are the Bartlett, Anjou, Bosc, andComice. The Bartlett, the most popularsummer pear, is the principal variety usedfor canning and the only variety sold dried.Bartletts are large, juicy, fragrant, and sweetand turn from dark-green to golden-yellowwhen ripe. A red-skinned strain called theRed Bartlett is also available. Blander intaste are Anjou pears, which are oval withsmooth yellow-green skin and a creamyflesh. The Anjou is the most abundantwinter pear. Bosc pears have dull, reddishbrown skin and very firm flesh. Reputedlythe most flavorful and sweetest variety isthe Comice, which is squat in shape withdull-green skin. A variety that is growingin popularity is the Asian pear (also knownas the Oriental pear, Chinese pear, orJapanese pear). Asian pears are crunchierthan the common pears, round, and goldenbrown to yellow-green.Origin & botanical factsNative to the northern regions of centralAsia, pears have been cultivated for morethan 3,000 years. Pear trees were introducedto North America by the earlycolonists, who brought cuttings fromEuropean stock. The largest producers ofpears today are China, Italy, Russia, andthe United States. California, Oregon,and Washington account for 98 percent ofthe United States pear crop. Pears areclosely related to apples in that both arepome fruits (fruits with a distinct seedcontainingcore) and members of the rosefamily. However, pear trees tend to bemore upright than apple trees (commerciallygrown trees are usually pruned toabout 20 feet high). Ideal growing conditionsrequire a combination of warmdays, cool nights, rich volcanic soil, andample water. Between 100 and 170 daysare required from bloom to harvest. Likebananas and avocados, pears are usuallypicked before they are fully ripe, becausethey do not ripen well on the tree.SERVINGSIZE:1 medium, raw,with skin (166 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 98Water (%) 84Dietary fiber (grams) 4Fat (grams) 1Carbohydrate (grams) 25Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 18Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 208Magnesium 10Phosphorus 18Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A3 REVitamin C 7Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0.1Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 –Folate12 μgVitamin E 1Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

198 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsPersimmonThe persimmon, sometimes called the “apple of the Orient,” is a spherical oracorn-like, smooth-skinned fruit that ranges froma light yellow-orange to a brilliant orange-red.Persimmons vary from 1 to more than 3inches in diameter. Except for theseeds, the entire fruit is edible.Family EbenaceaeScientific name Diospyros kaki (Orientalpersimmon), Diospyros virginiana(native persimmon)Common name persimmon, Orientalpersimmon, Japanese persimmon, kaki♥ High in vitamin A (carotenes)♥ A good source of vitamin C and fiberVarietiesPersimmons are divided into two types,based on flavor and texture. The astringenttype is inedible until it ripens andbecomes soft, and the non-astringent typecan be eaten while it is underripe andcrisp. The astringent varieties are harvestedwhile still firm and allowed to ripenfully and soften. Astringent persimmonscan ripen off the tree when stored at roomtemperature. Non-astringent varietiesare harvested when they are fully coloredand ripe. Persimmons are also dividedinto two classes by their origin: Japaneseand American. Although Japanese persimmonsexist in both astringent andnon-astringent varieties, they tend to beless astringent than American. The mostcommon variety of persimmon availablein the United States is the Hachiya, anastringent Japanese persimmon that islarge and acorn-shaped. A popular nonastringentJapanese variety is the Fuyu,which is smaller than the Hachiya andshaped like a tomato.Origin & Botanical FactsThe Oriental persimmon, cultivated forcenturies in China and later brought toJapan and Korea, was introduced toCalifornia in the 1870s. The U.S.Department of Agriculture importedpersimmon trees to Florida and Georgia.In contrast, native persimmons haveflourished over much of what is now thecontinental United States for centuries.American Indians dried the fruit to eatthroughout the winter.The Oriental persimmon is a droopleafeddeciduous tree that can attain aheight and width of about 25 feet.Because the tree is relatively cold-sensitive,it is grown only in the Deep South. Thenative persimmon can reach heights of 30to 40 feet and is more tolerant of poorsoils and cold than the Oriental type.Oriental persimmon trees are selfpollinatingand also can produce seedlessfruits from unfertilized flowers. The inconspicuousflowers are cream-colored or pink.The fruit is in season from October toFebruary. Native persimmons are not selfpollinating.Their flowers range fromwhite to yellow and appear in May. Thefruit appears in September, but it does notripen until the weather cools. Orientaland native varieties cannot cross-pollinate.UsesUnripe fruit will ripen in a few days atroom temperature. Ripe fruit can berefrigerated 2 to 3 days. Freezing astringentpersimmons and thawing them thenext day also may help remove some ofthe astringency.Persimmons can be added to cakes,cookies, rolls, and breads. Persimmonpulp is used to make preserves, beer, andbrandy. Puréed persimmon can be usedas a sauce for poultry or dessert.Nutrient compositionJapanese persimmons are an excellentsource of vitamin A (carotenes) and area good source of vitamin C and fiber.SERVINGSIZE:1/2 persimmon,raw (84 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 59Water (%) 80Dietary fiber (grams) 3Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 16Protein (grams) 0Minerals (mg)Calcium 7Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 135Magnesium 8Phosphorus 14Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A182 REVitamin C 6Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate6 μgVitamin E 0

Fruits 199PineappleThe pineapple is a cylindrical fruit that is approximately4 to 8 inches in diameter and can reach a length of12 inches, weighing up to 10 pounds. It has awaxy, tough rind covering a juicy flesh thatsurrounds a fibrous core. The fleshand core range from nearly whiteto yellow, and the flavor isa combination of apples,strawberries, and peaches.Family BromeliaceaeScientific name Ananas comosusCommon name pineapple♥ High in vitamin CVarietiesThree varieties of fresh pineapple are availablein the United States. The popularSmooth Cayenne, from Hawaii, weighs 3to 5 pounds, and its flesh ranges from paleyellow to yellow. The Red Spanish is nearlysquare and has a tougher shell that makesit well suited to shipping. Its flesh is paleyellow and has a pleasant aroma. Weighingup to 10 pounds, the Sugar Loaf is thelargest of the three varieties. Its white fleshlacks the woodiness often found in the coreof other varieties.with large, waxy, pointed leaves. Eachplant bears one fruit in the center, and eachpineapple is actually the result of thefusion of many individual fruits. Unlikemost other fruits (with the exception ofsome melons), pineapples do not have areserve of starch that converts to sugar afterharvest. Instead, the starch is stored in thestem of the plant and enters the fruit assugar just before it ripens completely. Asa result, the fruit will not become anysweeter after harvest, so growers mustallow the pineapple to ripen on the plantto maximize the sugar and juice contentof the fruit.cannot be added to gelatin, yogurt, orcottage cheese because the fruit containsa digestive enzyme called bromelain thatcan break down the protein in milk, meat,and gelatin and makes these foods watery.However, bromelain is degraded by heat,so canned or boiled pineapple can be usedinstead. Because of this enzyme activity,fresh pineapples are often used in marinadesto tenderize meats and poultry,although meat that is allowed to sit in thepineapple marinade for too long can turnmushy.Nutrient compositionPineapple is high in vitamin C and containsphytochemicals that promote health.SERVINGSIZ E: 1/2 cup, diced,raw (78 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 38Water (%) 87Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 10Protein (grams) 0Origin & botanical factsThe pineapple is indigenous to southernBrazil and Paraguay. Columbus encounteredthe pineapple on his 1493 journeyto the Caribbean and took it back toEurope, from where it spread to manyother parts of the world on ships thatcarried it as protection against scurvy, adisease caused by a deficiency of vitaminC. The name is derived from piña, aname given by the Spanish, who thoughtthat the fruit resembled a pinecone.Pineapples do not grow on trees. Theygrow on a plant that is technically an herb,UsesWhen selecting a pineapple, choose onewith fresh, green leaves and no obvioussoft or brown spots, especially at the base.When ripe, the rind can be dark green,yellow, or reddish yellow; however, mostpineapples on the market are already ripe,regardless of their color, and should berefrigerated in a plastic bag after purchase.Freshly cut pineapple may be kept, sealedairtight, in the refrigerator for up to a week.Pineapples are consumed fresh andcanned and as juice. Fresh pineappleMinerals (mg)Calcium 5Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 1Potassium 89Magnesium 11Phosphorus 5Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A2 REVitamin C 12Thiamin 0.1Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate8 μgVitamin E 0

200 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsPlumThe plum is a drupe, a fruit with a single pit that is related to the peach, nectarine,and apricot. However, whereas only two or three varieties of those exist,plums are available in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and colors. Plums grow inclusters and have smooth, richly colored skins. The thousands of varieties identifiedworldwide range from 1 to 3 inches in diameter, in flavor from sweet to tart, andin skin color from yellow to green, red, purple,and indigo blue.Family RosaceaeScientific name Prunus domestica,Prunus salicinaCommon name plum♥ Plums are a good source ofvitamin C♥ Prunes (dried plums) are a good sourceof vitamin A (carotenes) and fiberand contain isatin, a natural laxativeVarietiesOf the more than 1,000 varieties of plumsin Europe and 140 in North America,about 20 dominate the commercial supplyof plums in the United States, most ofwhich are Japanese or European varieties.The Japanese types have juicy yellow orreddish flesh and skin colors that rangefrom crimson to black-red. The SantaRosa and Red Beaut are two of the morepopular Japanese varieties. Europeanplums, or Prunus domestica, are smaller,denser, and less juicy than their Japanesecounterparts. Their skin color is alwaysblue or purple, and their pits are usuallyfreestone, which means that they separateeasily from the flesh. Among the betterknownvarieties are Italian, President,Empress, Stanley, and Tragedy. In theUnited States, the bulk of Europeanplums are grown in the Pacific Northwest,but some varieties are successfully cultivatedin the eastern states. With its firmerflesh and higher sugar and acid contents,the European variety is best suited forprunes (also called dried plums). Themost common variety of plum used forprunes is the California French, also knownas d’Agen. A few varieties of prune plumsare sold fresh and are called fresh prunesor purple plums.Origin & botanical factsAlthough plums are native to several temperateregions around the world, includingNorth America, early colonists broughtEuropean varieties with them that supplantednative American plums. In thelate 19th century, dozens of varieties fromEurope and Asia were cultivated in theUnited States, primarily in California.One of the most influential plum breederswas the famed horticulturist LutherBurbank, who in 1907 developed theSanta Rosa variety, which now accountsfor about a third of the total domesticcrop. The California French plum is adescendant of the first prune plumsbrought to California from France byLouis Pellier in the 1850s. The domesticplum season extends from May toOctober, beginning with the Japanese varietiesand ending with the European types.Today, about 70 percent of the world’sprune supply and nearly 100 percent ofdomestic prunes come from California.UsesThe majority of plums are eaten fresh.Plums are a nutritious, low-calorie foodthat can be eaten out of hand or addedto fruit salads, baked goods, compotes,and meat dishes. Plums also can be madeinto jams, purées, or sauces. A famousfood prepared from plums is the Chineseplum sauce, also known as duck sauce.Puréed prunes make a good substitute forbutter and other fat in baked goods.Prunes are also made into juice.Nutrient CompositionPlums are a good source of vitamin C.Prunes are a good source of vitamin A(carotenes) and fiber. (See the Appendix,page 436, for the nutrient content of prunes[dried plums].)SERVINGSIZE:1 medium, raw (66 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 36Water (%) 78Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 9Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 3Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 114Magnesium 5Phosphorus 7Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A21 REVitamin C 6Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0.1Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate1 μgVitamin E 0

Fruits 201POMEGRANATEThe pomegranate is a round fruit the size of a large orange with a protrudingcrown and smooth, leathery skin that can range from red to yellowish pink. Eachfruit contains hundreds of ruby-colored seeds that are individually encasedin a translucent, red, juicy pulp that is sweet to tart.The seeds are packed into compartments that areseparated by cream-colored, bitter-tastingmembranes. Both the seedsand pulp are edible.Family PunicaceaeScientific name Punica granatumCommon name pomegranate,grenadier, granada, Chinese apple♥ A good source of potassium andvitamins C and B 6VarietiesThere are three kinds of pomegranates:one that is very sour and two that aresweet. The sour type is used in place ofunripe grapes to make juice, and the sweettypes are eaten as a dessert. In addition,some nonfruiting varieties are grownpurely for their double flowers, and adwarf variety has been developed thatgrows only 2 to 3 feet tall and makes adecorative container plant.Origin & botanical factsThe pomegranate is a fruit with a colorfulhistory. The name is derived from theOld French terms “pome,” for “apple,”and “grenate,” for “many-seeded.” Nativeto southeastern Europe and Asia, pomegranateshave long been celebrated in artand literature. The seeds have been aHebrew symbol of fertility since biblicaltimes, and the fruit once formed part ofthe decoration on the pillars of KingSolomon’s temple. In the 16th century,Spanish missionaries brought the plantto the New World. Currently, the pome-granate is a crop of minor commercialimportance.The pomegranate plant is a dense,deciduous shrub that can grow up to 12feet in height. Crimson flowers are borneon slender, somewhat thorny branchesthat have glossy, dark-green leaves aboutan inch long. The plant grows best insubtropical climates but can tolerate subfreezingtemperatures. If grown from seed,plants begin to fruit after 3 to 4 years.UsesPomegranates are available in the UnitedStates only from October to December.Fruits should be heavy for their size andplump, as if bursting, with a slightly softcrown and shiny skin. The fruit can berefrigerated for up to 2 months or storedin a cool, dark place for about a month.The pomegranate is rather labor-intensiveto eat. After the skin has been peeled,the seeds can be removed individually, orthe fruit can be cut in half and the seedsscooped away from the membrane witha spoon. The seeds also can be used as agarnish for desserts and in salads or pressedto make a refreshing drink. Used as a spicein northern India, dried pomegranate canbe substituted for raisins in cakes.Grenadine, a light syrup made frompomegranates, is used as a flavoring incocktails, soft drinks, and confections.Pomegranate molasses is a popular ingredientin Mediterranean and MiddleEastern cooking. Aside from the fruit’sculinary uses, crushed pomegranateflowers produce a brilliant red dye. Thebark is used in tanning and is the sourceof the yellow hue of Moroccan leather.Nutrient compositionPomegranates are a good source of potassiumand vitamins C and B 6 .SERVINGSIZE:1 fruit (154 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 105Water (%) 81Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 26Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 5Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese –Potassium 399Magnesium 5Phosphorus 12Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A0 REVitamin C 9Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0.2Folate9 μgPantothenic acid 1Vitamin E 1Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

202 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsPrickly PearTwo to 4 inches long and shaped like an egg, the prickly pear has a coarse, thickskin that can be yellow, orange, pink, magenta, or red, depending on the variety.The inedible skin is dotted with tubercles that have small,almost invisible spines capable of pricking the skin.The prickly pear’s flesh is mildly sweet, juicy, andfragrant and contains numerous edible, small,crunchy seeds. Like the skin, the flesh canrange from yellow to dark red.Family CactaceaeScientific name Opuntia ficus-indicaCommon name prickly pear, Indian fig,nopal, nopalitos, Sharon’s fruit♥ High in vitamin C and magnesium♥ A good source of fiberVarietiesThe genus Opuntia contains as many as1,000 species, most of which bear ediblefruits. Commonly cultivated as a sourceof food are varieties of the speciesOpuntia ficus-indica. Other species areplanted for purely ornamental purposes.Origin & botanical factsSpecies of the genus Opuntia are believedto have originated in central Mexico andthe Caribbean. Since pre-Columbiandays, American Indians have collectedthe ripe fruits and tender stems, or “pads,”for use as a food source and the older padsfor livestock feed. Spanish explorers introducedthe plants to Spain, from wherethey were brought to North Africa by theMoors. Today, the plant is grown worldwidein areas with a moderate climate.Prickly pear is the national fruit of Israel,where it is called Sharon’s fruit.The prickly pear plant is a perennialof the cactus family that prefers a hot, dryenvironment and, like other cacti, canwithstand long periods of drought.Growing up to 15 feet high, the plant hasno real leaves; the segmented, flat, ovalshapedpads serve as both leaves andwater-storage organs. These pads arecovered with sharp spines. In midsummer,brilliant flowers bloom along theedges of the pads, from which fleshy fruitsdevelop. The plants are easily propagatedby detaching the pads and planting themin soil. Roots form quickly, and newplants soon become established. Someprickly pears harbor an interesting parasite,the cochineal, a red insect less thanan eighth-inch long that is the source ofa brilliant red dye. Along with the cactusthat harbors the insect, the technique ofisolating the dye was brought back toEurope by the conquistadors.UsesAlthough commercially sold prickly pearshave already had their spines removed,caution should still be used when handlingthe fruit. If the spines have notbeen removed, they should be scraped offcarefully with a knife or rubbed off witha towel. The skin should be peeled beforeconsumption. Immature fruits can beleft at room temperature to ripen. Whenripe, the fruits yield when gently pressed.Ripe fruits can be stored in a perforatedplastic bag in the refrigerator up to 2 days.Prickly pears are refreshing wheneaten with a sprinkle of lime or lemonjuice. They can be diced and used to topice cream, sorbet, yogurt, and variousdesserts, or they can be puréed to makemarmalade and dessert sauces. The pads(nopales), which are served as a vegetable,can be cut into pieces, steamed or stewed,and added to omelets, salads, and soups.Nutrient compositionPrickly pears are high in magnesium andvitamin C and are a good source of fiber.SERVINGSIZE:1 fruit, raw (103 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 42Water (%) 88Dietary fiber (grams) 4Fat (grams) 1Carbohydrate (grams) 10Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 58Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese –Potassium 227Magnesium 88Phosphorus 25Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A5 REVitamin C 14Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0.1Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate6 μgVitamin E 0Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

Fruits 203PummeloThe pummelo is a pear-shaped citrus fruit that comes in a variety of sizes andcolors and is believed to be the ancestor of the grapefruit. Normally between 4and 7 inches in diameter (about the size of a cantaloupe), the pummelo can growto the size of a large watermelon and weigh up to 20 pounds. The fruit is coveredby a soft, easily peeled rind that may be half an inch or more in thickness andranges from yellow to pink. Thickmembranes separate the innersegments of this fruit. Theflesh of the pummeloalso varies from a lightyellow to a dark pink.Although tart, thepummelo is sweeter(but firmer and lessjuicy) than grapefruit.Family RutaceaeScientific name Citrus grandisCommon name pummelo, pomelo,pommelo, Chinese grapefruit, Shaddock♥ High in vitamin CVarietiesAmong the common varieties of pummeloavailable in the United States arethe Chandler, Ichang, Red Shaddock,Reinking, Tresca, and Webber.Origin & botanical factsA native of Malaysia, the pummelo is apopular fruit in east, southeast, and southAsia. It is believed to have been introducedto the West Indies by an Englishsea captain named Shaddock, by whosename this fruit is sometimes called.Pummelo trees are strictly tropical andgrow only in frost-free regions. Theyachieve heights of 15 to 30 feet, and thecrown of the tree is round. Like othercitrus trees, they bear fruit for manydecades. Although the pummelo is notgrown commercially in the United States,imported fruits are available at the marketfrom November through March.UsesPummelos can be used in the same way asgrapefruits. By themselves, they can beeaten as a breakfast fruit or a refreshingsnack, or they can be added to fruit salads.The thick rind and pith should be peeledbefore use and the fruit sectioned like agrapefruit or pulled into pieces. The skinand white pith of the pummelo arecandied to make a traditional Chinesetreat. The fruit can be stored at roomtemperature for up to a week or up to 2weeks in the refrigerator.Nutrient compositionLike most citrus fruits, the pummelo ishigh in vitamin C.SERVINGSIZE: 1/2 cup sections,raw (95 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 36Water (%) 89Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 9Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 4Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 205Magnesium 6Phosphorus 16Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A0 REVitamin C 58Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate –Vitamin E –Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

204 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsQuinceThe quince is a member of the same family as apples and pears. The mature fruitranges in size and shape from that of a small plum to that of a large pear, dependingon variety. In cool, temperate climates, the quince’s rough, woolly rinddevelops a golden color when ripe.Its firm, white flesh has a strongfragrance, but the fruit is hardand sour and is generallyinedible unless cooked.Family RosaceaeScientific name Cydonia oblongaCommon name quince♥ High in vitamin Ctemperature. Ripe quince, which is fragrant,can be kept in a perforated plasticbag in the refrigerator up to 2 weeks.Because of the quince’s dry, hard textureand its astringent flavor, it is betterconsumed cooked than raw. Before beingcooked, quince must be peeled, cored (theseeds contain a cyanide compound), andplaced in a mixture of water and lemonjuice to prevent discoloration. Whencooked, the hard pulp of the fruit softens,turns pink, and takes on the texture of apear. The flavor becomes more mellowand sweeter.VarietiesThe two most common varieties ofAmerican quince are the pineapple quinceand the perfumed quince. The pineapplequince is round and has a yellow skin andwhite flesh that is somewhat dry. Theflavor is similar to that of pineapple. Theperfumed quince is the shape of a smallfootball and has a tart flesh. Great Britainproduces the Portugal, the apple-shaped,and the pear-shaped quince. The Japanesequince has a slightly more acidic flavor.Several small varieties are often used forbonsai plants.Origin & botanical factsKnown throughout Asia and theMediterranean region for about 4,000years, the quince originated somewherein the Middle East (possibly Iran), whereit still grows wild. The ancient Greekscultivated a common variety of quincebut grafted onto it a better variety fromCydon, a town in Crete, from which theword “quince” is derived.The ancient Romans believed thequince had medicinal and mysticalpowers because it had been held sacredby the goddess Venus. The quincebecame a symbol of love and happiness,a symbolism that lasted into the MiddleAges. Quince was eaten at weddings,shared by brides and grooms as a token oftheir love. Medieval English manuscriptscontain recipes mentioning “char deQuynce,” the old name for quince marmalade.In fact, the word “marmalade”is derived from the Portuguese word forquince, “marmelo.” Today the quince iscultivated throughout the Mediterranean,in South America, and in the UnitedStates, where California is the leadingproducer.Quince grows as a many-brancheddeciduous shrub or small tree, no morethan 10 to 12 feet tall, and produces large,fragrant white, pink, or red flowers beforethe leaves appear. The plants are propagatedby seeds, shoots, cuttings, or layering.The flowering quince is popularlygrown as an ornamental plant.UsesQuince is available only in the autumn.Unripe fruits can be ripened at roomNutrient compositionQuince is high in vitamin C.SERVINGSIZE:1 fruit, raw (92 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 52Water (%) 84Dietary fiber (grams) 2Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 14Protein (grams) 0Minerals (mg)Calcium 10Iron 1Zinc 0Manganese –Potassium 181Magnesium 7Phosphorus 16Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A4 REVitamin C 14Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate3 μgVitamin E 1Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

Fruits 205RAMBUTANThe rambutan is a rubbery red fruit about the size and shape of a golf ball. Short,flexible, curved spines give the fruit its name, which means “hairy” in Malay.Underneath the spiny shell is a sweet, juicy, translucent flesh similar to that ofthe lychee fruit. Another similarity to lychees is the oneshiny seed in the center of the flesh of the rambutan.Nutrient CompositionThe fresh fruit has not been analyzed fornutrient content. Canned rambutanprovides a small amount of vitamin C.Family SapindaceaeScientific name Nephelium lappaceumCommon name rambutanVarietiesSeveral varieties of rambutan are availableat tropical markets. They vary in shapefrom round to slightly ellipsoid and incolor from green to yellow, orange, andred. The Thai green rambutan has athinner rind and a more delicate flavorthan the others.Origin & botanical factsRambutan is indigenous to Malaysia andIndonesia and is distributed throughoutthe tropical regions of southeast Asia.Internationally, Malaysia, Thailand, andIndonesia are the leaders in rambutanexport, and Singapore consumes morethan 60 percent of the fruit. Because ofthe short shelf life of the fruit, the marketfor fresh rambutan is concentrated inAsia. Domestically, rambutans are grownin Hawaii; however, restrictions onimports to the continental United Stateslimit the market for fresh Hawaiianrambutans.The rambutan tree, which reachesheights of 8 to 15 feet, is slightly shorterthan the lychee tree but bears considerableresemblance to its well-known cousin.The rambutan flowers in terminal clustersthat give rise to “bouquets” of fruits.These flowers are used decoratively infloral arrangements. However, unlike thelychee tree, the rambutan is strictly tropicaland requires well-irrigated soil toflourish.UsesThe numerous spines of rambutansprovide a large surface area for dehydration.To prevent this moisture loss (whichresults in darkening of the color), the fruitshould be refrigerated in sealed plasticbags. Under these conditions, rambutanscan maintain their bright color for up to12 days. To eat the fruit, it is necessaryto cut around the middle of the spinyshell with a knife and peel the shell awayto reveal the pale, juicy flesh. The seedsshould not be ingested. Canned rambutans,which retain the flavor and textureof the fresh fruit, are available in specialtyfood stores.SERVINGSIZE:1/2 cup cannedin syrup, drained (75 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 62Water (%) 78Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 16Protein (grams) 0Minerals (mg)Calcium 17Iron 0Zinc 0.1Manganese 0.5Potassium 32Magnesium 5Phosphorus 7Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A0 REVitamin C 4Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0Folate6 μgVitamin E –Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

206 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsRHUBARBAlthough rhubarb is botanically a vegetable, it is used as a fruit, sometimes evenreferred to as “pie plant” because of its frequent use as pie filling. Except for itspink color, rhubarb is similar in appearance to celery. The acidity and intensityof flavor vary, and young stalks are more tender than older stalks. The roots andleaves of rhubarb are not eaten because theycontain significant amounts of oxalicacid and are highly poisonous.Family PolygonaceaeScientific name Rheum officinale, Rheumpalmatum, Rheum rhaponticumCommon name rhubarb, rheum♥ Contains some vitamin Csweet fruits such as strawberries decreasesthe amount of sweetener needed andhence the number of calories. Cookingcauses rhubarb to turn brown, but thiscan be prevented by the addition of acooked beet to the pot. Aluminum orcast iron saucepans should not be usedto cook rhubarb because the acid in thevegetable will blacken the pot and therhubarb.Nutrient compositionRaw rhubarb contains some vitamin C.VarietiesRhubarb is available in two main types,each of which includes many species anddozens of varieties. Hothouse-grownrhubarb has pink or light red stalks andyellow leaves, and field-grown rhubarbhas dark-red stalks and green leaves. Thehothouse variety has a milder flavor andis less stringy.Origin & Botanical factsMuch of the history of cultivation ofrhubarb is related to its use as a medicinalplant. The earliest recorded use of rhubarbfor medicinal purposes appeared in 2700B.C. Marco Polo was the first to introducerhubarb to Europe. Although rhubarbstalks were eaten in eastern Turkey as earlyas the 13th century, it was not until the18th century that Europeans began touse rhubarb as a food. By 1830, rhubarbhad become a popular winter vegetablein the London markets. In the late 18thor early 19th century, seeds and rootstockof rhubarb were brought to New England,where it was cultivated and began toappear in Massachusetts produce marketsby the 1820s.Rhubarb is a large, leafy perennial thatcan grow to 10 feet. It sends out thick,brown, branching roots. The field-grownvariety grows to only 3 feet and has redroots. Rhubarb is a heat-intolerant, coolseasoncrop that is grown in fields andhothouses throughout Washington,Oregon, and Michigan.UsesRhubarb is available frozen, canned, orfresh, sold as loose stalks or bagged. Mostcooks prefer to use the fresh stalks. Theleaves should be cut off before storing thestalks in plastic bags. They will stay freshin the refrigerator for about a week.Rhubarb is too tart to eat raw. Instead,the stalks are sliced thinly or diced, bakedor stewed, and then sweetened. Becauserhubarb becomes slightly sweeter whencooked, sweeteners should be added aftercooking. Cooked rhubarb may besweetened with sugar, honey, maple syrup,orange or pineapple juice, or berrypreserves. Combining rhubarb withSERVINGSIZE:1/2 cup, raw (61 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 13Water (%) 94Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 3Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 52Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 176Magnesium 7Phosphorus 9Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A6 REVitamin C 5Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate4 μgVitamin E 0

Fruits 207SAPODILLAThe sapodilla is nearly round and about 2 to 4 inches in diameter. Its thin,brownish skin is easy to peel when the fruit is ripe. The translucent flesh hasa sweet flavor reminiscent of honey andapricots and a “melt in the mouth”texture. The center of the fruitcontains about 3 to 12 hard,shiny black seeds.Family SapotaceaeScientific name Manilkara zapotaCommon name sapodilla♥ High in vitamin C and fiberVarietiesThe extensive cultivation of the sapodillain India has resulted in numerous varieties.Brown Sugar produces fragrant, juicyfruits whose flesh is pale brown and richlysweet. The flesh of the Prolific variety islight pinkish tan, mildly fragrant, smoothtextured,and sweet. Russel bears largefruits that are rich and sweet, but it is nota prolific producer. A new selection,Tikal, yields fruits that have an excellentflavor but are smaller.Origin & botanical factsThe sapodilla plant is believed to haveoriginated in the Yucatán peninsula ofMexico, northern Belize, and northeastGuatemala. The plant was highly prizedby the Aztecs, who called the fruit“tzapotl,” from which the Spanish derivedthe name sapodilla. The plant is nowgrown in almost all the tropical and subtropicalregions of Africa, Asia, the EastIndies, and the Americas. The mainproducers are the Central American countries,Australia, India, Indonesia, and, inthe United States, California and Florida.Equally at home in humid and relativelydry environments, the sapodilla treeis a slow-growing evergreen that can reachup to 100 feet in height. The tree bearssmall, ball-shaped white flowers borneon slender stalks at the leaf bases. Aresinous sap called “chicle” was oncecollected from sapodilla tree trunks formaking chewing gum. This practice haslargely been replaced by the use of syntheticingredients. The mature sapodillatree can yield from 2,000 to 3,000 fruitsin a single year. Because the fruits areeasily perishable and fragile, they do notship well and therefore are relativelyunknown outside their areas of origin.UsesBecause the high tannin and latex contentsof unripe fruits make them astringent andunpalatable, sapodillas should be eatenonly when ripe. Unripe sapodilla fruitsshould be left to ripen at room temperatureand refrigerated after ripening. Thesapodilla is best eaten raw and chilled, bycutting in half and spooning the pulp outof the skin. It can be added to salads ordesserts such as ice cream and sorbet. InMalaysia, the fruit is stewed with limejuice or fried with ginger. In India, it iseaten as a dried fruit.Nutrient compositionSapodilla is high in vitamin C and indietary fiber.SERVINGSIZE:1 fruit, raw (170 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 141Water (%) 78Dietary fiber (grams) 9Fat (grams) 2Carbohydrate (grams) 34Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 36Iron 1Zinc 0Manganese –Potassium 328Magnesium 20Phosphorus 20Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A10 REVitamin C 25Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate24 μgVitamin E 0Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

208 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsTAMARINDThe tamarind is a brown, flat, irregularly curved pod about 3 to 8 inches longwith a sour, fruity taste. The pod may have as many as 12 large, flat, glossy seedsembedded in a brown, edible pulp. As the pod matures, it fills out somewhat andthe juicy, acerbic pulp turns brown or reddish brown. The sweet, tart taste of thepulp is the result of its high content of bothacid and sugar; however, the pulp becomesextremely sour when dried. The shellsbecome brittle and crack readilywhen the fruit is fully ripe.Family LeguminosaeScientific name Tamarindus indicaCommon name tamarind, Indian dateVarietiesThe size and flavor of tamarinds aredetermined by their variety. Indianvarieties have long pods with 6 to 12 seeds,and the West Indian and Americanvarieties have shorter pods containingonly 3 to 6 seeds. Sweeter pulp is foundin selected varieties such as the MakhamWaan from Thailand and the ManilaSweet from the United States Departmentof Agriculture’s subtropical horticultureresearch unit in Miami.Origin & botanical factsThe tamarind, also known as “Indiandate,” is one of the few fruits native toAfrica that is enjoyed in the cuisines ofmany other continents. In China, it iscalled Asam koh; in Vietnam, it is calledMe; in France, Tamarin; in Cambodia,Ampil khui or tum; in Thailand, Makkham; and in Italy and Spain, Tamarindo.Although the tamarind is native to tropicalAfrica and grows wild throughout theSudan, the fruit has been cultivated inIndia for centuries. During the 16thcentury, the fruit was brought to theAmericas, and it is now widely grown inMexico and Central and South America.Belize, Brazil, Guatemala, and India arethe major commercial producers oftamarind worldwide. The tree is a slowgrowing,long-lived evergreen with supplebranches and bright-green leaves thatappear in pairs, 1 to 2-1/2 inches inlength, and fold up at night. Under favorableconditions, the tree may grow up to80 feet tall and 20 to 35 feet wide. Insevere drought, the leaves often drop offthe tree. A young tree bears fruit within4 years and continues to fruit for up to60 years. Tamarind fruits may be left onthe tree for up to 6 months after maturitywithout loss of moisture.UsesTamarind is available in Indian and Asianmarkets as a fresh fruit, as a concentratedpulp with seeds, as a paste, as whole podsdried into “bricks,” and as a powder.Tamarind has a variety of uses in cooking.The immature fruit can be roasted andserved as a “vegetable,” or it can be usedto season rice, fish, or meat. Ripe tamarindis eaten fresh or made into sauces, chutneys,or curry dishes. It is also one of the manyingredients in Worcestershire sauce.Tamarind pulp concentrate is often used asa flavoring in East Indian and MiddleEastern dishes, in much the same waylemon juice is used in Western cuisine.Tamarind’s sweet-sour flavor combineswell with the spicy flavor of chili in theThai and Vietnamese cuisines, whereunripe pods are used in soups and stews.In Indian cooking, tamarind is used as aseasoning in lentil and bean dishes and inthe dish called “vindaloo.” Tamarindsyrup, which can be found in Dutch,Indonesian, and East Indian markets, isused to flavor soft drinks.Nutrient compositionIn the amounts customarily eaten,tamarind is not a significant source ofnutrients.SERVINGSIZE:10 fruits (20 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 48Water (%) 31Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 13Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 15Iron 1Zinc 0Manganese –Potassium 126Magnesium 18Phosphorus 23Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A1 REVitamin C 1Thiamin 0.1Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate3 μgVitamin E 0Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

Fruits 209TangerineThe tangerine is a citrus fruit, usually round and about 2 1/2 inches in diameter,smaller than the orange. Its rough, fragrant rind is generally orange or red-orange,thin, and loose on the fruit, so that it peelsvery easily. Inside, numerous fibersloosely hold the 8 to 15 easily separatedsegments, or carpels, that contain thejuice sacs and white seeds. The center ishollow. Although the terms “tangerine”and “mandarin orange” are sometimes usedinterchangeably, tangerines actually are asubgroup of the mandarin.is a refreshing thirst quencher, either aloneor combined in a blender with other freshfruits. Tangerines can be substituted fororanges in various dishes. Meat, fish, andpoultry can be marinated in tangerinejuice before grilling, and tangerine juicepoured over freshly sliced fruit helps keepthe fruit from turning brown and adds adistinctive flavor. Tangerines also makean excellent marmalade.Family RutaceaeScientific name Citrus reticulataCommon name tangerine♥ High in vitamin C♥ A good source of vitamin A(carotenes)VarietiesThe most popular variety of tangerine inthe United States is the Dancy, a verysweet fruit with a red-orange color and amellow flavor. Honey tangerines, withtheir slightly green-tinged peel, are true totheir name. They have a high sugarcontent and a rich taste. The Fallglo is alarge tangerine with dark-orange rind andflesh. Two smaller sized varieties are theClementine, also called the Algerian tangerine,and the Sunburst, which has athin skin and deep-orange flesh.Origin & botanical factsTangerines are native to China, but todaythey are grown all over the world. In theUnited States, the leading producers areCalifornia, Arizona, and Florida.The name “tangerine” is derived fromthe ancient, walled Moorish town ofTangier in northern Morocco, where thefruit grows in abundance. As the cultivationof tangerines was carried aroundthe globe, the original mandarin orangeswere crossed with other citrus fruits, producingnumerous hybrids such as thetangelo (a cross between a tangerine anda grapefruit) and the tangor (a hybrid ofa tangerine and an orange).The tangerine tree is an evergreen thatgrows to a height of about 10 feet. Thefive-petaled tangerine blossoms are whiteand fragrant. It takes 6 to 10 monthsfrom the time the blooms appear untilthe fruit is ready for harvest. Tangerinesgrow year-round in warmer climates, andthey are a traditional Christmas or NewYear treat in some parts of the world.UsesTangerines are always picked when theyare ripe, so they are ready for immediateconsumption. Fruits should be heavy fortheir size and free of bruises. Color is nota reliable indicator of the quality of tangerines.The fruit is most often eaten as asnack or dessert or used in green salad orfruit salad. Tangerine slices also make anattractive garnish for cakes and otherdesserts. Freshly squeezed tangerine juiceNutrient compositionAlthough tangerines have about 43 percentless vitamin C than oranges, they are stillan excellent source for this vitamin.Tangerines also contain more vitamin A(carotenes).SERVINGSIZE:1 medium, raw(84 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 37Water (%) 88Dietary fiber (grams) 2Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 9Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 12Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 132Magnesium 10Phosphorus 8Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A77 REVitamin C 26Thiamin 0.1Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate17 μgVitamin E 0

211VegetablesVegetables and other foods of plant origin were the primary source of sustenance for early humans.The plant foods that we call vegetables came under cultivation later than the grains and legumes.Less protein- and carbohydrate-dense than the grains and legumes, vegetables have always served moreas accompaniments or accessory ingredients than as staples. Some fragrant, highly flavored vegetables,such as scallions, garlic, ginger, parsley, basil, oregano, fenugreek, and dill, are really used as herbsand spices in sparing amounts as flavorings for other foods. Only a few of these “vegetables” aredescribed in this section. Other herbs and spices are discussed on pages 363 to 375.Some plant foods that we consider vegetables are, botanically, fruits (for example, avocado,squash, cucumber, olives, tomatoes, and eggplant), that is, edible flesh surrounding seeds. Nevertheless,the term “vegetable” has come to denote plant foods eaten as side dishes or used in the preparationof any part of the meal except dessert. Vegetables tend to be less sweet than foods considered fruits.In addition, some foods that are served as vegetables are really grains (corn), legumes (green beans,lima beans, peas), or fungi (mushrooms, truffles). So what is a vegetable, really? A vegetable is essentiallyany edible part of the plant (leaves, roots or tubers, and stalks) except, in most cases, the fruit.Multiple parts of some plants are eaten as separate vegetables with very different nutrient contents.The most common example is beet roots and their greens.Vegetables contribute significant amounts of vitamins, minerals, soluble and insoluble fiber,and other phytonutrients to our diets. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans advise us to eat awide variety of vegetables and fruits every day, because the nutrient content varies considerablyfrom one to another. (For a discussion of the Dietary Guidelines and the 5 a Day program, seeChapter 1, page 8.) With the exception of olives and avocados, which are really fruits, few vegetables,by themselves, provide significant amounts of fat. The fat provided by olives and avocados is highin monounsaturated fatty acids, which may help prevent heart disease (see Chapters 2 and 3).To assist you in menu planning, the following section provides information regarding the nutrientcontent of many vegetables.The tables of nutrient values are based on serving sizes specified by the U.S. Departmentof Agriculture Food Guide Pyramid. Nutrient values are rounded (milligrams and microgramstend to be rounded to one decimal point, grams are rounded to whole numbers). Nutrientclaim statements listed beneath the common name of each vegetable are based on theserving size specified and the definitions in Chapter 4 (see sidebar:Nutrient Claims, page 92). For example, asparagus is considereda good source of vitamin C, because it provides about 18percent of the Daily Value for vitamin C. A food that is highin a particular nutrient provides 20 percent or more of theDaily Value for that nutrient per serving.See the Appendix, Nutrients in Foods, page 434, andPhytochemical Contents of Selected Foods, page 484, for amore complete listing of nutrient and phytonutrient contentsof selected vegetables.

212 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsAMARANTHAmaranth is cultivated as both a vegetable and a cereal grain. The uprightherbaceous plant usually reaches 6 to 7 feet in height but may grow to 13 feetin favorable environments. The foliage varies in shape and color, althoughthe leaves of most varieties are large, broad, and dark green with deeppurplish veins. The flowers are small, green, and clover-like.The leaves from most varieties are edible and are deliciouswhen cooked. The tiny grain is very nutritious.(See Grains, page 272, for a discussionof the grain.)Family AmaranthaceaeScientific name Amaranthus dubiusCommon name amaranth♥ Cooked amaranth leaves arehigh in vitamin A, vitamin C, andpotassium♥ Amaranth leaves are a good sourceof calciumVarietiesThe genus Amaranthus includes a numberof amaranth species. The common typesinclude tampala, hon-moi-toi, bush greens,pigweed, Chinese spinach, and wildamaranth, some of which are edible andsome not. Amaranth gangeticus, one of theedible varieties, is available in the UnitedStates as the green-leafed tampala. Thered-leafed amaranth, known as Amaranthtricolor L., is also available, as is anotherfamiliar type called Joseph’s Coat.Origin & Botanical FactsReports of the existence of amaranth dateback to the 2nd century A.D. The grainwas a staple of the Aztec diet and was usedin religious ceremonies until its cultivationwas outlawed by the Spanish conquerors.Amaranth was brought to Asia after the15th century and was cultivated in Chinaand India. Today, China and CentralAmerica are the world’s leading suppliers.Amaranths are hot weather plants thatthrive best in well-fertilized, well-irrigatedraised beds in sunny areas. Amaranthgreens are harvested 4 to 6 weeks after theplanting season. They are transported tothe market packed in ice and are sold inbunches. Once considered a weed in theUnited States, amaranth is now consumedas a vegetable green.UsesYoung amaranth leaves are preferred forcooking. The leaves wilt easily and havea very short shelf life. They must berefrigerated or kept in ice water to retaintheir freshness and crispness. Amaranthleaves can be boiled, steamed, or stir-friedas a side dish to accompany meats, fish,or other vegetables. As a grain, amaranthis mostly ground into flour and used tomake breads, pasta, pastries, and cereals.The flour is also available commercially.Nutrient CompositionAmaranth is a nutrient-dense food. Onehalfcup of cooked leaves is high invitamin A and vitamin C and is a goodsource of calcium.SERVINGSIZE:1/2 cup leaves,cooked (66 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 14Water (%) 92Dietary fiber (grams) -Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 3Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 138Iron 2Zinc 1Manganese 1Potassium 423Magnesium 36Phosphorus 48Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A183 REVitamin C 27Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0.1Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate37 μgVitamin E –Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

Vegetables 213ARTICHOKEThe artichoke plant is a member of the thistle or sunflower family. The cones,or spherically shaped buds, are enclosed by overlapping outer scales (bracts) andare edible at the base. At the center of the bud is an inedible thistle (choke).The edible “heart” of an artichoke is the round, tender, firmbase of the bud that is revealed after pulling off thepetals. Commercially sold artichoke hearts arethe tender central portions of small artichokesthat have almost no choke. Theirflavor is delicately nuttyand slightly bitter.Family CompositaeScientific name Cynara scolymusCommon name globe artichoke♥ High in vitamin C and fiber♥ A good source of folateVarietiesThe most popular variety of artichoke isthe Green Globe, which is usually solidgreen. Other varieties, rarely seen in theU.S. marketplace, include the Violettaand the Purple Roscoff, which have hintsof purple either on the scales or the chokeitself.Origin & botanical factsoutdoor farmers’ markets and can bedried for use in flower arrangements. Thesize of an artichoke bud is determined bythe stalk on which it grows and is notindicative of quality. Thick stalks, whichare usually concentrated around the centerof the plant, produce large artichokes, andthe thinner side stalks produce smallerartichokes.Useseaten hot or cold. Each petal is pulledoff and the base is dipped into meltedbutter or lemon juice. Only the tenderportion at the base of the petal is edible.Underneath the rough outer petals, thethinner rose-colored petals can be bittenoff or removed to find the choke. Afterremoving the choke, the heart can beeaten whole. The hearts also can beadded to pasta sauces or green salads andused to top pizzas. Whole steamed artichokescan be filled with well-seasonedstuffing and served as is or baked.Nutrient compositionThe artichoke is high in vitamin C anddietary fiber and is a good source of folate.SERVINGSIZE:1 artichoke (120 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 60Water (%) 84Dietary fiber (grams) 6Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 13Protein (grams) 4The artichoke is native to the easternMediterranean region. Its use was documentedby the ancient Greeks andRomans thousands of years ago. Today,most of the European supply of artichokesis still grown by the countries surroundingthe Mediterranean Sea. Artichokeswere introduced to the United States inthe 19th century by European immigrantsand soon found their way to themidcoast region of California, where mostof the domestic crop is cultivated today.An artichoke is an immature bud that,if left to bloom, boasts a bright-purple,thistle-like flower that can be found atArtichokes picked in the fall or wintermonths may have bronze-tipped leavesor a slightly gray tint, which is a sign ofexposure to frost. However, this shouldnot affect the flavor of the artichoke.Squeezing the artichoke slightly shouldelicit a squeak if the leaves are still plumpand crisp. Although the artichoke lookstough and hardy, it should be kept in therefrigerator for no more than 4 or 5 days.A sprinkle of water in a plastic bag willhelp maintain the moisture of the artichoke,but it should not be trimmed, cut,or washed before storing. Artichokes aremost often boiled or steamed and can beMinerals (mg)Calcium 54Iron 2Zinc 1Manganese 0Potassium 425Magnesium 72Phosphorus 103Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A22 REVitamin C 12Thiamin 0.1Riboflavin 0.1Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate61 μgVitamin E 0

214 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsARUGULAArugula is an annual that grows 8 to 24 inches high. It has dull- or shinygreen,deeply cut, compound leaves that are edible and have a distinctivespicy, pungent flavor resembling horseradish. The vegetable was formerlycalled roquette (the French word for rocket),but the term "arugula" is now becomingmore common.Family CruciferaeScientific name Eruca vesicaria sativaCommon name arugula, Italian cress,rocket, roquette, tira, white pepper,garden rocket♥ Provides some vitamin AVarietiesThe arugula can be divided into smoothedgedor serrated-leafed varieties. Somearugula varieties are wild, although mostare cultivated. The flavor varies dependingon variety.Origin & Botanical factsArugula belongs to the Cruciferae familyand is a close relative of the mustard.Ancient Egyptians and Romans consideredarugula leaves in salads to be an aphrodisiac.It is a minor crop in the southeastern UnitedStates, grown to a limited extent commerciallyand in home vegetable gardens.Seeds often are listed in seed catalogs as"roquette" under the category of herbs.A cool season vegetable best grown inFlorida during the fall, winter, and spring,it matures from seed in 2 to 3 months.Periods of very warm temperatures causeit to bolt (go to seed) rather quickly. Fewpests attack the arugula.UsesThe freshest, crispest leaves free of brownspots should be chosen. Arugula should beused as soon as possible after purchasing.If necessary, after removing any wiltedleaves, the remaining unwashed leavescan be refrigerated for no more than 2 daysin a plastic bag. The zesty leaves can beused raw in salads by themselves or tossedwith other greens. Arugula also can beadded to soups or lightly cooked andserved as a side dish. The arugula is widelyconsumed in the Middle East as a garnishon meats and sandwiches. Tiny arugulablossoms also can be added to salads.Nutrient compositionArugula provides some vitamin A.SERVINGSIZE:1 cup, raw (20 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 5Water (%) 92Dietary fiber (grams) 0Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 1Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 32Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 74Magnesium 9Phosphorus 10Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A47 REVitamin C 3Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate19 μgVitamin E 0

Vegetables 215AsparagusAsparagus is a member of the lily family and is related to onions, leeks, and garlic.It is cultivated for its edible young shoots, which are long and unbranched withcompact, pointed tips madeof tiny leaves.Family LiliaceaeScientific name Asparagus officinalisCommon name asparagus♥ High in folate♥ A good source of vitamin C♥ Contains glutathione, an antioxidantthat promotes healthVarietiesTwo basic varieties of asparagus, white andgreen, are cultivated. The green variety isthe only one grown on a commercial scalein the United States, whereas the white ispreferred in Europe. White asparagus isproduced by banking soil against the plantto keep out sunlight, which otherwisewould turn the stalks green. Also available,although not common, is a violet variety,with pinkish purple shoots and tips.Origin & botanical factsAsparagus was first cultivated in Greeceabout 2,500 years ago. In fact, the nameasparagus is Greek for “stalk” or “shoot.”The ancient Greeks believed that asparagushad medicinal qualities and could curetoothaches and bee stings. The cultivationof asparagus was adopted by theRomans, who carried it throughoutEurope and Great Britain. From there,its popularity spread to the rest of theworld. Traditionally, asparagus was aNorthern Hemisphere crop, but today itis cultivated worldwide. The UnitedStates is the world’s largest supplier ofasparagus, with most cultivation concentratedin California.The asparagus plant is a perennial butrequires three seasons to mature. In itsfirst season, a crown forms with 6 inchesof root. In its second season, the crowndevelops into a fern. Asparagus can beharvested in its third season, but the plantdoes not reach its prime until 6 to 8 yearsof age. At peak age, an asparagus fieldcan yield up to 2 tons per acre. Becauseits growing season is short and it must beharvested by hand, asparagus can be expensive.Asparagus appears in Americanmarkets as early as February, when thefirst California crops are harvested, butthe peak season in the West is from lateApril to late May and, elsewhere in theUnited States, from May through July.Throughout the rest of the year, freshasparagus may be available from Mexicoand South America.UsesAsparagus stalks of similar width withtightly closed tips should be selected.Young asparagus is thinner and generallymore tender. Fresh asparagus should bestored in the refrigerator with the cut endsimmersed in water and should be usedwithin a day or two.Fresh asparagus is best steamed ormicrowaved until just crisp-tender.Steaming should be done quickly, withthe spears in an upright position to heatthe stalks evenly. The spears also can beroasted briefly in the oven with a littleolive oil. Cooked asparagus is best servedimmediately and simply, without richsauces. Asparagus spears also can be cutinto diagonal pieces and stir-fried.Asparagus is also available canned orfrozen. Frozen spears are closer to freshspears in flavor and nutrition. The cannedvariety is less nutritious.Nutrient compositionAsparagus is a good source of vitamin Cand is an excellent source of folate. It alsocontains glutathione, an antioxidant thatpromotes health.Nutrient Content6 spears,4 spears, cookedraw (1/2 cup)(64 g) (72 g)Energy (kilocalories) 14 22Water (%) 92 92Dietary fiber (grams) 1 1Fat (grams) 0 0Carbohydrate (grams) 3 4Protein (grams) 1 2Minerals (mg)Calcium 13 18Iron 1 1Zinc 0 0Manganese 0 0Potassium 175 144Magnesium 11 9Phosphorus 36 49Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A 37 RE 49 REVitamin C 8 10Thiamin 0.1 0.1Riboflavin 0.1 0.1Niacin 1 1Vitamin B 6 0.1 0Folate 82 μg 131 μgVitamin E 1 0

216 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsBambooAlthough the bamboo is often thought to be a tree, it is actually a type of evergreenperennial grass that is woody when mature but whose young shoots areedible. The mature stalks are characterized by green internodes ribbed withcream-colored, brown-speckled sheaths and hanging leaves up to 8 inches longand 3/4 inch wide. Fresh bamboo shoots are light yellow or brown, purple at theroot end, and white at the stalk end. The cooked young shoots are crisp, fragrant,and mild in flavor.Family GraminaceaeScientific name Phyllostachysspecies, Bambusa speciesCommon name bamboo♥ A source of potassiumVarietiesThe dozens of varieties of bamboo can beclassified in several ways. All bamboo canbe divided into those that grow uncontrollably(the invasive type) and those thattend to clump. Bamboo also can be dividedinto those that are cold-hardy and thosethat are tropical and sub-tropical. Finally,within each of the above categories, thenumerous species can be classified by theirmature size (giant, large, medium, anddwarf). Bamboo grown in the UnitedStates is almost exclusively the cold-hardyPhyllostachys species, most of which areinvasive.Origin & botanical factsBamboo is native to China, Japan, southeastAsia, India, Africa, South America, andparts of Mexico. Although bamboo shootshave been an important vegetable in Asiandiets for thousands of years, Asian-grownbamboo is mostly consumed locally, withonly small quantities processed for export.Bamboo is still a rare vegetable in Westerncountries, used exclusively in Orientaldishes. However, Europe and the UnitedStates are beginning to develop bamboocrops.Bamboo grows by sending out newrhizomes (underground, horizontal stems)from which new shoots emerge. The constantappearance of new shoots and leavesgives the plant its evergreen appearance.The nutrients made by the leaves are storedin the rhizomes and then converted intothe following year’s new growth. Becauselarge crops occur in alternate years, growersmaintain plants of various ages. To keepthe shoots white, soil is sometimes piledagainst new growth areas to prevent themfrom developing chlorophyll.Nations that export bamboo shootsmay harvest cultivated plantations or nativeforests. Unfortunately, lack of regulationhas allowed excessive harvesting, whichhas led to a decline in some native forests.In contrast, because many hardy bamboospecies spread uncontrollably, U.S. homegardeners who want to grow bambooshould construct an underground barrierwall to prevent its spread.UsesThe tenderest shoots are those about 6inches or less in height. Fresh shootsshould be stored in cold water for nomore than 2 days, or wrapped tightly inplastic and refrigerated up to a week. Theshoots also can be blanched and frozenfor up to a year. Fresh shoots should beboiled in one or two changes of plain orslightly salted water until tender, thenhusked and sliced lengthwise. Cannedor frozen bamboo shoots should berinsed, heated, and served as is or stirfriedwith meats and other vegetables.The tender parts also can be used in salads.Nutrient compositionCooked bamboo shoots are a source ofpotassium.SERVINGSIZE:1/2 cup, cooked (60 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 7Water (%) 95Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 1Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 7Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 320Magnesium 2Phosphorus 12Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A0 REVitamin C 0Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate1 μgVitamin E –Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

Vegetables 217BeetsBeets are round, firm root vegetables with edible, leafy green tops. Although themost common root color is bright red, colors may varyfrom deep red to yellow or white, and one varietydisplays concentric rings of red and white.When cooked, they have a tender-crisptexture and a sweet flavor.Family ChenopodiaceaeScientific name Beta vulgarisCommon name beet♥ Beets are a good source of folate♥ Cooked beet greens are high in vitaminA (beta-carotene) and vitamin C andare a good source of riboflavin andmagnesiumVarietiesThe garden or table beet is the type mostcommonly grown for human consumption.Three common varieties are theLutz salad leaf beet, the Detroit dark redbeet, and the Chioggia beet, an Italianfavorite with alternate red and white concentricrings. Another type of beet is thespinach or leaf beet, grown not for its rootbut for its leaves, which are better knownas Swiss chard. A third type of beet, thesugar beet, is not grown as a vegetable.This beet contains twice the sugar of tablebeets and provides about a third of theworld’s sugar supply. This type of beetalso is used as fodder.Origin & botanical factsModern varieties of beets are derived fromthe sea beet, an inedible plant that growswild along the coasts of Europe, NorthAfrica, and Asia. The garden beet has beencultivated for thousands of years. In ancientGreece, beets were so highly valued that,according to myth, a beet was offered ona silver platter to Apollo at Delphi.Today, beets are grown in many regionsof the world. The leading beet-producingregions of the United States are California,Colorado, New Jersey, Ohio, and Texas.The beet is a cool-weather biennial that iscultivated as an annual. Beets are grownfrom seeds sown in early spring and areready to harvest 60 to 80 days after planting.Beets are not harmed by frost, buthot weather can toughen the roots. Thus,in regions with hotter summers, they areplanted in early fall for winter and springharvest. Consequently, fresh beets areavailable all year.UsesWhen buying beets with the leavesattached, those with the youngest, freshestlooking leaves should be selected.Otherwise, avoid beets that are dried,cracked, or shriveled. Large beets maybe tough, and small ones are the mosttender and flavorful. Leaves should becrisp and should be rinsed well beforeusing. Beets should be stored separatelyfrom the leaves in perforated plastic bagsin the refrigerator vegetable crisper.Beets can be grated and eaten raw insalads, boiled, steamed, stewed, baked,sautéed, or pickled. To preserve theircolor and nutrients, it is best not to peelbeets before cooking. They should bescrubbed gently and at least a half inchof stem should be left on. Beets also keeptheir color better if an acid ingredient suchas vinegar or lemon juice is added duringcooking. Canned beets are available, butfresh beets are crisper and more flavorful.Beets are used to make the traditionalRussian soup borscht, which is coloredred by the beet juice.Nutrient compositionCooked beets are a good source of folate.Cooked beet greens are high in vitamin A(beta-carotene) and vitamin C. They arealso a good source of riboflavin and magnesium.Nutrient Content1/2 cupsliced 1/2 cupbeets, greens,cooked cooked(85 g) (72 g)Energy (kilocalories) 37 19Water (%) 87 89Dietary fiber (grams) 2 2Fat (grams) 0 0Carbohydrate (grams) 8 4Protein (grams) 1 2Minerals (mg)Calcium 14 82Iron 1 1Zinc 0 0Manganese 0 0Potassium 259 655Magnesium 20 49Phosphorus 32 30Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A 3 RE 367 REVitamin C 3 18Thiamin 0 0.1Riboflavin 0 0.2Niacin 0 0Vitamin B 6 0 0.1Folate 68 μg 10 μgVitamin E 0 0

218 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsBITTER MELON (BALSAM PEAR)About 4 to 10 inches long, bitter melons are shaped like cucumbers and havewrinkled, bumpy skin. The vegetable’s name is derived from its distinctive bittertaste, the result of a high quinine content. The bitterness increases as the melonmatures; young, green melons have a delicate, sourflavor, whereas older (yellow) ones are verybitter and acrid. When fully mature,the melon’s rind dries and splitslengthwise into three sections,revealing the bright-redarils that enclosethe seeds. Bittermelons are normallyeaten as immature fruits,but some people prefer thebitter-tasting, more mature fruits.Stuffed with meat, shrimp, wood ears, andthin rice noodles, bitter melons can bebraised in a light broth to make a bittersweetsoup. The young leaves of the plantcan be boiled and stir-fried like greens orused fresh in salads.Nutrient compositionBitter melons are high in vitamin C. Theyalso contain many phytochemicals, includingelasterol, lutein, and lycopene. Theleafy tips are a good source of vitamin A.Family CucurbitaceaeScientific name Momordica charantiaCommon name bitter melon, balsam pear,bitter cucumber, bitter gourd♥ High in vitamin CVarietiesThe bitter melon is a variety of squash.A closely related variety, the balsam apple(Momordica balsamita), bears fruits similarto bitter melons except that they are eggshapedand smaller, with smoother skin.Balsam apples, which have a taste similarto that of the bitter melon, are also cultivated,harvested, and prepared like thebitter melon.Origin & botanical factsBitter melons originated in tropical Indiaand have been cultivated for centuriesthroughout Asia.The bitter melon is an annual thatgrows in tropical and subtropical areas.Reaching up to 30 feet in length, theplant grows as a vine with tendrils thatattach to plants or other objects for support.Although highly popular as a foodcrop in India, China, and southeast Asia,bitter melons have been introduced onlyrecently as a food item in U.S. markets.In this country, bitter melons are oftengrown on trellises and fences as decorativeplants.UsesBitter melons are available fresh from Aprilthrough September in Asian markets andalso are sold canned or dried. They canbe refrigerated in a plastic bag for up to aweek. When buying bitter melons, choosegreen ones if a less bitter taste is desiredor yellow ones for a stronger, more bitterflavor. Before it is cooked, the fruit shouldbe cut lengthwise to remove the seeds andthe surrounding white fibers. The skincan be either left intact or removed. Bittermelons are always cooked before eating.In India, bitter melons are combined withpotatoes or lentils and seasoned withcumin and turmeric. In China, they aresteamed or used as an ingredient in soup.They can be thinly sliced and stir-friedwith eggs, meats, or other vegetables.SERVINGSIZE:pods, 1/2 cup,cooked (62 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 12Water (%) 94Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 3Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 6Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 198Magnesium 10Phosphorus 22Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A7 REVitamin C 20Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate32 μgVitamin E 0

Vegetables 219BroccoliThe broccoli plant is a dark-green vegetable with a firm stalk and branching armsthat end in florets. The name comes from the Latin word brachium, meaning“arm” or “branch,” or the Italian word broccolo, for“cabbage sprout.” The edible portions are the floretsand 6 to 8 inches of the supporting stem.Broccoli is closely related to cauliflower,cabbage, and Brussels sprouts.Family CruciferaeScientific name Brassica oleraceaCommon name broccoli♥ High in vitamin A(beta-carotene) and vitamin C♥ A cruciferous vegetablethat contains phytochemicalsthat may help prevent cancerto cook faster than the stalks, stalks shouldbe split to expose more surface area, whichensures even cooking. The florets alsomay be cut from the stalks and addedafter the stalks have been cooking for 2to 3 minutes. Broccoli can be boiled,steamed, microwaved, stir-fried, or puréedand added to soups.Nutrient compositionBroccoli is high in vitamin A (betacarotene)and vitamin C. The vitamin Aand various phytochemicals, such as isothiocyanates,indoles, and bioflavonoids, inbroccoli may help prevent cancer.VarietiesThe most common type of broccoli in theUnited States today is the sprouting, orItalian, green broccoli. The light-greenstalks are topped by umbrella-shaped clustersof dark-green florets. This variety isalso called the Calabrese, named after theItalian province in which it was first grown.Broccoli rabe, a distinct but related type,has smaller florets and a stronger flavor.Origin & botanical factsBroccoli dates back to the time of theRoman Empire, when it was cultivatedfrom wild cabbage native to coastal Europe.It was brought to the United States in theearly 1900s by Italian immigrants tonorthern California. Currently, 90 percentof the domestic commercial market issupplied by California producers.Although it is not a popular vegetableworldwide, broccoli began gaining popularityin the 1970s, when consumptionper person increased from about a halfpound per year to the current 4 1/2pounds. Today, broccoli ranks 11thamong leading U.S. vegetable crops.The broccoli plant is an uprightannual, able to reach a height of 3 feet,with large spreading leaves. Usuallygrown from seed, broccoli is harvested80 to 120 days after planting. The consumedportion of broccoli is actually agroup of buds that are almost ready toflower. Overmature broccoli is tough andwoody because the plant sugar is convertedto lignin, a type of fiber that is notsoftened by cooking.UsesBroccoli with the tiniest buds and thedarkest blue-green color should beselected. Avoid those with a yellowishcast. Broccoli should be stored unwashedin an open bag in the refrigerator, becauseexcess moisture encourages the growth ofmold. Before use, broccoli should be rinsedthoroughly under cold running water toremove any dirt. Broccoli can be consumedraw as an appetizer with dip or insalads, or it can be cooked in a variety ofways. Well-cooked broccoli should betender enough to yield to a fork, yet remaincrisp and bright. Because the florets tendNutrient Content1 /2 cup, cooked1 /2 cup, (about 2raw spears)(44 g) (78 g)Energy (kilocalories) 12 22Water (%) 91 91Dietary fiber (grams) 1 2Fat (grams) 0 0Carbohydrate (grams) 2 4Protein (grams) 1 2Minerals (mg)Calcium 21 36Iron 0 1Zinc 0 0Manganese 0 0Potassium 143 228Magnesium 11 19Phosphorus 29 46Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A 68 RE 108 REVitamin C 41 58Thiamin 0 0Riboflavin 0.1 0.1Niacin 0 0Vitamin B 6 0.1 0.1Folate 31 μg 39 μgVitamin E 1 1

220 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsBrussels SproutsBrussels sprouts look like miniature dark-green cabbages and are, in fact, relatedto the cabbage. The sprouts range from 1 to 1 1/2 inches in diameter. As manyas a hundred of these ball-like sprouts may grow in bunches from a single, longplant stalk that is usually between 2 and 4 feet in height. Brussels sprouts aresimilar to the cabbage in flavor but aremilder and have a denser texture.Family CruciferaeScientific name Brassica oleracea var.gemmiferaCommon name Brussels sprouts♥ High in vitamin C♥ A good source of folate andvitamin A (beta-carotene)♥ A cruciferous vegetable that containsphytochemicals that mayhelp prevent cancermust be taken to avoid overcooking,which turns the stems mushy. Sproutsmay be boiled, braised, steamed, ormicrowaved and can be seasoned withmustard, dill, caraway, poppy seeds, orsage leaves. Brussels sprouts are a goodaccompaniment to strong-flavored meatsand cheeses.Nutrient compositionBrussels sprouts are high in vitamin C andare a good source of folate and vitamin A(beta-carotene). They are cruciferousvegetables and contain phytochemicalsthat may help prevent cancer.VarietiesAmong the common varieties of Brusselssprouts are the Noisette and BedfordFillbasket. The Rubine is a red-leafedvariety; the Mallard, Captain Marvel,Prince Marvel, Montgomery, and JadeCross are all hybrids. The Early Half Talis another variety.Origin & botanical factsBrussels sprouts, named after the capitalof Belgium, are one of the few vegetablesthat originated in northern Europe. Theywere first cultivated in Belgium in the16th century, introduced to France andEngland in the 19th century, and probablybrought to North America by Frenchsettlers, who grew them in Louisiana. Inthe United States, they are grown primarilyalong the east and west coastswhere summer daytime temperaturesaverage 65 degrees or less. Brussels sproutsare grown from seed, and the first sproutsare ready to pick about 4 months afterthe seeds are sown. The plant continuesto produce sprouts for approximately 6weeks. Brussels sprouts are very resistantto cold, and the tastiest sprouts are oftenthose that mature after the first fall frost.They are usually available throughout theyear. The peak season is from late Augustthrough March. California is the majorsupplier of Brussels sprouts in the UnitedStates.UsesBrussels sprouts are usually selected onthe basis of size and appearance. Small,compact, fresh sprouts that are brightgreen will have the freshest flavor and thecrispiest texture. They may be stored ina loosely closed plastic bag in the refrigeratorfor up to 5 days. Any wilted oryellow outer leaves should be removedand the stems of the sprouts trimmed,although not flush with the bottoms,before cooking. Cutting an “X” in thebase of the sprouts helps the heat penetratethe solid core and allows the sproutsto cook evenly. Brussels sprouts can becooked in a variety of ways, although careSERVINGSIZE: 1/2 cup, cooked(about 4 medium) (78 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 30Water (%) 87Dietary fiber (grams) 2Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 7Protein (grams) 2Minerals (mg)Calcium 28Iron 1Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 247Magnesium 16Phosphorus 44Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A56 REVitamin C 48Thiamin 0.1Riboflavin 0.1Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate47 μgVitamin E 1

Vegetables 221CabbageCabbage is a leafy vegetable that grows in heads close to the ground.The leaves may be loosely or tightly compacted and range frompale-green to dark purple-red, depending on the variety.Family CruciferaeScientific name Brassica oleracea L.Common name cabbage♥ High in vitamin C♥ A cruciferous vegetable thatcontains phytochemicalscalled indoles that may helpprevent cancerVarietiesOf the hundreds of types of cabbage,three are grown and sold in the UnitedStates: green, red, and savoy. Green cabbagehas smooth, green outer leaves and paleinterior leaves. The three most commonlygrown varieties of green cabbage areDanish, with very compact, round or ovalheads, produced for sale in the late fall;Domestic, with looser heads of curledleaves; and Pointed, grown primarily inthe Southwest for the spring market, withsmall, conical heads and smooth leaves.Red cabbage has dark-red to purple leaveswith white veins. Red cabbage has atougher texture and a flavor that is similarto but slightly sweeter than that of thegreen variety. Savoy cabbage has pale,yellow-green, crinkled leaves forming aless compact, more oblong head. Its flavortends to be milder than that of red orgreen cabbage.Origin & botanical factsThe oldest accounts of cultivated cabbageappear in Greek literature and date fromabout 600 B.C. However, the cabbageeaten by the early Greeks and Romansappears to have been a loose-leaved, nonheadingtype. Modern compact-headedvarieties with overlapping leaves weredeveloped by northern European farmersduring the Middle Ages. Because this typethrived through cold winters, it becamealmost as much a staple in the Europeandiet as potatoes and corn. Cabbage is aninexpensive vegetable that is easy to growand stores well. It is particularly popularin Germany, Austria, Poland, and Russia.In the United States, the primary regionsof cultivation are California, Florida,Georgia, New York, and Texas.Cabbage is propagated from seedsown first in a seedbed and then transplantedafter 1 to 2 months. Tall varietiesmust be staked to prevent damage fromwind or heavy rain. Cabbage is a relativelyslow-growing crop. Some varietiestake up to 200 days to mature. Othervegetables that develop more quickly, suchas lettuce or green beans, may be sownbetween rows of cabbage plants.UsesUncut cabbage can be stored for monthsin perforated vegetable bags in the refrigeratorcrisper.Raw cabbage can be shredded forsalads and cole slaw. Cooked cabbage hasa strong flavor and mushy consistencywhen overcooked, but it can be preparedso that its mild taste and crisp texture areretained. Cabbage can be microwaved,steamed, stir-fried, or added to soups andstews. Individual cabbage leaves can beseparated and used to wrap a variety ofstuffings, such as meats and rice or othergrains. Seasonings that work well withboth raw and cooked cabbage includecaraway, dill, mustard, and curry.Nutrient compositionCabbage is high in vitamin C. As acruciferous vegetable, it contains significantamounts of nitrogen compoundscalled indoles, which are phytochemicalsthat may help prevent some types ofcancer.Nutrient Content1 cup1 /2 cupshredded, shredded,raw (70 g) boiled (75 g)Energy (kilocalories) 18 17Water (%) 92 94Dietary fiber (grams) 2 2Fat (grams) 0 0Carbohydrate (grams) 4 3Protein (grams) 1 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 33 23Iron 0 0Zinc 0 0Manganese 0 0Potassium 172 73Magnesium 11 6Phosphorus 16 11Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A 9 RE 10 REVitamin C 23 15Thiamin 0 0Riboflavin 0 0Niacin 0 0Vitamin B 6 0.1 0.1Folate 30 μg 15 μgVitamin E 0 0

222 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsCarrotThe carrot plant is a member of the parsley family, characterized by light, featheryleaves. Other members of this family include fennel, dill, and celery.The edible root of the plant is usually orange and shapedlike a long cylindrical cone. A fibrous channel or coreruns the length of the vegetable; usually, the smallerthe core, the younger and sweeter the vegetable.Family UmbelliferaeScientific name Daucus carotaCommon name carrot♥ High in vitamin A (carotenes)♥ Good sourceof fiber♥ Contains phytochemicalsthat may help preventcancer and heart diseaseVarietiesMany varieties of carrots are grownthroughout the world. Colors range fromwhite to yellow to crimson. A carrot maybe as short as 3 to 6 inches and as long asseveral feet. However, most carrots on theU.S. market today are orange and 7 to 9inches long. Mini-peeled carrots are cutfrom the smaller, sweeter “caropak” carrots,which have been grown tightly togetherespecially for this purpose. Despite packagingand labeling claims, mini-peeledcarrots are not baby carrots. True babycarrots are carrots harvested earlier thanusual and do, in fact, look like miniaturecarrots. They are often sold with their greentops still on them in specialty food stores.Origin & botanical factsThe first carrots, which were white, purple,and yellow, were cultivated in Afghanistanand then brought to the Mediterraneanarea. Today's orange carrots descend fromDutch-bred carrots and have been grownin the United States since colonial times.Domestically, California produces about60 percent of the United States crop, 25percent of which goes into the productionof mini-peeled carrots.UsesCarrots should be firm and brightly coloredfrom top to bottom. Near the leafycrown of the root, there may be a greenishtinge, but dark or black coloring is anindication of age. Keeping carrots refrigeratedin moisture-retaining packagingwill preserve them for up to a month.The green leaves should be twisted offbefore storage, because they wilt quicklyand draw moisture from the carrots.Fruits that produce ethylene gas as theyripen, such as apples or pears, should notbe stored in the same bag with carrots.With the exception of beets, carrotscontain more sugar than any other vegetable.They are a satisfying snack wheneaten raw and are a tasty addition to avariety of mixed dishes. Grated rawcarrots may be added to fruit or vegetablesalads, mixed with peanut butter as asandwich filling, or used in baking cakes,muffins, or breads. Cooked carrotsenhance the flavor of casseroles, soups,and stews. Puréed carrots may be usedin cookies, puddings, and soufflés.Nutrient compositionA medium-sized raw carrot is an excellentsource of beta-carotene, which is convertedinto vitamin A. Carrots are a relativelygood source of fiber. In additionto beta-carotene, carrots contain twoother carotenoids: alpha-carotene andlutein. The carotenoids, which are responsiblefor the bright-orange color of carrots,have antioxidant properties and mayhelp prevent cancer and heart disease.Lutein also has been looked at for its rolein protecting the eye from free-radicaldamage and maintaining vision. Cookingcarrots makes them more digestible andappears to increase the amount of vitaminA available for use in the body.However, the vitamin A content of freshor frozen carrots is twice that of cannedversions.Nutrient Content1 medium,1 /2 cup,raw cooked(61 g) (78 g)Energy (kilocalories) 26 35Water (%) 88 87Dietary fiber (grams) 2 3Fat (grams) 0 0Carbohydrate (grams) 6 8Protein (grams) 1 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 16 24Iron 0 0Zinc 0 0Manganese 0 1Potassium 197 177Magnesium 9 10Phosphorus 27 23Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A 1,716 RE 1,915 REVitamin C 6 2Thiamin 0.1 0Riboflavin 0 0Niacin 1 0Vitamin B 6 0.1 0.2Folate 9 μg 11 μgVitamin E 0 0

Vegetables 223CassavaThe cassava is a root 2 to 3 inches in diameter and 6 to 12 inches long, coveredwith a coarse, inedible brown skin. To help preserve the root, the skin is oftencoated with a shiny film of wax. The flesh of the tuber is white with thin veinsrunning through it and is potato-like in texture.or stews. West Indians cook bitter cassavawith brown sugar and spices to make acondiment called cassareep, available inCaribbean markets. In addition to itsvaried uses in the human diet, cassava isused as animal feed and in many industrialapplications.Nutrient CompositionFamily EuphorbiaceaeScientific names Manihot esculenta Crantz(Manihot ultissima Phol [sweet];Manihot aipi Phol [bitter])Common name yuca, tapioca, manioc,appleCassava is composed mostly of carbohydrateand is a major source of calories inThird-World countries.VarietiesUntil recently, the many varieties of cassavawere divided into two main categories:bitter and sweet. Because the bitter rootcontains substances that are converted totoxic cyanide compounds when the rootis cut, it must not be eaten raw; cookingdestroys these substances. Although sweetcassava is believed to have low amounts ofthese potential toxins, taste is not a reliablepredictor of toxin content, and expertsrecommend that all cassava be cooked.Origin & botanical factsThe cassava originated in Brazil, Paraguay,and the Caribbean Islands, from whereit was introduced to Africa and the FarEast. Africa is now the leading producer,and cassava is an important dietary staplethroughout the continent. In the UnitedStates, cassava is grown in Florida and isimported from Mexico, Central America,South America, and the Antilles.Cassava is propagated from stem cuttings.Ideal growing conditions includetemperatures between 77° and 86°Fahrenheit (the plants cease to grow iftemperatures fall below 50° Fahrenheit).Most cassava roots are harvested by hand,although Brazil has developed mechanicalharvesters. Because the roots are extremelysensitive to physical damage, harvestingmust be done carefully.To increase the short shelf life of thecassava further, the leaves are removed 2weeks before harvest. In addition todipping the roots into wax, storing thenewly harvested roots in plastic bagsextends the shelf life by 3 to 4 weeks.UsesCassava should be refrigerated no morethan 4 days. The peeled cassava can beboiled and mashed, baked, or sliced andfried, identical to the cooking of potatoes.Alternatively, the peeled root can begrated and the starch extracted to makebreads, crackers, pasta, and tapioca pearls(a commercial product used to makepudding). In Africa, the roots arefermented in water, after which they aremade into an alcoholic beverage; sundriedfor storage; or grated, formed intoa dough, and cooked alone or in soupsSERVINGSIZE:1/4 cup, raw (51 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 83Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 20Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 8Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 140Magnesium 11Phosphorus 14Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A1 REVitamin C 11Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate14 μgVitamin E 0

224 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsCauliflowerAs their names imply, cauliflower and broccoflower are actually flowers. The partof the plant that is eaten is the head of underdeveloped, tender flower stems andbuds. While growing, the head is surrounded byheavy green leaves that protect it from sunlightand discoloration. Many of the leaves aretrimmed off during preparation for shipmentand sale. Cauliflower has a strong odorwhen cooked and a rich, cabbage-like flavor.Broccoflower is a hybrid of broccoli andcauliflower.Family CruciferaeScientific name Brassica oleracea L.(botrytis)Common name cauliflower♥ High in vitamin C♥ A cruciferous vegetable that containsphytochemicals that may help preventcancerVarietiesCauliflower falls into three types. Themost commonly grown and sold is thewhite cauliflower, which has creamy curdsand bright-green leaves. The green varietyis actually the hybrid broccoflowerdeveloped about 10 years ago, which hasbright lime-green curds. Less commonlyknown is the purple-headed cauliflower.Origin & botanical factsCauliflower is native to the Mediterraneanregion and Asia Minor, where it wascultivated more than 2,000 years ago. Bythe 16th century, its cultivation hadspread throughout western Europe. Inthe United States, cauliflower did notbecome an important vegetable until theearly part of the 20th century. Today itis grown in numerous states. Californiaand New York are the leading producers,and it is also grown in Arizona, Michigan,Oregon, Florida, Washington, and Texas.Cauliflower requires cool tempera-tures and rich, fertile soil with good moisture.It is usually planted as an annual,but milder climates can support wintervarieties, so it is available year-round, withpeak seasons in spring and fall. Caulifloweris propagated from seed, usually sownfirst in beds and then transplanted to thefield after 4 or 5 weeks. The flower budforms on a single stalk and is surroundedby large, heavy green leaves that protect itfrom the discoloring effect of sunlight.Heads are ready for harvest between 80and 110 days after transplantation. In thefield, many of the leaves are trimmed off,and the heads, which bruise easily, arepacked gently for shipping, usually inplastic wrap that has been perforated toallow the escape of carbon dioxide, whichcan discolor the head and cause anunpleasant taste.UsesA cauliflower head should be unbruised,firm, and uniformly cream-colored withouta trace of black, and it should be heavyfor its size. It can be stored in perforatedplastic vegetable bags in the refrigeratorcrisper for several days.The raw florets are tasty in salads, as acrunchy appetizer with dips, or pickled.Cauliflower can be boiled, steamed,microwaved, or baked. It is a flavorfuladdition to soups and stews or to othervegetables such as carrots, tomatoes, peas,bell pepper, or broccoli. Cauliflower alsoworks well on its own, seasoned withnutmeg, dillweed, chives, or almonds.Cauliflower is available fresh and frozen,but the processing required for freezingdestroys some nutrients and can turn theflorets watery in flavor and appearance.Nutrient compositionCauliflower is high in vitamin C. As acruciferous vegetable, cauliflower containsphytochemicals that may help preventcancer.Nutrient Content1 /2 cup,1 /2 cup,raw (50 g) boiled (62 g)Energy (kilocalories) 13 14Water (%) 92 93Dietary fiber (grams) 1 2Fat (grams) 0 0Carbohydrate (grams) 3 3Protein (grams) 1 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 11 10Iron 0 0Zinc 0 0Manganese 0 0Potassium 152 88Magnesium 8 6Phosphorus 22 20Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A 1 RE 1 REVitamin C 23 27Thiamin 0 0Riboflavin 0 0Niacin 0 0Vitamin B 6 0.1 0.1Folate 29 μg 27 μgVitamin E 0 0

Vegetables 225CeleriacClosely related to celery, celeriac (alsocalled celery root or celery knob) is aknobby, bulb-shaped root about the sizeof a baseball. It has a rough brown skinand rootlets. It has a crisp texture and anutty flavor that resembles that of strongcelery or parsley.cooked whole and then peeled, diced, orpuréed and added to soups, stews, andstir-fries or eaten alone with a bit of butteror margarine and fresh herbs. In Europe,celeriac is often added to mashed potatoesand served with butter or cream sauce.Like celery, the celeriac root as well as thestalks are often used as a seasoning.Family UmbelliferaeScientific name Apium graveolensCommon name celeriac♥ Raw celeriac is a good source ofvitamin C and provides somepotassium and phosphorusNutrient compositionRaw celeriac is a good source of vitaminC and provides some potassium andphosphorus.VarietiesCeleriac is available in three varieties:Iram, a medium-sized, globe-shaped rootwith few side shoots; Marble Ball, around, white root; and Tellus, a quickgrowing,round root with brownish redleaf stems.Origin & botanical factsA native of the Mediterranean region,celeriac is a popular vegetable in Europe,particularly in France and Italy, but it isless well known in the United States.Celeriac is propagated from seed,usually sown in pots or greenhouses inearly spring, and then transplanted to thefield in May. It requires a fertile soil thatis rich in organic matter. For a large corm(underground stem base) to develop, along growing season and plenty of waterare required. Thus, celeriac thrives inmoist, temperate climates. In midsummer,the outer leaves are removed, andthe plant is mulched or fertilized to assistgrowth and moisture retention. Lateralshoots also are removed to create a singlegrowing point. Celeriac is hardier thancelery and keeps well in winter if storedin a cool place. Thus, it is available yearround,with a peak season lasting fromNovember through April.UsesSmall to medium-sized celeriac roots thatare heavy for their size and free of cuts,bruises, and soft spots are the best. Theroots should be stored with their stalksintact in perforated plastic bags in therefrigerator crisper.Celeriac can be consumed either rawor cooked. Regardless of how it is to beused, the root must be rinsed well andpeeled. After it is peeled, the piecesshould be dropped into a bowl of acidulatedwater (water to which a few drops oflemon juice or vinegar have been added)to prevent the discoloration that occursfrom exposure to the air. The raw rootcan be cut into sticks for dipping, or itcan be grated or julienned for salads.Celeriac can be boiled, braised, baked, orsteamed until it is tender. It can beNutrient Content1 /2 cup, raw 1 /2 cup,(78 g) cooked (77 g)Energy (kilocalories) 33 21Water (%) 88 92Dietary fiber (grams) 1 1Fat (grams) 0 0Carbohydrate (grams) 7 5Protein (grams) 1 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 34 20Iron 0 0Zinc 0 0Manganese 0 0Potassium 234 134Magnesium 16 9Phosphorus 90 51Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A 0 RE 0 REVitamin C 6 3Thiamin 0 0Riboflavin 0 0Niacin 1 0Vitamin B 6 0.1 0.1Folate 6 μg 3 μgVitamin E 0 –Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

226 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsCEleryCelery is a vegetable that is enjoyed for its crisp texture and distinctive flavor. Abunch of celery is actually a single stalk consisting of separate ribs, and the mosttender, inner ribs are called the hearts. The crispnessof celery comes from the rigidity of itscell walls and its high watercontent. In fact, celeryis mostly water, whichmakes it low in caloriesand an ideal snack food.Family UmbelliferaeScientific name Apium graveolens L.Common name celery♥ A good source of vitamin CUsesCelery that is light in color and shiny hasthe best flavor. Celery should be storedby the bunch in perforated plastic vegetablebags in the refrigerator crisper.Celery is a versatile vegetable. Rawcelery adds crunch to chicken, seafood,egg, potato, and green salads. It is anexcellent snack food or appetizer. Celeryalso can be microwaved, stir-fried, braised,or steamed to serve as a main vegetable,but it usually is combined with other vegetablesor is included in stuffings forpoultry and fish. Celery even has beenmade into a uniquely flavored soft drink,Dr. Brown’s Cel-Ray tonic.VarietiesAlthough celery is available in many colors,most of the celery grown in the UnitedStates belongs to the green varieties, whichrange in shade from pale to dark and arereferred to as Pascal. One common greenvariety is the American Green, also knownas the Tall Utah or Greensnap, which doesnot require blanching (the banking of soilagainst the plant to keep it from turningdark green upon exposure to sunlight).Other varieties of celery include the GiantPink, with pink or red stems and darkgreenleaves; the Golden Self-Blanching,with pale, golden-yellow leaves and goldenstems; and the Ivory Tower, a fast-maturing,self-blanching variety with pale leaves.Origin & botanical factsWild celery is a biennial or annual herbnative to southern Europe, Asia, and Africa,growing in marshes along the muddy banksof tidal rivers or in other saltwater areas.Although it resembles domestic celery, itis smaller, with a stronger, more pungentodor and flavor. Before the familiar milder,thick-stalked forms were cultivated, celeryprobably was used solely as a seasoning andmedicinal herb. Leafy cultivated varietiesmay date back 2,000 years or more, butstalk celery seems to have been grown firstin Italy in the 16th century. In the 1690s,John Evelyn, an English diarist, describedcelery as a new vegetable. Today, celery isgrown in Great Britain, India, the UnitedStates, and Canada.Celery requires a moist, rich soil forgood growth. It is especially successfulin low-lying, alkaline areas such as theeastern regions of Florida and GreatBritain. Because of its high water content,celery requires large amounts of moisture;otherwise, the stalks become stringyand tough. Celery is propagated fromseeds so tiny that it takes more than a millionof them to add up to a pound. Mostcommercially grown celery is planted inMarch or April, in greenhouses orseedbeds with controlled watering.About 2 months after sowing, whenthe seedlings are 4 to 6 inches tall, they aretransplanted to fields. Varieties that requireblanching usually are planted in trenchesto facilitate the banking of the soil againstthe plants. Three to 4 months after fieldplanting, celery is ready for harvesting.Nutrient compositionCelery is a good source of vitamin C.SERVINGSIZE:2 stalks (80 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 13Water (%) 95Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 3Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 32Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 230Magnesium 9Phosphorus 20Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A10 REVitamin C 6Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate22 μgVitamin E 0

Vegetables 227CHAYOTEThe chayote, a tropical member of the cucumber and squash family, is actually afruit. It resembles a summer squash or avocado in shape and appearance but hasdeep, lengthwise ridges and a single, flat, nut-likeseed. The fruit can be variable in size, color,texture, and flavor. The skin of the fruitcan be smooth, deeply fissured, oreven wrinkled and prickly. Colorsrange from light-green to almostwhite. The opaque flesh has acucumber-like texture and variesin color. Once heated, the fleshbecomes somewhat translucent.Except for the seed, the entire fruitis edible.Family CucurbitaceaeScientific name Sechium eduleCommon name chayote♥ A good source of vitamin CVarietiesAlthough definite strains of chayote-producingplants exist, distinctive varietiesof the fruit are yet to be identified.However, the fruit is identified by avariety of names. In many places, it isrecognized as mango squash, chocho,christophine, and choke. In Louisiana,it is called mirliton, and in Florida it iscalled a vegetable pear.Origin & botanical factsChayote is native to Mexico, CentralAmerica, and the West Indies. The fruitis believed to have been cultivated bythe Aztecs and Mayans long beforeColumbus arrived. The name chayote isderived from the Mayan word “chayotli.”The plant is now grown in SouthAmerica, North Africa, and in subtropicalparts of southern Florida. The fruit growsabundantly from a fast-growing tropicalclimbing vine that may reach up to 100feet in a single season and is covered withlarge, heart-shaped, lobed leaves thatmeasure 4 to 6 inches. Ideal growingconditions include full sunlight, highmoisture levels, and rich, well-drained soil.Under the proper conditions, some plantscan produce up to 100 fruits in a singleseason. The fruits must be harvestedyoung or they will become tough. Chayoteis available year-round, but the peakseason is late summer through early fall.UsesA firm, unblemished, clear-green chayoteis the best choice. The chayote keeps upto 1 month stored uncovered in a cool,dry, dark place, or it can be stored in aperforated plastic bag in a refrigeratorvegetable crisper for up to a week.The chayote is most easily preparedby peeling the fruit and microwaving orsteaming it for a few minutes. Althoughvery young fruit can be prepared with theskin left on, more mature fruit should bepeeled under running water to preventbeing irritated by the sticky sap under theskin. Cooked chayote can be seasoned totaste and eaten as is; sliced or diced andadded to other dishes such as salads in placeof cucumbers; or prepared like frenchfries. Chayote halves that are stuffed andbaked make a filling main dish. Thechayote can be substituted for many otherfruits and vegetables in recipes. A fullymature fruit may be used in place of potatoesin soups and purées. The grated fruitalso is useful as a substitute for carrotsand zucchini in breads and pastries.Cooked, mashed, and seasoned withsweet spices, it resembles applesauce andcan be served as a light snack or dessert.The leaves and stems of the chayote plantare used as a low-cost animal feed andcan also be spun into cord.Nutritional FactsChayote is a good source of vitamin C.SERVINGSIZE: 1/2 cup pieces,cooked (80 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 17Water (%) 93Dietary fiber (grams) 2Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 4Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 10Iron 0Zinc 0.2Manganese 0Potassium 138Magnesium 10Phosphorus 23Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A4 REVitamin C 6Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate14 μgVitamin E –Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

228 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsChicoryChicory is a perennial that forms long, stick-like stemsand ragged, widely spaced bunches of leaves,sometimes in tight heads or in loose formations.The outer leaves may be green, white, orred, depending on variety, and have astrong, slightly bitter taste. The innerleaves are usually paler in color andmilder in flavor.Family CompositaeScientific name Chichorium intybusCommon name chicory, Belgian endive,radicchio♥ Leaves are high in folate, vitamin A,vitamin C, potassium, and fiber♥ A good source of calcium, magnesium,riboflavin, and vitamin B 6VarietiesThe two basic types of chicory, forcingand nonforcing, are distinguished by theirmethod of cultivation. The forcingchicories are initially sown outdoors, butbecause exposure to light tends to createa bitter taste, the plants are transferred toa dark area (a process called blanching)for the latter half of their growth. As aresult, forcing chicories have a milder flavor.The most common forcing varietiesare the Witloof chicory, sometimes calledBelgian endive, and the red-leaf radicchio,an Italian chicory that is becomingincreasingly popular in the United States.Nonforcing chicories do not requireblanching. These varieties are grown likelettuce, without forcing. The Italianradichetta, more common in NorthAmerica than in Europe, has narrow leavesthat grow on wide stalks and are cookedlike asparagus.Origin & botanical factsChicory is native to Europe and westernAsia. Evidence suggests that it was grownin ancient Egypt, where, along withendive and escarole, it was believed tohave been one of the bitter herbsconsumed during the Jewish Passover.Works by Horace, Aristophanes, andPliny attest to the use of chicory by theearly Greeks and Romans. Later, it wasbrought to North America, where it nowgrows wild and in cultivated form.Chicory can be grown in a variety ofsoil types. Seeds generally are sown directlyinto open ground. Because most typesof chicory thrive in cool temperatures,planting is done in early spring or latefall. Chicory plants have shallow roots,so frequent irrigation is necessary. Theplants grow with a scruffy appearance andwith multiple stick-like stems that are 2to 3 feet tall. Bright, almost iridescent,blue flowers appear on the stems in thesecond year.Forcing varieties are dug up in late fall,the leaves and roots are cut back, and theplants are laid horizontally in pots of moistpeat in a dark, warm place. After 3 or 4weeks, the heads are ready to be cut.Nonforcing varieties of chicory are plantedin the spring and picked like lettuce inthe fall. They can be used immediatelyor stored in a cool place for later use.Leading domestic producers of chicory,particularly the newly popular radicchio,are California and New Jersey. Somechicory is also grown in Mexico and Italy.UsesChicory, Belgian endive, and radicchioshould be selected and stored in a mannersimilar to arugula and lettuce. Chicoryleaves most often are used raw in salads.The roots of some varieties of chicory areroasted and ground to make a coffee substituteor flavoring popular in Louisiana.Nutrient compositionChicory is high in folate, vitamin A,vitamin C, potassium, and fiber. It is alsoa good source of calcium, magnesium,riboflavin, and vitamin B 6 .SERVINGSIZE:1 cup greens, raw (180 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 41Water (%) 92Dietary fiber (grams) 7Fat (grams) 1Carbohydrate (grams) 8Protein (grams) 3Minerals (mg)Calcium 180Iron 2Zinc 1Manganese 1Potassium 756Magnesium 54Phosphorus 85Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A720 REVitamin C 43Thiamin 0.1Riboflavin 0.2Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0.2Folate197 μgVitamin E 4

Vegetables 229CHINESE CABBAGE (Bok Choy & Napa)Bok choy and napa are two varieties of Chinesecabbage, a member of the same family as broccoliand Brussels sprouts. Resembling a cross betweencelery and Swiss chard, bok choy has white,celery-like stalks with dark-green,long, rounded leaves. Napa cabbage issimilar in shape and size to romainelettuce and has white, crisp stalks.more tender leaves. Bok choy and napacabbage are delicious cooked alone orwith meat, poultry, and other vegetables.A mild-flavored soup can be prepared byadding the leaves and stalks to either achicken or miso broth with scallions andcubes of chicken or tofu. In Korea, kimchee,a spicy dish made from pickledChinese cabbage, is served at most meals.Family CruciferaeScientific name Brassica campestris L.Common name bok choy, napa cabbage♥ Raw bok choy is high in vitamin A andvitamin C♥ Raw bok choy is a good sourceof folate♥ Napa cabbage is a good source of zincVarietiesAs many as 33 varieties of Chinesecabbage exist, each with a different name.The two most common varieties are bokchoy (var. chinensis) and napa cabbage(var. pekinensis). Bok choy also is knownas pak-choi, qing cai, taisai, chongee, andChinese mustard cabbage. Baby bok choyis a variety that grows to a fraction of thesize of regular bok choy and is consumedwhole. Among its other names, napacabbage is sometimes called Chinesecabbage, which adds to the confusionamong varieties.Origin & botanical factsNative to China and eastern Asia, Chinesecabbages are annual plants that grow bestin cool, moist environments. Both bokchoy and napa cabbage have beencultivated in China for thousands of yearsand are popular in that country and inKorea and Japan. Introduced to theUnited States by Chinese immigrants inthe late 19th century, Chinese cabbage isnow grown in California, New Jersey,Hawaii, and Florida.UsesBoth bok choy and napa are availablethroughout the year. Bok choy shouldhave bright, white stalks and fresh greenleaves and should show no signs ofwilting. Napa heads should be tightlyclosed and have unblemished leaves.Uncut, unwashed cabbage can be refrigeratedin a plastic bag for up to 3 days.Mild-flavored and versatile, both bokchoy and napa cabbage can be preparedin the same ways as regular cabbage. Theycan be used raw in salads or steamed,boiled, braised, stuffed, or stir-fried.Cooking softens the flavor of the leavesand sweetens the flavor of the stalks.Before cooking, the stalks must be slicedcrosswise or on the diagonal, and theleaves cut into thick shreds. When stirfryingbok choy, the stems should becooked a few minutes before adding theNutrient compositionRaw bok choy is high in vitamin A andvitamin C. One serving of cooked napacabbage is a good source of zinc.Nutrient Content1 cup1 /2 cup napa,bok choy, raw, cookedshredded (70 g) (55 g)Energy (kilocalories) 9 7Water (%) 95 96Dietary fiber (grams) 1 –Fat (grams) 0 0Carbohydrate (grams) 2 1Protein (grams) 1 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 74 16Iron 1 0Zinc 0 2Manganese 0 0Potassium 176 47Magnesium 13 4Phosphorus 26 10Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A 210 RE 5 REVitamin C 32 2Thiamin 0 0Riboflavin 0 0Niacin 0 0Vitamin B 6 0.1 0Folate 46 μg 23 μgVitamin E 0 –Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrient value isnot available.

230 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsCollardsCollards are plain-leafed, nonheading members of the cabbage family, closelyrelated to kale. In flavor, they resemblea cross between cabbage and kale andare considered one of the milder greens.Family CruciferaeScientific name Brassica oleracea var.acephalaCommon name collards♥ High in vitamin A (beta-carotene),vitamin C, and folate♥ A good source of fiber and calcium♥ A cruciferous vegetable that containsphytochemicals that may helpprevent cancerVarietiesCollard varieties include the Plant Vates,Carolina Improved Heading (or Morris),Georgia Southern, Blue Max, and HeaviCrop.Origin & botanical factsCollards, one of the oldest members ofthe cabbage family, are similar to the wild,nonheading forms of cabbage that wereamong the first foods eaten by prehistoricpeople. They are native to the easternMediterranean region and Asia Minorand were cultivated by the ancient Greeksand Romans. Collards were introducedto Britain and France around 400 B.C. byeither the Romans or the Celts. Althoughcollards were first mentioned in theAmerican colonies in 1669, they mayhave been present here before that time.Collards are a cool-season crop thatthrives in temperate climates. They growwell in warm weather but can toleratecold temperatures in late fall, and theirflavor is enhanced by light autumn frost.Because they can survive cold tempera-tures, the cultivation of collards has spreadnorth from the southeastern United States,where they have long been a popularvegetable. Collard seeds can be sowndirectly into fields, or they can be plantedin protected beds and the seedlings transplanted6 or 8 weeks later into the fields.The plants mature in about 60 days.Collards can grow in a variety of soils andare tolerant of poor soil.Collard greens can be harvested inthese ways: the tender, young leaves canbe removed from mature plants (whichencourages new growth), or the entireplant can be cut when it is very young,half-grown, or fully mature. Maximalyield occurs when the leaves are removedfrom the bottom of the plant before theyage. The peak season for collards isJanuary through April, but they generallyare available in markets year-round.UsesCrisp bunches of intact leaves with noyellowing are best. Collards can be storedin perforated plastic bags in the refrigeratorcrisper.All green parts of the collard plant areedible. The southern style of cookingfresh collards is to boil them with a chunkof bacon or salt pork, but they can beprepared similarly to cabbage, spinach,or other greens. They can be steamed ormicrowaved and added to soups and stewsor casseroles. Cooked collards make atasty salad served chilled with olive oiland lemon juice. Collard leaves also areavailable frozen and canned.Nutrient compositionOne-half cup of cooked collards is a goodsource of fiber and calcium and is highin vitamin A (beta-carotene), vitamin C,and folate. As a cruciferous vegetable,collards contain phytochemicals that mayhelp prevent cancer.SERVINGSIZE:1/2 cup, boiled (95 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 25Water (%) 92Dietary fiber (grams) 3Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 5Protein (grams) 2Minerals (mg)Calcium 113Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 1Potassium 247Magnesium 16Phosphorus 25Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A297 REVitamin C 17Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0.1Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate88 μgVitamin E 1

Vegetables 231CornBecause corn is a member of the grass family, it is not strictly a vegetable but agrain (see Grains, page 269). However, one type, sweet corn, is prepared andserved as a fresh vegetable. The seeds, or kernels, which are the edible part ofthe plant, form in spikelets on a woody axis called an ear. They are coveredwith a green husk. Ears of corn vary in size, and thekernels range from white to yellow, orange,red, brown, blue, purple, and black,although sweet corn is alwayswhite or butter-yellow.Family Gramineae (Poaceae)Scientific name Zea mays L.Common names corn, sweet corn♥ Moderately good source of fiber,vitamin C, and folatesteamed, or microwaved, but the secretto retaining the flavor is to cook it nomore than a few minutes. For grillingears of corn in their husks, the ears shouldbe soaked in water for about 20 minutesand then cooked on a grill rack or in theoven for 10 to 15 minutes. Grilling orroasting husked corn (for 5 to 7 minutes)produces a stronger flavor.Nutrient compositionCorn provides some fiber, vitamin C, andfolate.VarietyOf the many types of corn, sweet corn isthe only variety that is eaten fresh as avegetable. Sweet corn is available inseveral varieties divided by kernel color.Some sweet corn is pure yellow; some,like Silver Queen, is white; and some, likeButter and Sugar, is bicolored, that is, ithas both yellow and white kernels.Popping corn, baby corn, and the whitecorn known as hominy are different typesof eating corn.Origin & botanical factsCorn is native to the Americas, probablyhaving originated in Mexico orGuatemala, where historians believe itevolved from a wild grain called teosintethat still grows in the Mexican highlands.The corn plant, which can attain heightsof 20 feet, has a hard, jointed stalk. Maleflowers develop in the tassel at the top ofthe stalk, and the female flower is a clusterat the joint of the stalk. Corn is pollinatedby the wind. The corn silk hangingfrom the husk of each ear is the pollenreceptor; each thread must receive a grainof pollen for the kernels to develop. Corngrows best during long, hot summers. Itrequires rich soil and regular fertilizing,particularly with nitrogen. Because theflowers are wind-pollinated, plants shouldbe spaced closely together. The ears donot ripen well in cold weather, so theseeds must be planted in plenty of timefor the kernels to develop before the firstautumn frost. Although each ear of cornproduces many kernels, the plant has nonatural mechanism for dispersing itsseeds. To ensure that it will be tender andsucculent for eating, sweet corn is pickedbefore it reaches maturity.UsesSweet corn is a popular vegetable in theUnited States. The average American eatsabout 25 pounds of corn every year, mostof it frozen or canned, but in summer,corn is preferred fresh on the cob.Because the sugars in the kernels of sweetcorn begin to convert to starch as soonas the ear is picked, corn should be eatenas soon after harvest as possible.While still on the cob and after thehusks are removed, corn can be boiled,Nutrient Content1 /2 cup (about1 ear) yellow 1 cupcorn, boiled popcorn, air-(82 g) popped (8 g)Energy (kilocalories) 89 31Water (%) 70 4Dietary fiber (grams) 2 1Fat (grams) 1 0Carbohydrate (grams) 21 6Protein (grams) 3 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 2 1Iron 1 0Zinc 0 0Manganese 0 0Potassium 204 24Magnesium 26 10Phosphorus 84 24Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A 18 RE 2 REVitamin C 5 0Thiamin 0.2 0Riboflavin 0.1 0Niacin 1 0Vitamin B 6 0 0Folate 38 μg 2 μgVitamin E 0 0

232 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsCress (watercress)Cress is a member of the mustard family, a cruciferous vegetable whose small,dark-green leaves add a slight crunch and atangy, peppery flavor to dishes.Family CruciferaeScientific name Lepidium sativum(garden cress)Common name cress, garden cress,watercress♥ High in vitamin C♥ A good source of folate and vitamin A♥ A cruciferous vegetable that containsphytochemicals that may help preventcancerVarietiesThe most common variety of cress iswatercress, which grows in flooded soilbeds and has small, heart-shaped leavesand a slightly bitter taste. Watercress isdifficult to grow in home gardens. Aneasily grown, hardy alternative is wintercress, with dark-green, strongly flavoredleaves that form rosettes. Other varietiesinclude broad-leaved cress, with ovalleaves; peppergrass, or curly cress, withan attractive, ornamental appearance;extra curled, a compact plant with shortstalks and fine leaves; and garden cress, atall, cool-season annual.Origin & botanical factsCress grows wild in many parts of theworld, including Asia, the Middle East,Europe, North America, and NewZealand. Watercress is native to Europe,and garden cress originated in Persia, laterspreading to India, Syria, Greece, andEgypt. Watercress has been cultivatedsince ancient Roman times. Commercialcultivation was first recorded in Germanyin 1750 and later in Great Britain in1808. Today, watercress is grown in GreatBritain and in the United States, mainlyin California, Florida, and Virginia.Winter cress is cultivated as a substitutefor watercress when flowing water is notavailable for planting. It is producedmostly in the United States, favored bygrowers because of its hardiness.Cress is propagated from seeds or stemcuttings and generally prefers the coolgrowing conditions of early spring andlate fall. The growth of watercressrequires a special environment withflooded soil beds containing absolutelypure water, because any water-borne contaminantscould be deposited on theplant. The leafy stems are generallyharvested about 180 days after planting.Requirements for other varieties vary.Garden cress, which can grow up to 18inches tall, prefers sun or light shade andwell-drained soil. Seeds can be sown atintervals from early spring through thesummer in order to furnish a constantsupply of young leaves. The whole plantsare harvested about 60 days after planting.Hardy winter cress is not planted untilJuly or August and can be harvested fromlate fall through the winter, until theplants begin to flower in spring. Theleaves of most cresses are picked when theyare 3 to 5 inches long, or the entire plantcan be harvested before seed stalks form.UsesThe raw, young leaves of the cress plantare sold in bunches. When selectingwatercress, choose crisp leaves with deepcolor, and avoid those with yellow leaves.Watercress can be refrigerated up to 5days in a plastic bag or with the stem endsin a glass of water and the leaves coveredwith a plastic bag. The leaves andtrimmed stems may be added to salads,sandwiches, and soups and used as agarnish for a variety of dishes.Nutrient compositionWatercress is high in vitamin A andvitamin C. As a cruciferous vegetable, itcontains phytochemicals that may helpprevent cancer.SERVINGSIZE:1 cup, raw (34 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 4Water (%) 89Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 0Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 41Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 112Magnesium 7Phosphorus 20Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A159 REVitamin C 15Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate40 μgVitamin E 0

Vegetables 233CucumberThe cucumber is a member of the same family as gourds, melons, and squash.Although the cucumber is botanically a fruit, it is more commonly thought of andused as a vegetable. It is usually oblong and 1 to 8 inches long. It has glossy,dark-green skin and tapering ends. Its interior is generally pale green to white,with rows of tender, edibleseeds down the center.Cucumbers are largelywater. They aremoist but crisp, andtheir flavor is sweetand mild.Family CucurbitaceaeScientific name Cucumis sativusCommon name cucumberUsesWhole cucumbers can be refrigerated ina crisper up to 1 week, tightly wrappedin plastic.With its high water content, thecucumber is especially refreshing in warmweather, chilled and eaten fresh, pickledand eaten alone, or added to green saladsor sandwiches. In the Mediterraneanregion, cucumber often is grated intoyogurt, to which spices and raisins or nutsare added to make a cooling condimentfor spicy dishes.Nutrient compositionVarietiesCucumbers grow in a variety of shapesand sizes, from tiny gherkins to greenhousetypes that are up to 20 inches long.All have a similar flavor. Those grownprimarily for eating fresh are called slicingvarieties and include both field-grownand greenhouse cucumbers. The greenhousevarieties, sometimes called Englishcucumbers, tend to be longer and narrower,milder, and seedless. One type ofEnglish cucumber is sometimes referredto as “burpless.” Other varieties are cultivatedfor pickling. These are usuallysmaller than slicing cucumbers and havebumpy, lighter-colored skins. Thesmallest is the gherkin, which is only 1 or2 inches long. One of the picklingvarieties, the Kirby, is often sold fresh andis enjoyed for its thin skin, crispness, andvery small seeds.Origin & botanical factsThe cucumber is believed to have originatedin wild form in the mountains ofnorthern India, where a similar wildspecies still grows. It was also in Indiathat the cucumber was first cultivated,about 3,000 years ago. From there it wasbrought to Greece and then to WesternEurope. Columbus transported thecucumber to the Americas, where it eventuallywas cultivated by American Indiansand European colonists in eastern NorthAmerica and as far north as Canada.Today, the leading producers of cucumbersin the United States are Florida,North Carolina, Texas, Georgia, andSouth Carolina.Cucumbers require warm temperaturesand should not be planted until alldanger of frost has passed. Distinct maleand female flowers develop on onecucumber plant, and pollen is carried byinsects; 10 to 20 bee visits per flower perday are required to produce long, straightfruit. In contrast, greenhouse cucumbersare not pollinated, so they form withoutseeds. Both field and greenhouse typesare picked as soon as they are of ediblesize so that the plants will continue toproduce flowers and fruit.Cucumbers are composed mostly of waterand contain only small amounts of nutrients.SERVINGSIZE:1/2 cup, sliced (52 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 7Water (%) 96Dietary fiber (grams) 0Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 1Protein (grams) 0Minerals (mg)Calcium 7Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 75Magnesium 6Phosphorus 10Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A21 REVitamin C 3Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate7 μgVitamin E 0

234 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsEggplantAlthough often thought of as a vegetable, the eggplant is botanically a fruit. It is amember of the nightshade family, which includes the tomato, potato, and pepper.In addition to the purple eggplant, there aremany other types of eggplant, varyingfrom white to green-yellow andpurple-black. Eggplants alsovary in shape and may beoblong, round, tear-dropped,or lobed. Eggplants rangein length from 2 to 12 inches.Family SolanaceaeScientific name Solanum melogenaesculentumCommon name eggplant, aubergineshould be left intact until just beforecooking. Peeling is recommended forolder eggplant, because the skin toughenswith age. Because a carbon steel bladewill blacken the flesh, a stainless steel knifeis preferred for cutting eggplant.Eggplant can be stuffed and baked,broiled, roasted, fried, stir-fried, or stewed.Because they are very porous, eggplantssoak up oil easily during frying. Oilabsorption can be minimized by salting todraw out the moisture and compact theflesh. This process also eliminates thenatural bitter taste. Using a nonstick panalso can help cut down on fat absorption.Nutrient compositionVarietiesThe eggplant is available in many varieties.In the United States, the most commoneggplant is the large, cylindrical or pearshapedvariety with a smooth, glossy, darkpurpleskin. Another popular variety isthe Japanese or Asian eggplant, whichranges from solid purple to striated shadesand has tender, slightly sweet flesh. TheItalian, or baby, eggplant looks like a miniatureversion of the larger common variety.The egg-shaped White Egg has tougherskin and firmer, smoother flesh.Origin & Botanical FactsFirst cultivated more than 4,000 yearsago, the eggplant is believed to be nativeto India, from where it was subsequentlybrought to China. In the Middle Ages,Arab traders brought it to Spain andnorthern Africa. By the 18th century,both the French and the Italians cultivatedeggplant, which they calledaubergine. Thomas Jefferson introducedthe eggplant to the United States.However, it was not until the 20th centurythat Americans began to use the eggplantas a food. Previously, it was used as a tabledecoration. Today, the eggplant is mostpopular in the cuisines of southern Italyand the Middle East.The eggplant is a frost-intolerantperennial grown as an annual. It will sustaindamage if the temperature falls below65° Fahrenheit. Eggplant is availablethroughout the year. The peak season isfrom July to October. Florida and NorthCarolina produce half the domestic crop.In the winter months, California andMexico are also major suppliers.UsesEggplant is very perishable and shouldbe stored in a cool, dry place. It can berefrigerated in a plastic bag for 3 to 4 days.Because it contains a heat-sensitive toxinthat can induce diarrhea and vomiting,eggplant must be cooked before eating.To prevent the discoloration that occurswhen the flesh is exposed to air, eggplantEggplant is composed mostly of water andcontains only small amounts of nutrients.SERVINGSIZE:1/2 cup cubes,cooked (50 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 14Water (%) 92Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 3Protein (grams) 0Minerals (mg)Calcium 3Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 123Magnesium 6Phosphorus 11Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A3 REVitamin C 1Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate7 μgVitamin E 0

Vegetables 235FennelFennel is an aromatic herb similarin appearance to dill. It has paleyellowish-green, hollow stemsand bright-green, feathery leaves.The clear yellow flowers of fennelproduce seed structures that resembleumbrellas. Both the root and theleaves have a mild licorice flavor. Theseeds have a pungent, aromatic scent.Family UmbelliferaeScientific name Foeniculum vulgare (dulce)Common name fennel, sweet aniseVarietyThe two basic types of fennel, commonfennel and Florence fennel, bear a closeresemblance to one another but are useddifferently. The shoots, leaves, and seeds(called “fruit”) of the common fennel areused primarily as flavoring agents forfood. Several varieties of common fennelhave seeds that differ in length, width,and taste. These include the sweet variety,also known as French or Roman fennel,characterized by long, yellowish greenfruit with a sweet flavor; Indian fennel,which is brownish, smaller, and lessrounded; and the pale-green Persian andJapanese varieties, which are the smallestand have a stronger anise flavor and odor.Florence fennel, also called finocchio,is somewhat smaller than common fenneland is grown mainly for its broad, bulbousleaf base, which is eaten as a vegetable.Origin & botanical factsFennel is native to the Mediterraneanregion and was well known to the ancientGreeks and Romans. The Romansenjoyed the young shoots as both aflavoring and, according to their belief,an aid to controlling obesity. The Greekscalled it “marathon,” a name derived from“maraino,” meaning “to grow thin.”From the Mediterranean, fennel wascarried east to India and also north toEurope and England, especially to Romancolonies. Spanish settlers are believed tohave brought fennel to the WesternHemisphere more than 200 years ago. In1824, the American consul at Liverpoolgave Thomas Jefferson fennel seeds forhis garden at Monticello.Fennel is a long-lived plant thatthrives almost anywhere. Fennel plantsusually grow to 3 or 4 feet but have beenknown to reach 7 feet. Young plants forma bulbous, thick root the first year andflower the following summer. By midsummer,the clusters of small yellowblossoms begin to droop with the weightof the heavy seeds. Leaves can be pickedat any time, and seeds should be harvestedwhen they begin to turn brown. A singleplant produces about 1/4 cup of seedsand 1 cup of leaves.UsesFennel can be refrigerated unwashed ina plastic bag up to 1 week.All parts of the fennel plant are edible.The mildly licorice-flavored leaves areused as a seasoning for fish. They alsocan be chopped for salads, dressings, dips,and cream sauces. The seeds have a morepungent flavor and are used either wholeor ground as an ingredient in curries, pies,breads, and sausages and in a variety ofsoups and stews. The bulb can be slicedand eaten raw in salads, cooked in stews,added to pasta dishes, sautéed in oil, orbaked and served with grated cheese andbreadcrumbs.Nutrient compositionFennel is not a significant source of nutrients.SERVINGSIZE:fennel bulb, 1/2 cup,sliced, raw (87 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 13Water (%) 90Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 3Protein (grams) 0Minerals (mg)Calcium 21Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 180Magnesium 7Phosphorus 22Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A6 REVitamin C 5Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate12 μgVitamin E –Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

236 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsGarlicGarlic is a member of the Allium genus, as are the onion, leek, and scallion.Covered in a loose, thin outer skin, the garlic bulb consistsof small sections called cloves that areindividually wrapped by a moretight-fitting, paper-like sheath.Family AmaryllidaceaeScientific name Allium sativum L.Common name garlic, stinking rose♥ Contains phytochemicals thatmay promote healthVarietiesSome 300 varieties of garlic are grownaround the world. In the United Statesonly two main types, “early” and “late,”are grown. About 90 percent of the garlicis grown in California. The early varietyis harvested in mid-summer, and the latevariety is harvested a few weeks later. Thelate variety is slightly denser and has alonger shelf life than the early variety.Other, rare varieties of garlic are the Chilenoand Elephant garlic, which is actually aform of leek and has a milder flavor.Origin & botanical factsGarlic is native to central Asia, where ithas been cultivated for more than 5,000years. Garlic was known to the Egyptiansas early as 3200 B.C. When taking solemnoaths, the ancient Egyptians swore ongarlic in much the same way people swearon the Bible today. Today, garlic is amongthe leading vegetable crops of the world.Some 2.3 million metric tons are producedworldwide annually. Some of theleading garlic-producing countries areChina, South Korea, India, Spain, theUnited States, Thailand, Egypt, Turkey,and Brazil.Garlic is available year-round as aresult of staggered harvests and a longshelf life. The California harvest beginsin June, and garlic is shipped to marketsfrom July through December. When theCalifornia supply is depleted, it is replacedby imported garlic from Mexico and SouthAmerica.UsesGarlic’s strength varies with the seasonand variety, a factor to keep in mind whencooking with garlic. Because garlic thathas sprouted is less pungent than youngergarlic, sprouting should be prevented bykeeping the bulbs in a cool, dark place.Garlic is the basic flavoring in mostChinese dishes and in much of the cookingof southern and central Europe.Garlic is potent when raw, milder whensautéed, and sweetly delicate when boiledor baked, because heat destroys some ofthe flavor- and odor-producing compounds.However, when garlic is sautéed,care must be taken not to burn the garlic,because it will turn bitter. Slow bakingproduces garlic that is sweet and nuttywith a buttery consistency. Baked garliccan be spread on bread to make an appetizer.Rubbing a salad bowl with a cutgarlic clove before adding the ingredientswill give the salad a mild and fresh garlicflavor. Garlic juice also can be used tomake salad dressing. Slivers of garlic canbe inserted into slits made in roast beef,veal, or lamb before cooking. In addition,whole garlic can be baked or roastedwith meat or poultry.Nutrient compositionGarlic contains the phytochemicalsallicin, ajoene, saponins, and phenoliccompounds that may have antioxidantand immune-promoting functions.SERVINGSIZE:1 tsp., raw (3 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 4Water (%) 59Dietary fiber (grams) 0Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 1Protein (grams) 0Minerals (mg)Calcium 5Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 11Magnesium 1Phosphorus 4Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A0 REVitamin C 1Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate0 μgVitamin E 0

Vegetables 237GingerGinger is a tropical Asian herb grown for its pungentand spicy aromatic roots. Gingerroot is pepperyand slightly sweet. Its light-brown skincovers a firm flesh that ranges fromgreenish yellow to ivory.Family ZingiberaceaeScientific name Zingiber officinaleCommon name Jamaican ginger,African ginger, Cochin or AsiangingerVarietiesSeveral hundred varieties of ginger exist.In addition, fresh gingerroot may beyoung or mature. Spring ginger, as youngginger is sometimes called, has a pale, thinskin that does not require peeling. Youngginger is delicate and milder than matureginger.Origin & Botanical FactsGinger is believed to be native to SouthChina or India, where it has been cultivatedsince ancient times. The earliestrecorded mention of ginger appears inChinese writings. According to the PenTsao Ching (Classics of Herbs), written byShen Nung around 3000 B.C., ginger“eliminates body odor and puts a personin touch with the spiritual realm.” Inancient India, ginger was believed tocleanse the body spiritually. Ginger alsowas used to preserve food and treat digestiveproblems. As in India, the ancientGreeks used ginger for digestive problemsby eating ginger wrapped in bread afterlarge meals. Eventually, ginger was addedto the bread dough, and the product becameknown as gingerbread. The Romans alsoused ginger as a digestive aid. Arab tradersintroduced ginger to the Mediterraneanarea, and in the 16th century, Francisco deMendoza of Spain brought it to the WestIndies. In England and Colonial America,ginger was made into ginger beer, a popularhome remedy for diarrhea, nausea,and vomiting and a precursor to today’sginger ale.Ginger thrives in the tropics and inwarmer regions of the temperate zone.Currently, the herb is grown in severalregions of West Africa and the WestIndies, and in India and China. The plantreaches maturity in the late summer whenthe foliage begins to turn yellow.However, the root can be harvested at anystage simply by digging it up. The finestquality ginger comes from Jamaica, whereproduction is most abundant. In theUnited States, ginger is grown in Florida,Hawaii, and along the east coast of Texas.UsesGinger is a popular ingredient in Asiancooking, for which it has been used forcenturies in both its fresh and driedforms. Fresh ginger can be shredded,grated, finely minced, or sliced and usedin curries and stir-fried dishes. Whenbuying fresh ginger, choose roots thathave a firm, smooth skin with a fresh,spicy smell. Fresh unpeeled ginger canbe tightly wrapped in a paper towel andplastic wrap or placed in a sealed plasticbag and refrigerated up to 2 weeks orfrozen for 6 months. Powdered, driedginger, which has a more spicy, intenseflavor, is used for making gingerbread,gingersnaps, and other spice cookies.Ginger also is available in crystallized orcandied form, preserved, and pickled.Dried powdered ginger should not besubstituted for fresh or crystallized gingerin recipes, because it will not provide thesame flavor.Nutrient compositionGinger is not a significant source of nutrients.SERVINGSIZE:5 slices ginger, raw (11 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 8Water (%) 82Dietary fiber (grams) 0Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 2Protein (grams) 0Minerals (mg)Calcium 2Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 46Magnesium 5Phosphorus 3Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A0 REVitamin C 1Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate1 μgVitamin E 0

238 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsHorseradishHorseradish is a root crop belonging to the botanical family that includes cabbage,mustard, and radish. Only the long, fleshy roots of this vegetable are used,because the leaves contain a slightly poisonous compound and have no culinaryvalue. Rough and cream-colored, the parsnip-like root can grow to 20 inchesin length and 1 to 3 inches in diameter. A sulfur-containingcompound known as allyl isothiocyanate is responsible for theroot’s strong, pungent odor and hot, biting flavor, whichis reminiscent of mustard and results from achemical reaction that occurs only whenthe root is bruised or cut.Family CruciferaeScientific name Armoracia rusticanaCommon name horseradish, mountainradish, great raifort, red coleOrigin & botanical factsThe horseradish is native to EasternEurope and has been used as an herb sinceancient times. It was grown in Greecemore than 3,000 years ago. Mentionedin the Bible, it is one of the bitter herbsserved during the Jewish Passover festival.In medieval Europe, the root was believedto be a cure-all. Initially used only for itsmedicinal properties, by the 1600s horseradishhad become a common condimentfor fish and meat in Europe. The word“horse” in horseradish, often used toimply coarseness, as in horse-mint or horsechestnut, is used similarly in this case todistinguish the plant from the edibleradish (Raphanus sativus).The perennial horseradish plant growsworldwide and is often found growingwild along roadsides throughout Europeand North America. From the long mainroot, stems sprout that grow to about 3feet in height and give rise to large, jagged,wavy leaves. Once established, horseradishcan tolerate any amount of neglectand can easily become a weed. Most ofthe fresh horseradish sold in the UnitedStates is grown in California.UsesRoots that are firm and free of blemishesshould be selected. The root can be refrigeratedin a plastic bag for up to a week.Usually grated and used raw, the rootmust be washed, scrubbed, and peeledbefore grating by hand or with a foodprocessor. Vinegar or lemon juice can beadded to the grated horseradish to retardthe enzyme process that produces thedistinctive bite. For a mild sauce, 2 to 3tablespoons of lemon juice or vinegar canbe added to a cup of horseradish alongwith a half teaspoon of salt immediatelyafter grating. For a hot sauce, the gratedhorseradish should be allowed to stand afew minutes before the lemon juice orvinegar is added. Because heat causes theroot to release a pungent smell, horseradishshould never be cooked. Gratedhorseradish is used as a condiment onfish, beef, chicken, and sausages. It isusually combined with oil and vinegar orwith cream to make sauces for beef,smoked fish, or asparagus. Horseradishis the ingredient that provides the fresh,pungent flavor to seafood cocktail sauce.Blending horseradish with yogurt orapplesauce makes a traditional Austrianaccompaniment to meat. Preserved,grated horseradish is available bottled invinegar or in beet juice, which gives it areddish hue. Horseradish also is availablein a dried form that must be reconstitutedwith water before using. Wasabi, a pungentgreen condiment sometimes referredto as “Japanese horseradish,” is traditionallymade from the root of a semiaquaticAsian plant, Wasabia japonica, from thesame family of cruciferous vegetables.However, some inexpensive commercialwasabi powder and paste may containdomestic horseradish instead of wasabi.Nutrient compositionOne serving of prepared horseradishprovides small amounts of nutrients.SERVINGSIZE:1 tsp., prepared (5 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 2Water (%) 85Dietary fiber (grams) 0Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 1Protein (grams) 0Minerals (mg)Calcium 3Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 12Magnesium 1Phosphorus 2Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A0 REVitamin C 1Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate3 μgVitamin E 0

Jerusalem ArtichokeParadoxically, the Jerusalem artichoke is neither an artichoke nor from Jerusalem.This vegetable is the thick, brown-skinned root of a variety of sunflower. Themature tubers or roots, most of which are 3 to 4 inches long and about half asthick, resemble small, lumpy Irish potatoes. The white flesh of the Jerusalemartichoke is usually describedas nutty, sweet,and crunchy.Vegetables 239of ways, including baking, boiling,mashing, or frying. It can also be preparedin combination with other vegetables.Added to soups, Jerusalem artichokesimpart a sweet, nutty flavor.Nutrient compositionThe Jerusalem artichoke is a good sourceof thiamin and iron.Family CompositaeScientific name Helianthus tuberosusCommon name Jerusalem artichoke,sunflower artichoke, sunchoke,topinambour♥ A good source of thiamin and ironVarietiesJerusalem artichokes exist in both redandwhite-skinned varieties. SmoothGarnet and Brazilian Red are red-skinnedvarieties. White-skinned varieties suchas the New White Mammoth andBrazilian White have a clean, white skinand are also more rounded than the redtintedones. Other varieties include theGolden Nugget, which has carrot-liketubers; Stampede, a quick-maturingvariety with large tubers; and DwarfSunray, which is a small variety. Modernvarieties produce less knobby tubers thatare easier to peel.Origin & botanical factsOne of the few vegetables that is nativeto the North American plains, theJerusalem artichoke is indigenous to thelake regions of Canada. In the UnitedStates, it grows as far south as Arkansasand Georgia. Reportedly cultivated byAmerican Indians before the 16th century,the tuber prefers to grow in damp placeswith good soil. It is a hardy perennialthat tolerates frost and can be left in theground all year. The plants have stiffstems that may grow to a height of 10feet, and some varieties produce smallsunflowers late in the summer. Severaltubers are produced at the base of eachflower stalk.UsesJerusalem artichokes may be stored in asealed plastic bag in the refrigerator forup to a week. After that, they lose moistureand become withered. Jerusalemartichokes can be eaten raw in salads orserved with a dip. Although they shouldbe washed thoroughly, they need not bepeeled. If peeled, the vegetable shouldbe immersed in acidulated water (dilutelemon juice) to prevent discoloration.The tuber also can be cooked in a varietySERVINGSIZE:1/2 cup sliced, raw (75 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 57Water (%) 78Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 13Protein (grams) 2Minerals (mg)Calcium 11Iron 3Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 322Magnesium 13Phosphorus 59Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A2 REVitamin C 3Thiamin 0.2Riboflavin 0Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate10 μgVitamin E 0

240 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsJicamaJicama (pronounced hi-ca-ma) is a large, edible, tuberous root that can weigh upto 50 pounds. It has a slightly squat shape, a thin brown skin, and ivory flesh thatis crunchy (resembling a raw potato),very juicy, and slightly sweet.Family LeguminosaeScientific name Pachyrhizus erosusCommon name Xiquima, Mexican turnip,Mexican potato, yam bean♥ High in vitamin C♥ A good source of fiberVarietiesThe two most popular cultivated forms ofjicama are jicama de agua and jicama deleche. The former, which produces atranslucent juice, is usually preferred, whilejicama de leche, which has elongated rootsand a milky juice, is less familiar.Origin & botanical factsA legume native to Central America andMexico, jicama is a perennial vine thatgrows to a length of 20 feet or more andhas compound leaves with pointed edges.The vine bears beautiful sprays of mauve,white, or blue flowers and poisonous seedsin pods 6 to 8 inches long. Because thetuber requires a very long and warmgrowing season, most of the jicama availablein U.S. supermarkets is importedfrom Mexico and South America,although the plant is also grown in partsof east and southeast Asia.UsesJicama is ready to be eaten at any stageof growth. Tubers should be firm,smooth-skinned, heavy, and free ofbruises, wrinkles, and cracks. Jicama canbe stored in the refrigerator for up to 2weeks. If it is stored for longer periods,its starch content converts to sugar. Ideallythe tuber should be stored in a cool, dryplace, because too much moisture cancause mold to form. The peeled tubercan be eaten raw or cooked. The sliced orjulienned root retains its crispness evenafter sautéing or stir-frying and can beadded to soups or stews. Raw jicama canbe served as part of a vegetable platter oradded to salads. It serves as a substitutefor water chestnut.Nutrient compositionThe jicama is high in vitamin C and is agood source of fiber.SERVINGSIZE: 1/2 cup, sliced (60 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 23Water (%) 90Dietary fiber (grams) 3Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 5Protein (grams) 0Minerals (mg)Calcium 7Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 90Magnesium 7Phosphorus 11Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A1 REVitamin C 12Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate7 μgVitamin E 0

Vegetables 241KelpKelp is a type of seaweed that grows up to 200 feet in length in the waters offJapan, Europe, and North America. Like other seaweed, it is a large form ofalgae. Fresh seaweed and other sea vegetables are similar in texture to somedry-land greens, but they have a strong, salty, seawater flavor.Nutrient compositionThe nutritional value of seaweed dependson the type, but most provide calcium,iodine, folate, and magnesium. Driedkelp contains so much iodine that consumptionof large quantities can be harmful.Some varieties, such as Kombu andWakame, are also high in sodium.Family LaminariaceaeScientific name LaminariaCommon name kelpVarietiesThe thousands of varieties of algae growin a broad spectrum of colors, shapes, andsizes, ranging from the small freshwateralgae to the long-stemmed kelp that flourishesin the oceans. Also called seaweed,agar-agar, carrageenan, and dulse, algaeare generally classified by their color,which varies from brown to red, green,or blue-green. Kelp is one of the brownalgae. Some of the varieties of kelpavailable in Japan include Wakame,Arame, Kombu, and Hijiki.Origin & botanical factsThe word “seaweed” generally refers tothe large red or brown varieties of algae.Brown algae grow in cold waters, and redalgae thrive in tropical seas. Algae composetwo-thirds of the plant material onearth and are among the very few plantsthat have not changed for centuries. Inancient times, sailors harvested the kelpbeds that thrived off the coasts of Englandand France and burned the plants for fuel.They also wrapped fish in the fronds andbaked them. Unlike the Japanese,Europeans have never made significant useof kelp as a food. However, 18th-centuryEuropean physicians noted that enlargedthyroid gland (goiter) rarely developedin people who lived along the coast. In18th-century England, a physician successfullyused charred kelp to treat a patientwho had goiter. It was not until the 19thcentury, however, that scientists discoveredthat goiter is caused by iodine deficiencyand that kelp is rich in iodine. For severaldecades after this discovery, Europeansand Americans harvested kelp from undersearocks to use as a source of iodine.UsesToday, seaweed is a staple in the diets ofsome people. In Japan, seaweed constitutesapproximately 25 percent of thediet. Kombu and Wakame, two populartypes of kelp, are used extensively.Kombu is used to make a tasty broth, andWakame is used as an ingredient in soupsand stir-fries. Sheets of Wakame are usedto prepare sushi. Powdered kelp can serveas a salt substitute, helping to flavor soups,salads, and tomato juice. In the UnitedStates, dried sheets of seaweed can befound in Asian groceries and in somesupermarkets.SERVINGSIZE:1/8 cup, raw (10 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 4Water (%) 82Dietary fiber (grams) 0Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 1Protein (grams) 0Minerals (mg)Calcium 17Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 9Magnesium 12Phosphorus 4Sodium 23Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A1 REVitamin C 0Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate18 μgVitamin E 0

242 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsKOHLRABIThe kohlrabi is a member of thecabbage family, grown for theswollen, globe-shaped portion of thestem, which rests on the surfaceof the ground. The best kohlrabibulbs are between 2 and 3 inches indiameter. The vegetable can be white,purple, or green and has a creamy-whiteinterior that is somewhat sweet and similarin texture to a turnip.Family CruciferaeScientific name Brassica oleracea var.caulorapoCommon name kohlrabi, stem turnip,colinabo, cabbage turnip♥ Kohlrabi is high in vitamin C♥ Raw kohlrabi is a good source of fiberKohlrabi leaves are similar to collard greensor kale in flavor. The succulent, tenderleaves of young kohlrabi plants can becooked like spinach or mustard greens.Nutrient compositionKohlrabi is high in vitamin C. Rawkohlrabi is a good source of fiber. Bothraw and cooked forms also containantioxidants and bioflavonoids.VarietiesKohlrabi varieties are distinguished bycolor. Among the popular varieties are theGrand Duke, Kolibri F1, Purple Danube,Purple Vienna, and White Vienna.Origin & botanical factsThe kohlrabi, which literally means“cabbage turnip,” is descended from boththe wild cabbage and the wild turnip.Although the origin of this vegetable isuncertain, a vegetable answering to thesame description was mentioned by theRoman botanist Pliny in the 1st centuryA.D. No such vegetable was againdescribed until after the Middle Ages.Today, the kohlrabi is mainly eaten incentral and eastern Europe.Unlike other cruciferous vegetables,the part of kohlrabi that is eaten is a swollenpart of the stem. Kohlrabi has so declinedin popularity in the last century that itcan be difficult to purchase. The reasonfor this decline is not known but may beits increased toughness with larger sizes.Kohlrabi bulbs should be harvested whenthey reach no more than 2 to 3 inches indiameter. Kohlrabi cultivation in theUnited States is quite limited.UsesKohlrabi bulbs that are plum-size orsmaller, firm, and unblemished and haveleaves that are still attached are best. Afterthe leaf stems are removed, the bulbs ofkohlrabi can be stored in the refrigeratorfor several weeks (longer if placed in sealedplastic bags). The kohlrabi bulb may beeaten raw or cooked. Although small,tender bulbs generally do not require peeling,the skin of medium and large onesshould be removed before use. The crispflesh can be served raw in salads or madeinto a relish. The bulb also can be cubed,sliced, or julienned and steamed untiltender. The practice in many centralEuropean countries is to hollow out thevegetable and stuff it with meat or othervegetables before baking or steaming.Nutrient Content1 /2 cup,1 /2 cup,raw (70g) cooked (83 g)Energy (kilocalories) 19 24Water (%) 91 90Dietary fiber (grams) 3 1Fat (grams) 0 0Carbohydrate (grams) 4 6Protein (grams) 1 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 17 21Iron 0 0Zinc – 0Manganese 0 0Potassium 245 281Magnesium 32 16Phosphorus 13 37Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A 3 RE 3 REVitamin C 43 45Thiamin – 0Riboflavin – 0Niacin 0 0Vitamin B 6 0 0.1Folate 11 μg 10 μgVitamin E 0 1Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

Vegetables 243LeekThe leek is related to garlic, scallions, and onions and resembles a large scallion.Unlike the onion, however, it does not form a real bulb but growsas a thick, fleshy stalk with flattened leaves. The leavesare green to blue-green or purple and wrap tightlyaround each other like rolled paper. The whiteleaf base—the part that is most commonlyeaten—has a flavor and fragrancesimilar to but milder than onions.dishes. Raw leeks can be sliced thin andadded to salads of all types. Sliced orpuréed, they add zest to quiches, stews,casseroles, mixed vegetable dishes, andsoups. They are one of the key ingredientsin French vichyssoise, a classic coldpotato and leek soup. They also may bebaked, braised in broth or wine, broiled,sautéed, or microwaved. Leeks shouldbe cooked only until barely tender.Nutrient compositionFamily AmaryllidaceaeScientific name Allium ampeloprasumCommon name leekLeeks contain only small amounts ofnutrients.VarietiesThe many varieties of leeks differ mostlyin the color of their leaves, their generalcold hardiness, and the degree of bulbingat the stem base. Those with blue orpurple leaves tend to be the hardiest. Anold French variety called Bleu Solaise,which is known to be resistant to cold,has blue-green leaves.Origin & botanical factsLeeks are native to southern Europe andthe Mediterranean region, where theystill grow wild. Both wild and cultivatedleeks have been consumed for thousandsof years. In ancient Rome, EmperorNero consumed large quantities of leeksin the belief that they would improve hissinging voice. In the 6th century, Walesadopted the leek as its national symbolin the belief that leeks worn on thehelmets of Welsh soldiers, to distinguishthem from enemy troops, helped themachieve victory. Today, France, Belgium,and the Netherlands lead the world inleek production. Although not as popularin the United States, the leek is cultivatedin California, Michigan, New Jersey, andVirginia. Leeks can be grown from seedor transplants, but transplanting is thepreferred method, for which plants arebegun in containers between Decemberand April. Leeks prefer a cool to moderateclimate, rich but well-drained soil, anduniform watering. The base is blanchedby tilling the soil up around each plantwhen it is about the size of a pencil.Blanching makes the edible portionlonger and whiter. Leek plants produceflowering stems more than 6 feet inheight, with white, pink, or dark-redflowers. On most leek varieties, numerousbulbils, or secondary bulbs, formaround the base of the plant, and thesecan be used to start new plants.UsesBefore being used, leeks should be washedthoroughly to remove any soil or grittrapped between the leaves, and therootlets and leaf ends should be trimmedoff. Like onions and garlic, leeks are usedprimarily to add flavor to a variety ofNutrient Content1 /2 cup1 /2 cup chopped,chopped, cookedraw (45 g) (52 g)Energy (kilocalories) 27 16Water (%) 83 91Dietary fiber (grams) 1 1Fat (grams) 0 0Carbohydrate (grams) 6 4Protein (grams) 1 0Minerals (mg)Calcium 26 16Iron 1 1Zinc 0 0Manganese 0 0Potassium 80 45Magnesium 12 7Phosphorus 16 9Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A 4 RE 3 REVitamin C 5 2Thiamin 0 0Riboflavin 0 0Niacin 0 0Vitamin B 6 0.1 0.1Folate 29 μg 13 μgVitamin E 0 –Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrient valueis not available.

244 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsLettuceLettuce is a salad green that grows in forms ranging from tightly compacted headsto loose leaves, depending on the variety. The leaves are pale to dark green orgreen with red edges, crisp, andmild to pungent.Family AsteraceaeScientific name Lactuca sativaCommon name lettuce♥ Depending on the variety,lettuce can be a goodsource of folate and agood to excellent sourceof vitamin CVarietiesFour basic types of lettuce are grown: headlettuce, loose leaf, butterhead, andromaine. The most common, popularvariety is iceberg, a compact head lettucethat is pale green and has a delicate flavor.Loose leaf lettuce forms rosettes of crisp,curly leaves 8 to 12 inches long andincludes the red-edged varieties. The mildbutterhead lettuce, including the Bostonand Bibb varieties, has a softly compressedhead, 8 to 12 inches across, of grass-greenleaves that fade to a lighter yellowish greenin the interior. Romaine lettuce forms adark-green, tightly compressed head ofleaves about 10 inches long and has astronger, more pungent flavor than theother varieties.Origin & botanical factsThe cultivation of lettuce dates back morethan 2,500 years. From early Rome,where many varieties were developed, itspopularity spread throughout Europe andAsia. In 1885, an American agriculturalreport listed 87 varieties, considerablymore than the 4 commonly available intoday’s markets. In the United States,lettuce ranks a close second to potatoesas the most popular fresh vegetable. Thefour leading American producers areCalifornia, Arizona, Florida, and Colorado.Lettuce is cultivated by direct seedinginto fields or by seedling transplantationinto raised beds. Loose leaf lettucematures about 6 weeks after seeds aresown; other types take longer to mature.Romaine takes the longest (up to 12 weeks).Head lettuce is harvested when the headsreach about 2 pounds. Because lettuceis very perishable, harvesting is done byhand, and the crop is packed directly intoboxes in the field. Head lettuce, which isthe hardiest, can be shipped long distanceswithout damage, but leaf lettuce is morefragile and usually is grown for local andregional markets.UsesLettuce should be used as soon after purchaseas possible, but if it must be stored,leaves that are wilting should be removed.Unwashed lettuce can be kept 3 to 4 daysat most in a perforated plastic bag in thevegetable crisper of the refrigerator.Lettuce is most often eaten raw in saladsand sandwiches. Iceberg, leaf, or romaineworks well in Greek salad; romaine is oftenused for Caesar salad. Combinations oflettuce varieties make for tastier and morenutritious salads. A salad spinner improvesthe quality of salads by drying the greensquickly and completely. In addition tobeing used in salads, lettuce leaves can beused to hold cooked vegetables, sandwichfillings, and condiments.Nutrient compositionRomaine and loose leaf lettuce containfive to six times the vitamin C and fiveto ten times the vitamin A of iceberg.Romaine and butterhead lettuce are goodsources of folate.SERVINGSIZE: 1 cup, shreddedNutrient ContentRomaine Loose leaf(56 g) (56 g)Energy (kilocalories) 8 10Water (%) 95 94Dietary fiber (grams) 1 1Fat (grams) 0 0Carbohydrate (grams) 1 2Protein (grams) 1 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 20 38Iron 1 1Zinc 0 0Manganese 0 0Potassium 162 148Magnesium 3 6Phosphorus 25 14Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A 146 RE 106 REVitamin C 13 10Thiamin 0.1 0Riboflavin 0.1 0Niacin 0 0Vitamin B 6 0 0Folate 76 μg 28 μgVitamin E 0 0

Vegetables 245MushroomMushrooms are fleshy fungi, only some of which are edible. They usually havethick stems and rounded caps with radiating gillson the underside. The caps can be smooth orbumpy, honeycombed or ruffled, ranging insize from less than 1/2 inch in diameter to12 inches and in color from snowywhite to black, with a broadspectrum of colors in between.They can be soft or crunchy, andthey range in flavor from bland tonutty and earthy.Family FungiScientific name Agaricus bisporusCommon name mushroom♥ Cooked mushrooms are an excellentsource of niacin and a good sourceof riboflavinVarietiestrumpet-shaped. Because many species ofpoisonous mushrooms can be commonlymistaken for edible ones, no one exceptexperienced mushroom hunters shouldattempt to gather wild mushrooms.no more than 2 to 3 days and only wipedclean with a damp paper towel just beforeuse. Mushrooms can be eaten raw orcooked. White and Enoki mushroomscan be added raw to fresh green salads.Porcini mushrooms can be cooked withpork or chicken or combined withvegetables, rice, or pasta. Shiitakes aretraditionally added to stir-fries and otherAsian dishes. Portabella mushrooms oftenare sliced, grilled, and served as an appetizer,added to sandwiches, or stuffed withany number of ingredients and baked.Some mushroom varieties are also availablecanned or dried.Nutrient compositionCooked mushrooms are an excellent sourceof niacin and a good source of riboflavin.Mushrooms come in literally thousandsof varieties. The most popular is the simple,cultivated white mushroom, the Agaricus,which is relatively small and has a mild,earthy flavor. Young fungi of this varietyare called button mushrooms. Variationson the white mushroom are the Crimini,which is dark brown, more firm, and hasa fuller flavor, and the larger Portabella, arelative of the Crimini. Shiitake mushrooms,up to 10 inches across, are a dark,umbrella-shaped variety native to Japanand Korea and have a pungent, woody flavor.Enoki mushrooms are fragile andflower-like, with tiny white caps, long,slender stems, and a mild flavor. Oystermushrooms are mild flavored and velvetytextured with large, fluted grayish caps onshort stems. Chanterelles are golden toyellow-orange and have a rich, slightlyalmond flavor. Porcini mushrooms arethick-stemmed and nutty in flavor, withlarge white or reddish brown caps. Lesswell-known varieties, which grow mainlyin the wild, include the black trumpetmushroom, which is thin, brittle, andOrigin & botanical factsArchaeological evidence indicates thathumans have been eating mushrooms forthousands of years. The first cultivatorsof mushrooms appear to have been theGreeks and Romans. Today, mushroomsare cultivated on every continent.Mushroom cultivation does not requiredarkness, as was once believed. Mostimportant to mushrooms are a constanttemperature, protection from drafts, goodcompost, and proper sanitation. However,in the United States, most mushrooms aregrown in caves or climate-controlled,windowless buildings, because outdoorconditions are less suitable for mushroomcultivation.UsesMushrooms should be stored unwashedin a loosely closed paper sack or in theiroriginal packaging on a refrigerator shelfNutrient Content1 /2 cup 7 medium,pieces, cookedraw (35 g) (84 g)Energy (kilocalories) 9 22Water (%) 92 92Dietary fiber (grams) 0 2Fat (grams) 0 0Carbohydrate (grams) 1 4Protein (grams) 1 2Minerals (mg)Calcium 2 5Iron 0 1Zinc 0 1Manganese 0 0Potassium 130 299Magnesium 4 10Phosphorus 36 73Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A 0 RE 0 REVitamin C 1 3Thiamin 0 0.1Riboflavin 0.1 0.3Niacin 1 4Vitamin B 6 0 0.1Folate 4 μg 15 μgVitamin E 0 0

246 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsOkraThe okra is the immature seedpod of the okra plant. The slightly curved, taperingpods range from 2 to 7 inches in length and have green, fuzzy skin. Numeroussoft white seeds are clustered along the length of the pod’s interior. When cooked,the pods exude a juice that thickens any liquid to which it is added and can givethe vegetable a slimy texture.Family MalvaceaeScientific name Hibiscus esculentusCommon name okra, lady’s finger,gumbo, bindi, bamia♥ High in vitamin C♥ A good sourceof magnesiumVarietiesunless okra is added to soup or stew, itshould never be cut before cooking,because cutting releases the fluid that actsas a thickener and gives okra the slimytexture with which it is associated. Thesecret to tender but crisp okra is to sautéthe whole pods for no more than 5 minutes.In the United States, okra is mostpopularly known as an ingredient ingumbo, a stew-like dish that is a specialtyof New Orleans Creole cuisine. Okra isalso available in frozen and canned forms.Nutrient compositionOkra is high in vitamin C and is a goodsource of magnesium.The many varieties of okra differ in shadeof green, shape (plump or slender), andsurface (ribbed or smooth). The ClemsonSpineless variety has medium-green,angular pods, whereas the Emerald varietyis dark green and has smooth, roundpods. Other varieties include Lee, AnnieOakley, and Prelude.Origin & botanical factsThe okra plant originated in the NearEast and was brought to North Africaand the Middle East before being broughtto the Americas in the early 1700s. Thename “okra” is derived from the Twi(from the Gold Coast of Africa) word“nkruman.” In other parts of the world,this vegetable is referred to by the Africanname “gumbo” and by other regionalnames. Whether West African slaves orFrench colonists of Louisiana brought theplant to the United States is unclear, butits widespread popularity in the Southsuggests that this region was the first inthe United States to be introduced tothe vegetable. Texas, Georgia, Florida,Alabama, and California are the leadingproducers in the United States.The okra plant is a tropical perennialbelonging to the cotton family. Theplants begin to produce flowers about 60days after germination and can grow 3 to5 feet in height. The maroon-centered,pale-yellow flowers develop into slenderseedpods that are harvested a few daysafter the flower petals have fallen. Okra,the vegetable, should not be confusedwith Chinese okra, which is also knownas dishcloth gourd, sponge gourd, orloofah.UsesBecause very young or fully developedokra pods tend to be flavorless and stringy,pods that are 1 to 3 inches should beselected. Fresh okra is very perishableand should be used as soon as possible.It can be stored in a plastic bag in therefrigerator for a couple of days. Freshokra should be washed and thoroughlydried before cooking, because moisturecauses the pods to become slimy. Also,SERVINGSIZE:1/2 cup, sliced (80 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 26Water (%) 90Dietary fiber (grams) 2Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 6Protein (grams) 2Minerals (mg)Calcium 50Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 1Potassium 258Magnesium 46Phosphorus 45Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A46 REVitamin C 13Thiamin 0.1Riboflavin 0Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0.2Folate37 μgVitamin E 1

Vegetables 247OnionThe onion is a round or oval bulb that grows in multiplelayers underground and is covered by a dry, papery skinat maturity. Its flavor can range from mildand sweet to sharp and pungent.Family AmaryllidaceaeScientific name Allium cepaCommon name onion♥ Contains phytochemicals thatpromote healthVarietiesThe two main varieties of onion are freshonions and dry onions. Scallions (alsocalled green onions), the most commontype of fresh onion, are pulled up beforethe bulb forms. Sweet onions, anothertype of fresh onion, grown in warmerclimates, are harvested and sold duringthe spring and summer. They are characterizedby a light-colored, thin skin anda high water and sugar content, whichgives them a mild, sweet flavor. The mostpopular sweet onions are the mild Mauifrom Hawaii, the juicy Vidalia fromGeorgia, and the round, golden Walla-Walla from Washington State.Dry onions, also called storage onions,are grown in cooler northern states andare available year-round. They have adarker, thicker skin, a firmer texture, anda stronger, more pungent flavor. Theyrange from white to yellow and red.Smaller varieties of dry onions includethe marble-sized pearl onions and theslightly larger boiling onions. Althoughred onions tend to be sweeter than yellowor white onions, the flavor of dry onionsis influenced more by variety and originthan by color.Origin & botanical factsOnions were grown by the ancientEgyptians, who regarded them as sacred.From Egypt, onions were brought toRome, where they acquired their currentname, derived from the Latin unio, meaning“large pearl.” Christopher Columbusbrought the onion from Europe to theAmericas. Today, onions are among theworld’s leading vegetable crops.Onion plants are propagated fromseeds or from seedlings and are plantedon raised beds, in fertile, well-balancedsoil. They are hardy plants, able towithstand temperatures as low as 20°Fahrenheit, and are generally planted inearly spring, 4 to 6 weeks before the lastspring freeze. When first planted, youngonions concentrate their growth on newroots and green leaves or tops. Bulb formationdoes not begin until the rightcombination of daylight, darkness, andtemperature is achieved.UsesFresh onions should be refrigerated andused soon after purchase, but dry (storage)onions can be kept in a cool, dry placefor weeks, or even months, without losingtheir nutrients. The onion’s flavor andodor result primarily from sulfuric compounds.When the onion is peeled andsliced, these are released as vapors, causingthe eyes to tear. Chilling the onion beforeuse or peeling it under cold water canalleviate this problem. Onions can beserved raw or cooked and can be added tonumerous other foods as a flavoring.Cooking onions tends to soften them andremoves any sharpness from the flavor.However, because heat makes onionsbitter, they should be cooked over low tomedium heat. Onions can be boiled,steamed, baked, sautéed, scalloped, orgrilled.Nutrient CompositionRaw onions contain phytochemicals thatinclude antioxidants, which promotehealth.Nutrient Content1/2 cup raw,chopped, or 1medium (80 g)Energy (kilocalories) 30Water (%) 90Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 7Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 16Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 126Magnesium 8Phosphorus 26Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A0 REVitamin C 5Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate15 μgVitamin E 0

248 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsParsleyParsley is a bright-green, multibranched biennial herb withcrisp leaves and greenish yellow flowers. It is mostoften used as a seasoning or garnish and has afresh, slightly peppery flavor.Family ApiaceaeScientific name PetroselinumcrispumCommon name parsley♥ Contains some vitamin CVarietiesAlthough more than 30 varieties ofparsley exist, the most commonly usedin the United States are the curly-leavedand the Italian, or flat-leaved, varieties.Among the curled parsleys are MossCurled, Green Velvet, and ParamountImperial. The flat-leaved variety, mostcommonly used in southeastern Europeand in Asia, has a more vibrant flavorthan the curled types.Origin & botanical factsParsley is believed to have originated insouthern Europe, around the Mediterranean,and has been cultivated since about 320B.C. In ancient times, parsley wreathswere believed to ward off drunkenness.According to Greek mythology, parsleysprang from the blood of Opheltes, theinfant son of King Lycurgus of Nemea,who was killed by a serpent while hisnurse directed some thirsty soldiers towater. Thus, Greek soldiers associatedparsley with death and avoided contactwith it before battle. A completely differentmeaning is imparted to the herbin the Jewish Seder, the ritual Passovermeal. Because parsley is one of the firstherbs to appear in the spring, it is usedin the Seder to symbolize new beginnings.The ancient Romans ate parsley aftermeals to freshen their breath, and theRoman physician Galen prescribed it forepilepsy and as a diuretic. In Europe duringthe Middle Ages, parsley was regardedas the devil’s herb and was believed tobring disaster on anyone who grew itunless it was planted on Good Friday.Nevertheless, medieval abbess andherbalist Hildegard of Bingen and the17th-century herbalist Nicholas Culpeperprescribed it in various forms for heartand chest pain and for arthritis. Duringthe late 19th and early 20th centuries,parsley was prescribed for a variety ofmedical conditions. However, none ofthese uses is recognized in modern medicine.Today, parsley is used primarily asa flavoring agent and a garnish.Parsley is a hardy plant that can begrown easily in almost any soil. It can beplanted in the spring for summer use andin late summer for winter growth andspring harvesting. Soaking the seedsovernight before planting helps germination.Flat-leaved parsley is cultivatedmore easily than the curly-leaved types.UsesWhen selecting parsley, bunches that lookfreshly picked, not wilted or yellow,should be chosen. Fresh parsley can bewrapped in damp paper towels and storedin an open plastic bag in the refrigeratorfor up to 1 week.The curly-leaved varieties of parsleyare used as a flavoring, a salad ingredient,and a garnish. Flat-leaved parsley, withits stronger flavor, is frequently used as aseasoning in Italian cooking. Driedparsley may be substituted for the freshherb by using one-third of the amountof the fresh herb specified by the recipe.Nutrient compositionA serving of parsley contains somevitamin C.SERVINGSIZE:1 Tblsp. chopped,raw (4 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 1Water (%) 88Dietary fiber (grams) 0Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 0Protein (grams) 0Minerals (mg)Calcium 5Iron 0Zinc –Manganese –Potassium 21Magnesium 2Phosphorus 2Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A20 REVitamin C 5Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate6 μgVitamin E 0Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

Vegetables 249ParsnipLike the carrot and celery, the parsnip is a member of the Umbelliferae family, sonamedfor the umbrella-like shape of their flower clusters. It is a cold-weather,starchy root vegetable that resembles the carrot in shape but is pale yellow orivory. It has a mild, celery-like fragrance and a sweet, butslightly peppery, flavor. The parsnip root grows up to18 inches in length and up to 3 to 4 inchesacross at the top.Family UmbelliferaeScientific name Pastinaca sativa L.Common name parsnip♥ A good source of folate,vitamin C, and fibercan be peeled before or after cooking.Fresh parsnips that are not too tough canbe grated or shredded and dressed likecoleslaw or sliced very thin for a rawvegetable tray. They can be baked,microwaved, parboiled, or steamed untiljust tender and then puréed and servedin place of mashed potatoes. Whenadding parsnips to soups, stews, andcasseroles, they should be added about 15minutes before serving time, because overcookingcan turn them soft and tasteless.VarietiesUnlike their cousins the carrots, parsnipsare not bred for variety of color or shape,and the number of varieties is small.Modern varieties are bred to grow a fat,wedge-shaped root. The most diseaseresistanttypes are the Gladiator, a sweet,early-maturing parsnip, the Avonresister,and the Andover, a new American variety.The most popular parsnip is the AllAmerican, which has broad “shoulders,”white flesh, and a tender core.Origin & botanical factsWild parsnips were eaten by the ancientGreeks and Romans. The word pastinaca,part of the modern scientific name forparsnips, was used by Pliny in the 1stcentury A.D., but it may have referred toeither parsnips or carrots, or both.According to Pliny, the parsnip was so valuedby the Emperor Tiberius that he hadit imported to Rome from the banks ofthe Rhine. Sixteenth-century Germansexploited the parsnip’s high sugar contentto make wine, jam, and sweet flour forcakes. During the season of Lent, parsnipswere eaten with salt fish. Today, parsnipsare cultivated throughout Europe,Canada, and the northern United States.Northern California and Michigan arethe leading domestic growers.Although it is a biennial, the parsnipis usually grown as an annual, harvestedbefore the second year’s leaves begin toappear. Parsnips are propagated fromseeds and planted in deep, loamy, finesoil that has not been fertilized recently.In cold climates, parsnips are planted inearly spring, but in areas where temperaturesrarely fall below 25 degrees, seedscan be sown in early fall for a springharvest. The roots take from 100 to 120days to mature from seeds. The greenstalks grow above ground, anywhere from9 inches to 2 feet in height, with smooth,oblong leaflets about 4 or 5 inches long.The flowers, when permitted to develop,are deep yellow. Chilling the parsniproots, either before or after harvesting,results in a sweeter flavor.UsesThe best parsnips are those that are smallto medium in size, crisp, and plump.They should be stored in a perforated plasticbag in the refrigerator crisper. Becauseparsnips have a tough, fibrous core, theyare usually cooked before serving. TheyNutrient compositionParsnips are a good source of folate, vitaminC, and dietary fiber.Nutrient Content1 /2 cup1 /2 cup sliced,sliced, cookedraw (67 g) (78g)Energy (kilocalories) 50 63Water (%) 80 78Dietary fiber (grams) 3 3Fat (grams) 0 0Carbohydrate (grams) 12 15Protein (grams) 1 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 24 29Iron 0 0Zinc 0 0Manganese 0 0Potassium 249 286Magnesium 19 23Phosphorus 47 54Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A 0 RE 0 REVitamin C 11 10Thiamin 0.1 0.1Riboflavin 0 0Niacin 0 1Vitamin B 6 0 0.1Folate 44 μg 45 μgVitamin E – 1Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrientvalue is not available.

250 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsPeppersPeppers are thick-fleshed fruits with a smooth, waxy skin and a crunchy texture.They can be small and round, large and oblong, or almost any shape and size inbetween. The skin and flesh of peppers range from golden to green,bright red, orange, purple, and brown. Although all peppersare crunchy, their flavors range from sweetto extremely hot.Family SolanaceaeScientific name Capsicum annuum,Capsicum frutescensCommon name pepper♥ High in vitamin C♥ Sweet and hot red peppers are a goodsource of vitamin AVarietiesPeppers generally are divided into twoflavor categories: sweet and hot. Eachtype includes numerous varieties. Themost common variety of sweet peppersis the round bell pepper, which is sold bycolor. Although all bell peppers are greenwhen immature, most turn red whencompletely ripe, and some turn yellow,orange, purple, or brown. Ripe, coloredbell peppers are usually sweeter than theirimmature, green counterparts. Othervarieties of sweet pepper include bananapeppers, a mild variety that is the shapeand color of bananas; Cubanelle, atapered, light-green or yellow variety thatis more flavorful than bell peppers; andpimientos, thick-fleshed, heart-shapedpeppers that are ideal for roasting.Hot peppers, also called chilis, varygreatly in size, shape, and spiciness, and,like sweet peppers, they are green whenimmature. Cherry peppers are small,round, and red and have a mild to mediumheat. Anaheims are long, tapered, andgreen and can be mildly pungent to hot,depending on growing conditions. Thesmall Habañero peppers, which may be red,green, or orange and either bell-shapedor teardrop-shaped, are extremely hot.Jalapeños, the most widely available chilis,are stubby and pointed, varying fromgreen to red and from mild to hot. Driedjalapeños are known as chipotles.Poblaños are long and pointed and havea dark-green skin and a mild to mediumheat. Dried poblaños are called Anchosand are dark-purple to brown with a sweetflavor. Serraños, either green or red, aresmall and tapered and very hot.Origin & botanical factsPeppers are native to Asia and the WesternHemisphere, where they have been aculinary staple for thousands of years, butthey were unknown in Europe untilColumbus brought them home from hisfirst voyage to the Americas. In theUnited States, sweet peppers constitutemore than 60 percent of the pepper crop.The leading domestic growers of peppersare California and Florida. Many peppersalso are imported from LatinAmerica and Asia.Both sweet and hot peppers are perennialshrubs that thrive in tropical areasbut have been adapted as annuals in colderregions. Plants grow to about 2 feettall and equally wide. Proper floweringand fruit development require humidity.Sweet bell peppers are usually harvestedwhen they are 3 to 4 inches indiameter and are still green and crisp.The size of hot peppers at harvest dependson the variety. Peppers are harvested byhand because they must be cut, ratherthan pulled, from the brittle stems.UsesGood-quality fresh peppers should befirm and brightly colored. Sweet pepperscan be stored unwashed in plastic bagsin the refrigerator for up to 1 week.

Vegetables 251PeppersMost varieties of peppers can be eateneither raw or cooked. Sweet peppersfrequently are julienned or chopped andadded raw to salads or cooked in soups,stews, and stir-fries. They also can beroasted (which makes it easy to removethe skin and adds smoky flavor) and marinated,or they may be stuffed and bakedor microwaved. Hot peppers are used ina wide variety of Latin American andAsian recipes. Raw hot peppers can bechopped and added to salsas, relishes, andsalad dressings. The internal veins andseeds, which can be bitter or hot, can beremoved before the pepper is used. Somemilder types are used whole, stuffed withcheese or meat, and baked to make dishessuch as chilis relleños. Hot peppersalso can be pickled or dried, and mosttypes of hot pepper are commerciallyavailable in their dried form.Nutrient compositionBoth sweet and hot peppers are high invitamin C. Sweet and hot red peppers area good source of vitamin A (beta-carotene).Red peppers contain the phytochemicalcapsaicin, which has been approved by theFood and Drug Administration for use asa topical analgesic.SERVINGSIZE:hot peppers:1 pepper (45 g)Nutrient ContentGreenRedEnergy (kilocalories) 18 18Water (%) 88 88Dietary fiber (grams) 1 1Fat (grams) 0 0Carbohydrate (grams) 4 4Protein (grams) 1 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 8 8Iron 1 1Zinc 0 0Manganese 0 0Potassium 153 153Magnesium 11 11Phosphorus 21 21Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A 35 RE 484 REVitamin C 109 109Thiamin 0 0Riboflavin 0 0Niacin 0 0Vitamin B 6 0.1 0.1Folate 11 μg 11 μgVitamin E 0 0SERVINGSIZE:sweet peppers: 1/2 cup, chopped (75 g)Nutrient ContentYellow Red GreenEnergy (kilocalories) 20 20 20Water (%) 92 92 92Dietary fiber (grams) 1 1 1Fat (grams) 0 0 0Carbohydrate (grams) 5 5 5Protein (grams) 1 1 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 8 7 7Iron 0 0 0Zinc 0 0 0Manganese 0 0 0Potassium 159 132 131Magnesium 9 7 7Phosphorus 18 14 14Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A 18 RE 425 RE 47 REVitamin C 138 142 66Thiamin 0 0 0Riboflavin 0 0 0Niacin 1 0 0Vitamin B 6 0.1 0.2 0.2Folate 20 μg 16 μg 16 μgVitamin E – 1 1Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrient value is not available.

252 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsPotatoPotatoes are tubers, fleshy underground stems that bear minute leaves, each ofwhich develops a bud capable of producing a new plant. Potatoes are cultivatedin a variety of sizes, shapes, and colors. Their weight can range from 1 ounce tomore than a pound. The skin can besmooth or rough, and tan, white, red,or any of a variety of less commoncolors. The flesh is usually white butcan be yellow to deep orange andhas a smooth to mealy texture.In flavor, they range frombland to buttery sweet.Family SolanaceaeScientific name Solanum tuberosum L.Common name potato♥ A good source of vitamins C and B 6and a source of potassiumVarietiesPotatoes are categorized by flesh color,use, or age. The white potatoes includeseveral varieties. The Russet has a thick,netted, brown skin and a somewhat dry,mealy texture. The Round White and theLong White have a more moist, waxy textureand smooth, tan skins. The RoundRed potato has a smooth, reddish skinand creamy white, firm flesh. Yellow, orsweet, potatoes such as the Yukon Gold(not to be confused with the sweet potato)have a thicker brown skin, golden flesh,and a sweet, buttery flavor. Specialty varieties,including blue and purple potatoes,are nutty in flavor and difficult to find inmost markets. White potatoes can besubdivided by use into boiling potatoesand baking potatoes. Finally, potatoescan be subdivided into new and storagetypes. All new potatoes are boilers byvirtue of their low starch content and theirsmooth skins.Origin & botanical factsThe potato, a member of the nightshadeplants, originated in the Andes Mountainsof Peru, where more than 800 varieties ofpotatoes were once cultivated by the Incas onterraced farmland. The Spanish conquestof South America spread the cultivation ofpotatoes worldwide. Eventually, potatoesbecame a dietary staple throughout Europe.Today, potatoes are one of the most importantfood crops in the world. In the UnitedStates, annual potato consumption reaches125 pounds per person. Some of the leadingpotato-producing states are California,Colorado, Idaho, and Maine. Potatoes canbe propagated from true seeds or from piecesof tubers that contain two or more buds andsome potato flesh to nourish the developingsprouts. Because exposure to sunlightcan turn growing potatoes green and bitter,tuber pieces and seeds are planted deeply,and often the soil is protected from sunlightwith straw mulch. Potato plants grow toabout 18 inches tall and 4 feet wide. Somedevelop flowers and small toxic green fruitsresembling green tomatoes. Potatoes areharvested about 4 months after planting bycarefully prying them out of the ground toavoid puncturing or bruising them.UsesPotatoes should be heavy for their size andfree of sprouts or any greenish cast. Theycan be stored unwashed and unwrappedin a cool, dry, dark, well-ventilated areafor weeks. The potato is a versatilevegetable that can be baked, boiled, fried,or microwaved. Potatoes can be cookedalone or in combination with meats orother vegetables. Russet potatoes are themost common variety used for baking.Russet, Round White, and Yellow potatoesare often mashed. Long White potatoeswork well in potato salads, soups, andstews. Red potatoes are the type usuallyused in German potato salad.Nutrient compositionPotatoes are a good source of vitamins Cand B 6 and are a source of potassium.SERVINGSIZE:1/2 cup, baked (61 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 57Water (%) 75Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 13Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 3Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 239Magnesium 15Phosphorus 31Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A0 REVitamin C 8Thiamin 0.1Riboflavin 0Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0.2Folate6 μgVitamin E 0

Vegetables 253RadishThe radish is a root vegetable of the mustard family, resembling beets and turnipsbut with a unique, peppery flavor that can range from mild to very sharp. Thename comes from the Latin radix, meaning “root.” Radishes can be round, oval,or elongated, and they range from less than 1 inch to 2 feet long. Although skincolor varies from whiteto yellow, red, purple, andblack, the interior fleshis usually white.Family CruciferaeScientific name Raphanus sativus L.Common name radish♥ High in vitamin C♥ A source of phytochemicals thatmay help prevent cancerremoved from the roots before storing ina perforated plastic bag in the refrigeratorvegetable crisper. The roots can be storedfor several weeks to a month.In Western cuisines, radishes are eatenraw in salads or used as a colorful garnish.However, in Chinese and Japanesecuisines, radishes are a staple consumedraw, preserved, or cooked. The Japanesechop or grate daikon and use it as a condimentfor sushi, sashimi, and many otherdishes.Nutrient compositionRadishes are high in vitamin C and containbioflavonoids and indoles that mayhelp prevent cancer.VarietiesRadishes are divided into spring- andwinter-harvested types, with additionalvariations in shape and color in eachcategory. Spring radishes, which arepulled before they reach 1 inch in diameter,include the round, red Cherry Belle; theWhite Icicle, which is oblong, about 6inches long, and mild in flavor; andRainbow Mix and Easter Egg varieties,which include purple-skinned roots.Winter radishes have a stronger, morepungent flavor and a coarser texture.They are larger than spring radishes,about the weight of a turnip, and rangefrom white to black. White varietiesinclude the Japanese daikon, a long, carrotshaped,sharp-flavored radish.Origin & botanical factsRadishes are an ancient vegetable, first cultivatedthousands of years ago either in theeastern Mediterranean region or in the FarEast and quickly spread throughout theworld. The earliest radishes to be cultivatedwere the black varieties. Long, taperingwhite radishes were first mentioned in16th-century European literature, andabout 200 years later, round radishes firstappeared, along with the red-skinned types.In the United States today, California andFlorida are the leading radish growers.From the top of the root, the leaves ofthe radish plant form a rosette that can growto 1 foot in height. The radish is a coolweatherannual, one of the easiest vegetablesto grow. Propagation is by direct seedinginto a sandy soil with consistent moisture.Spring radishes can be planted as soon asthe ground is soft. The fastest-growingvarieties mature in about 3 weeks. Winterradishes are planted in late summer so theycan mature in the cool temperatures ofautumn. These larger radishes take at least55 days to reach a reasonable size.UsesRadishes that are firm with bright, crispgreens are the best. The leaves should beSERVINGSIZE:1/2 cup raw, sliced(13 medium) (58 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 12Water (%) 95Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 2Protein (grams) 0Minerals (mg)Calcium 12Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 135Magnesium 5Phosphorus 10Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A1 REVitamin C 13Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate16 μgVitamin E 0

254 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsRutabagaThe rutabaga, a member of the cabbage family, is a root vegetable similar to theturnip, but it is rounder, larger, denser, and sweeter and has a yellow flesh.Rutabagas have a thin, pale-yellow skin and smooth,waxy leaves. The root has a crisp texture and asweet, peppery flavor.Family CruciferaeScientific name Brassica napus L.Common name rutabaga♥ High in vitamin C and a source ofpotassiumup to 2 weeks. Rutabagas should bewashed, trimmed, and peeled beforecooking. They can be cubed or slicedand boiled, steamed, or baked, thenmashed or puréed and tossed with otheringredients. Rutabagas also make a tastyaddition to soups and stews. Their heartyflavor serves as a complement to other strongflavors, such as pork, duck, and spicy dishes.The flavor of rutabagas is enhanced byherbs such as basil, dill, rosemary, savory,and thyme; spices such as ginger andcloves; and orange or lemon juice.VarietiesThe differences among varieties of rutabagaare primarily in the color and shape ofthe root. Most types have yellow flesh.The American Purple Top is purple abovethe ground and light yellow below, withyellow flesh. The Laurentian has a darkpurpletop, a pale, smooth root, and yellowflesh. The Magre has an attractive, roundroot shape, and the Merrick is one of therare white-fleshed rutabaga varieties.Origin & botanical factsThe rutabaga originated from a chancehybridization between cabbage and turnipplants. A relatively new vegetable comparedwith those that have been aroundfor thousands of years, it probablyemerged in medieval gardens whereturnips and cabbage were grown side byside. The first mention of rutabagasoccurred in European botanical literatureof the 17th century. Rutabagas becamevery popular in Scandinavia (the Swedishword rotabagge means “round root”), fromwhere they were brought to England inthe late 18th century, acquiring the name“swede.” Their cultivation in NorthAmerica began early in the 19th century.Today they are grown in the northernstates and Canada, because hot weathercan damage the crop. Most domesticrutabagas are imported from Canada.Rutabagas are biennials that thrive incool temperatures and are best producedas a fall crop. Because they require a longgrowing season, rutabagas should beplanted in the early spring in light butrich soil with good drainage. Seeds aresown directly into fields, and the plantsmust be irrigated regularly to produce asweet, tender crop. The roots are readyfor consumption about 3 months aftersowing, when they are 4 to 5 inches indiameter. Harvesting should occur whenthe ground is dry so that very little soiladheres to the roots. Because they areresistant to fall frost and light winterfreezes, rutabagas can be mulched, left inthe ground, and harvested throughoutthe fall and winter. If they are pulledimmediately, they can be refrigerated orstored in cool, underground cellars.Rutabagas are available year-round.UsesRutabagas that are smooth-skinned, firm,and heavy for their size should be chosen.They can be refrigerated in a plastic bagNutrient compositionRutabagas are high in vitamin C and area source of potassium.Nutrient Content1 /2 cup,1 /2 cup,raw cooked(70 g) (85 g)Energy (kilocalories) 25 33Water (%) 90 89Dietary fiber (grams) 2 2Fat (grams) 0 0Carbohydrate (grams) 6 7Protein (grams) 1 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 33 41Iron 0 0Zinc 0 0Manganese 0 0Potassium 236 277Magnesium 16 20Phosphorus 41 48Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A 41 RE 48 REVitamin C 18 16Thiamin 0.1 0.1Riboflavin 0 0Niacin 0 0.1Vitamin B 6 0.1 0.1Folate 15 μg 13 μgVitamin E 0 0

Vegetables 255SalsifySalsify is a white-fleshed vegetable root that could easily be mistaken for a yellowishgray carrot or parsnip. The salsify plant, which is 10 to 12 inches in lengthand has a diameter of about 2 1/2 inches, is cultivated primarily for its slenderedible roots, althoughthe young tender leaves,often called “chards,”are commonly usedin salads.Family AsteraceaeScientific name TragopogonporrifoliusCommon name salsify, vegetableoyster, oyster plantshould be avoided. Salsify oxidizes veryquickly when peeled and must be placedin cold lemon water to prevent darkening.If salsify is stored with the tops removedin a sealed plastic bag in a cold, moiststorage area, it may keep up to 4 months.Salsify can be baked, steamed, fried,served in soups, or cut into cubes andstewed. If roots are to be steamed, theyshould be scrubbed and peeled beforecooking. The sliced root can be addedto savory vegetable pies. In addition,young shoots and flower buds can be usedas a substitute for asparagus or added rawto salads.VarietiesSalsify can be divided into three types:the most familiar white salsify, blacksalsify, and Spanish salsify. They are allsimilar in shape, flavor, flesh color, and size.However, black salsify, as its name implies,is black on the surface, and Spanish salsifyis slightly wider in diameter than the othervarieties. The most popular variety forthe home garden is the MammothSandwich Island, a subspecies of the whitesalsify which has French blue flowers.The Black Giant Russian is the mostcommon of the Spanish salsify.Origin & botanical factsIn its wild form, salsify is believed to havebeen a part of the diet of the ancientGreeks, although the vegetable was nota popular culinary item until the mid-17th century. Salsify appeared in NorthAmerica and in England during the 18thcentury. The salsify plant is also knownas “vegetable oyster” or “oyster plant”because its mild, sweet flavor is reminiscentof that of the oyster, although someprefer to call it the “goatsbeard plant”because its grass-like leaves are bunchedin a manner resembling a “goatee.”The plant is a biennial, alternatingyearly between purple and rose-coloredflowers that resemble dandelions and areclosely related to lettuce and chicory. Theroots grow best in rich, slightly alkaline,fine-textured, loose sand and after exposureto the cold. It is an easy vegetableto grow and is available year-round,although the peak season in the UnitedStates is from June through February.Salsify is a more popular vegetable inEurope, which may explain its greateravailability in markets specializing inGreek and Italian foods. During harvest,care must be taken not to damage thebrittle roots because bruised salsify losesmuch of its flavor. After harvest, the rootsmust be kept in cold storage at 90 to 98percent humidity to retain their freshness,because dehydrated roots shrivel andalso lose their flavor.UsesA firm, well-formed, medium-size rootthat is heavy for its size is the best choice.Oversized roots are tough and woody andNutrient compositionSalsify is not a significant source of nutrients.SERVINGSIZE:1/2 cup sliced,cooked (68 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 46Water (%) 81Dietary fiber (grams) 2Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 10Protein (grams) 2Minerals (mg)Calcium 32Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 191Magnesium 12Phosphorus 38Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A0 REVitamin C 3Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0.1Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate10 μgVitamin E 0

256 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsScallionThe scallion, with its long, straight, narrow green top and white base, is a truebut very immature onion. Often called a green onion,in reality it is picked at an even earlier stage thantrue green onions, usually before it can beginto form a bulb. The scallion is crunchyand has a peppery, fresh flavor thatis similar to, but milder than, thatof the onion.Family AmaryllidaceaeScientific name Allium cepa var. aggregatumCommon name scallion, eschalot, cebollin♥ A good source of vitamin CVarietiesScallion varieties may be classified by daylength (the number of hours of daylightthat optimizes their growth), market use,and bulb color. Sweet Spanish is anexample of a long-day variety (one thatdevelops best in areas with more hours ofdaylight and in midsummer). SouthportWhite Globe onions are grown as scallionsin areas with short days, where the shorterday length prevents bulb formation.Crossing onions with a variety called theJapanese bunching onion (Allium fistulosum),an onion that resembles a scallionbut is more bitter, results in hybrids thatcan be grown as scallions in the summerand in areas with long days.Origin & botanical factsScallions are propagated from seedsplanted in raised beds of fertile, well-prepared,well-balanced soil with good moistureretention. They are hardy plants,capable of withstanding temperatures aslow as 20° Fahrenheit. However, minimaltemperatures of 55° are necessary for theplants to emerge from the soil, and optimalgrowth occurs when the temperatureranges between 68° and 77° Fahrenheit.Growth of scallions also depends on daylength. Scallions are planted in fall,spring, and summer and are ready forharvest 2 to 4 months later. Hand harvestis required, usually accomplished byundercutting the base of the plant.Scallions are available year-round, but thesupply peaks from July through October.California is the leading domestic supplierof scallions. Illinois, Ohio, and NewJersey contribute a small proportion of thecrop. During the winter and spring,scallions are imported from Mexico.UsesScallions with slender bases tend to bemilder and sweeter. Those with the crispiestleaves, shiny bright-green stalks, and noyellowing or tears are the best. Scallionsshould be stored in a plastic bag in therefrigerator crisper.Scallions can be consumed both rawand cooked. Like mature onions, theyare used primarily to enhance the flavorof other dishes. Before use, they shouldbe rinsed well, and the roots and any wiltedleaves should be removed. The entireplant can be sliced or chopped and addedraw to salads and dips. Mixed withcottage cheese or cream cheese, they makea tasty spread for bread or a dip for rawvegetables. Scallions are a flavorful additionto soups, stews, stir-fries, casseroles,cooked rice, tomato sauces, and omelets.They also can be grilled, braised, or stirfriedalone, or seasoned with ginger andgarlic, to make a tasty vegetable dish toserve with rice and grilled meats. TheIrish include scallions in a traditional dishcalled “champ,” which is composed ofpotatoes and cooked scallions mashedtogether to produce a savory, green side dish.Nutrient compositionScallions are a good source of vitamin C.SERVINGSIZE:1/2 cup, chopped (50 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 16Water (%) 90Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 4Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 36Iron 1Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 138Magnesium 10Phosphorus 19Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A20 REVitamin C 9Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0Folate32 μgVitamin E 0

Vegetables 257Snap BeansSnap, green, or string beans are the beans most frequently consumed in theUnited States. Although they are members of the legume family, the long, slendergreen, yellow, or purple pods of snap beansare harvested while the seeds are stillimmature, and both pod and seeds are eatenas a vegetable. “Snap” refers to the soundthe fresh pod makes when broken into pieces.Family LeguminosaeScientific name Phaseolus vulgarisCommon name green beans, string beans,snap beans, wax beans, yellow snapbeans, romano beans, haricots♥ Yellow and green snap beans are agood source of vitamin CVarietiesThe “string” in “string beans” refers to astring-like fiber that, until the late 19thcentury, characterized all fresh beans andhad to be removed before the beans wereeaten. Today, modern hybrid varieties nolonger have the “string” and are referredto as snap beans. Many varieties of greensnap beans are grown throughout theUnited States. Variants include pods thatare pale yellow, called wax beans. Theterm “French green bean” is sometimesused to refer to small, young green beansthat are cooked and eaten whole (alsocalled haricots or haricots vertes) or tomature green beans that have been cutinto diagonal strips. Purple snap beans,available in limited supply, turn greenwhen cooked. Romano beans, also calledItalian or Scarlet Runner beans, are similarto but flatter than snap beans.Origin & botanical factsSnap beans, like kidney beans, whitebeans, pinto beans, and cranberry beans,are members of the common bean species,all of which trace their origins to theWestern Hemisphere. Although remainsof common beans from Central Americansites have been carbon dated to 7000 B.C.,the original subspecies have not beenidentified. Indigenous peoples of Southand Central America and AmericanIndians crossed the beans to create manysubspecies and varieties. Common beans,including the snap bean, were broughtto Europe by Columbus and other 15thand16th-century explorers. Today, manyvarieties of snap beans are grown throughoutthe world.The growth habit of snap beans isused to divide them into two varieties:bush beans and pole beans (which mustbe trained to a pole or trellis). Both arewarm-weather vegetables that must beplanted after the danger of frost haspassed. The beans are harvested whenthey are rapidly growing, about 8 to 10days after flowering. At this stage, thecolor is bright and the pod is fleshy withsmall, green seeds. Leaving the pods onthe plants too long decreases plant yieldand results in tough, dull-colored pods.UsesSnap beans are available year-round. Thepeak season in North America spans fromMay to October. They can be stored inthe refrigerator for up to 5 days. Thebeans also are available frozen and canned,both whole and prechopped. Fresh snapbeans can be steamed or simmered untilthe pods are tender. Steaming is thepreferred method of cooking because itpreserves nutrients. Chopped into 1- or2-inch sections, snap beans can be tossedin salads, stir-fried, included in soups andstews, or served as a side dish.Nutrient compositionYellow and green snap beans are a goodsource of vitamin C.SERVINGSIZE:1/2 cup, cooked (67 g)Nutrient ContentGreenYellow(wax)Energy (kilocalories) 22 22Water (%) 89 89Dietary fiber (grams) 2 2Fat (grams) 0 0Carbohydrate (grams) 5 5Protein (grams) 1 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 29 29Iron 1 1Zinc 0 0Manganese 0 0Potassium 187 187Magnesium 16 16Phosphorus 24 24Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A 42 RE 5 REVitamin C 6 6Thiamin 0 0Riboflavin 0.1 0.1Niacin 0 0Vitamin B 6 0 0Folate 21 μg 21 μgVitamin E 0 0

258 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsSpinachSpinach is a leafy vegetable that grows in a dark-green rosette about 8 to 10 inchesacross. The leaves may be flat or curly, depending on the variety. Cooked spinachhas a pungent, earthy flavor and can have a mushytexture; raw spinach is milder and crisp.spinach dishes. Chopped, seasonedspinach also makes a flavorful stuffing formushroom caps or a filling for savorypastries.Family ChenopodiaceaeScientific name Spinacia oleracea L.Common name spinach♥ Raw spinach is high in vitaminA (beta-carotene) and a goodsource of vitamin C and folate♥ Cooked spinach is high in vitaminA and folate and is a good sourceof vitamin C, riboflavin, vitaminB 6 , calcium, iron, and magnesiumVarietiesSpinach comes in two basic types: savoy(curly leaf) and flat (smooth leaf). Savoyhas crinkly dark-green leaves. Flat-leafspinach has unwrinkled, spade-shapedleaves and a slightly milder taste thansavoy. A third type that is increasing inpopularity is the semi-savoy, whose slightlycurly leaves provide some of the texture ofsavoy but are easier to clean. All varietieshave the same appearance when cooked.Origin & botanical factsSpinach probably originated in southwestAsia or the western Himalayas, but wildvarieties also grow in North Africa andIran. The leafy vegetable was first cultivatedby the Persians. Its cultivationreached China in the 7th century A.D. andEurope in the 9th century, when it wasintroduced to Spain by the Arabs, whonamed it. Today, spinach is grown andenjoyed in many parts of the world.Spinach is an annual plant thatrequires cool, damp weather and rich,moist soil. Spinach seed can be plantedin early spring or in autumn, dependingon the variety. Hardier types will survivethe winter in well-drained soils and can beharvested until spring. More tender varietiesare planted in spring, as early asFebruary, for summer harvest. Spinachis ready to be harvested about 6 weeksafter planting, when the largest leaves are6 to 8 inches long.UsesSpinach leaves that are crisp and brightto dark green are best. The leaves can berefrigerated in a plastic bag for 3 days.Spinach can be served raw or cooked.The flat-leaf variety, with its slightlymilder flavor, is generally preferred as araw salad green. Spinach should becooked very quickly, either by steaming orby sautéing with a minimum of liquid,just until the leaves wilt. The leaves alsocan be added to soups, casseroles, andstews. A variety of seasonings, such aslemon juice, soy sauce, horseradish,tomato sauce, or nutmeg, add flavor toNutrient compositionRaw spinach is high in vitamin A (betacarotene)and a good source of vitaminC and folate. Cooked spinach is high invitamin A (beta-carotene) and folate andis a good source of vitamin C, riboflavin,vitamin B 6 , calcium, iron, and magnesium.Although spinach is a good source of ironand calcium, oxalic acid (a chemical thatis present in the leaves) inhibits the body’sabsorption of these nutrients. Absorptionof iron can be increased by eating spinachwith a fruit or vegetable that containsvitamin C.Nutrient Content1 cup,1 /2 cup,raw (30 g) cooked (90 g)Energy (kilocalories) 7 21Water (%) 92 91Dietary fiber (grams) 1 2Fat (grams) 0 0Carbohydrate (grams) 1 3Protein (grams) 1 3Minerals (mg)Calcium 30 122Iron 1 3Zinc 0 1Manganese 0 1Potassium 167 419Magnesium 24 78Phosphorus 15 50Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A 202 RE 737 REVitamin C 8 9Thiamin 0 0.1Riboflavin 0.1 0.2Niacin 0 0Vitamin B 6 0.1 0.2Folate 58 μg 131 μgVitamin E 1 1

Vegetables 259SquashAlthough thought of and eaten as a vegetable, squash is a fleshy, edible fruitrelated to melons and cucumbers. Numerous varieties of squash are available in awide assortment of colors, shapes, and sizes. They can range from the patty pan(scallop) variety, which weighs only a couple of ounces, to thepumpkin, which can attain weights of up to200 pounds. The rind can be smooth,ridged, or bumpy and can range fromwhite or cream-coloredto yellow, orange,green, and even lightblue. Squash can becylindrical, bell- orclub-shaped, andsimply round or oblong.Although wild squash is bitter,cultivated varieties are generallysweeter or bland and have a softto crunchy texture when cooked.Origin & botanical factsThe squash probably originated inMexico or Central America. Althoughedible wild types are no longer known,related species with small, very bitter fruitsare still found in this region. Squash wasfirst gathered by indigenous peoplearound 8000 B.C., but apparently onlythe seeds were eaten, because the fruitswere unappealing. Cultivation of squashmay have begun around Tehuacan, southof Mexico City, around 3400 B.C. Fromthere, peoples throughout North andSouth America adopted squash cultivation.By the time squash was introducedto Europe in the 16th century, most ofthe modern types were already developed.Squash quickly became a staple in theFamily CucurbitaceaeScientific name Cucurbita pepo, Cucurbitamaxima, Cucurbita moschataCommon name squash♥ Winter squash is high in vitamin A(beta-carotene) and is a good sourceof potassium, fiber, and vitamin CVarietiesSquash is generally divided into two basictypes, summer and winter, althoughseasonal distinction is no longer accuratebecause both types are now available yearround.Winter, or hard-shell, squash isallowed to mature on the plant and hasa thick rind; large, tough seeds; and darkyellowto orange flesh. Summer, or softshell,squash, which is harvested beforeit matures completely, has a more tenderrind and lighter-colored flesh.Winter squash types include acornsquash, shaped something like an acornthat tapers at one end, with a dark-green,ridged rind; banana squash, a large,cylinder-shaped squash with a thick, paleskin and finely textured flesh; buttercupsquash, a squat, dark-green vegetable withlighter stripes and rather dry flesh; butternutsquash, shaped like a long bell witha tan rind and mild flavor; and spaghettisquash, an oval, yellow variety whosemild, pale-yellow flesh forms crisp-texturedspaghetti-like strands when cooked.Among the summer squash varieties,zucchini, with its mild flavor and cucumberlikeappearance, is the most popular inthe United States. Although zucchini usuallyhas a smooth, green skin, one variant, thegolden zucchini, has deep-yellow skinand a sweeter flavor. Other summersquashes include the chayote, a pale-green,pear-shaped fruit with a large central seedand a fairly thick, ridged skin; the pattypan, a disk-shaped variety with a scallopededge, white to pale-green skin, andwhite, succulent flesh; and yellow crookneckand yellow straightneck, which havelemon-colored skin and bulbous blossomends, tapering to narrow stem ends thatare either curved or straight. Within someof these types are further variations.Nutrient Content1 /2 cup1 /2 cupsummer, winter,cooked cooked(90 g) (103 g)Energy (kilocalories) 18 40Water (%) 94 89Dietary fiber (grams) 1 3Fat (grams) 0 1Carbohydrate (grams) 4 9Protein (grams) 1 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 24 14Iron 0 0Zinc 0 0Manganese 0 0Potassium 173 448Magnesium 22 8Phosphorus 35 21Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A 26 RE 365 REVitamin C 5 10Thiamin 0 0.1Riboflavin 0 0Niacin 0 1Vitamin B 6 0.1 0.1Folate 18 μg 29 μgVitamin E 0 0

260 Part II: Encyclopedia of Foodsdiets of European colonists in America.New England settlers adapted the word“squash” from several Indian names forthe vegetable, all of which meant “somethingeaten raw.” Both George Washingtonand Thomas Jefferson cultivated zucchiniand other types of summer squash ontheir Virginia estates. By the 19th century,North American merchant seamen werebringing home new varieties of squashfrom all over Central and South America.Today, squash, gourds, and pumpkins aregrown in many parts of the world andrank 11th among the leading vegetablesof the world. Although the United Statesdoes not produce a large volume of squashcommercially, many people cultivate itin home gardens. California and Floridaare the primary U.S. producers, andMexico and Costa Rica contribute substantiallyto the U.S. supply.Squash is a hardy, warm-weatherannual that grows on vines or small busheswith trailing tendrils. Seeds can be sownin seedbeds early in spring or directly intofields later in the season, after danger offrost has passed, in hills of warm, wellfertilizedsoil. Vines must be trellised toprovide support for the heavy fruit.Although most types of squash prefer fullsun, winter varieties can tolerate lightshade. For ideal growth, the plantsrequire considerable moisture, especiallyafter flowering. Most squash blossomsare yellow or orange, and both male andfemale flowers form on the same plant.Because the female blooms open for only1 day, and only from dawn until midmorning,pollination at the right timeand place is critical. In addition, thenumber of seeds and the size and shape ofthe fruits are determined by the amountof pollen deposited. Inadequate pollinationof summer squash results in small,misshapen fruit or none at all. The firstcrop of summer squash is ready to harvestabout 50 days after planting, and allof the fruits must be harvested at this stagein order for more to grow. If the fruitsare allowed to mature, the plants stopproducing. In contrast, winter squash isleft on the plant until it matures, a processthat takes 95 to 115 days, depending onvariety. All are picked after the leaveshave turned brown.UsesWhen selecting winter squash, it isimportant to choose one that is heavy forits size and has a thick, hard shell. Ifstored in a cool, dry place, whole wintersquash can keep well for several months.Cut pieces should be tightly wrapped andrefrigerated. Winter squash is alwayscooked before eating, usually after thefruit has been cut open and the seeds andfibers scooped out. (The seeds of mostwinter squash varieties can be dried orroasted and consumed as a snack.) Aheavy chef’s knife or cleaver may benecessary to cut the hard shell. Halvescan be baked and served plain or stuffedwith cheese, meats, or other vegetables.Baking conserves the nutrients in the fleshand enhances its sweetness. Some especiallytough-shelled varieties can be bakedor steamed whole (after piercing the flesh)and then cut up. Squash pieces alsocan be boiled or steamed in broth,microwaved, or sautéed in oil. Baked orsteamed winter squash is deliciousmashed or puréed and seasoned withspices such as fresh ginger, curry, cinnamon,cloves, or allspice or with sweetenerssuch as brown sugar, maple syrup, orhoney. Squash also can be mixed withonions, garlic, and herbs or with othervegetables such as corn, tomatoes, andbell peppers. Chunks of squash can beadded to soups, stews, and casseroles.Any type of mashed or puréed wintersquash can be used in place of cannedpumpkin in soups, pies, cookies, or quickbreads. Spaghetti squash is often servedas a substitute for pasta, topped withtomato sauce, pesto, or other sauces.Cooked squash also can be frozen for lateruse. To prevent squash from becomingwatery during cooking, lightly salt theraw flesh, place it on absorbent paper todraw out the moisture, and rinse.When purchasing summer squash,small, firm, shiny squash that are heavyfor their size should be selected. Squashcan be stored in perforated plastic bagsin the refrigerator crisper. Summer squashcan be eaten raw or cooked, and the tenderskin is always left on. Raw summersquash can be sliced and added to greensalads or julienned to use with dips.Grated zucchini is used to make moistbreads and cakes. Quick steaming,grilling, and stir-frying are the best cookingmethods for conserving nutrients.Several varieties cooked together make acolorful and tasty combination seasonedwith herbs such as dill, basil, thyme, mint,tarragon, marjoram, or oregano. Themild flavor of summer squash complementssoups, stews, casseroles, and mixedvegetables. Immature summer squash isused as an attractive edible garnish or sidedish. In addition, the flowers are edible.Nutrient compositionWinter squash is high in vitamin A (betacarotene)and is a good source of potassium,fiber, and vitamin C.

Vegetables 261Sweet PotatoThe sweet potato, a smooth-skinned, oblong or elongated tropical tuber, is notrelated to the white potato. Instead, it is a member of the morning glory family.Nor is the sweet potato a yam, which actually is a completely different vegetable.The sweet potato’s smooth skin may vary from paleyellow to vivid orange to deep purple, dependingon the variety. The sweet flesh may belight yellow, pink, red, or deep orange.Family ConvolvulaceaeScientific name Ipomoea batatasCommon name sweet potato♥ High in vitamin A (beta-carotene)and vitamin C♥ A good source of vitamin B 6 ,potassium, and fiberVarietiesSweet potatoes are categorized into twobasic types. The orange-fleshed varieties,with tan to brownish red or purple skin,a plump shape, and sweet flavor, are the mostcommon. The yellow-fleshed potatoes tendto be firmer, dryer, and less sweet andhave a slightly mealy texture and yellowishtan to fawn-colored skins. Currentvarieties of sweet potato include theBeauregard, the Garnet, the Hernandez,and the Jewel.Origin & botanical factsThe sweet potato, a native of the tropicalregions of the Americas, was importantin the diet of the Aztec people of Mexicoand the Incas of Peru. Remains of sweetpotatoes that are 10,000 to 20,000 yearsold have been found in Peruvian caves.Sweet potatoes were introduced to Europeby Columbus, later brought to Asia byother explorers, and widely cultivated inthe American colonies, where theybecame a dietary staple for early settlersand Revolutionary War soldiers. Today,sweet potatoes are cultivated in manyparts of the world. Major suppliersinclude China, Indonesia, Vietnam, andUganda. In the United States, sweet potatoesrank 10th among vegetables grown.North Carolina, Louisiana, California,and Georgia are the major suppliers.Although their peak season is the autumnand early winter, they are sold year-round.Sweet potato tubers can be harvested bymachine, but they must be handled carefully,because their thin skin bruises easily,which can lead to rapid spoilage. Afterharvest, sweet potatoes can be stored forabout 10 days at 85° Fahrenheit and 85percent humidity to heal any smallwounds and increase sweetness.UsesSweet potatoes that are firm with skinthat is of uniform, bright color should bechosen. Sweet potatoes should be storedin a cool, dark, dry, well-ventilated placebut not in the refrigerator, because temperaturesless than 50° Fahrenheit producea hard texture and unpleasant taste. Theyshould be scrubbed well in cold water justbefore use and cooked in their skins topreserve nutrients and prevent the fleshfrom darkening. After cooking, the skincan be removed easily. Both types ofsweet potato can be baked, boiled, ormicrowaved. Although cooked potatoesare naturally sweet, apple cider, lemonjuice, orange peel, orange juice, pineapple,nutmeg, allspice, cinnamon, and gingerenhance their sweetness. They are a tastyingredient in casseroles and stews,especially with apple or other fruit slicesadded. They also can be substituted forpuréed pumpkin in baked breads, cakes,cookies, custards, pies, and muffins.Nutrient compositionFresh sweet potatoes are high in vitaminA (beta-carotene) and vitamin C. Theyare a good source of vitamin B 6 , potassium,and fiber. Canned and frozen potatoesare considerably less nutritious.SERVINGSIZE:3/4 cup, baked (150 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 155Water (%) 73Dietary fiber (grams) 5Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 36Protein (grams) 3Minerals (mg)Calcium 42Iron 1Zinc 0Manganese 1Potassium 522Magnesium 30Phosphorus 83Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A3,273 REVitamin C 37Thiamin 0.1Riboflavin 0.2Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0Folate34 μgVitamin E 0

262 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsTaroTaro is a barrel-shaped tuber or corm with thick, brown, shaggy skin and fibrous,gray-white to lilac flesh. Its length ranges from about 5 inches to a foot or more,and it can be several inches wide. Its starchy, rather dry flesh is acrid and actuallytoxic when raw, but aftercooking it is safe to consumeand has a somewhat nuttyflavor, similar to that ofpotatoes or water chestnuts.Family AraceaeScientific name Colocasia esculenta L.SchottCommon name taro♥ Cooked taro root is a good sourceof vitamin B 6 and fiber♥ Cooked taro leaves are high in vitaminA and vitamin Ccrystals they contain. The most wellknownuse of taro is from Polynesia andHawaii, where it is boiled, pounded intoa paste, strained, and left to ferment intoa potent brew called poi. Taro also canbe peeled and cooked like potatoes. Theyoung, unopened leaves of the taro plantare also edible and can be cooked andeaten like mustard or turnip greens.Nutrient compositionOne serving of cooked taro root is a goodsource of vitamin B 6 and fiber. Cookedleaves are high in vitamin A and vitamin C.VarietiesMore than 300 varieties of taro are cultivatedaround the world, both in waterand in soil, and vary considerably in colorand taste. The two varieties of taro thatare most important for food productionare the globulifera, also called dasheen,which produces a large number of crisp,easily cut tubers (or corms), and theantiquorum, whose corms are tougherand more spongy.Origin & botanical factsBecause taro is an important part of manyAsian diets and rituals, the tuber mayhave originated somewhere on that continent.Whatever its geographic origins,it is most likely one of the oldest foodplants. As early as 2000 B.C., taro wasbrought from southeast Asia to the Pacificrim and northern Asia. Taro is believedto have been brought to Hawaii between400 and 500 A.D. by the first Marquesanand Tahitian settlers. According toHawaiian tradition, taro is the staff oflife. Taro also was carried westward toArabia and was an important crop in theNile Valley by 500 B.C. Today, taro is astaple in the diets of the people of WestAfrica, the Caribbean, and the PolynesianIslands. It is grown throughout tropicaland subtropical Asia and the Pacific andin parts of Africa and the Americas.Taro is a succulent perennial plantthat ranges in height from about 20 inchesto 6 feet. Young corms develop as offshootsof the main corm and can producenew plants. Although taro is generallyregarded as a bog plant, it can grow in avariety of environments from dry groundto wetlands and can tolerate lightingconditions ranging from deep shade tobright sunlight. Because taro seeds andseedlings do not survive well and theplants rarely flower, propagation is doneprimarily by planting side corms or bycutting off and planting the top of a largetuber with its shoot.UsesTaro roots must be cooked thoroughlyto neutralize the toxic calcium oxalateNutrient Content1 /2 cup root,1 /2 cupcooked leaves,(66 g) cooked (72 g)Energy (kilocalories) 94 17Water (%) 64 92Dietary fiber (grams) 3 1Fat (grams) 0 0Carbohydrate (grams) 23 3Protein (grams) 0 2Minerals (mg)Calcium 12 62Iron 1 1Zinc 0 0Manganese 0 0Potassium 319 333Magnesium 20 15Phosphorus 50 20Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A 0 RE 307 REVitamin C 3 26Thiamin 0.1 0.1Riboflavin 0 0.3Niacin 0 1Vitamin B 6 0.2 0.1Folate 13 μg 35 μgVitamin E 0 –Note: A line (–) indicates that the nutrient valueis not available.

Vegetables 263TomatilloThe tomatillo resembles a small green, leaf-covered tomato. Indeed, the name“tomatillo” means “little tomato” in Spanish. Like the tomato, it belongs to thenightshade family and is actually a fruit. Globular in shape and between 1 1/2and 2 inches in diameter, the slightly flattened,shiny fruits are enclosed in light-brownor green, easily removed, parchment-likecoverings. The tomatillo has a tangylemony flavor that is difficult todescribe. It has a firmer texturethan the tomato, and its fleshis pale green or yellow, dependingon the degree of ripeness.Family SolanaceaeScientific name Physalis ixocarpaCommon name tomatillo, jamberry,strawberry tomato, Mexican greentomato, tomate verde♥ A good source of vitamin CVarietiesTomatillos come in two varieties: thesweet and the sharp (or acidic), both ofwhich are available in the United States.The more acidic variety is also known asTomatilla de Milpa.Origin & botanical factsThe tomatillo is a native of Mexico,although it also grows wild in California.Plants reach heights and widths of 3 to4 feet and have an unusual zigzag shape.The leaves are long and heart-shaped, andthe flowers are bell-shaped. Tomatillosare best adapted to warm and dry climates.However, they can be grown as far northas the central midwestern United States.In North America, fruit productionbegins about 70 days after the plant hassprouted. Tomatillos are available yearround.UsesThe tomatillo is almost always used whileit is still unripe, because the tangy lemonyflavor is lost when the fruit ripens. Firmfruits that just fill the husks are best. Thefruit can be stored in the refrigeratorunwashed or in a paper or plastic bag for3 weeks or longer. Before use, the fruitshould be husked and washed to removethe sticky film that covers it. The tomatillois popular in Mexican and Southwestcuisine. Although it can be used raw insalads, the tomatillo is usually cookedeven when added to dishes such as salsacruda (salsa made from raw vegetables),because cooking enhances the tomatillo’sflavor and softens its skin. Salsa verde,also made from tomatillos, is a popularcooked sauce with a sharp flavor that isexcellent for poultry and grilled meat orenchiladas. Canned tomatillos also areavailable in markets and can be used inrecipes that require the cooked fruit.Nutrient compositionTomatillos are a good source of vitamin C.SERVINGSIZE:1/2 cup chopped,raw (66 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 21Water (%) 92Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 1Carbohydrate (grams) 4Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 5Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 177Magnesium 13Phosphorus 26Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A7 REVitamin C 8Thiamin 0Riboflavin 0Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0Folate5 μgVitamin E 0

264 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsTomatoTomatoes are members of the nightshade family, related to potatoes, bell peppers,and eggplant. They can be red, pink, orange, or yellow, round to oblong, andfrom 1 to 6 inches in diameter.The flavor ranges fromsweet to bland to tart,depending on variety.Tomatoes also are available in a varietyof processed forms, including cannedwhole, diced, and puréed. Canned tomatopaste is a concentrated form of the fruit’spulp. Processed tomato sauce in cans orjars is similar to purée, but with seasoningsand sometimes fat added.Family SolanaceaeScientific name LycopersiconesculentumCommon name tomato♥ High in vitamin C♥ A good source of vitamin A (carotenes)♥ Contains the antioxidant lycopeneVarietiesTomatoes are available in three basictypes: small, round cherry tomatoes;plump, oblong plum, or Roma, tomatoes;and round or globe-shaped slicingtomatoes, probably the sweetest andjuiciest type. Within each type arenumerous varieties, totaling about 4,000.Origin & botanical factsAlthough the tomato is botanically a fruit,it is prepared and consumed as a vegetable.In fact, because of a tariff dispute, the U.S.Supreme Court officially declared it a vegetablein 1893. The word “tomato” isderived from the Mexican Nahuatl Indianword “tomatl.” The wild form of the plant,which still flourishes in Mexico andCentral and South America, is similar tothe domestic cherry tomato. Spanishexplorers to Mexico brought tomatoes backto Europe in the 10th century. The firstofficial mention of the fruit appeared in1544, in the work of Italian botanistMatthiolus, who described a yellow-fruitedvariety he called pomodoro, meaning“golden apple.” Europeans initially regardedtomatoes with suspicion, because mostplants of the nightshade family wereknown to be poisonous. The tomato wasnot widely accepted as a food until theearly 19th century, although even thentomatoes would be cooked for hours toneutralize the toxins they were thought tocontain. Raw tomatoes were not consumeduntil the late 19th century. Today, tomatoesare one of the most popular vegetables inthe United States.To increase durability and shelf life,tomatoes are usually picked when theyare at the “mature green” stage. In responseto year-round demand, growers havedeveloped thicker-skinned, hardy varietiesof tomatoes that can withstand longdistanceshipping.UsesUnripe tomatoes can be ripened in a paperbag at room temperature. Tomatoesshould be stored at room temperature.Ripe tomatoes can be kept up to 2 days.The most popular way to eat fresh tomatoesis to slice them raw and eat them in saladsor sandwiches.Nutrient compositionTomatoes are a good source of vitamin A(carotenes) and are high in vitamin C.Red tomatoes also contain substantialamounts of lycopene, an antioxidant thatmay help protect against cancer. Thelycopene in cooked or processed tomatoesis more easily absorbed than that infresh tomatoes.SERVINGSIZE:1 medium, raw (123 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 26Water (%) 94Dietary fiber (grams) 1Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 6Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 6Iron 1Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 273Magnesium 14Phosphorus 30Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A76 REVitamin C 23Thiamin 0.1Riboflavin 0.1Niacin 1Vitamin B 6 0.1Folate18 μgVitamin E 0

Vegetables 265TurnipThe turnip is a fleshy root vegetable related to broccoli, brussels sprouts, cabbage,and the mustards. Depending on age and variety, turnips can be round or shapedlike a top, range in diameter from 2 inches to over a foot, and weigh up to 50pounds. Their smooth skin can be white, yellow, green, or purple. The whiteor yellow flesh of the turnip has a slightly sweet, pepperyflavor and a crisp texture.Family CruciferaeScientific name Brassica rapaCommon name turnip♥ A good source of vitamin CVarietiespeppery flavor to green salads. Turnipscan be boiled, baked, steamed, pickled,braised in broth, microwaved, stir-friedwith other vegetables, or roasted alongsidemeat or poultry. Cooked turnips canbe mashed and served like potatoes or cutup and included in soups, casseroles, andstews. Overcooking should be avoided,because it brings out the vegetable’s strongflavor. Also, turnips should not be cookedin aluminum or iron pots because theflesh can darken.In Great Britain, turnips are carvedinto jack-o’-lanterns for Halloween.Numerous varieties of turnips are grownfor harvest throughout the year. ThePurple Top Milan, with flat white rootsand purple markings, matures early andis good for winter production, as are theManchester Market and the yellowfleshedGolden Ball. The Purple TopWhite Globe is an old variety with roundor flat roots that are reddish purple aboveground and white below. The Snowballis a fast-maturing white turnip thatgenerally is sown in spring, while theTokyo Cross is an all-year crop. TheJapanese cultivate long, carrot-shapedturnips called Hinona Kabu.Origin & botanical factsTurnips are native to Europe and centralAsia, where they still grow wild on openground or next to streams. However, theywere first cultivated in the Middle Eastabout 4,000 years ago. Turnips wereconsumed by the ancient Romans and byEuropeans during the Middle Ages.English and French settlers broughtturnips to America. Today, turnips aregrown in many parts of the world, includingCanada and the United States, wherethe leading suppliers are California andNew Jersey.Turnips are economical and easy togrow. They thrive in almost any type ofsoil and store well after harvest. Seedsgenerally are sown in early spring as soonas the soil can be worked, and additionalplantings are done every 2 weeks untilabout 5 weeks before the temperature isexpected to increase to more than 80°Fahrenheit. In late summer, whentemperatures begin to cool, successiveplantings can be started again until 3months before night temperaturesnormally decrease to less than 20°Fahrenheit. Turnips are ready for harvestabout 70 days after planting or when theroots are 2 inches in diameter.UsesFirm, unblemished turnips that are smallbut heavy for their size are the best andsweetest. They can be stored in perforatedplastic bags in the refrigeratorcrisper. Although turnips can be eatenraw, the larger ones may have a strongflavor, which can be reduced by blanchingin boiling water for about 5 minutes.Although the root usually is peeled beforeuse, fresh, young turnips can be used withthe skins intact. Sliced or cubed rawturnip adds a crunchy texture and a sweet,Nutrient compositionTurnips are a good source of vitamin C.Nutrient Content1 /2 cup,1 /2 cup,raw (65g) cooked (78g)Energy (kilocalories) 18 16Water (%) 92 94Dietary fiber (grams) 1 2Fat (grams) 0 0Carbohydrate (grams) 4 4Protein (grams) 1 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 20 17Iron 0 0Zinc 0 0Manganese 0 0Potassium 124 105Magnesium 7 6Phosphorus 18 15Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A 0 RE 0 REVitamin C 14 9Thiamin 0 0Riboflavin 0 0Niacin 0 0Vitamin B 6 0.1 0.1Folate 9 μg 7 μgVitamin E 0 0

266 Encyclopedia of FoodsWater ChestnutThe Chinese water chestnut is not a chestnut or even a nut, but the edible tuberof an aquatic plant. The walnut-sized tuber is rounded with a pointed top andconsists of a tough but papery brown skin coveringcrisp, white meat. Whether raw orcooked, the meat has a crunchytexture, similar to that of rawpotato, and a subtle, almostsweet flavor.Family CyperaceaeScientific name Eleocharis dulcisor Eleocharis tuberosaCommon name water chestnut, Chinesewater chestnut, Ma Ti,Ma-Tai, Chee-Chang♥ Raw water chestnuts are a good sourceof potassium and vitamin B 6VarietiesNumerous varieties of Chinese waterchestnut exist, but only a small numberare cultivated. A Chinese variety, HonMati, is known for its size and sweetness.A Florida variety, derived from theChinese variety, is larger, but the flavor ismore bland. Another type of edible waterchestnut is the fruit of the aquatic herbTrapa natans, unrelated to the Chinesewater chestnut. Trapa grows so abundantlyin the waterways of the northeastthat attempts are under way to eradicate it.Origin & botanical factsThe Chinese water chestnut is native tothe Far East and grows in many parts ofIndia, southeast Asia, New Guinea,northern Australia, and Polynesia,although it is cultivated mainly in Chinaand Japan as a food and folk medicine.Attempts have been made to establishcrops in the state of Florida, but at thistime no commercial growth occurs in theUnited States. The plant is a sedge,similar in appearance but unrelated tograss, that grows in freshwater swamps orin shallow ponds. The rush- or reed-likeleaves are bright-green hollow stems thatgrow to 3 feet in height. The plant, whichis best grown in rich, fertile, pulverizedsoil covered with 6 inches of water, isplanted in spring and propagates by producingspreading rhizomes throughoutthe summer months. One rhizome canpropagate to 3 square feet. During thelate autumn, the leaves yellow and chestnutsform at the ends of the rhizomes.Within 3 to 4 weeks, the leaves die back,and the corms can be harvested, althoughexposure to cold winter air is thought bysome growers to improve the flavor.Chinese chestnuts are harvested by handor scooped from the bottoms of pondswith forks to avoid bruising the skins.UsesFreshwater chestnuts should be firm.They can be refrigerated in a paper bagfor up to 2 weeks and should be washedand peeled just before use. To preventdiscoloration from exposure to air, thepeeled whole or sliced water chestnutscan be dropped into acidulated water(dilute lemon juice) if not cooked imme-diately. Canned water chestnuts can bedrained and stored in fresh water in asealed container up to a month if thewater is changed daily. Freshwater chestnutscan be eaten raw or cooked. Theycan be added to stir-fries, soups,casseroles, or vegetable dishes, where theywill retain their crisp texture even afterheating. For use in salads and other colddishes, they can be added raw or boiled 5minutes, drained, and chilled.Nutrient CompositionRaw water chestnuts are a good source ofpotassium and vitamin B 6 .Nutrient Content1 /2 cup,1 /2 cup,cooked (70 g) raw (62 g)Energy (kilocalories) 35 60Water (%) 87 74Dietary fiber (grams) 2 2Fat (grams) 0 0Carbohydrate (grams) 9 15Protein (grams) 1 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 3 7Iron 1 0Zinc 0 0Manganese 0 0Potassium 83 362Magnesium 4 14Phosphorus 13 39Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A 0 RE 0 REVitamin C 1 2Thiamin 0 0.1Riboflavin 0 0.1Niacin 0 1Vitamin B 6 0.1 0.2Folate 4 μg 10 μgVitamin E 0 1

Vegetables 267YamThe yam is a thick, starchy tuber that is similar in appearance to the sweet potatobut is not related to it. Yams can range in length from a few inches to 7 1/2 feetand can weigh more than 100 pounds. The rough skin is pale tan to dark brown,whereas the flesh can range from off-white to yellow to purple or pink.Depending on the variety, thetexture is moist and tenderor dry and mealy. The flavoris rather bland, more similarto white potatoes thanto sweet potatoes.cool, dry, dark place but should not berefrigerated. Because they grow underground,they should be scrubbed well toremove any clinging soil. Yams must becooked before eating. Like potatoes, theycan be baked, boiled, fried, or microwaved.They can be substituted for sweetpotatoes, cut into chunks or mashed andseasoned with apple juice, orange peel,or sweet spices. They also are a flavorfuladdition to soups, casseroles, and stewsand can take the place of mashed pumpkinin pies, cakes, and pastries.Family DioscoreaceaeScientific name Dioscorea alataCommon name yam♥ A good source of vitamin C, fiber, andpotassiumVarietiesHundreds of species of yams, all of themclimbing vines, are cultivated throughoutthe world. The most widely growntype is the Dioscorea alata, also called thewinged yam, greater yam, or white Manilayam, whose tubers can grow to 30 to 40pounds in weight. Also popular is the D.batatas, or Chinese yam, a smaller tuberweighing 5 to 10 pounds, with a flattenedor fan-like shape.Origin & botanical factsYams derive their name from the Senegaleseword nyami, which means “to eat.” Theyare native to Africa, where they have beencultivated for 11,000 years, and to southeastAsia, where their cultivation extendsback 10,000 years. Along with taro, theymay have been the first plants to be cultivated.The slave trade brought yams toCentral America and the Caribbean,where they became an important staplecrop. Nevertheless, western Africa stillproduces about half of the almost 30 millionmetric tons of yams currently grownin the world annually. The rest are grownin Asia and Central and South America.Very small amounts are cultivated andconsumed in the United States. Most ofthe vegetables that are called yams in theUnited States are actually sweet potatoes.True yams thrive in frost-free, preferablytropical or subtropical climates whoserainfall totals at least 40 inches duringthe 8-month growing season. The idealsoil is rich, fertile, and moist but welldrained. Like potatoes, yams are easilypropagated from the tubers themselves,which are cut into wedges containing twoor three buds each and allowed to dry fora day before planting. Plants can begrown in pots or planted directly intohills of compost mixed with sandy soil.Because the tubers do not store well, it isbest to leave them in the ground as longas possible before harvest in fall or latewinter.UsesYams can be found in Latin Americanand Asian specialty markets, usually soldin chunks. Yams should be stored in aNutrient compositionYams are a good source of vitamin C anddietary fiber and are high in potassium.SERVINGSIZE:1/2 cup, baked (68 g)Nutrient ContentEnergy (kilocalories) 79Water (%) 70Dietary fiber (grams) 3Fat (grams) 0Carbohydrate (grams) 19Protein (grams) 1Minerals (mg)Calcium 10Iron 0Zinc 0Manganese 0Potassium 456Magnesium 13Phosphorus 33Vitamins (mg)Vitamin A0 REVitamin C 8Thiamin 0.1Riboflavin 0Niacin 0Vitamin B 6 0.2Folate11 μgVitamin E 0

269GrainsIncludes: Bread, Cereals, Flour, and PastaCereal grains are the fruit of plants belonging to the grass family (Gramineae). Ten thousand years ago, wheatunderwent spontaneous mutations causing this grass to hang onto its seed rather than scatter it to thewind. Although this change was not in the interests of the wheat from the standpoint of its own reproduction,it enabled humans to store seed for the winter. The calorie density of grains prevented starvation and soplayed an important role in human history worldwide. In China, rice was domesticated about6,500 years ago, and in the New World corn was domesticated about 3,500 years ago.Until the past century, most grains were consumed as “whole” grains. Inother words, the grain kernels were intact — not stripped of theirvitamins, minerals, and fiber. Whole grains provide fiber, protein,complex carbohydrates, lignans, phytates, other phytochemicals,vitamins, and minerals. Fat-soluble vitamins are found in the germof the grain, and B vitamins and phytochemicals are found in thehusk or bran. Grain and grain products are also naturally low in fat.Whole grains can be consumed plain as hot cereals, used in pilafs,added to baked goods, and eaten in dozens of other ways. Hundredsof products are made from grain. Two of the main ones —breadand pasta — are diet staples in nearly every culture on everycontinent, from couscous in North Africa to soba (buckwheatnoodles) in Japan. Grains and grain products literally feed theworld, providing most of the calories and much of the proteinconsumed by the world’s population.BasicsGrains are the seeds of plants. Although thegrains eaten by humans belong to a wide rangeof botanical families, they have the samebasic structure (see the illustration on page20, Chapter 2) and contain these components,from which plants begin to grow:Bran — This is the outer layer of thegrain seed. It’s full of B vitamins, traceminerals, and, especially, fiber.Endosperm — Sometimes referred to asthe kernel, the endosperm contains themajority of the material within the seedand is meant to nourish a seedling. Theendosperm is where most of the protein,carbohydrates, and small amounts of vitaminsare located. It is composed mainly ofstarch, and often it is the only part of thegrain that is eaten.Germ — The germ is the part of theseed from which the new plant sprouts. Asthe embryo within the seed, it has the highestconcentration of nutrients, including Bvitamins, trace minerals, and some proteins.It also contains fat, which increasesits perishability.Grains are usually milled before theyare used as food. Milling usually meansthat the bran and any husk surroundingthe grain seed (along with the nutrientsthey contain) are removed. Then the seedsare ground in a process that converts thegrain into flour or other products. Theproduct’s use and name often depend onhow much of the bran is left. Wheat, forexample, can be milled into whole-grainflours that contain all parts of the seed.Refined flours, which are used most oftenby Western nations, contain only theendosperm: the bran and germ are removed(along with much of the grain’s nutrition).Nearly any grain can be milled andmade into products such as bread, cereal,or pasta—food staples worldwide—withvarying degrees of success depending onthe chemistry of the grain. History hastaught us which grains work best and inwhat combinations.Gluten, which is found in grain protein,gives bread its springy texture. It becomesstretchy and thickens when liquid is added

270 Part II: Encyclopedia of Foodsto the flour and the combination is kneaded.The resulting gas from the fermentation ofthe carbohydrate in the flour is trapped bythe dough, causing the gluten to stretchand, thus, the bread to rise. Because wheatand rye contain the highest quantities ofgluten, flour made from these grains hasproved best suited for making bread. Othergrains, such as corn, have less gluten, andproducts made from them are more crumbly.In most countries, the highest proportionof cultivated land is devoted to grains.Crops such as wheat, rice, corn, barley, oats,and millet remain critical components inthe diets of people worldwide. Wheat isthe most widely grown grain. But, becausemultiple crops of rice can be grown in ayear in tropical areas, a nearly equal amountof rice and wheat are grown each year.NutritionThe mix of nutrients supplied by grainsvaries. But because grain seeds are composedmostly of starch, between 65 and 90percent of the calories supplied by grainsare carbohydrates. Between 8 percent and15 percent of calories come from protein,and fat contributes the remainder of thecalories. Because grains are plant-basedproteins, they do not supply all of theamino acids (the building blocks of protein)that your body needs. However, grains alsodo not have the twin disadvantages ofanimal-based protein—saturated fat andcholesterol, both of which are linked tocardiovascular disease. Grains can be eatenin combination with other foods—such aslegumes, small servings of meat or poultry,and dairy foods—to provide the completebalance of amino acids.Important minerals found in whole grainsare iron, phosphorus, magnesium, and zinc.Whole grains are also a source of B vitamins(niacin, thiamin, riboflavin) and antioxidants,such as vitamin E and selenium. Scientists

Grains 271are just beginning to explore the health roleof substances called “phytochemicals,”which are also found in whole grains.Grains are rich in dietary fiber, bothinsoluble fiber (which helps bowel functionand may reduce the risk of some kinds ofcancer) and soluble fiber (which may havea role in lowering blood cholesterol levels).The refining and processing of grainsremove many of the nutrients grains naturallyprovide. The bran and the nutrientsit contains are often removed during themilling process. Refined wheat flour hasboth the bran and the germ removed.Many grain products are enriched (seeChapter 4, “Fortified” and “Enriched,” page92), meaning nutrients originally found inthe grain are added back to the productduring processing. But not all the nutrientsare returned. Insoluble fiber is milled awaywhen the bran is removed, and antioxidantsusually are not added back into refinedflours. Phytochemicals also may be missingin refined products.The bottom line is that even thoughrefined grains are a good source of manynutrients, whole grains are better. You cantell whether a product is made from wholegrain by checking the ingredient listing ofthe label. Look for the words “whole grain,”indicating that the product contains theendosperm, bran, and germ, and all thebenefits they bring.SelectionGrains, even those that have been processedor lightly cooked, contain some of theirnatural oils. Over time, they may go rancid,which is why ensuring freshness whenbuying them is key. Look for grains thatare in sealed packages. This protects themfrom air, moisture, and spoilage. Some mayhave freshness or “best if used by” dates tohelp ensure quality. If you are buying inbulk, check whether the store has a rapidturnover of that particular product. Theremay not be a great demand for bulgur insupermarkets, for example, and so the productmay have been on the shelf for sometime. In contrast, specialty food marketsor those specializing in natural foods mayhave greater demand for the product, sellmore of it, and therefore have a fresherproduct. Grains also should smell freshand appear clean and free of debris.StorageBecause grains may attract insects or maybecome moldy if they become moist, keepthem in tightly closed, moisture-proofcontainers. Grains can be stored at roomtemperature, but they will remain freshlonger if stored in the refrigerator, wherethey will keep for several months. Mostgrains can be kept much longer if stored inthe freezer. They do not need to be thawedbefore cooking. Cooked grain may bestored in the refrigerator for several daysand then reheated.PreparationWhole grains are hard and dry. Thus, cookinginvolves not only heating them but alsorehydrating them. For that reason, wholegrains, with few exceptions, are cooked inliquid. Here’s a traditional method fordoing so:• Bring water (or other liquid, such as astock) to a boil. Many cooks use a ratio oftwo to three parts water to one part grain.• Add grains and other seasonings.• Cover mixture and reduce to a simmer.• Simmer until most of the liquid isabsorbed.• Remove mixture from heat and drainexcess liquid if necessary. Let sit for approximately5 minutes, then fluff with a fork.BEYOND THE BASICSInnovative uses of grains include theproduction of modified starches, caloricsweeteners, and fat substitutes. Betaglucan,a fat-like gel made from enzymetreatedoat bran, is sold as a cholesterolloweringfat replacement, although moretesting is needed to determine its effectiveness.Several food enzymes are producedby fermentation based on grain.Wheat gluten may be used to produceflavor enhancers such as glutamate ordiet supplements such as glutamine.There is also a vast range of industrialapplications. None of these, however,are likely to overtake in importance therole of grains in feeding the world.Cooking times vary depending on thekind of grain used, how it has beenprocessed, and whether it has been precooked(bulgur and kasha are often lightlycooked, then dried before they are sold instores). Most cooks recommend cookingwhole grains as you would pasta. Simplycook them until tender—a time that mayrange from 8 minutes for “instant” types ofwhite rice to more than an hour for wholewheat or other unmilled grains.Some grains that are particularlytough—such as wheat or rye—may beeasier to cook if they are first soaked.Rinsing whole grains before cooking alsois advised to remove debris or other residues.The text that follows provides moredetailed information about specific grainsand the foods made from them. Thechapter is organized into two sections:• Grains• Grain Products

272 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsGrainsAmaranthAmaranth was one of the main food sourcesfor the Aztecs, who also used it in religiousrituals. Cultivation ended almost completelyafter Spanish conquistadors madegrowing the plant a punishable offense.Today, both farmers and anyone interestedin nutrition are showing increasing interestin the plant because it has more protein (15percent to 18 percent of calories) than mostother grains (8 to 15 percent of calories).It also contains more lysine and methionine,amino acids not provided by many commongrains. Combined with other grains,it can provide a complete balance of aminoacids. Amaranth is also a source of calciumand magnesium and contains more ironthan almost any other grain.The amaranth plant has long clustersof red flowers and grows to a height of 1 to3 feet. It produces tiny seeds—up to500,000 per plant. These seeds can becooked and eaten as a grain or popped,sprouted, or ground into flour that has astrong, nutty flavor. Amaranth flour canrange from a light yellow to dark violet,although most amaranth flour sold in storesis buff-colored.Pasta can be made from amaranth flour,and amaranth oil is obtained from theplant’s seeds. The green leaves and stalk ofamaranth (also called pigweed) can becooked and eaten. The leaves have a tastesimilar to that of spinach.Preparation TipsAmaranth flour does not contain gluten,which means baked goods containing it willnot rise as desired and will be crumbly. Itcan be used in baked goods, but it should becombined with wheat flour (which containsgluten) in recipes for muffins, bread, cookies,or pastries. Because it has a nutty, assertiveflavor, you may want to experiment somewhatwith how much amaranth flour to addto recipes. Amaranth’s nutritional advantages,however, make adding it to bakedgoods worthwhile.Amaranth seeds also can be cooked (seePreparation Tips, page 273) and eaten as acereal. Or, they can be popped by addingthem a tablespoon at a time to a hot,ungreased skillet. They take just a few minutesto pop.Serving SuggestionsIn addition to using amaranth in bakedgoods as described above, amaranth canbe substituted for flour in pancake or wafflerecipes. Cinnamon particularly complementsits flavor in both of these breakfastfavorites. Amaranth leaves can be substitutedfor spinach in salads or cookeddishes. Popped amaranth seeds can be usedas a garnish or topping or in breadingrecipes.BarleyBarley, an annual plant that grows to a heightof 1 to 4 feet, is hardy enough to withstandvarious growing conditions. For this reason,throughout history it has been cultivatedas a food crop and remains a staple in manynations, particularly in North Africa, theMiddle East, and Asia. Today, however, muchof the barley produced in Western nationsis fed to animals or used in the productionof beer or distilled liquor. An enzyme inmalt made from barley transforms thestarch in beer or liquor mashes into sugarsthat alcohol-producing yeast can feed onand, therefore, ferment, a process that leadsto the production of alcohol.Given the health benefits of barley, itsversatility, and its pleasing, lightly nuttytaste, its banishment from many nations’kitchens is something to reconsider.Barley has a tough husk surrounding thegrain seed which must be removed beforeit is edible. Barley is a source of solublefiber, niacin, phosphorus, magnesium,and iron.Barley grains are usually off-white, butthe color may range from black to purple.How the grain is milled determines itsnutritional content. Nutrients are mostconcentrated near the bran. Therefore, themore milling the barley undergoes, the lessnutritious it is.Types of barley sold in stores include:Flaked barley—As its name suggests,barley flakes are grains that have been flattened.They resemble rolled oats.Pot barley or Scotch barley—This typeof barley is coarsely ground, but it losesmost of its nutrients because almost theentire husk is removed.Pearled barley—So-named becauseprocessed barley grains are the same size aspearls and ivory-colored, pearled barley isprocessed multiple times to scour or polishoff the outer husk and the bran. The resultis a barley that cooks much more quicklythan other types of barley.Hulled barley—Hulled barley has onlythe outer husk removed and still containsmost of its bran. This makes it one of themost nutritious types of barley available.Barley flour—Barley flour is simplybarley grains ground very fine. It is darkerthan refined white flour and has a delicate,nutty flavor.Supermarkets typically do not carry awide variety of barley products, althoughpearled barley and prepared barley soupsare easy to find. Health food stores orspecialty food markets are more likely tocarry less refined barley products.

Grains 273GRAIN GLOSSARYWhole grains—The least processed grains. The outer husk is removed (hulled)Pearled or polished grains—Grains that have had the brown bran outer coating of thekernel wholly or partially removedSteel-cut or cracked grains—Grains that are cut into small pieces, from fine to verycoarseFlakes or rolled—Grain kernels that are sliced and then flattened between rollersMeal—Grain that is coarsely ground to a gritty consistencyBran or polishings—The coarsely ground or finely shredded outer huskGerm—A coarse meal made from the sprout, or embryo, found inside the kernelFlour—Grain ground into a powderis added to other cereal flours to improvenutritional quality, and it is often an ingredientin snack foods. Recent studies havelinked various phytochemicals in buckwheatwith potential health benefits. Rutin,a flavonoid found in buckwheat bran, isbeing studied for a possible role in managingblood cholesterol levels. Fagopyritolsfound in buckwheat may have a favorableeffect on blood glucose levels in people withtype 2 diabetes. Regular consumption ofbuckwheat also has been shown to lowerblood pressure. However, further researchis necessary to confirm these benefits.Preparation TipsLess refined barley should be soaked severalhours before cooking. Generally, thesetypes of barley are cooked for about an hourover low heat in 3 or 4 cups of water foreach cup of barley. Refined types of barley,such as pearled barley, do not need to besoaked and can be cooked in about a halfhour. Barley flour has a low gluten content.It must be combined with higher-glutenflours (such as wheat) in baked goods orthey will not rise as desired.Serving SuggestionsBarley can be substituted for rice in manyrecipes or combined with beans andvegetables to provide a high-protein mealwithout meat. Barley readily absorbs theflavors of the liquid it is cooked in, and thusit is an excellent addition to soups andstews, where it also acts as a thickeningagent. Barley also can be served on its ownas a hot cereal—it is excellent topped offby plain yogurt and fruit. Barley makes anexcellent base for an entrée at lunch ordinner when cooked in chicken, beef, orvegetable stock and then mixed withsteamed vegetables.BuckwheatFrom a botanical standpoint, buckwheat isa fruit and is in the same plant family asrhubarb. However, it is processed, prepared,and consumed like cereal grains such aswheat, rye, and oats.Buckwheat products have a strong,nutlike flavor and include the following:Buckwheat flours—As the namesuggests, these are flours ground from thebuckwheat seed. Supreme buckwheat flouris milled from whole buckwheat. Fancybuckwheat flour is milled from hulled buckwheatseeds. Buckwheat flour is commonlyused to make pancakes, but it has a varietyof other uses.Farinetta—This is simply a productmade from the bran of buckwheat seeds.Buckwheat groats—Groats are hulledbuckwheat kernels that have been crushed.Groats that are roasted are known as kasha,a name given to this product in EasternEuropean countries, where it has been astaple for centuries.Nutritionally, buckwheat has uniquecharacteristics. The protein quality of buckwheatis higher than that of wheat, soy, oats,or brown rice. For this reason, buckwheatPreparation TipsBecause buckwheat flour is gluten-free, itmust be mixed with flours that containgluten, such as wheat flour, in baked goods.Otherwise, the foods will not rise as desired.To prepare kasha, add 1 cup of buckwheatgroats to a heated skillet and add to it abeaten egg white. The egg separates thekernels as they cook, which prevents thegroats from sticking together. This ensuresthat kasha will have a consistency that issimilar to that of rice. Stir the kasha andegg mixture until each grain is separate anddry. Then, add 2 cups of boiling liquid—either stock or water—and a dash of salt.Simmer the mixture for 30 minutes or untilthe liquid is absorbed.Serving SuggestionsTraditionally, buckwheat has been usedmainly as a flour in pancake mixes. Waysto enjoy buckwheat are in the forms of soba,which is a Japanese noodle, and cookedbuckwheat groats as a salad or pilaf.Corn (Maize)Although considered by many to be avegetable, corn is actually one of the few

274 Part II: Encyclopedia of Foodsgrains native to the Western Hemisphere,where it has been cultivated for centuries.In Europe, the word “corn” is the commonterm used to describe many cereal grains.However, after coming to the New World,Europeans began to use the word “maize”to refer to corn itself. The word “maize” isderived from the American Indian word“mahiz.” To this day, Europeans call corn“maize,” and Americans call it “corn.”Corn plants grow to a height of 6 to 10feet. The tall plants, with their long, droopingleaves, are a common sight throughoutthe U.S. Midwest, where most of theworld’s supply is grown. The plant producesears of corn that measure 6 to 12inches, and each ear has numerous long,slender threads called silk. Corn kernelscan be white, orange, red, purple, blue,black, or brown, according to the variety.Most of the corn grown today is a goldenyellow.Corn has a wide range of uses and,although less nutritious than many grains,it is extremely versatile and still a goodfood choice. Nutritionally speaking forhumans, corn provides a good source offiber, phosphorus, vitamin C, and thiamin.Numerous hybrid varieties of corn havebecome available in the past decades.Essentially, the advances in breeding havemade corn sweeter by converting its starchto sugar.Corn can be eaten in several ways. Itcan be served fresh and still on the cob.Canning or freezing can preserve freshkernels. Dried kernels can be roasted orpopped.Corn can be ground into coarse mealor flour that is made into cornbread,tortillas, pancakes, or waffles. Oil derivedfrom corn is used widely for cooking.Starch derived from corn is often used as athickening agent in gravies, soups, andother dishes. Tiny baby corn is popular inAsian dishes and is sold in cans or jars.Corn is also fermented and is the basis forbourbon and whiskey.The ever-popular cornflake cereal wasinvented by the Kellogg brothers of cerealfame in 1894. According to legend, theydiscovered the process of making cornflakesby accident when they passed corn kernelsthat had been left too long in cooking waterthrough rollers, resulting in flakes.Although corn is the fundamental foodplant of the United States, most of the cropis used for feeding animals or for manufacturingpurposes. Corn grown for thosepurposes is often referred to as “field” corn.Preparation TipsThe key to serving corn on the cob is tobuy the freshest possible. When the ear isplucked from the stalk, the natural sugarin it begins a gradual conversion to starch,which makes the corn less sweet and, therefore,less tasty. Look for husks around theear of corn that are green, plump, tightlywrapped, and free of any obvious insectinfestation. Before buying corn, peel backthe husk slightly to check for plump, pale,and moist-looking kernels. At home, thegreen husk and silk are usually removedbefore cooking. Traditionally, corn on thecob is cooked by placing ears in a pot ofboiling water for 4 to 7 minutes or in avegetable steamer for 4 to 6 minutes. Cornon the cob also can be cooked in amicrowave oven. To do so, wrap eachhusked ear in waxed paper and place on apaper towel. Cook on the highest powersetting for 3 to 5 minutes for one ear, 5 to7 minutes for two ears, and 9 to 12 minutesfor four ears. Corn on the cob can beroasted in its husk on the grill or in theoven. (The silk must first be removed, however,and the husk replaced after this isdone.) Before roasting, soak the ear in waterfor about 5 minutes. Then place the cornon the grill or in the oven. Cooking timesvary but range from 10 to 15 minutes on ahot grill or 20 to 30 minutes in an oven setat 350° Fahrenheit.Avoid corn that is sold in displaysexposed to direct sunlight or high temperaturesbecause heat speeds up the processof converting sugar to starch.Serving SuggestionsInstead of flavoring corn with butter or salt,try other seasonings. Pepper, herbs, orlemon juice complement corn’s flavorwithout adding unnecessary sodium, fat,or calories. Corn also mixes well with other

Grains 275vegetables. Popped corn (see sidebar:Putting the “Pop” in Popcorn, this page)makes an excellent snack as long as it is notdrenched in butter and salt.FlaxFlax is an ancient crop. Native to Eurasia,its first recorded use was in Babylon about3000 B.C. There, it was cultivated for food,and its seeds were usually ground into flouror meal. The plant also was used to makefabric for clothing. (These days, linencomes from flax.) Hippocrates, the ancientGreek physician, wrote of using flaxseedfor the relief of abdominal pain. Thegreatest of all medieval kings, Charlemagne,considered flax so healthful that he passedlaws requiring its consumption.Nutrition researchers have identifiedseveral substances in flaxseed that appearto have health benefits: lignans, fiber, andomega-3 fatty acids. Lignans are phytoestrogensthat are thought to bind to estrogenreceptors in the body. Phytoestrogensmay have a role in preventing hormonallyrelated cancers of the breast, endometrium(lining of the uterus), and prostate.Populations with higher intakes of phytoestrogensappear to have a lower incidenceof and mortality from these cancers.Although lignans are found in most unrefinedgrains, soybeans, and some vegetables(broccoli, carrots, cauliflower, andspinach), flaxseed is the richest source oflignans. Flaxseed also contains both solubleand insoluble fiber (about 3.3 grams of totalfiber in 1 tablespoon of flaxseed). Aboutone-third of the fiber is soluble. Studieshave found that the soluble fiber in flaxseed,like that found in oat bran and fruit pectin,can help lower cholesterol levels. Solublefiber also has been found to help regulateblood sugar levels. The remaining two-thirds of the fiber in flaxseed is insoluble,which aids in digestion and waste elimination.Flaxseed is rich in alpha-linolenic acid,which is both an essential fatty acid and anomega-3 fatty acid. Researchers are interestedin omega-3 fatty acids for their rolesin proper infant growth and development,in reducing risk factors for heart diseaseand stroke (regulation of cholesterol, triglycerides,blood pressure, blood clotting), andin immune and inflammatory disorders.Ground flaxseed is usually available inmost large supermarkets and in specialtymarkets. The small, reddish brown wholeseeds have a nutty taste. Look for flaxseedor flaxseed meal in tight packaging thatdoes not allow light to pass through.Protecting flaxseed from light helps keepthe product fresh and preserves the omega-3 fatty acids and polyunsaturated fats.PUTTING THE “POP” IN POPCORNPreparation TipsIncorporating flaxseed into a diet is simpleand can add a tasty twist to routinefoods and dishes. Whole (or ground)flaxseed can replace some of the flour inbread, muffin, pancake, and cookierecipes. Because of its high fat content, italso can be used to replace part or all ofthe fat in baked goods recipes. (One cupof flaxseed may replace 1/3 cup fat.) Timein the oven should be adjusted to allowfor more rapid browning when flaxseed isused in baked goods. Flaxseed oil also isreadily available and may be substitutedfor other oils.Serving SuggestionsWhole flaxseeds have a nutty taste and canbe sprinkled over salads, soups, yogurt, orcereals. Flaxseed meal particularly complementsthe flavor of bran muffins.Popcorn is a special hard variety of dried corn that pops open and puffs when it isheated. The kernel has enough internal moisture to become steam, and the kernelexplodes because the steam has nowhere to go. Different types of popcorn can bedifferent colors. Once popped, though, they’re all white or yellow.Popcorn is an excellent snack food. It is high in complex carbohydrates, asource of some fiber, and, depending on how it isserved, low in fat and calories. When purchasingmicrowave popcorn, checklabels for saturated fat content.Try to buy reduced-fat or “lite”varieties. Try popping yourown and seasoning it with apinch of salt instead ofadding unnecessary fat andcalories by drizzling butter overthe popcorn. Alternative seasoningsinclude onion or garlic powdersor reduced-fat grated cheese.

276 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsDID YOU EVER ASK YOURSELF…What Is Hominy?Hominy is the starchy endosperm of maize (corn) kernels. It can be thought ofas the “naked” kernels that remain after the tough hull (pericarp) and oily germhave been removed.The hull is removed by soaking corn kernels in water mixed with lime, lye, or woodashes. This process not only loosens the hulls but also unbinds the vitamin niacinand makes it absorbable in the digestive tract. In its dry form, hominy is sold eithercracked (samp) or ground (grits). Hominy also is sold canned and ready to eat.In Mexico, a form of corn similar to hominy is used to make tortillas. Annualconsumption of corn in Mexico is about 400 pounds per person (about 1 poundper day), and it provides up to 70 percent of a person’s daily calorie intake.In the United States, the most common form of hominy is called grits. Gritsare cooked with water or milk until thick and mushy. Often eaten as porridgeor a side dish or in a casserole, grits are served hot or chilled and sometimes cutinto squares and fried.Hominy is a good source of complex carbohydrates and soluble fiber.MilletMillet is the oldest of grains. And althoughit is often used in the United States as birdfeed, millet is one of the main food sourcesfor many developing nations.There are many different species ofmillet, which is tiny, has an oblong-sphericalshape, and ranges from pale yellow to reddishorange. Unlike most grains, which formears, most varieties of millet form panicles,or berry-shaped heads. Millet berries aresmall and range from white, gray, or yellowto red or reddish brown. Common milletis grown worldwide and is used mainly forhuman consumption and animal feed.Foxtail millet is also grown in a variety ofareas and is often used for birdseed or, inRussia, to make beer. Pearl millet is grownprimarily in India.Varieties that are more familiar to NorthAmericans include sorghum and teff.Sorghum is widely grown in the AmericanSouth and included there in regionalcuisine. In the United States, sorghummolasses is used as syrup at the table andin baked goods. Teff was grown almostexclusively in Ethiopia until the past decade,when it was introduced in Western markets.Often thought of as a “famine food,” teffis also grown and distributed by humanitarianagencies to relieve world hunger.Millet has a strong, nutty flavor thatmay take some time to appreciate. Finelyground millet is used by Ethiopians to makefermented, spongy flat bread, by Indiansto make crepe-like roti, and by the Masai inAfrica to make beer. Nutritionally, milletis a good source of niacin, thiamin, phosphorus,and zinc and provides a fair amountof iron. It also is easy to digest.Preparation TipsMillet’s preparation is similar to that ofrice—it is boiled in water. Ground milletis used as flour to make puddings, breads,and cakes. Because millet produces nogluten, it cannot be used on its own tomake raised breads.Serving SuggestionsMillet can be used as a substitute for manyother grains. It can be served as a hot cerealand in dishes such as pilaf. Like barley, milletcan be added to soups and stews.OatsOats grow best in cool, moist climates andthrive in poor soils. Given these advantages,it is understandable why oats have been afood source for both humans and animalsfor centuries. There are several hundredvarieties of oats, which are divided intotwo classes: winter and summer oats.Whole oat grains are usually “hairy” andcan vary from white and yellow to gray,red, or black. The grains, which are smalland shaped like a thin, elongated football,are cleaned, dried, and roasted, and thehull (the tough outer covering) is removed.The bran and the germ, however, are leftintact, which means that they keep mostof their original nutrients. Oats areespecially rich in the soluble fiber betaglucan,which may play a role in reducingblood cholesterol, blood pressure, andblood sugar levels. Oats are also a source ofantioxidants.Different types of processed oats andoat products include the following:Oat groats—whole oats that have beenhulled and roasted. Groats take about 30to 40 minutes to cook.Steel-cut oats—Whole oats that havebeen roasted and then cut into bits. Thisreduces cooking time to about 15 minutes.They are sometimes known as Scottish orIrish oats or pinhead oats.Old-fashioned rolled oats—These areoat kernels that are steamed and then

Grains 277flattened into flakes to allow them to becooked more quickly.Quick-cooking oats—These are flattenedoats cut more finely to reduce cookingtime.Instant oatmeal—Cooked merely byadding boiling water, these oats of convenienceare pre-cooked in the manufacturingprocess and rolled very thin to make cookingeven quicker. A trade-off may be thatthese oats are less flavorful. In addition,flavorings, salt, and sugar are often added toinstant oatmeal.Oat flour—Flour made from oats is alsoavailable and can be combined with wheatflour in breads and other leavened foods.Oat bran—This is a fine meal madefrom the outer layers of the grain. It can bepurchased and used separately, but it maybe a part of other oat products.Preparation TipsOld-fashioned oats and quick-cooking oatsusually can be interchanged in recipes.Instant oats, however, are not interchangeablebecause the additional processing theyundergo softens the oats so much that,when combined with liquid, they can makebaked goods mushy or gooey. Most typesof processed oats are cooked by simmeringthem in water (steel-cut oats require twoparts water for one part oats; for all othertypes of oats, use one part water for one partoats ) until they are softened and cooked.Oat flour contains minimal gluten andmust be mixed with other types of flour sothat baked goods will rise as desired. Usingoat flour results in baked goods that areoften more dense than similar productsmade with other flours.Serving SuggestionsAll types of processed oats make a terrifichot cereal. Oats are also one of the maingrains in granola (and many snack foods).Unfortunately, granola and many snackfoods are high in fat, particularly saturatedfats, the type linked to cardiovascular disease.This can offset the health benefits of oats.Oats can be added to muffins, cookies, andbread for a different texture. Some typesof European soup and stew recipes call foroats as thickening agents. Steel-cut oatscan be added to some scone recipes for additionalcrunch and a nutty flavor.QuinoaIt is hailed as the super grain of the future,but the accolades are a little misleading.Quinoa (a name supposedly derived fromthe Spanish word for “fantastic”) is not reallya grain. It is the fruit of a plant that belongsto the same botanical family as beets. Thequinoa plant reaches a height of 3 to 10feet and produces flat, pointed seeds thatrange from buff to russet to black.So why all the praise for quinoa?Quinoa is relatively easy to cultivate andwithstands poor soil conditions and altitude.It also packs a nutritional punch inits tiny seeds. It contains more protein thanmost grains and offers a more evenly balancedarray of amino acids, the buildingblocks of protein. It is higher in minerals,such as calcium, phosphorus, magnesium,potassium, copper, zinc, and iron, thanmany grains.Quinoa seeds can be cooked or groundinto flour. Several types of pasta are madefrom quinoa flour. The leaves of the plantalso are edible, and the seeds can be sproutedand eaten.Preparation TipsQuinoa is cooked in the same way as rice,although it cooks in about half the time.Its flavor is delicate, and some describe itas hazelnut-like. Before cooking, it isimportant to rinse quinoa seeds until thewater runs clear. They are covered with abitter, powdery resin that can result inan unpleasant taste if it is not removed.Quinoa flour has a low gluten content. Itcannot be used alone in baked goodsbecause they will not rise properly.Serving SuggestionsQuinoa is cooked like rice and makes anexcellent substitute for it. “Toasting” thequinoa grains in a hot skillet before boilinggives it a roasted flavor. Adding cookedvegetables and fresh herbs also complementsits delicate flavor. Quinoa flour can be usedin many baked goods. Quinoa also makesan excellent hot cereal and can be added tosoups and stews. Quinoa pasta is cookedand used like traditional types of pasta.RiceMost typically viewed as a side dish in Westernnations, rice is the main entrée when therest of the world sits down to eat, providingup to half the calories in a typical daily dietin many Asian countries. Rice is also astaple in Africa.Most of the world’s rice is grown inAsia. The plant, which grows from 8 to 12feet in height, can withstand a wide rangeof climate conditions, but it grows best inhot, humid areas. Branching stems fromthe plant produce flowers, which form therice grains when fertilized. There are morethan 8,000 varieties of rice.Rice is commercially classified by itsgrain size:Short-grain (round-grain) rice—Shortgrainrice is round or oval and less than 1/5inch long. It has a higher starch contentthat results in this rice being sticky aftercooking. This kind of rice is also called

278 Part II: Encyclopedia of Foodspearl or glutenous rice (although there isno gluten in it).Medium-grain rice—Medium-grainrice is up to 1/4 inch in length. It remainsfirm and light when cooked and retainsmore moisture than long-grain rice.Long-grain rice—This rice is more than1/4 inch in length. The grains are muchlonger than they are wide. They tend toremain separate when cooked and are drierthan shorter-grain rice. Most rice grownin the United States is long-grain rice.Each type of rice comes in both brownand white forms. Brown rice has only thetough, fibrous hull removed from the ricegrain during processing. Because of this,it retains most of its nutrients, whichinclude fiber (bran), potassium, phosphorus,and trace minerals. It also is chewier, has astronger flavor, and takes longer to cook.Quick-cooking forms of brown rice, whichThe delicate flavor of quinoamixes well with cooked vegetablesand fresh herbs.have been partially cooked and then dried,are available.White rice is the most popular form ofrice. One reason is that the milling process,which removes the husk, bran, and germ,makes the rice cook more rapidly and extendsits shelf life. Unfortunately, it’s also the leastnutritious form of rice. In Western nations,rice is enriched, meaning nutrients such asiron, niacin, riboflavin, and thiamin arereturned to the rice before it is sold to consumers.Parboiled rice has been processed topreserve some of the nutrients during milling.Instant rice is white rice that has beenmilled, cooked, and then dehydrated. Ittakes about 5 minutes to cook, and itsnutritional content is generally equivalentto that of white rice because most instantrice is enriched.Specialty types of rice include arboriorice, which is round white rice used inINFUSING RICE WITH FLAVORExtra flavor can easily be added torice as it cooks. One way is to takethe desired spice or herb, mix it witha small amount of cooking oil(about a teaspoon or less), and add itto the water just before adding therice. Spices and herbs also can beadded to rice after it is cooked.Spices and herbs that pair well withrice include cumin, caraway, basil,cilantro, mint, and parsley.Italian dishes, and aromatic rices. Generally,aromatic rices—sometimes referred to asperfumed rices—are long-grain types ofrice and have a distinct flavor typically comparedto that of popcorn or nuts. Basmatirice has a nut-like aroma and a rich, butteryflavor. It is widely used in Indian andPakistani cuisine. Jasmine rice is cultivatedprimarily in Southeast Asia and has a softtexture. Glutenous, or sweet, rice has ahigh starch content and is used in Asiancooking to thicken sauces and makedumplings and for some types of desserts.Rice also can be milled into fine, powderyflour, which can be used in baked goods.Store rice in an airtight container. Brownrice, which naturally contains oil, keeps forabout 6 months, but it is subject to rancidity.Its shelf life can be extended, however, bystoring it in the refrigerator in an airtightcontainer. White rice can keep for up to ayear. Cooked rice can be stored in the refrigeratorfor several days, but it will last for 6 to8 months when kept in the freezer.Preparation TipsPreparation varies according to the type ofrice used. In general, however, rice is

Grains 279cooked by adding it to liquid (two parts waterto one part rice) and then simmering it untilthe liquid is absorbed. Both brown riceand parboiled rice may require longer cookingtimes; brown rice may need to simmerfor up to 40 minutes, for example.Cooks differ about whether rice shouldbe rinsed before cooking. Some believethat rinsing rice prevents stickiness.However, rinsing domestic rice can washoff nutrients added during processing. Aquick tip: to prevent stickiness, don’t stirthe rice while you are cooking it. Cookingrice in a vegetable, beef, or chicken stockis a low-fat, low-calorie way to add flavorto rice before serving. Rice flour is glutenfree.It must be combined with higherglutenflours (such as wheat) in baked goodsor they will not rise as desired.Serving SuggestionsFew grains are as versatile or well loved asrice. It can be served as a pilaf, which canbe jazzed up by adding cut-up vegetablesand seasonings. Rice can be added to soups,stuffings, and salads. In particular, it makesan excellent replacement for potatoes. Ricealso serves as the base for vegetarian dishes.Used as the foundation for stir-fry dishes,it offers the perfect opportunity to make agrain the centerpiece of a meal, instead ofhaving the usual—and less healthful—focuson meat, poultry, or seafood. Rice flourcan be used to thicken sauces.A note about prepared rice mixes:although popular, they’re often more expensivethan plain rice and typically contain asignificant amount of sodium. Rice is easyto cook on its own. Try adding yourfavorite herbs and seasonings; you canchoose how much (if any) salt you use. Itwill likely taste just as good as or better thanthe boxed rice dishes, and it will almostalways be healthier.Varieties of rice (clockwisefrom the top): jasmine,basmati, arborio, white,and brown (center).RyeRye belongs to the same botanical family aswheat and barley. The plant is indigenousto Europe and Asia. The plant itself is oftenbushy at the base and stands 5 to 8 feet high.Rye grows well in areas where the soil is toopoor and the climate too cool for wheat.Rye grains have the same elongatedshape as wheat grains. The color rangesfrom buff to gray. The husks are removedduring milling, but usually much of thegerm and bran remain, which enhances thenutritional value of rye products. The grainsmay be used whole, cracked, or rolled likeoats, but they are generally ground into flour.Rye flour comes in several differentvarieties. Light rye flour has most of thebran removed. Dark rye flour retains mostof the bran and germ and is a source ofmagnesium, trace minerals, folic acid,thiamin, and niacin.Dark rye flour is traditionally used tomake the dark, strongly flavored Germanbread called pumpernickel. Rye also is usedin many alcoholic beverages, includingwhiskey and some types of vodka.

280 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsLike most grain products, rye should bestored in airtight containers to retard spoilage.Preparation TipsWhole rye grains are often cooked in thesame way as rice, that is, simmered in wateruntil they are tender. However, rye grainsshould be pre-soaked in water several hoursto speed up cooking. Rye flour has littlegluten, and therefore breads in which it isthe main flour are denser because they donot rise as well. However, rye containsseveral long-chained 5-carbon sugars (pentosans),which have a high water-bindingcapacity. This trait helps rye bread retainmoisture better than wheat bread.Serving SuggestionsUse dark rye flour to make your ownpumpernickel bread. Also, substitute darkrye flour in place of some of the other flourin baked goods to add a nutty flavor.WheatWheat is among the oldest of grain crops.Major wheat-producing areas include theUnited States, whose Great Plains are consideredthe “breadbasket of the world,”Canada, China, western Europe, Ukraine,Kazakhstan, Russia, India, Pakistan, andAustralia.Wheat is an annual plant that growsbetween 2 and 4 feet high, depending onthe variety of wheat grown and growingconditions. The grains are contained in abearded spike developed by the plant.Unlike many other grains, it can be difficultto cultivate. Nevertheless, it is easily oneof the most common grains grown aroundthe world. Only rice rivals it in production.Most of the wheat grown in the worldis eaten by humans—often in the form ofbread. Wheat’s high gluten content makesit particularly well adapted for this use.Because of this, wheat flour is the frame-THE RYE AND ERGOTCONNECTIONThe poor soil and moist climate inwhich rye grows are also favorableconditions for the growth of afungus called ergot, which can growon moisture-laden rye kernels.Ergot has long been known to havemedicinal properties, and today it isused in medications given duringchildbirth to promote contractionsof the uterus and control bleeding.It also is used in some migraineheadache medications. Ingesting toomuch of it, however, may lead tohallucinogenic effects. A derivativeof ergot is lysergic acid diethylamide(LSD). Modern milling processesclean rye grains and remove any thatmay be contaminated with ergot.Traditional methods for growingrice include the manual tasks ofsowing the seeds, transplanting,and harvesting by hand.work for almost all baked goods and pasta.Wheat also is used in the manufacture ofbeer and whiskey.The three major types of wheat are:Hard—Hard wheat is high in protein(10 to 14 percent). It is also high in glutencontent, which gives the flour elasticity andmakes it particularly suitable for yeastbreads.Soft—The low-protein (6 to 10 percent)flour is lower in gluten. It’s often used tomake “softer” baked goods, such as cakes.Durum—This is the hardest wheatgrown and is highest in gluten. Despitethat, it is not used in baked goods. Instead,it is used to make semolina (see sidebar:What Is Semolina? page 287), the mainingredient of pasta.

Grains 281Wheat also is classified according tothe time of year it is planted. Spring wheat,as its name suggests, is sown in the spring.Winter wheat is grown in areas with moremoderate winters and is sown in the latefall.Literally thousands of products aremade from wheat—flour, bread, and pastaare just the fundamental items. Wholewheatproducts, however, are the mostnutritious because they have not beenmilled as extensively as more refinedproducts. Whole-wheat products includethe following:Cracked wheat—As the name implies,this is wheat seed that has been broken intosmall pieces. It can be finely or coarselycracked.Bulgur—A popular ingredient in manyMiddle East dishes, bulgur is a type ofcracked wheat that has been steam-cookedand dried. Because of this, it does notrequire as much cooking time as otherwhole-wheat products. Bulgur is used formaking tabbouleh (a well-known MiddleEast cuisine favorite), cereal, and pilaf. Itis available in a variety of grinds, from fineto coarse.WHAT IS TRITICALE?Triticale is a 20th-century hybridthat is a cross between wheat andrye. It combines the nutritionalbenefits of both: the high proteincontent of wheat and the high lysinecontent of rye. Several varieties areunder cultivation. Researchers arestudying ways to improve the yieldand adaptability of this unique crop.Farina—A breakfast favorite, farina isperhaps better known as Cream of Wheat.It is made from the endosperm of the wheatseed, which is then milled very finely.Farina can be used in dumplings, maindishes, or desserts, particularly in Indianand Greek cuisine.Wheat flakes—Also known as rolledwheat, these are wheat seeds that have beenflattened. They look like rolled oats,although they are slightly larger and thicker.Although it might be easy to picture theseas the main component of many cold breakfastcereals, wheat flakes are not the productused in these cereals.Groats or wheat berries—These areother names for wheat seeds sold whole.Because they have undergone very littlemilling, these are among the most nutritiousof wheat products.Preparation TipsIf buying whole-wheat kernels in bulk, washthe product before use to remove debris.Those that are packaged typically do notneed to be rinsed.The various forms of whole wheat thatare used in hot cereals or served as sidedishes are generally cooked by adding waterto them and simmering until the water isgone. Cooking time varies, although ageneral rule is that cracked wheat requiresless cooking time than whole wheat. Mostwhole-wheat products have cookinginstructions on their labels. Because thewheat germ contains fat, whole-wheat grainand products made from it should be refrigeratedto prevent spoiling.Serving SuggestionsWhole-wheat products can be served ontheir own as a hot cereal or pilaf. They alsocan be added to other dishes for extra nutritionand taste. Cracked wheat, for example,is added to bread for extra crunch andnutrition. Wheat flakes make excellent additionsto hot cereals or baked goods. Wheatgroats have a strong, nut-like flavor. Theyare used in bread doughs or soups or areserved on their own as a pilaf, for example.Wheat groats also can be eaten sprouted.ANATOMY OF A WHEAT SEEDThe wheat seed, sometimes referredto as a wheat berry, is comprised ofthree parts:Wheat germ—This is the sprout,or embryo, found inside the wheatseed. It is oily and is a highly concentratedsource of nutrients.Products made from wheat germ(an excellent source of vitamin E)include wheat germ oil and toastedwheat germ.Wheat bran—The wheat bran isthe tough outer covering of thewheat seed. The bran is typicallyremoved during milling. Thisprocessing is unfortunate becausethe bran is an excellent source ofinsoluble fiber. Cooks often use it toadd taste and nutrition to meat loaf,casseroles, and baked goods.Endosperm—The endospermconstitutes the majority of the materialwithin the wheat seed and is meantto nourish a seedling. Most of theprotein and carbohydrates and smallamounts of vitamins are in theendosperm. It is composed mainlyof starch and is the main ingredientin wheat flour and other wheatproducts.

282 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsWild RiceNot really a rice, although closely relatedto it genetically, wild rice is actually anaquatic grain. It is the seed of a marsh grassthat grows in the northern Great Lakes areaof the United States. It is known for itshazelnut-like flavor, dark-brown color, andchewy texture. American Indians, whoonce waged wars over areas where wild ricegrew abundantly, have harvested it forcenturies. These indigenous peoples calledwild rice “mahnomen,” meaning “preciousgift from the gods.”First domesticated successfully in the1950s after many attempts to mimic themoist, murky conditions where the wildrice-producing grass grows best, wild riceis now grown commercially in the UpperMidwest and in California. The crop isnow worth more than $20 million annually.Most wild rice is eaten whole, but it alsocan be ground into flour.Preparation TipsWash wild rice before cooking. The basicpreparation recipe for wild rice is to place1 cup of wild rice in a saucepan with 4 cupsof water (chicken or beef stock can beadded for flavor). Bring the mixture to aboil and then reduce the heat. Simmer therice covered for 40 to 50 minutes until itis tender and most of the grains have splitevenly.Serving SuggestionsWild rice is mixed into a multitude ofdishes, from everyday cooking to gourmetcreations. Use cooked wild rice in place ofpasta products in casseroles or salads. Itcan be used in place of bulgur in tabboulehsalads or as the base for stir-fry dishesinstead of white rice. Mixed with vegetablesor small amounts of meat, poultry, or fish,wild rice provides the base for an excellententrée.Grain ProductsBreadBread is such a fundamental food that theword “bread” itself is often equivalent to“food” or “money” in many parts of theworld. Although it is a simple food, breadrequires the conversion of grain into flour,leavening ingredients, and a means ofbaking. Bread also plays a role in manycustomary rituals, such as the breaking andblessing of bread in religious rites.Although there are hundreds of differenttypes of bread, the main types areleavened (meaning raised) and unleavenedbreads. There are also quick breads, inwhich baking powder or baking soda is usedas a leavening agent.The main ingredients in most breadsare the following:Flour—The powdery material fromground grain, flour is the main ingredientin bread. Because of its high gluten content,wheat flour lends itself best to breadmaking. The gluten, when mixed withwater, gives the bread dough elasticity. Thisallows the dough to expand when the yeastferments, yet it is strong enough to containit. The result is light and airy bread. Anygrain can be used to make bread. In countrieswhere wheat is less readily available,grains that are used include millet, barley,rye, and oats.Liquid—Water is the most commonliquid in bread making, but beer, milk, andfruit juice also can be used. Liquid isneeded in raised bread to allow the glutenin flour to do its work. The type of liquidused can result in the bread having differentproperties. Water, for example, will resultin a thick crust.Yeast—Yeast is a one-celled organismthat is used to leaven bread. Unleavenedbreads and quick breads do not contain

Grains 283yeast. When yeast ferments the substancesnaturally present in flour, it produces a gascalled carbon dioxide. Bread rises as thegluten in the dough traps this gas. Yeast isalso responsible for bread’s delicious aromaand gives it its flavor.Salt—Bread can be made without thisstaple, but salt does several things when itis added to dough. It adds flavor, helpsstrengthen the gluten, and helps regulateyeast production.Optional ingredients—Two ingredientsthat do not have to be added to bread butoften are include sugar and fat. Sugar providesa ready food source for the multiplyingyeast, adds flavor to bread, and helps itstay moist. Fat is often used in commercialbread making. It adds flavor and tenderness.In addition, it gives the dough moreelastic qualities, allowing it to expand more.The most common type of bread eatenin the United States is made from refinedwhite flour. Although enriched duringprocessing and baking, not all of thenutrients lost when the flour is refined arereturned to it. A more nutritious choice iswhole-wheat bread. Whole-wheat bread ismade from flour ground from whole-wheatgrains—meaning the bran and the germalso are used. Make sure the label indicatesthat only whole-wheat flour was used.Otherwise, whole wheat or cracked wheatmay have been added to white flour.and chewy texture. Bagels can be flavoredin many ways, although favorites includeonions or raisins. A word of caution: generallya nutritious food choice, bagels canbe high in calories depending on their size,ingredients, and choice of topping. Checkthe label or ask the deli for nutrition informationso you know what you are getting.Flat breads—Named for their shape,flat breads are rolled out and allowed to riseonly minimally. They are baked only untilthey are soft. Pita bread (sometimes referredto as pocket bread) is a common type offlat bread. Other types include crackersand tortillas, which are commonly madefrom corn.Common types of breads are as follows:Bagels—Once only an ethnic delicacy,bagels have gone mainstream and are nowenjoyed by just about everyone as a breakfastmain course, the foundation for a sandwich,or a nutritious snack. These donutshapedrolls are made from flour, yeast,and salt. Tradition calls for them to beboiled before they’re baked—a process thatgives them a characteristic shiny appearance

284 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsFrench bread—Sometimes referred toas baguettes because of the traditional elongatedshape of the loaf, French bread has athick, shiny crust and a chewy texture.Coating the dough with egg whites beforebaking gives the crust its characteristic properties.The bread is traditionally made withoutpreservatives.Pumpernickel—Rye flour gives thisbread its hearty flavor and its dense, chewytexture. Rye flour does not contain as muchgluten as wheat flour and, therefore, thebread does not rise as much as bread madewith wheat flour. Caramel or molasses givesit its dark color.Rye bread—Rye bread also is madewith rye flour, but the flour is usually mixedwith wheat flour during preparation. Lookat labels to determine how much rye floura bread contains. As little as 3 percent isall that is needed to call it rye bread.Sourdough—Bread aficionados knowthis bread for its characteristic tangy tasteand smell. The leavening for sourdoughbreads is a type of bacterium, such asLactobacilli, that produces carbon dioxide(to leaven the bread) and lactic acid (for asour taste). Sometimes both bacteria andyeast are in the bread starter, in which casetwo types of fermentation occur. This isthe type of starter used for San Franciscosourdough breads.Always buy the freshest bread possible.Look at expiration dates on packages, andcheck to ensure there is no mold growthon the bread. Check labels to find out howmuch fat or salt has been added. If purchasingwhole-grain or so-called multi-grainbread, check labels to find out how much

Grains 285whole-grain flour has been used. Often, itis mixed with more refined types of flour.Preparation TipsExperimenting with different flours is anexcellent idea, allowing you to add bothtaste and nutrition to regular recipes. Keepin mind the gluten content of the flour youare working with, however. Otherwise, theresult may not be as desired. It may take afew tries to find out how much rye flour,or wheat bran, you should add. Loaves ofbread should be stored wrapped to keepthem from drying out. Sliced bread willkeep for up to a week at room temperatureand for about 2 months in the freezer.A quick note about nutrition: toastingbread can reduce the amount of some keynutrients by as much as 20 percent.Serving SuggestionsBread can be used as slices, cubes, or crumbs.Hollowed-out loaves of bread make simple,edible containers for soups or dips. Breadcut into small pieces was the most commonthickening agent in early European cooking,particularly poultry stuffing. Bread crumbsare often used to add body to foods, such assteamed pudding, sausages, and meat loaf.Bread croutons, or “little crusts,” are addedto soups and salads for texture and taste.Try using different breads—such as pitabreads—to give sandwiches a different twist.CerealsAlthough cereal has traditionally been asynonym for grain, most people think of ittoday as the food that comes packaged in abright box and is poured into a bowl ofmilk in the morning for breakfast.Hundreds of cereals are available in justabout any American supermarket today.Dr. John Harvey Kellogg, inventor of aflattened, toasted wheat flake in the late1800s, would probably be surprised at theenthusiasm for his invention and the derivativesof it.For several decades after Kellogg’s wheatflake was introduced (followed closely bycorn flakes and shredded wheat), marketerstouted the cereals as the key to both healthand vitality. Today, corn, wheat, oats, andeven some lesser-known grains such asamaranth and quinoa are puffed, popped,baked, shredded, or processed into “Os,”letters of the alphabet, and even in the shapeof popular cartoon characters.Unfortunately, cereal’s reputation as ahealthful food has suffered. Many cereals arePALMITATE IN CEREALSa wise breakfast choice, but too many of them(particularly children’s cereals) also have sugarand artificial flavorings and colors added tothem. Granola-based cereals and many thatpurport to be rich in oat bran or fiber alsomay be high in fat. Checking the labels tosee what you are getting is always a good idea.One ingredient to look for in particular ishydrogenated fat, which contains a type offat called trans fatty acids. Trans fatty acidshave been linked to an increased risk of cardiovasculardisease.Preparation TipsConsider the nutrition of the other mainingredient in a bowl of cereal: milk. Thetype you choose can have a major effect onthe nutrition of a meal based on a bowl ofcereal. Choose skim milk. Skim milkreduces calories and saturated fat significantlyyet provides the same nutrients aswhole milk.Whole grains for hot cereal can bepurchased at specialty stores and in thenatural food aisle of many supermarkets.Follow label instructions for cooking.Many people, particularly those who are watching fat intake closely, wonderwhether palmitate, a common ingredient in cereals, is the same as palm oil. Palmoil is high in saturated fat—the type of fat linked most closely with cardiovasculardisease. Palmitate is a form of palmitic acid, one of the saturated fatty acids foundin palm oil. Vegetable fats, such as soybean oil, alsocontain palmitic acid. However, cerealmanufacturers add a very small amountof palmitate to stabilize vitamin Aand maintain the nutrient'spotency. You will often see theingredient listed as “vitamin Apalmitate.” There is no need toworry about the tiny amountsof palmitate added to cereals.

286 Part II Encyclopedia of FoodsServing SuggestionsTry adding cold cereal to reduced-fat ornonfat yogurt for a crunchy, creamy treat.Or, top off cold cereal with sliced fruit ofyour own choosing. Fruit added to cerealsby manufacturers is often high in sodiumand sugar, and usually there is not a lot ofit in the box. Add nutrition to a bowl ofhot or cold cereal by sprinkling wheat branor germ over it.FlourFlour is the powdery substance made fromgrinding grains. Flour has been used bynearly every culture in the world for makingfoods—usually breads—that are staples inthe diet. Wheat is usually used, but flourcan be ground from almost any grain andsometimes is ground from potatoes,peanuts, chickpeas, lentils, and edible rootsof plants.Flour was traditionally ground by handor by stone, but today’s flour undergoes anextensive process in which grain seeds arepulverized by steel rollers. More refined flourhas the bran and the germ—and thus, thenutrition—removed from the seed. Flouris mostly composed of the seed’s starchyendosperm. However, the germ and branare returned to the flour at the end of themilling process in whole-grain flours. Forother types of flour, nutrients are returnedat the end of the process, although not allof them are returned. Check the label to seewhether the flour has been enriched.The characteristics of flour depend onthe type of material used to make it. Becausemost flour is used to make bread and otherbaked goods, most flour is ground fromwheat. The high gluten content of wheatworks well in leavened bread, leading to alight and airy finished product. Most wheatflour contains a combination of flour fromhard and soft wheat. Hard wheats containmore protein and gluten, and soft wheatflours make for a more delicate texture.Types of flour include the following:All-purpose flour—This is what is typicallyon the shelf at the supermarket. Ablend of hard and soft wheat flour, all-purposeflour has a wide range of uses andworks well in breads or pastries. Look atCELIAC DISEASEImagine what it would be like if eating pizza, pasta, mostbreads, cookies, cakes, candy bars, canned soup, or luncheonmeats or drinking a beer left you with cramps, diarrhea,anemia, and even osteoporosis. For many people with celiacdisease, that is a reality.Celiac disease, also called celiac sprue, is a hereditarydisease that occurs when a protein called gluten found inwheat, barley, rye, and possibly oats generates an immunereaction in the small intestine of genetically susceptiblepeople. As a result, tiny hair-like projections in the smallintestine, called villi, shrink and sometimes disappear. Thevilli then are not able to absorb nutrients from food, and theresult is abnormally colored, foul-smelling stools and weightloss. This malabsorption also can deprive the brain, nervoussystem, bones, liver, and other organs of nourishment andcause vitamin and mineral deficiencies that may lead toother medical problems.About 1 in 500 people in the United States has celiacdisease—about 500,000 Americans. Some speculate thatceliac disease has affected humans since they first switchedfrom a foraging diet of meat and nuts to a cultivated diet thatincluded high-protein grasses such as wheat. Physicians havegained an understanding of the disease and how to treat it inonly the past 50 years. Today, people with celiac disease areable to lead nearly normal, healthy lives.A gluten-free diet—a lifelong and complete avoidance ofwheat, rye, barley, and oats and any foods that contain them—is the only way to treat this disease. Following such a diet isnot as easy as it seems because many processed foods andmedications contain gluten.Once gluten is removed from the diet, the digestive tractbegins healing within several days. Significant healing andregrowth of the villi may take several months in youngpeople and as long as 2 to 3 years in older persons.Foods allowed in a gluten-free diet include fresh meats,fish, poultry, milk and unprocessed cheeses, dried beans,plain fresh or frozen fruits and vegetables, and gluten-freegrains such as corn and rice.Identifying gluten-free foods can be difficult. People withceliac disease should discuss their food selections with theirphysician and a registered dietitian. A dietitian also canadvise how best to improve the nutritional quality of a diet.Food manufacturers can be contacted to find out whether aproduct contains gluten. Celiac disease support groups andInternet sites also may have information on the ingredientsfound in food products.

Grains 287the label to see whether the flour has beenbleached. Manufacturers often bleach it towhiten it. One result is that the flour mayhave more gluten. Unbleached flours, however,may have more flavor.Bread flour—A specialty flour used forbread making, this flour has a higher glutencontent.Cake flour—Made exclusively of softwheat, this very refined flour gives cakes alight, soft texture. Because it is so refined,it has a low gluten content and cannot beused to make raised breads. Pastry flour isa less refined version of cake flour.Durum flour—Made from hard wheat,durum flour is often used in pasta becauseit is high in gluten.Gluten flour—This flour undergoes amanufacturing process so that its glutenhas about twice the strength of regular flour.It is useful for adding to recipes to balanceflours that are low in gluten.Self-rising flour—This flour containssalt and a leavening agent, such as bakingsoda. It should not be used in yeast breads.In addition, leavening agents in this flourcan lose strength with age.Whole-wheat or whole-grain flour—This is flour that has the wheat germ andbran (or the bran and germ from the grainbeing used) that were removed duringmilling added back before it is packagedfor consumers. Sometimes this is calledgraham flour. This type of flour is higherin nutrients.Preparation TipsProper storage of flour is essential becauseflour can spoil—sometimes quickly underthe right conditions. The result is an objectionableodor and inferior baked products.How to store flour depends on the typebeing used. It is best to store whole-grainflours in airtight containers in the freezer.Whole-grain flours will stay fresh for up toa year this way. Whole-grain flours includethe germ of the grain, which containspolyunsaturated fat. This fat is susceptibleto oxidation and rancidity the longer it isexposed to air.Refined flours have only the starchyendosperm of the grain. Such flours can bestored at room temperature up to a year orin the freezer for up to 2 years. Airtight containerswill keep refined flours tasting fresh.Because flour can spoil, it may be wiseto purchase flours in small quantities soyou use them up more quickly.Serving SuggestionsFlour is the basis for most baked goods.Although wheat flour is typically used, othertypes of flour can be used to boost flavor andnutrition. Flour also typically is used as athickening agent in soups, stews, and creams.PastaThe origins of this popular and versatilefood are lost in the mists of history; severalcountries (China, Japan, and Italy, just toname a few) claim credit for pasta. Nearlyevery country, however, has some pastavariation to claim as its own.The term “pasta” is used broadly andgenerically to describe a wide variety ofnoodles made from dough. The word“pasta” itself is thought to be derived fromthe Italian word for paste.The main ingredients in pasta doughare flour—which is usually made fromdurum wheat and is called semolina—anda liquid. The dough is rolled out, cut orpressed into the desired shape, and readiedfor sale. Pasta is sold fresh, frozen, or dried.Imported dried pasta is considered superiorto American-made products, mainlybecause the imported pasta is made withonly semolina, which does not absorb asmuch water and is pleasantly firm whencooked al dente (slightly firm).Pasta also may include other ingredients.Some doughs have a little egg added.Other ingredients may include soybean andmung bean flour, vegetables (spinach, tomatoes,beets, carrots), gluten, whey, herbs,spices, and flavorings. Color can be providedby vegetable purées or food coloring.Pasta comes in literally hundreds ofshapes, sizes, thicknesses, and colors. TheU.S. Food and Drug Administration(FDA), however, groups it all into two maincategories:Macaroni—This includes just aboutevery pasta shape and size. The FDA requiresthat macaroni be made from durum wheatflour or semolina. Ingredients such as salt,eggs, and flavorings also may be added.Noodles—Noodles are generally madewith softer durum wheat flours thansemolina and contain egg. In addition, theamount of egg they can contain is limitedto 5 1/2 percent of weight or less.The shape and choice of the pasta youchoose depend on what you like and howit will be served. A general rule is thatthinner pastas are best in soups and stews.WHAT IS SEMOLINA?Semolina is a yellow, granular flourthat is ground from durum wheat.The word is derived from the Latin“simila,” which means fine whiteflour. Semolina is made from theendosperm of the durum wheatseed. It has a high protein content.Although it can be used in a varietyof baked goods, semolina mainly isused to make pasta.

288 Part II Encyclopedia of FoodsPASTA COOKING TIMESTypeDried FreshPasta (in minutes) (in minutes)Cannelloni 8 1/2-2Shells 10 3Farfalle (bowties) 7-10 2-3Fettuccine 8-9 1 1/2-3Lasagna 10 2-4Linguine 5-7 1 1/2-2Macaroni 9-10 Not availableRavioli Not available 7-9Spaghetti 7-9 2-3Tortellini 9-11 7-9

Grains 289Pasta that is curved or tubular is thoughtto soak up creams and sauces better.The color and crispness of dried pastadetermine quality. White pasta should beslightly golden and translucent, not grayishor cloudy. Spaghetti should have thespringiness of fresh twigs. A good-qualityflat noodle will fracture in a jagged linewhen broken and not look starchy. Checkfresh pasta for expiration dates.Dried pasta should be stored airtightin a cool, dry place and can be kept almostindefinitely. Fresh pasta should have apleasant aroma. It is highly perishable andwill keep for several days in the refrigeratorand for up to a month in the freezer.Cooked pasta will keep in the refrigeratorfor up to 5 days.Preparation TipsPasta is cooked by adding it to boiling water.If desired, add a pinch of salt for flavor anda small amount of oil to the water. The oilwill help prevent the pasta from becomingsticky. Then, cook the pasta until it is done.Doneness is mostly a matter of taste—howfirm or soft do you like it? Many cooks usethe term “al dente” in reference to pastadoneness. Al dente simply means cookingthe pasta until it is firm to the bite.Cooking time varies, however, dependingon whether the pasta is fresh or dried.It also depends on whether the pasta ismade from soft or hard flour. Generally,pasta made from hard wheat flour is cookedlonger than pasta made from soft wheatflour. Fresh pasta cooks much faster thandried pasta.If desired, rinse pasta with cold waterafter removing it from heat. Some pastasused in baked dishes—such as lasagna,manicotti, and cannelloni—do not requireprecooking, but they usually require agreater amount of sauce, which is absorbedby the pasta as it cooks. Pasta that is cookedfor a long time loses slightly more of itswater-soluble B vitamins than pasta cookedal dente.Serving SuggestionsPasta itself is low in calories and fat, butsauces that are heavy and fatty, as well as otheradditions, can negate pasta’s nutritionaladvantages. Fortunately, healthy optionsabound. Supermarkets offer a wide varietyof reduced-fat pasta sauces or those that arevegetable- and herb-based. Tomato-basedsauces are also easy—and quick—to makefrom scratch. Simply use several cans ofwhole, peeled tomatoes, crush them, andthen simmer them in a skillet until theyturn “saucy.” Add desired seasonings (garlic,pepper, and salt work well) and a smallamount of olive oil to the cooking mixture.Top with reduced-fat cheeses. Pasta is alsoexcellent served cold when tossed with alittle oil, vinegar, garlic, and fresh herbs.Asian NoodlesNoodles have been part of Asian cuisine forcenturies and continue to play a central rolein many well-loved dishes. They are servedin ways most Westerners are familiar with:either chilled or hot, covered with a sauceor dressing, or added to soups or stews.Asian noodles come in varying lengthsand widths. Chinese wheat noodles areusually made from wheat, water, and salt,and eggs are sometimes added. In Japan,wheat noodles are classified by size: thinnoodles are called somen, and thick noodlesare called udon. Other types of noodlesare the following:Buckwheat noodles—Called soba bythe Japanese, these noodles can be purchasedfresh or dried.Mung bean noodles—These noodlesare transparent and sometimes referred toas cellophane noodles. They are added tovarious dishes, including many soups.Rice noodles—Made from rice flourand water, rice noodles vary widely in sizeand texture.Preparation TipsNoodles should be soft and look fresh. Yourbest bet for fresh noodles is to buy themfrom an Asian specialty food store.Cooking methods vary, as do cookingtimes. Most noodles, however, are cookedinitially by adding them to boiling water.Some noodles may need to be soaked beforecooking. Follow package instructions.Serving SuggestionsAlthough fried Asian noodles are added tovarious dishes, healthier alternatives includeserving chilled buckwheat noodles withlow-sodium soy sauce or adding variousAsian noodles to soups and stews. Asiannoodles can also be added to stir-fry dishesor mixed in salads with cooked vegetablesand strips of cooked chicken or beef.

291High-Protein FoodsIncludes: Poultry, Eggs, Meat, Fish, Shellfish, Legumes, Nuts & SeedsCompared with other populations, Americans have always found plentiful sources of proteinsfrom both animal and plant sources. Ever since the 1800s, fueled by a growing Americancattle industry and refrigerated railroad cars, meat has been viewed as the key component to ameal. If you doubt that statement, think of the last time you were asked, “What’s for dinner?”Even if the menu included a balanced meal of green salad, glazed carrots, brown rice, and a smalllean steak, many people would respond, “We’re having steak.”So important is the idea of meat — or protein of any kind — that it’s considered a meal inand of itself.Protein is an important nutrient in the diet. That’s undisputed. The trouble is that mostAmericans consume too much of it, particularly animal-based proteins, which are high insaturated fat and cholesterol, both of which are linked to cardiovascular disease.Most people need just 5 to 6 ounces a day of high-protein foods.That may sound like a lot, but it isn’t. A 2- to 3-ounce servingof meat is about the size of a deck of cards. Now think of thegiant portions of meat and other high-protein foods often servedat restaurants. Eating two to three times as much protein as youneed in a day can easily be accomplished in just one restaurant meal.Nutritionists have long recognized thatAmericans generally eat too many animalbasedproteins. That’s one of the reasons the“meat group” makes up just a small segmentof the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s(USDA) Food Guide Pyramid. It’s also whythe Food Guide Pyramid no longer refers toproteins as “meat” alone.Although most people associate proteinwith only meat, there are many other waysto add this critical nutrient to the diet. Thischapter covers the traditional animal sourcesof protein in the diet. It also introducesyou to alternative plant-based sources andprovides tips on incorporating a variety ofthese foods into a healthful diet.Because of the wide variety of high-proteinfoods, this chapter has been organizedinto the following sections to make it easierto learn about them:• Poultry• Eggs• Meat• FishPoultry• Shellfish• Legumes• Nuts and SeedsWhen nomadic hunters and gatherers firstbecame farmers, they realized the importanceof raising birds. The egg could beeaten, the feathers were used for beddingand clothing, and the flesh made a fineroast. It also was economical to keeppoultry; cattle needed miles of grazing land,but a chicken could peck around a yard andkeep itself fed. Until mass production techniques,poultry meat was fairly expensive;new technology has made poultry moreaffordable through breeding and productiontechniques.Today, poultry is defined as any domesticbird used as food. There are manydomesticated varieties of poultry, includingchicken, turkey, duck, goose, RockCornish hen, guinea fowl, and pheasant.Generally, all types of birds are sold fresh,frozen, or cooked. They can be purchasedwhole, halved, or in pieces, such as bonelessbreasts, strips, or medallions. Buying awhole bird is typically least expensivebecause additional processing adds cost.Poultry is a versatile addition to anymeal and can be prepared with just aboutany cooking method. A recommendedserving, no matter how it is prepared, is stillabout 2 to 3 ounces ready to eat, withoutbone or skin.

292 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsNutritionAll poultry, which is defined as any domesticbird used as food, is a nutritional star.Classified as a complete protein, poultrymeat is a good source of phosphorus andzinc and an excellent source of niacin.The fat content of poultry depends onthe bird. Goose and duck are the fattiesttypes of poultry. (See the Appendix:Dietary Reference Intakes, page 460.)However, poultry generally contains lessfat than meat from other animals. To eliminatesignificant fat, do not eat the skin.Cooking the meat with or without the skinmakes little difference in fat content. Themeat will be more moist if the skin is left onduring cooking.SelectionWhen buying fresh poultry, look for meatthat is supple and moist and has no dry ordiscolored patches. Another importantcriterion is odor. Avoid birds that have anobjectionable smell. Do not buy frozenpoultry that is dried out or is covered withfrost. A sure sign that a bird has beenfrozen, thawed, and refrozen is thepresence of pinkish ice on the carcass.StorageAlways keep poultry refrigerated at 40°Fahrenheit. Poultry can be stored in itsoriginal wrapping. If freezing, over-wrapwith airtight foil or freezer bags to preventfreezer burn. Frozen poultry can be storedfor up to 12 months if it is purchased wholeand 6 to 9 months if it is purchased aspoultry parts. Frozen poultry should alwaysbe defrosted in the refrigerator and cookedin less than 24 hours after thawing.Refrigerated poultry should be cooked within2 to 3 days.Safety IssuesPoultry is a particular concern when itcomes to food-borne disease. The gastrointestinalsystems of poultry frequentlyharbor harmful microorganisms. Massslaughtering processes offer ample opportunityfor these organisms to contaminatethe meat. Outbreaks of Salmonella, a bacteriumthat causes vomiting and diarrhea,are often associated with eating contaminatedpoultry. Another microorganismfound on chicken is Campylobacter, a bacteriumthat can cause severe diarrheaand stomach cramping.At the store, avoid crosscontaminationby puttingpoultry in plastic bags toprevent leakage ontoother foods. At home,prevent raw poultryfrom coming into contactwith other foods byusing separate cuttingboards and utensils duringmeal preparation. Alwaysquickly disinfect any surface orutensil that has come in contactwith any raw poultry. In addition,wash hands with hot waterand soap, lathering for 20 secondsor more, after handling raw poultry. Inaddition, disinfect any surface or utensilthat came in contact with the raw bird.Thorough cooking destroys any diseasecausingorganisms (pathogens) in meat.Use a meat thermometer and cook poultryuntil the internal temperature reaches 180°Fahrenheit. The center of the chickenshould be white with no sign of pink.The following pages provide an overviewof the main types of poultry: chicken, duck,game birds, goose, and turkey.ChickenThanks in large part to chicken’s low price,low fat, and high versatility, the amount ofchicken consumed in the United States hasincreased exponentially.That wasn’t always the case. Eventhough chicken is one of the oldest livingspecies of animal, it was a rarity on thedinner table. King Henri IV of Francestated in his coronation speech that hehoped each peasant in his realm would have“a chicken in his pot every Sunday.” At onetime, only the rich (and chicken farmers)could manage the proverbial Sundaychicken. Today, thanks to modern productionmethods, almost anyone can affordchicken. In fact, adjusted for inflation,chicken is only a third the price it was 40years ago.Chicken consumption also hasincreased because of increasing awarenessof the need to reduce fat in the diet.Chicken, as long as the skin is not eaten, isgenerally lower in fat than most other typesof meat. At least half of the fat in a chickenis in the skin.The government grades chicken qualitywith USDA classifications A, B, and C,which are based on meatiness, appearance,and how intact the skin and bones are.

High-Protein Foods 293Grade A chickens, the highest grade, are usuallyfound in markets. Grade B chickens areless meaty, and grade C birds are scrawnieryet. B- and C-graded chickens often areused for processed and packaged foods. Thegrade stamp can be found within a shieldon the package wrapping, or sometimes ona tag attached to the bird's wing. Manyungraded chickens find their way to storesbecause grading is not mandatory.Chickens called “broilers” are butcheredat about 7 weeks of age, when they weighbetween 2 and 4 pounds. The term “fryer”is often given to larger birds from this agerange. “Roasting chickens” generally weighmore than 4 pounds and are slaughteredwhen they reach 10 weeks. “Stewingchickens” — also known as hens or boilingfowl — range in age from 10 to 18months. They can weigh between 3 and 6pounds. Generally, they are used for stewsand soups because their meat is tougher.Shoppers may also encounter other termsto describe chicken. A Rock Cornish hen(or game hen) is a chicken hybrid that weighsabout 2 pounds when butchered. Becausethere is relatively little meat on the carcass,each hen is typically considered 1 serving.Another type of chicken in stores is calledfree-range chicken. According to the USDA,this term means that the chicken was allowedto roam outdoors. Depending on the manufacturer,the chicken may or may not havebeen fed a vegetarian diet free of hormones,growth enhancers, and antibiotics. Somebelieve that this special treatment results ina fuller-flavored chicken. One thing certainis that it adds to the expense. Most freerangechickens are far more expensive perpound than regular chicken.A tip for shoppers: larger chickens area better buy because there is more flesh onthe bones. With smaller chickens, you donot get as much meat and you pay for bones.Roasted chickenPreparation TipsKeep chicken refrigerated until you are readyto use it, or freeze it and then thaw it in therefrigerator. Cut away any excess fat, butkeep the skin on while cooking to provideflavor, then remove the skin for a healthierentrée. Chicken lends itself to a variety ofcooking preparations, including baking,broiling, boiling, roasting, frying, braising,barbecuing, stir-frying, and stewing.Boneless chicken requires less cooking time.However, this type of chicken will taste morebland because the bones and the skin addthat real “chickeny” flavor. Yet, bonelesschicken picks up the flavors of other foods,herbs, and spices it is cooked with, such astarragon, ginger, garlic, and vegetables.Serving SuggestionsChicken is extremely versatile. Because ofits popularity, entire cookbooks have beenwritten focusing on only this bird. It seemsalmost every ethnicity has its own way touse chicken — Indian curry chicken,Chinese stir-fry, Mexican chicken enchiladas,Spanish paella, and Italian chickenparmesan. Chicken’s flavor is enhanced byalmost any herb, spice, or condiment.Frying is also a popular way to servechicken. However, this cooking methodadds extra fat and calories, detracting fromthe health benefits of eating chicken. Ifeating at a fast-food restaurant, choosegrilled chicken instead of chicken that hasbeen breaded and deep-fried.

294 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsDuckDuck, or duckling, includes any of the 80different species of wild or domestic birdswith webbed feet. Today, several majorbreeds of duck are raised for their meat.These domesticated ducks may be threetimes larger than their wilderness-rearedrelatives.Duck is very popular in Europe andChina, where more duck is eaten each yearthan chicken. In the United States, however,duck is usually perceived as a specialholiday dish, if eaten at all, becauseAmericans annually eat less than a poundof duck per person. In contrast, Americanseat close to 50 pounds of chicken per year.The consumption level may be lowerbecause Americans consider ducks to befatty and scrawny. The perception of ducksas fatty rings true, because ducks are oneof the highest-fat types of poultry. The fat(mainly found within and beneath the skin)helps keep the duck buoyant. Duck is alsorich in protein. It is an excellent source ofriboflavin, niacin, and phosphorus and isa good source of iron, zinc, and thiamin.Duck’s reputation as scrawny may be undeserved,however. They do have a largeskeleton and thus a relatively high proportionof bone. But specialty breeds, such asMuscovy ducks, have increased breast sizefor more meat. The USDA grades duckquality with classifications A, B, and C,similar to other poultry.The majority of ducks are really ducklings,6 to 8 weeks old. Broilers and fryersare less than 8 weeks old. Roasters are birdsthat are slaughtered when they are no morethan 16 weeks old. Domestic ducks canPeking duck — a Chinese delicacy in which the duck is roasteduntil the skin is very crisp. Small slices are served withmandarin pancakes, scallions, and hoisin sauce.weigh between 3 and 7 1/2 pounds. Olderducks are generally larger. Almost all duckssold in stores are frozen so that they areavailable year-round.Preparation TipsFresh duck should have a broad, fairly plumpbreast; the skin should be elastic, not saggy.For frozen birds, the packaging should betight and unbroken. Frozen duck should bethawed in the refrigerator, a process that takesfrom 24 to 36 hours, depending on the sizeof the bird. Duck should not be refrozenonce it has been thawed.Before cooking, all visible fat should beremoved. Also, prick the skin with a forkto help the fat melt and drip away from thebird during roasting. Some cooks alsoremove the skin and underlying fat. Cookwhole birds to 180° Fahrenheit, breasts to170° Fahrenheit, and legs, thighs, and wingsto 180° Fahrenheit.Serving SuggestionsDuck can be prepared in a variety of ways,including roasting, braising, and broiling.Ducklings are best roasted in the oven ona rack so that as much fat as possible candrip away from the bird. A citrus saucenicely complements a duck’s flavor; accordingly,the dish called duck à l’orange is oneof the most popular ways to eat this bird.Allow about 1 to 1 1/2 pounds of rawbone-in duck per person. This will yield 3to 4 ounces of fully cooked duck. (Onepound of boneless raw meat, when cooked,will serve 3 people.)Game BirdsGame birds is a broad category that includesany wild bird hunted and eaten as food.These birds include the following:

High-Protein Foods 295• Large birds such as wild turkey andgoose• Medium-sized birds, including pheasant,guinea fowl, and wild duck• Small birds, such as grouse, hazel hen,lark, mud hen, partridge, pigeon, and quailGame birds that have domestic counterparts,such as turkey and duck, canprovide an overwhelming taste if you havegrown used to the supermarket variety.However, these birds are usually leaner thanmass-market birds and even leaner thanfarm-raised “wild” game. If you are fortunateto have a hunter in the family, you mayhave good access to game birds. For mostpeople, however, finding game birds will bedifficult, although specialty stores may be ofhelp. Sometimes, game birds are sold frozen,and smaller birds may be sold canned.Preparation TipsWhen buying game birds, avoid those withan “off” odor. If you are preparing birds youhave hunted yourself, check with a local huntingorganization or gaming officer, becausepreparation tips differ from region to regionaccording to weather conditions. Becausewild birds can be the leanest of any poultry,they may benefit from marinating. Theyusually are also basted during roasting. Olderbirds are best cooked with slow, moist heatsuch as braising or used in soups or stews.Do not overcook game birds. Test fordoneness by plunging a fork into the fleshiestpart of the thigh and by using a meatthermometer. For light-fleshed birds, thejuices should run clear. For dark-fleshedbirds, the juices should be light pink.Serving SuggestionsGame birds can be used in place of traditionalpoultry in many dishes. In mealswith game birds as the main course, atraditional side dish is potatoes or sauer-kraut. Small birds maybe stuffed with a fewgreen olives and garlic.GooseGeese, those graceful,large birds with theirlong necks, large beaks,and signature cry, havelong been a favorite targetfor hunters. Onereason is that the birds,which often weighabout 25 pounds, provide a lot of meat. Inaddition, their flesh is tender and flavorful.Goose has long been a traditional holidaydish and remains a popular dinner inEngland and northern and central Europe.Geese have not achieved the same popularityin the United States. This may actuallybe an advantage because geese are oneof the fattiest types of poultry. Up to halfthe calories in a serving of goose are derivedfrom fat. There are about 13 grams of fatin a skinless 3 1/2-ounce serving and up to22 grams for a serving with the skin on.Geese are often advertised at holidays inthe United States, but they are typically availablefrozen all year. Popular products madefrom goose include smoked goose breast,goose liver pâté, and goose liver sausage.Preparation TipsA goose should be plump and have a goodfatty layer, skin that is clean and unblemished,and pinkish or light-red flesh. Afrozen bird’s packaging should be tight andunbroken. The goose should be thawed inthe refrigerator, a process that can take upto 2 days, depending on the size of the bird.The goose should not be refrozen once ithas been thawed, a general rule with allfrozen products.Domestic geeseGoose is federally inspected for wholesomeness.Grading is similar to that ofother poultry. One pound of bonelessgoose will serve 3 people. Each serving isabout 3 to 4 ounces.During the holidays, it may be possibleto find fresh goose in stores. At other timesof the year, it is usually sold after it has beenfrozen.Because geese have so much fat, theyare best roasted. Piercing the skin whileroasting will allow fat to escape, reducingthe fat content of the bird that is eaten.Monitor the bird closely, however. Thelarge amount of fat that cooks from a goosecan smoke and catch fire. Larger, olderbirds are tougher and should be cooked(after the skin and fat are removed) with amoist-heat method, such as braising.Serving SuggestionsLike duck, cooked goose benefits frombeing served with a tart fruit sauce, whichhelps offset any fatty taste. Roast goose isoften served surrounded by sweet potatoes.A salad featuring sliced oranges and onionscomplements the flavor of the goose andthe sweet potatoes nicely.

296 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsTurkeyOnce, turkey was for Thanksgiving andChristmas only. In fact, 90 percent of allturkeys were sold during November andDecember. It all started when wild turkeywas served as part of a feast of thanksgivingin 1621, and the tradition of turkey onthe Thanksgiving table endures.Americans now embrace the turkey formore than just special-occasion dining.Today, turkey is sold in supermarkets inparts, just like chicken, for ease of use.Breeders also have created smaller versionsof turkey. Served whole, these new birdscan weigh in at 5 to 8 pounds instead ofthe standard sizes, which can be 20 or sopounds at holiday time.Turkey is very similar to chicken inmany regards, both nutritionally and withrespect to USDA grading and storagerequirements. The meat is high in protein,niacin, and vitamin B 6 . It also provides agood source of phosphorus and zinc. Likechicken, turkey is a low-fat poultry choice,containing about 5 grams of fat per servingafter roasting and removing the skin.Turkeys are available in supermarketsyear-round. The skin on fresh turkeyshould be off-white to cream-colored andthe meat should be pink. Self-bastingturkeys have butter or vegetable oil injectedunder their skin to increase their flavor andmoistness, cutting down on the possibilityof an overly dry dinner. Turkeys also areavailable smoked — as whole or breast only— or canned.Preparation TipsIf you are buying a frozen turkey, make sureit is rock-hard and free of any cuts or tearsin the protective wrapping. Then, defrostit using the same methods and precautionsas recommended for chicken.If you are buying a fresh turkey or freshturkey parts, rinse the flesh with cold waterand pat it with paper towels before cooking.For thawing, which is always done in therefrigerator, allow about 1 day for every 5pounds of turkey.Check to make sure you have removedthe giblets, heart, or other organs, whichmay be packaged in the breast cavity. Keepand cook the giblets separate from theturkey. Regardless of when you cook theturkey, the giblets should be cooked orfrozen within 24 hours.Serving SuggestionsAlthough turkey is traditionally stuffedand roasted, it can be cooked in severalways. Parts such as breasts, legs, and cutletscan be prepared in the same way as a favoritechicken recipe. Cooked and smokedturkey also goes well in cold salads andsandwiches.If you are preparing the traditionalturkey meal, estimate 3 hours for anunstuffed turkey of 8 to 12 pounds and 41/2 hours for an unstuffed turkey of 18 to24 pounds. Use a food thermometer.Turkey breasts should be cooked to 170°Fahrenheit, and drumsticks, thighs, andwings to 180° Fahrenheit. To ensureuniform cooking and safety, cook stuffingoutside the bird. If it is cooked inside theturkey, the center of the stuffing must reach165° Fahrenheit.EggsIn addition to being a popular breakfastfood, eggs are a symbol of beginnings.Primitive humans recognized the egg as theRoasted turkey

High-Protein Foods 297beginning of life, and it became a symbol ofspring and fertility.Eggs have four main parts:Shell — As the name suggests, this isthe fragile and porous outer covering. Theshell is made mostly of minerals — calciumcarbonate, magnesium carbonate, andcalcium phosphate.Shell membranes — These are layersof protein fibers that stick to the shell. Theyprovide additional protection for the egg’sinsides, preventing mold and bacteria fromgetting in, for example.Albumen — This is the white of theegg. It is almost all protein and water.Yolk — The yellow bull’s eye of the egg,the yolk is made of a substance called“vitellus.” It can be a pale yellow or darkyellow. About 30 percent of the yolk is fat,and about 16 percent is protein. Theremainder is made up of solids.EGG PRODUCTSTable-ready pasteurized liquid eggsare found in the refrigerated sectionof the supermarket. The white andyolk of the eggs are mixed, thenpasteurized at a temperature highenough to kill any bacteria withoutcooking the eggs. They can berefrigerated unopened for up to 12weeks from the pack date. They canbe used like eggs already scrambled.Pasteurized eggs in their shells arealso now available.Egg substitutes are a blend of eggwhites and other ingredients such asfood starch, corn oil, skim-milkpowder, tofu, artificial coloring, andvarious additives. Because they arealmost all protein, egg substitutescan become rubbery if overcooked.There is no nutritional differencebetween brown and white eggs.Eggs provide an inexpensive source ofhigh-quality protein, vitamins, and minerals,including vitamins A and B 12 , folicacid, and phosphorus. They are an excellentsource of riboflavin. The egg is alsosaid to be a complete protein, because itcontains a complete count of essentialamino acids. The white supplies more thanhalf the protein in an egg. The yolk suppliesthe fat, along with the remainingprotein, and most of the calories.Eggs are also graded and are classified byboth size and quality. The best are gradeAA or A, both of which are related to thelevel of freshness and the quality of the shellat marking. Most recipes are based on largeeggs. Nutritionally, there’s no differencebetween brown eggs and white eggs.Different colored eggs come from differentvarieties of hens.The most common egg used for foodtoday is the chicken’s egg, although eggsfrom other fowl can be bought in specialtystores.Preparation TipsWhen selecting eggs, check the containerfor any cracked or broken eggs and eliminatethem from the carton. Place the cartonin the refrigerator for up to 5 weeks. Donot place eggs in the designated egg holdersin the door of older refrigerators. It is toowarm for the eggs there because they get ablast of hot air each time the door isopened. The egg carton helps keep eggsfrom absorbing odors from other foods andhelps keep the eggs fresh.When adding eggs to a mixing bowl,break the egg in a separate dish to makesure the egg is not rotten.Serving SuggestionsEggs serve many purposes in cooking andpreparing food, including a leavening agentin baked goods, a base for mayonnaise, anda thickener in sauces and custards.Served alone, eggs can be poached,boiled (soft or hard), fried, scrambled, ormade into an omelet. From a safety standpoint,it is recommended that both theyolk and the white be cooked until firm.Because they are made mostly of water andprotein, eggs are best cooked over low heat.

298 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsMeatMeat is the general term for any musclefrom any animal. However, most peoplethink of meat as meaning “red meat.” Thissection describes red meats, including thecommon American staples of beef, pork,lamb, and veal. Also included are ostrich,rabbit, buffalo, and game meats. Rabbit,buffalo, and game meats were once commonto the American menu but are noweaten much less often. The same is true ofso-called variety meats — brain, heart,kidney, liver, tripe, and tongue. WhereasAmericans once needed to make use ofevery part of a slaughtered animal, theabundance of food, along with changingtastes and attitudes, has made variety meatsonly rare additions to meals.Meat is composed of three basic materials:water, protein, and fat. On average,lean muscle tissue is about 75 percent water,18 percent protein, and 3 percent fat. Theeventual texture and taste of the cookedmeat depend on the amount of fat andwater in the tissue and on the kinds ofBEEF CUTS:WHERE THEY COME FROMSectionRib:Short Loin*:Sirloin*:Round*:Flank*:Plate:Chuck:*Cuts that are lower in fat.Names of cutsproteins. In general, the most tender cutsof meat have more fat and less fibrousmuscle. Tougher tissue from older animalsoften has more flavor. Both limitations canbe overcome by using the proper cookingmethods.Roughly 50 percent of the protein inmeat comes from fibers that contract themuscle and 30 percent from oxygen-storingpigments called myoglobin and variousenzymes. The remaining 20 percent comesfrom connective tissues that hold the musclestogether.NutritionFrom a nutritional point of view, becausethe composition of most animals is similarto that of humans, animal tissues supplyus with complete proteins. More simply,the protein from animals is similar to thatproduced in our own bodies. Thus, itcontains the full count of essential aminoacids. (See Chapter 2, Dietary Protein andBody Protein, page 24.)Red meat is an important source of minerals,including iron, phosphorus, zinc, andRib roast, rib steak, rib eye, back ribsTip loin, T-bone, porterhouse, tenderloinTop sirloin, sirloin, Boston sirloinRound steak, top round, bottom round, eye of round, tip steak,rump roastFlank steakSkirt steakChuck roast, arm pot roast, shoulder pot roast, short ribscopper, and vitamins, including B vitaminsand vitamin A (see the Appendix: DietaryReference Intakes, page 454). However,there are some nutritional trade-offs to bemade. Red meat can be the main source offat — particularly saturated fat — andcholesterol in the American diet. Both havebeen linked by numerous studies to cardiovasculardisease. Too much fat and cholesterolcan contribute to the buildup of plaquein arteries, which in turn increases the risk ofheart attack and stroke. In addition, dietshigh in fat have been linked to some types ofcancer, particularly colon cancer.Americans have traditionally enjoyed anabundance of meat in their diets comparedwith other populations, and tastes in meatcontinue to evolve. As more people havebecome aware of the risks of eating too muchred meat, consumption of beef has declined.Recently, it has started to increase again andremains top on the consumption list. Animportant reason is that as health concernshave grown, both the meat industry andgrocers have responded by introducing leanercuts of meat and lower-fat options, such aslean hamburger. Poultry consumption hasgrown significantly since the 1970s.SelectionMany factors influence how tender andtasty meat will be after cooking. Thesefactors include:• The type of muscle (or cut)• The amount of fat and connective tissuein the meat• The age of the cut• The manner of preparationCuts from more exercised muscles (leg,hip, and shoulder) are tougher than thosefrom the center of the animal — the rib,loin, or breast.Fresher meats are generally tougher thanaged meats. Aging causes meats to go

High-Protein Foods 299through “rigor.” With time, the musclesrelax and increase in acidity — a naturalway to tenderize meat — and muscle proteinsincrease their water-holding ability,which enhances juiciness.Aging is a process that relaxes the tissues,making the beef easier to chew and enjoy.The original process of aging, now calleddry-aging, demanded that a carcass hang ina cooler for 3 weeks or more. The surfacewould dry out and be thrown away. Theremaining beef made excellent but expensivesteaks. This process is now reserved forsteaks bound for only the best steakhouses.Less fatty cuts are preferred from a nutritionalstandpoint. However, they are lesstender than those with fat marbled throughthe muscle fibers. “Choice” and “select”grades have less fat and marbling and canbe tougher than the “prime” grade unlessthey are prepared to maximize tenderness.IRRADIATED HAMBURGERStorageMeat is perishable, but there are ways tomaximize its shelf life. To do so, minimizeits exposure to light, oxygen, enzymes, andmicroorganisms. All of these can hastenthe breakdown of muscle tissue and thedecay process.Keep meat securely wrapped — preferablywith opaque butcher’s paper, available at grocerystores — and refrigerated at less than 40°Fahrenheit in a dark place. Bacteria and moldsthrive in higher temperatures and humidity.Refrigerating meat inhibits the growth of thesemicroorganisms, and freezing meat at 0°Fahrenheit or below actually halts their growth.Meat wrapped in butcher’s paper can be storedin the freezer for up to 12 months.Safety IssuesAny kind of meat can harbor harmfulmicroorganisms that can cause food-borneConsumers in a growing number of states can now purchase irradiated hamburgerat the supermarket. So what does “irradiated” mean, and should you buy the meat?Irradiation is simply the name given to a process that uses radiation or electricityto kill disease-causing organisms (pathogens) in food. Food is passed briefly througheither type of energy. It does not become radioactive. Instead, the energy killsmost of the pathogens in food. The food still looks and tastes the same. By law,food that is irradiated must have a label that clearly states it has undergone thisprocess. The symbol is called the radura. (See Chapter 4, What About IrradiatedFoods? page 91.)Irradiation has been used for decades to kill pathogens in spices and other foodsand also to sterilize medical materials. In February 1999, the U.S. governmentcleared the way for irradiated red meat to be made available in stores. Because redmeat, and beef in particular, can harbor several pathogens, including the potentiallydeadly E. coli bacterium, scientists and experts in food-borne disease have longadvocated irradiation as an important step in making this food group safer.Irradiation has its critics, who say that the method needs to be researched more.However, it is endorsed by nearly every major medical organization in the world,including the World Health Organization, the U.S. Centers for Disease Controland Prevention, and the American Medical Association.QUICK TIPFreezer burn (the discoloration andchange in flavor that meat canacquire after it has been frozen) canbe minimized by wrapping meat astightly as possible with waterproofpackaging. According to the USDA’sFood Safety and Inspection Service,overwrap the supermarket wrappingwith heavy-duty foil, plastic wrap, aplastic bag, or freezer paper to ensurethat air is kept out.illness. In recent years, Escherichia coli (E.coli), a potentially deadly bacterium thatcan cause severe, bloody diarrhea, hasbecome a concern with red meat, particularlyground beef.Fortunately, proper cooking kills allmicroorganisms in meat. Preventing meatfrom contaminating other foods before cookingis important. Good meat-handling practicesinclude thawing meat in the refrigerator,making sure juices from raw meat donot get on other food, and disinfecting cookingand preparation surfaces after handlingraw meat. For more information aboutcooking meat and other protein foods properly,see Chapter 5, Cooking It Safe, page149, and Food Safety, page 148.The following pages contain morespecific information on different typesof meat and how to include them in ahealthful diet.BeefBeef comes from the adult bovine, includingcows (females that have had a calf),steers (males castrated when very young),heifers (females that have not been bred),and bulls younger than 2 years. Beef from

300 Part II: Encyclopedia of Foodsan animal slaughtered after age 2 years isgenerally classified as “well-matured beef.”Meat from these animals begins to toughenand becomes more of a purplish red. Babybeef, in contrast, is from a 7- to 10-montholdcalf.Of all the animals domesticated forfood, cattle reign supreme. This animal,once only a beast of burden, became a sourceof meat and milk only after feed fromimproved agricultural practices becameplentiful.Even though cattle were first introducedto the New World in the 1500s, beef didnot become popular in the United Statesuntil the Civil War, when other meats andpoultry were in short supply.After the Civil War, the abundance ofgrazing land and emerging transportationsystems in the United States made it easyMAKING THE GRADEAll meat sold in the United Statesmust be inspected for wholesomenessby the government, usually by theUSDA nationwide team of meatinspectors. Many people are familiarwith this agency’s stamp of inspection,which is placed on the outside ofthe carcass.The USDA also grades meat,although this is a voluntary process.Grading meat essentially means usingcategories to give consumers anestimation of quality. Beef cutsare judged by the palatabilitycharacteristics of the meat. Inspectorslook at the marbling (flecks of fatin the meat that give it flavor) andthe firmness. The USDA gradesfor beef, from best quality to lowestquality, are as follows:to move large amounts of beef throughoutthe country. For years, Americans have beenone of the world’s top consumers of beef.But in response to concerns about red meat’slink to cardiovascular disease and cancer,consumption has declined significantly.Since 1978, beef consumption has dropped28 percent, whereas poultry and pork consumptionhas grown rapidly. Beef producershave launched several programs to provideleaner beef products. The industry hasdeveloped leaner beef breeds, let the animalsforage from grasslands instead of grain lots,and developed economic incentives for producingleaner cattle.Retailers also have reduced the averagethickness of fat around the edge of steaks androasts from 3/4 inch to 1/10 inch, and sometimesno external fat is present at all. In addition,low-fat ground beef and other meats• Prime• Choice• Select• Standard• Commercial• Utility• Cutter• CannerThe cuts given the highest gradealso have the most marbling. To helpmake leaner, more healthful cutsappealing to consumers, the USDAcame up with the term “select” forgood quality cuts of meat that werelower in fat. Previously, the agencyhad used the term “good.”Most consumers will not find thefive lowest-quality grades of beef instores. These generally are used only forsausages and in cured and canned meats.have hit the shelves. The result is that beef is27 percent leaner than it was 20 years ago.When eaten in moderation and preparedwith low-fat cooking methods, beefremains a nutritious addition to meals.Preparation TipsWhen shopping, pick a cut of beef whosetenderness and level of flavor appropriatelyfit the recipe you are using. In general, themore expensive the cut of meat (rib, loin,breast, filet, sirloin), the greater the flavorand tenderness. Cheaper cuts (leg, hip,shoulder) may be less tender but are just asflavorful. They are best prepared with slow,moist-heat cooking, such as boiling, poaching,stewing, steaming, or braising. Any ofthese moist-cooking methods are also bestfor any leaner, tougher cut of beef (leg, hip,shoulder), and slow cooking provides thebest results.Using a tenderizer also makes toughcuts more palatable. Acid ingredients suchas vinegar, yogurt, cider wine, citrus juice,and tomatoes often are used in marinadesbecause they tenderize the meat. Naturalenzymes such as papaya, figs, and pineapplealso can be used for the same purpose.Cover meat with the marinade and placeit in a non-metallic container in the refrigeratorfor 6 to 24 hours.Aged beef that you might find at yourlocal supermarket probably has undergonewet-aging. The carcass is vacuum-packedin plastic bags and then placed in coolersfor a week to a month. This process tenderizesthe beef, but it does not have thedramatic improvement in flavor that occurswith dry-aging.Ground beef contains enough fat (about15 to 20 percent) to give it flavor and makeit juicy without excess shrinkage. The mostflavorful hamburgers are made with groundchuck, but that is not the only kind of

High-Protein Foods 301hamburger available. The leanest (around11 percent fat) and most expensive of theground meats are ground round and groundsirloin. New processing of ground meat isnow making available even leaner choices(around 5 percent fat). The leaner choicesare ideal for calorie and fat watchers, butthey have to be cooked carefully to avoidtheir becoming too dry.For more flavorful cuts of meat, dryheatcooking — roasting, baking, broiling,or grilling — is more common. Try thesemethods with steaks, tenderloins, and filets.To reduce the fat content of beef sauces orsoups, refrigerate them and gently spoonoff the fat layer that forms on the surface.Serving SuggestionsAlthough beef can be part of a healthfuldiet, the key is to think of it as a side dishand not the main entrée. Dishes such assirloin kabobs fulfill the craving for beefwithout the need to eat a lot of it. Stir-frying,in which thin strips or chunks of beefare combined with large quantities of vegetables,is also an excellent way to have beefplay a supporting role at mealtime. Stewsand casseroles with vegetable-based saucesalso offer this advantage.Another simple option is to cut downon the amount of ground beef called for ina recipe. Reducing the amount of groundbeef by half cuts the calories, fat, and cholesterolby half.BuffaloBison, the shaggy, humped member of thecattle family, is the scientific name for whatwe generally refer to as American buffalo.Buffalo once roamed the West in greatherds. Westward expansion and the introductionof cattle contributed to the declineof the roaming herds, but a new popula-GROUND BEEF SUBSTITUTES, AND HOW THEY STACK UPThree ounces Calories Fat (grams) Saturated fat Cholesterolready-to-eat (grams) (milligrams)Hamburger 245 20 7 75Extra-lean 215 15 5 70ground beefGround turkey 200 11 3 87(meat and skin)Ground turkey 120 1 Trace 70(breast only)Textured soy 95 Trace Trace 0proteinTofu, firm 52 2 Trace 0Tempeh 170 9 3 0tion of ranch-raised buffalo is bringingbison meat back to the American table.Buffalo is lower in fat than most cuts ofbeef and chicken — as well as some fish. Italso tastes like lean beef and has no gameyflavor. Because of these characteristics, it isviewed by some food experts as the “gourmetfood of the future.” Although many ranchersand farmers have begun raising buffalo,so far the demand for it is outstripping supply.Preparation TipsTrim any excess fat before cooking. Becausebuffalo meat is so lean, it should be cookedslowly at a low heat. Otherwise, the meatwill be chewy and flavorless.Serving SuggestionsGrill buffalo steaks at least 6 inches fromthe heat source, basting often. Cuts ofbuffalo are similar to cuts of beef and canbe substituted in most beef recipes, as longas the meat is not cooked past mediumrare.Remember, however, that buffalocooks more rapidly than beef because it hasless marbled fat.LambSpanish padres and English pioneers broughtthe first sheep to the United States. Usingsheep for meat and clothing, the padresexpanded their missions for the next 3 centuries.Today, lamb is produced in every statein the United States, even though the averagecitizen eats only 1 to 2 pounds of lamb a year.In other countries, lamb is prized forits hearty flavor. The American aversionWHAT IS BEEFALO?Beefalo is what its name suggests:a cross between buffalo and cattle.The result is a dark red meat that isvery lean and has a flavor that isslightly stronger than that of beef.Most grocery stores do not carrybeefalo. It is available in somespecialty markets. Although introducedsome years ago, beefalo hasbeen slow to gain popularity. At thesame time, demand for ranch-raisedbuffalo is increasing.

302 Part II: Encyclopedia of Foodsto the meat may be because sheep were originallybred for wool first and then consumedfor meat. The older lamb resultedin a stringy, tough piece of meat. Today,animals are bred for only one purpose, andthe meat has a finer consistency and a betterflavor.To qualify as a lamb, a sheep must beyounger than a year. However, most lambsare sent to market at 6 months or younger.Baby lamb and spring lamb are both milkfedand slaughtered before they are weaned.Regular lamb is slaughtered before it reaches12 months of age. Lambs between 12 and24 months are yearlings.Mutton, the meat of sheep more than 2years old, has a much stronger flavor andless tender flesh. Mutton has gained a reputationamong Americans as inedible, butwith proper slow-cooking methods, that reputationis unwarranted. Even so, mutton isA serving of meat is about3 ounces — about the sizeof one lamb chop.difficult to buy in the United States. Mostlamb available at your local supermarket willbe the more tender spring lamb. Lamb isleaner, too, because of selective breedingpractices and because the meat is trimmed ofmore excess fat before packaging.There are five USDA grades for lamb,based on the proportion of lean meat tofat: prime, choice, select, utility, and cull.Most of the lamb sold today is choice.Use color as a guide to purchase lamb.A general rule is that the color gets darkeras the animal gets older. For example, babylamb is pale pink, and regular lamb is pinkishred.You also can use the weight of a leg oflamb to judge its age. The more a leg weighs,the older the animal was at slaughter. Alarge leg, nearing 10 pounds, then, will havestrong flavor and tougher flesh. Muttonlegs are around 12 pounds.Preparation TipsMany cuts of lamb are sold with the fatalready trimmed, but on some cuts, suchas the leg or shoulder, thick external fatremains. Have your butcher remove thislayer, or do it yourself before you are readyto cook the lamb. Leaving the fat in placewill cause the amount of saturated fat toskyrocket, and the lamb will take on astronger taste that many Americans, unaccustomedto lamb, might find displeasing.Lamb fat burns at a much lower temperaturethan other animal fat, and the lamb isleft with a smoky, fatty aftertaste.You also need to remove the fell, a membranethat encases the surface fat. The fellis left on some larger cuts to help trap thenatural juices. The fell is inedible, and neitherheat nor seasonings can penetrate it.The cuts you most often find at yourgrocery store — leg of lamb, rack of lamb,chops, and loin — can be cooked by roasting,broiling, sautéing, or grilling. But ifyou are planning to serve the lamb rare ormedium-rare, which is recommended, ribchops surpass shoulder chops. A quickreadthermometer inserted in the thickestportion of the meat should read 145°Fahrenheit (medium-rare). Chops cut fromthe shoulder are best slowly braised.The size of a rack of lamb depends onthe kind of sheep. An American-raisedsheep will have a rack with seven to eightribs, weighing approximately 2 pounds andfeeding three or four people. A rack froma New Zealand sheep may weigh only 1pound and feed two people.Serving SuggestionsLeg of lamb is a traditional dish at Easter,and lamb and mutton are common ingredientsin Middle Eastern couscous dishes.Lamb also makes a wonderful meat forkabobs, the best cut being leg meat cut into

High-Protein Foods 3031-inch cubes. Complementary seasoningsinclude garlic, mustard, basil, mint, rosemary,and sage.Lamb fat solidifies once the meat cools,so the meat should be served on warmplates. Lamb stew meat usually is cut fromthe shoulder, neck, breast, or leg (this mightalso be called a lamb shank). Use it in placeof beef, pork, or veal in any slow-cookedstew or braised meat recipe. Use groundlamb as you would use ground beef.The less tender cuts of lamb (shoulder,breast, shank) are best marinated.OstrichWith origins in Africa and parts of southwestAsia, the ostrich is a huge, flightlessbird that can weigh up to 250 pounds andreach up to 7 feet in height. For centuriesits meat and eggs were sought, but nowostrich can be raised like other forms oflivestock.Although still more exotic than a ribeye steak, ostrich meat is showing up onmore and more restaurant menus, a directcorrelation to the hundreds of ostrich ranchesnow in the United States. Some specialtymeat markets may carry, or will specialorder, ostrich meat. The meat is deep redand looks like very lean beef. Ostrich is lowin saturated fat and has very little cholesterol.Because ostrich is a bird, it technicallyis classified as poultry, but it tastes morelike venison and is similar to lean beef inits color and texture.Preparation TipsThe best ways to cook ostrich are bysautéing (pan frying or cooking) and quickgrilling. Because it is such a lean meat, iteasily becomes dry if overcooked. The bestcuts of ostrich are the fan fillet, inside strip,tenderloin, and oyster.Serving SuggestionsRub olive oil on ostrich before grilling, thenseason with herbs or a touch of salt andpepper. Substitute ostrich in any recipecalling for lean beef or venison.PorkPork was popular early in American historybecause pigs offered large litters of offspringand meat that could be preserved by smokingand pickling for long winter months.Pigs also would eat anything available. Atypical farmer owned four or five hogs. Anearly governor of Virginia was one of thefirst to introduce swine to the New World.The state is famous for the quality of hamsand other pork products produced there.Although pork generally refers to swineyounger than 1 year, most pork today isslaughtered at a younger age (6 to 9 months)to produce meat that is more tender and mildflavored.The diet of a hog before slaughterhas changed. What the colonists oncethought was a positive — that a pig wouldeat anything — caused trichinosis, a foodbornedisease that was once acquired almostexclusively from undercooked pork. Today’shogs are fed a diet of grain, proteins, vitamins,and minerals, and trichinosis is thus rare.PORK CUTS: WHERE THEY COME FROMSectionShoulder butt:Loin:Leg:Side (belly):Picnic shoulder:Until recently, pigs were bred to be heftyand fat, but pork has been gradually transformedby concerted breeding efforts toproduce leaner meat. In general, today’shogs provide meat that is lower in caloriesand higher in protein than just 10 yearsago. On average, pork is 31 percent lowerin fat and 14 percent lower in calories thanit was in 1983. However, not all pork cutsare lean, depending on the part of the pigused. For example, bacon still has 14 gramsof fat per ounce (about 4 slices), but extraleancured ham may have less than 2 gramsof fat per ounce.Pork is an extraordinarily versatile meat.Pork comes to market in two basic forms:fresh and smoked. Only about a third of allpork is sold as fresh pork. The majority iscured, smoked, or processed into items suchas bologna and hot dogs. The rump and hindlegs of the pig are usually cured and smokedas hams. The same is true of the belly, or whatbecomes bacon after curing and smoking.Most fresh pork comes from the porkloin and the shoulder, an area of the animalthat is also known as “Boston butt.” This iscut into chops, steaks, roasts, cubes, andstrips. The loin section has been so popular,hogs have been bred with one more rib(compared with lamb, beef, or veal) toNames of cutsCubed steak, blade steak, boneless and bone-in blade (Boston)roast, ground porkSirloin, rib chop, loin chop, country-style ribs, back ribs,tenderloin, Canadian bacon, center rib roastCenter ham slice, boneless ham, ham shank, leg cutletsSpareribs, slab bacon, sliced baconArm picnic, arm roast, arm steak, ground pork, pork hocks

304 Part II: Encyclopedia of Foodsincrease the loin’s length (see sidebar: PorkCuts: Where They Come From, page 303).Pork is a good source of thiamin, a Bvitamin humans need to convert carbohydratesinto energy. It is also a good sourceof zinc. The following pages provide anoverview of the different types of pork.Fresh PorkSome of the more popular fresh pork cutsare pork chops, pork loin, and pork ribs.There are three types of pork ribs. Spareribsare from the breast and rib sections andprovide little meat. Back ribs, or baby-backribs, are cut from the loin, so they havemore meat. Country-style ribs, from theshoulder end of the loin, have the mostmeat, but not necessarily the most flavor.When purchasing fresh pork, look formeat that is pale-pink with a small amountof marbling and white (not yellow) fat. Thedarker the pink flesh, the older the animal.Preparation TipsFresh pork was once cooked to an internaltemperature of 170° to 185° Fahrenheit toavoid trichinosis. But with the new leanerpork, such a temperature is no longernecessary, nor is it advised. Cooking meatto this temperature will dry out the pork,making it chewy and hard to cut. Someolder cookbooks on your shelf still mayadvise this higher temperature as a guide,but a better internal temperature is 160°to 170° Fahrenheit, which will producejuicy, tender meat. At this temperature,the inside of a fresh pork cut may still bepinkish. This tinge of color is nothing toworry about as long as the internal temperaturehas reached at least 160°. Thattemperature destroys any organisms thatcould cause trichinosis.Fresh cuts of pork can be prepared withdry-heat cooking methods of grilling, broiling,and roasting, but marinating or bastingmay be necessary to keep the meat tender.Fresh pork cooked to an internaltemperature of 160° Fahrenheitwill be juicy, tender — and safe.Serving SuggestionsMarinades made from citrus fruits add anice accompanying flavor to pork. Theacid from the fruit also helps tenderize themeat. Pork holds up under some strongsauces, such as barbecue sauce. Pork canbe sliced into medallions and added to stirfrydishes or served with steamed vegetablesfor an elegant entrée. Sweeter foods, suchas applesauce or sweet-and-sour sauces, alsocomplement the flavor of fresh pork.HamHam comes from the rump and hind legsections of the hog and is available in eitherfresh or cured forms. Fresh ham commonlyis roasted, but cured ham, which is oftenready-to-eat, can be quickly baked, panfried,or microwaved.The meat is usually cured in one of threeways: dry salt curing, brine curing, or brineinjection curing. For dry curing, the surfaceof the ham is heavily salted, and then theham is stored to allow the salt to saturate themeat. In brine curing, the ham is immersedin a sweet, seasoned brine. If sugar is addedto the curing mix, the ham may be labeledsugar-cured. Most mass producers of hamuse the injection-curing method, in whichthe brine is injected directly into the ham,shortening the curing process.After curing, a ham may be smoked toadd flavor and aging capability. Gourmethams are heavily smoked for a month or more.A wide selection of specially cured hams arealso imported from many European countries,including German Westphalian ham,which is smoked with juniper berry andbeechwood. Other specialty hams includeEnglish York ham and French Bayonne.The smoked flavor will vary dependingon the type of wood used (usually hickoryor maple) and the addition of unusualingredients such as juniper berries and sage.

High-Protein Foods 305Once curing and smoking are completed,gourmet hams are usually aged to developflavors further, sometimes for up to 2 years.Hams are sold in several forms, includingboneless (with the hip, thigh, and shankbones removed), partially boned (with thehip or shank bones removed), and bonein.Most producers of gourmet ham leavesome bone in to enhance the flavor duringcooking. Canned hams may be a wholepiece of boneless meat or they may becreated from bits and pieces of meat andheld together with a gelatin mixture.Preparation TipsA fresh or cured ham should look firm andhave a white layer of fat and pink to rosecoloredflesh. Country-style hams (drycuredhams) such as Smithfield hams arecoated with salt, so they should be scrubbedwith a stiff brush, soaked in cold water for48 hours, and then scrubbed again.Labels on hams should be checked forcooking and serving instructions, becausehams are available fully cooked, partiallycooked, or uncooked. Fully cooked hams,sometimes labeled “heat-and-serve”or“ready-to-eat,” do not require additionalcooking.Serving SuggestionsKeep in mind that the curing process forham makes it high in sodium. Personsfollowing a low-sodium diet may want tosave ham for special occasions and minimizehow much is eaten. Those whose dietscan tolerate a high-sodium food can addlean or extra-lean ham to a wide variety ofdishes. Ham goes particularly well withpasta and rice dishes and in combinationwith vegetables. Ham can be baked, grilled,sautéed, broiled, or simmered. Try addinglean or extra-lean ham to make a heartysalad that serves as the centerpiece of a meal.BaconBacon is meat from the side of a hog —the pork belly — that is cured and smoked.Fat imparts the crispness and flavor tobacon and is usually half to two-thirds ofthe total weight, making it more of a fatselection than a meat selection. Bacon isalso high in sodium and contains nitratesand nitrites, which are chemical preservativesthat have been shown to cause cancerin animals. The amount in bacon is notgreat, and therefore it is not clear that theyare harmful in the amounts normally consumed.For all of these reasons, the regularinclusion of bacon at breakfast should bereconsidered.Compared with American bacon,Canadian bacon is more like ham, becauseit comes from the tender eye of the porkloin. It is more expensive than regular bacon,but it is leaner and precooked (less shrinkage),providing more servings per pound.Sliced bacon comes in thin slices (about35 strips per pound), regular slices (16 to 20strips per pound), or thick slices (12 to 16strips per pound). Canned bacon is popularwith campers because it is precooked andneeds no refrigeration.Bacon bits are crisp pieces of bacon thatare preserved and dried. They should bestored in the refrigerator. (A popular imitationmade from vegetable protein may bekept at room temperature.) Bacon grease,the fat rendered from cooked bacon, issometimes used as a cooking fat in regionaldishes, as are salt pork (salt-cured cuts fromthe sides and belly of the pig) and fatback(fat from the pig’s back, that can be saltedand made into “cracklings” or unsalted andmade into lard).Preparation TipsYou can reduce the fat in bacon by broilingit on a rack, allowing excess fat to dripaway. Microwaving is another option forreducing the fat in bacon. Put paper towelsunder and over the bacon to absorb the fatas the bacon is cooked.Serving SuggestionsBacon is too fatty and high in salt for everydayuse. On occasions when it is eaten,reduce the amount of bacon strips used inthe food. Or, add flavor without using a lotof bacon by using bacon bits. Even better,try imitation bacon bits, which are notmade from bacon at all but from a vegetableprotein. The result is bacon flavor withoutbacon’s nutritional drawbacks.Rabbit and HareRabbit meat is often compared to chicken,but it has a sweeter, milder taste. Rabbit isalso a little leaner than chicken. Three ouncesof roasted rabbit has 7 grams of fat, whereasthe dark meat of a roasted chicken has 8 gramsand the white meat 3 grams, skin removed.Rabbit meat for the table can be fromeither wild or domesticated animals. Farmbredrabbits are somewhat fatter and blanderin flavor than their free-roaming counterparts.They also have a fine-textured fleshthat is almost all white meat, unlike theirwilder counterparts. A mature rabbitweighs between 3 and 5 pounds, an amountthat will serve four people.More than double the size of its rabbitrelative, the hare can weigh as much as 12 to 14pounds. Hares have longer ears than rabbits,a notched lip, and powerful hind legs.Whether wild or domesticated, hares have adarker flesh and heartier flavor than rabbits.Preparation TipsFresh and frozen rabbit is available dressedeither whole or cut into pieces. Young rabbitsweigh around 2 pounds and should have a

306 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsJUGGED HAREYou might have heard of this classicEnglish dish. The main ingredientis a hare that has been soaked in amarinade of red wine and juniperberries for a day or more. Themarinated meat is browned and thenmade into a casserole that includesvegetables, seasonings, and stock forbaking. Juices from this mixture arepoured off after cooking and combinedwith cream, blood from thehare that was set aside at butchering,and the hare’s liver, which has beenpulverized. The strained sauce isserved over the meat and vegetables.Because the dish was historicallyserved in a crock or jug, the dish hasbeen referred to as “jugged hare.”light-colored flesh. They are consideredthe most tender. When cooking aged orwild rabbit, use moist heat to cook it (suchas stewing, braising, or marinating) to tenderizeand whiten the meat. Wild hare,also called jackrabbit and snowshoe rabbit,generally needs marinating to tenderize itbefore cooking. This process also whitensthe meat. Young animals (1 year or less)can usually be roasted, but older animalsare best cooked with moist-heat methods,such as slow cooking in a casserole or stew.Serving SuggestionsIn general, recipes for rabbit, especially youngrabbit, are similar to those for chicken.French and Italian recipes use rabbit withexcellent results. Rabbit is traditionallyserved in sauces to minimize a flavor thatcan be intense.VealCredit the American love of Italian andFrench food to the increase in veal appreciation.Dishes such as veal scallopini andgrilled veal chops introduced the meat topalates that were much more aware of theheavier, heartier taste of beef.The name veal is derived from the Latinvitellus, which means calf. The meat isgarnered from a young calf, usually 1 to 3months old, that has been fed only milk.Milk-fed veal comes from calves up to12 weeks old that have not been weaned fromtheir mother’s milk, but veal of this quality israre in today’s supermarket. Shoppers aremore likely to find veal fed a nutritionallybalanced milk or soy-based diet that is fortifiedwith essential nutrients. Color is themost important criterion when choosing agood cut of veal. The flesh should be acreamy white to ivory tone — barely tingedwith grayish pink — and the fat should bewhite and creamy. The pinker the meat, theolder the animal was at slaughter, and themeat is tougher and stronger-flavored.If the meat is a reddish tone but stillmarked as veal, it may be a calf between 6and 12 months and should more appropriatelybe called baby beef. Or, the calfmay have been allowed to eat grains orgrasses, which also darken the meat.Animals were once confined to limittheir movement; hence, the meat would bemore tender and pale. For that reason, theconsumption of veal was a source of controversy.In recent years, veal producershave attempted to make their modes of productionmore humane.The USDA can grade veal in five differentcategories, but it usually does not. If the vealhas been categorized, it will carry marks of(from highest quality to lowest) prime, choice,good, standard, and utility. The last threegrades are rarely sold in retail outlets.Preparation TipsAlthough veal is supposed to be leaner andmore tender than beef, not all veal is madeequally, and not all cuts carry the same levelof quality.If you are interested in preparing veal,your first step should be to locate a supermarketor butcher who carries veal on a regularbasis. Because Americans tend to eatveal in restaurants, the retail market is muchsmaller than beef’s beefy share. You mayneed to order the cut of veal you want andthe amount you need in advance.The best cuts are from the rib and theloin of the calf. They are the most tenderand the most expensive and can be boughtas ribs, chops, or scallops.Veal scallops have many names —scallopini, cutlets, schnitzel. However, allthese words describe thinly cut veal slices.The best scallops come from the top round,cut against the muscle fibers. Cuttingagainst the grain ensures the thin scallopswill not buckle when they hit the heatedpan.If you are buying scallops, look for asmooth surface, which indicates they havebeen cut properly. Storage of veal is similarto that of beef.Serving SuggestionsVeal scallops can be used to make veal scallopini.Scallops are dredged in flour andlightly cooked in oil or butter for 1 to 2minutes. Veal roast can be cooked witheither low or high heat, but high heat worksbetter with more expensive cuts of meat.For cuts from the shoulder, breast, or leg,roasting at a lower heat with rubbing ofadded fat creates a more tender entrée.Tougher cuts of veal from the lower legand shoulder can be braised for the Italiandish osso buco. The name means “bonewith a hole.” The bone is a marrow-filled

High-Protein Foods 307round in the center of the cut that addsflavor and is considered a velvety treat.Veal chops and medallions are best preparedby pan frying or grilling. Chopsshould be at least an inch thick, and medallionsshould be about 3/4-inch thick.Otherwise, the veal will dry out.Because veal is such a lean meat, manyrecipes may call for adding fat of some sort:from a health standpoint, a small amountof olive oil is best. Watch closely, becauseveal cooks quickly and it is very easy to overcookit.Variety MeatsVariety meats is a category that includesbrain, heart, kidney, liver, and various othermeats. Because they are the most perishableparts of the animal, they were traditionallyeaten first. And often, these meatswere the centerpiece of some great feast.Many variety meats are too high in fatand cholesterol for more than an occasionalindulgence, although they are a goodsource of iron and, often, vitamin A andfolic acid. However, some variety meats,such as calf’s tongue and heart, may beunfairly neglected. They are a good lowfatsource of protein, vitamins, and minerals.They also can be very economical,yet they are scarce in your local market.You may need to order variety meats froma butcher or ethnic food store. The followingis an overview of the main kinds ofvariety meats.usually is recommended most often for usein dishes because of its flavor and texture.Brain should be a bright pinkish white,plump, firm, and absolutely fresh. Brainthat is shriveled and dry should be avoided.It is perishable and should be used the dayof purchase.Preparation TipsBrain should be washed well, then blanched.Although they differ in flavor and texture,brains and sweetbreads (see below) are usedinterchangeably in most recipes.Serving SuggestionsBrain can be poached, fried, baked, orbroiled, and is sometimes served as “beurrenoir.” This is a sauce that has a clarifiedbutter base that is heated until dark brown.Brain also can be combined with scrambledeggs for a Southern delicacy. One brainusually feeds two people. Brain also may beadded to salads or stuffing or served in soups.HeartWhen the Indians of America hunted bison,the heart went to the warrior who broughthome the beast because this organ wasthought to contain the essence and thereforethe power of the slain animal.Because heart consists almost entirelyof a hard-working muscle, it tends to betough. In general, hearts from younganimals are more tender. Your supermarketmay stock veal, lamb, and pork hearts, butbeef heart is more commonly available. Theheart is an excellent source of protein, iron,zinc, riboflavin, folic acid, and vitamin B 12and a good source of niacin. It has morecholesterol than regular types of meat.However, it has less cholesterol than kidney,liver, or brain.Veal picattaBrainBrain is very soft and porous and is considereda delicacy in many parts of the world.Although eaten far less often in Westernnations, beef, calf, pork, and lamb brains areavailable in many supermarkets. Calf brain

308 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsWhen purchasing this organ, choose aproduct that appears fresh, and avoid thosethat have begun to turn gray. Lamb andbeef hearts should be reddish brown. Pigand chicken hearts should be bright red,and calf heart should be light red.Preparation TipsTrim fat from the heart and remove veinsand membranes. Rinse and clean the heartthoroughly. The heart can be cooked andserved whole or sliced. Cooking times varydepending on the method used. Sliced heartis fried for 5 to 7 minutes. When braisingthis meat, hearts of young animals shouldbe cooked 2 to 3 hours. Larger hearts mayneed to be braised for 4 to 6 hours.Serving SuggestionsHearts make excellent additions to stews andcasseroles. Small hearts, such as those fromyoung lambs and pigs, are often stuffed andsautéed. They also can be roasted. Typically,small hearts are served one per person.KidneyKidneys typically used for cooking are beef,veal, lamb, and pork. The shape of thekidney depends on its source. Beef and vealkidneys are multilobed and elongated. Incontrast, lamb and pork kidneys have justone lobe that resembles a giant bean.Kidneys from young animals tend to havea more tender texture and more delicateflavor. In addition, young animals’ kidneysare usually pale. Those from older animalsare a deep reddish brown.In selecting kidneys, look for thosethat are firm and have a glossy, even colorwithout dry spots. Kidneys should beused the day they are purchased, or storedloosely wrapped in the refrigerator for upto 1 day.Preparation TipsRemove the white membrane around thekidney by using a pair of scissors to snipthe membrane from the core. Then, peelthe membrane back with your fingersand remove any excess fat. Kidneys maybe soaked in vinegar or lemon water toreduce the strong odor. Pork and large beefkidneys should be soaked in milk or coldsalted water for 2 hours to minimize theirstrong taste.Serving SuggestionsKidneys are eaten braised, broiled, simmered,or cooked in casseroles, stews, and dishessuch as the well-known British dish beefsteakand kidney pie. This dish is also commonlyserved in areas along the Canadianborder in the United States. Nearly everycomprehensive cookbook has a recipe forthis meat pastry. One calf kidney or twolamb kidneys is considered a serving.LiverAfter beef and calf liver, the most commonanimal livers eaten are lamb, pork, poultry,and goose. Goose and duck livers are usedmainly to produce the famous pâté de foiegras. Fresh American foie gras must comefrom ducks, but imported foie gras can comefrom either goose or duck. These birds arespecifically bred with enlarged livers.An important note is that the liverprocesses most substances that enter thebody. This includes any chemicals that ananimal might be fed or given as a medication.The older the animal, the more likelyit is that there may be accumulations ofunwanted residues in this organ. For thisreason, liver from younger animals is generallypreferred.Fresh liver should have a bright color, amoist but not slick surface, and a cleansmell. Loosely wrap it and refrigerate itimmediately. Liver does not keep for morethan a day.Preparation TipsLiver is encased in a thin membrane, whichtoughens in the cooking process and shouldbe peeled off before cooking. Be careful notto overcook liver because it toughens quicklywhen overcooked. One popular solutionis to sauté liver. Leave the liver a little pinkin the center when you use this method andlet the residual heat finish the job.Serving SuggestionsAlthough liver typically is not considered apopular food, this organ meat can be tasty.It is commonly served with gravy made fromit and onions. For a more elegant meal,broil or pan cook cubed liver and serve withmustard and boiled new potatoes. Liveralso can be roasted (at 325° Fahrenheit forabout 15 minutes per pound) and alsoserved with boiled new potatoes. Soakingthe liver in cognac for several hours beforecooking adds a rich flavor to roasted liver.SausageBorn of economic necessity, sausage makinghas now become an art. When farmersslaughtered their own animals, they wantedto make sure that they used every part of theanimal. So, the lesser quality cuts and scrapswere ground up and made into sausages.Sausage essentially is any kind of choppedor ground meat that is stuffed into a casing.Most often, pork is the main ingredient insausage, but poultry or fish can be used.After countless decades of experimentationin ingredients — which include meat,spices, and fillers — sausages are often nowconsidered a delicacy. They can be differentin taste from one to the next. Sausagesare fresh (made of raw ground meat andspices), precooked (such as hot dogs or

High-Protein Foods 309bologna), or partially dried and fully cured(such as salami or dried pepperoni).Preparation TipsHow you use the sausage depends on the typeyou buy. Fresh sausages need to be cooked,often by pan frying. Precooked sausages mayneed no preparation at all, or they can begrilled, broiled, or poached in hot water.Fresh sausage can be kept for only about2 days in the refrigerator. Dried or semidriedwill last 2 to 3 weeks. Cooked sausagecan be kept for about a week.Serving SuggestionsPartially dried and fully cured sausages may beused in sandwiches or cut up for pizza or paella.One thing to keep in mind is that sausages areladen with sodium, calories, and fat. Reducethe amount of fat in the sausage you eat bydraining the excess fat during cooking or byselecting the reduced-fat and reduced-sodiumvarieties of sausages now available in stores.Minimize the amount of sausage youeat by using it as a flavoring in meals insteadof a main course.Game MeatsGame meat was once classified as wildanimals hunted for human consumption.However, because many “wild” animals arenow being raised as livestock on farms orhunted in protected environments, thedefinition has changed slightly to includeanimals once hunted in the wild for meat.The graying of the term also has madenutritional generalizations difficult. Becausethe diets and activity levels of domesticatedgame animals are different from those oftheir roaming counterparts, their meat hasa different flavor and is often described ashaving a milder, less gamey taste. Meatfrom wild animals also may be lower in fatthan meat from farm-raised animals.However, farm-raised animals may havemore fat and be more tender than their wildcounterparts.Game animals are categorized as largegame and small game. Large game animalsinclude deer, elk, moose, caribou, and antelope.Other popular large game animalsinclude wild boar and bear. Other varietieseaten around the world include camel,elephant, kangaroo, zebra, and wild sheep.The most common small game animal iswild rabbit. Squirrel is also popular. Beaver,muskrat, opossum, raccoon, armadillo, andeven porcupine are also eaten.Preparation TipsAny game meat found in commercialmarkets is federally inspected. The skinof a hunted animal should be removedand specific steps for butchering shouldbe followed. The animal also can be takenLiver pâtéto a butcher who specializes in gamepreparation.For maximum tenderness, most gamemeat should be cooked slowly and notoverdone. Cooking can be done with moistheat by braising or with dry heat by roasting.Meat from older animals can be tenderizedin a marinade that contains an acidsuch as vinegar to break down tough fibers,oil to add succulence, and wine, herbs, andspices to permeate the meat with flavor toreduce the “gamey” taste. Meat shouldalways be marinated in the refrigeratorbecause it takes quite long to mellow theflavor and tenderize (3 to 5 days).Serving SuggestionsRoasts and steaks may be served for specialoccasions. When ground, they may substitutefor more traditional patties, meat loafs,or casseroles. Small pieces may be stewed.

310 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsFishHealth-conscious Americans are figuringout what much of the world already knows.When prepared well, seafood tastes good,and it is good for you. Fish consumptionincreased 3.5 percent in 1998 and 3.7percent in 1999.The variety and convenience of fish maybe causing the increase, because marketsacross the country — even those in thelandlocked states — are stocking live shellfishand fresh fillets from both coasts. Whatonce seemed intimidating to meat-eatingAmericans can now be cooked with thesame ease as a pork chop or pot roast.NutritionSeafood is a good source of high-qualityprotein, usually with a low number ofcalories. One 3-ounce serving of most fishor shellfish provides an excellent source ofprotein, at often fewer than 100 to 150Commercial fishing allows consumerswho are land-locked to enjoy fresh fish.calories for many lean fish and most shellfish.Even oil-rich fish, such as salmon,tuna, and mackerel, generally have fewerthan 225 calories in a 3-ounce portion,comparable to the calories of lean meats.The fat in fish is mainly polyunsaturatedand monounsaturated rather than saturated,as in meat. Furthermore, fish havea unique polyunsaturated fatty acid calledomega-3 that is believed to have a beneficialeffect in reducing blood clots, loweringblood cholesterol levels, and minimizingheart disease (see Chapter 3, CoronaryArtery Disease, page 61). The fish that areparticularly good sources of omega-3 fattyacids are sardines, herring, mackerel,Atlantic bluefish, tuna, salmon, pilchard,butterfish, and pompano.Most shellfish were once consideredhigh in cholesterol. However, new researchhas shown that although shrimp and squidhave high levels of cholesterol, other shellfish,including clams, mussels, oysters,scallops, crab, and lobster, actually haveamounts comparable to those of most fish.Shellfish are also low in fat. Most fish havelevels of cholesterol comparable to that ofthe white meat of poultry and of lean, welltrimmedred meat.Fish also contain important vitaminsand minerals, especially some of the Bvitamins, iron, potassium, magnesium, andphosphorus. Saltwater fish supply iodine.Canned salmon, sardines, and herring, withtheir soft bones, which are mostly edible,are also a good source of calcium.In general, fish are low in sodium, similarto the amount in red meat and poultry.Persons following low-sodium diets shouldlimit their intake of processed salted or driedfish, pickled herring, smoked fish andshellfish, sardines, surimi products, andanchovies.SelectionWhat to look for depends on the type offish being purchased:Whole, fresh fish — The criteria forbuying this type of fish boil down to this:look for the fish that appears to have beenpulled from the water most recently. Scalesshould be shiny and stuck firmly to theskin. The flesh should feel firm and shouldnot pull away easily from the bone. Gillsshould be moist and red, and the eyesshould be shiny and not sunken. As always,the odor is a telltale sign of fish freshness.The fish should have a mild, fresh smell.The more fishy a fish smells, the less likelyit is fresh.Fresh fillets and steaks — These, too,must pass the smell test. In addition, checkthe flesh to make sure it does not pull awayfrom the bones. Don’t buy fish that appearsto be discolored or dried out.Frozen fish — Avoid dried-out fish.Packaging should be intact and free of frost.

High-Protein Foods 311Salted and smoked fish — Avoid fishwith an “off” odor.StorageWhether the fish you buy is fresh or frozen,make it the last thing you purchase beforeheading home. If you will be delayed, havethe market pack fresh fish on ice.Immediately refrigerate fresh fish in thecoldest part of your refrigerator (usually thelowest shelf at the back or in the meatkeeper), and use it within a day or two.Freeze your fish quickly to keep cell wallsintact, but thaw the fish gradually so thatfewer juices leak out of cells. The best wayto defrost fish is overnight in the refrigerator.If you must thaw fish quickly, seal itin a plastic bag and immerse it in cold water,allowing 1 hour to thaw a 1-pound package.You can also microwave frozen fish on the“defrost” setting, stopping when the fish isstill icy but pliable. Most fish will keep inthe freezer for about 6 months. Neverrefreeze fish.Canned fish, such as tuna, salmon, andsardines, will keep for about a year or less.However, because you cannot be sure aboutthe conditions in which canned goods havebeen stored in the warehouse, it is best tobuy only what will be used within a fewmonths.PreparationMoist-heat cooking methods (poaching,steaming, or stewing) are best-suited forlean fish such as cod, flounder, or sole. Dryheatcooking methods such as baking, broiling,and grilling are best suited for moderatetohigh-fat fish, such as bluefish, butterfish,catfish, or salmon. En papillote, theFrench technique of cooking fish enclosedin parchment paper or foil, is an elegantway to keep fish moist. To determinewhether fish is done, evaluate the color andflakiness of the flesh. Slip a knife into thefish and pull the flesh aside. The edges ofthe flesh should be opaque and the centersomewhat translucent. The flesh shouldjust barely flake. For large fish, a meat thermometercan be used to determine whetherthe fish is cooked thoroughly. The fleshshould reach 145° Fahrenheit to be considereddone. Fish continue to cook afterthey are removed from heat. For thatreason, it is often recommended that youstop cooking fish just before it appears to bedone. Overcooked fish looks dry, falls aparteasily, and does not have many of its naturaljuices left over.Marinades are an excellent way to addflavor with little fat to fish. Make sure thatyou marinate the fish in the refrigerator toprevent harmful microorganisms, if present,from multiplying.Fish steak, fillet, andbutterfly filletSafety IssuesAlthough most seafood that reaches the consumeris safe, fish spoilage and contaminationdo occur. Bacteria, viruses, and other microorganismscan contaminate fish. Without carefulhandling, these can spread to humansthrough undercooked fish or cross-contamination,which occurs when surfaces used toprepare fish are not disinfected.Like all living organisms, fish can occasionallycarry various parasites. Theseparasites are easily destroyed by normal cookingprocedures. In pickled products, suchas pickled herring, the acidity of the vinegarused in pickling, often in combination withsalt, preserves products and destroys parasitesand harmful bacteria.To prevent food-borne illness, theUSDA advises avoiding raw seafood orlightly marinated raw seafood of any kind.

312 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsARE THERE HARMFUL CHEMICALS IN FISH?Because of pollution in oceans, lakes, and rivers, fish may contain harmful chemicalssuch as mercury or polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). This may be a particularproblem in areas where there are manufacturing plants that burn fossils fuels or, inthe past, have dumped mercury-containing waste into nearby streams and lakes.Fish at the top of the food chain (generally, the bigger types such as shark or swordfish)may contain higher amounts of mercury or other harmful chemicals becausethey feed on lesser fish and cumulate these substances in their fat and flesh. Somespecies such as large tuna (typically sold as fresh steaks or sushi) can also containhigher amounts. Various health agencies have issued advisories on how much fishis safe to eat, particularly for pregnant or nursing women and children. The Foodand Drug Administration recommends that if you are pregnant or may becomepregnant, you should avoid shark, swordfish, king mackerel, and tilefish. Ifyou are considering having a child or are pregnant or nursing, check with yourphysician if your diet includes a lot of fish.This advice includes sushi. It is particularlyimportant for people in high-risk groups,which include older people, pregnantwomen, infants, and persons with liver disease,diabetes, immune disorders, or gastrointestinalconditions.Fish are generally a low-fat source ofprotein. Not all fish have equal amountsof fat, however. Instead, fish are groupedinto three main categories according to theirfat content: lean, moderate-fat, and highfat.The next section introduces you to thetypes of fish in each group.Lean FishLean fish have less than 2 1/2 percent fat.The flesh of these fish is lightly colored andhas a mild taste. Commonly availablevarieties of lean fish include cod, flounder,halibut, and perch.CodThe cod is a popular saltwater fish thatcomes from the cold, deep waters of theNorth Atlantic and the North Pacificoceans. The cod has been one of the mostintensely fished species because it is easy topreserve for transport and storage. It is partof the larger Gadidae family that alsoincludes the haddock, the silver hake, thewhiting, the black pollock, and the tomcod.“Scrod” is a term used to describe small cod(1 to 2 pounds), haddock, or pollock. CodROUND AND FLAT FISHis a medium-sized fish. It is usually caughtat weights between 4 and 9 pounds andmeasures between 15 and 52 inches. It hasa firm, white flesh.Preparation TipsCod is a versatile fish and is available freshor canned. It can be cooked in a variety ofways. If you poach it, make sure that itdoes not boil. Instead, simmer it for 8minutes in a bouillon or add it to an alreadyboiling liquid and then remove the panfrom the heat immediately. Set it aside untilthe fish is cooked (about 15 minutes). Theroe, or eggs, of the cod are eaten fresh,smoked, or salted. The oil extracted fromcod livers is an important source of vitaminsA and D.Serving SuggestionsGarlic and dill are two seasonings that complementthis light, flaky fish. Another populardish is cod cakes, which are simply a variationon the widely available recipe for crabcakes. Cod also can be cured in lye to makelutefisk, a Scandinavian delicacy popular inthe Midwest for which one acquires a taste.The term “fish” includes thousands of different species. For preparation purposes,it is necessary to know only that they are generally divided into two main groups:round fish and flat fish.Round fish. As the name suggests, round fish have a plump shape. Their eyesare on either side of their head. Here is the critical part: their backbone runs downthe center. Because thick fillets lie on either side, round fish are usually used asfillets or steaks. Examples include salmon, red snapper, and striped bass.Flat fish. This group’s name also gives away its anatomy. This fish swimshorizontally and is shaped like a flat, thin disk. Its eyes are on the top of the head.The backbone is located in the center of the fish. Fillets do not come from eitherside, as they do in round fish, but from the top and bottom. Fillets are typicallycut from flat fish, but larger fish may be cut into steaks. Examples of flatfishinclude flounder, halibut, and sole.

High-Protein Foods 313FlounderThis very common flat fish is found in thewaters off nearly every part of the Americancoastline. Flounder is actually a large familyof fish. Sometimes flounder is referred toas sole or turbot, which are members of theflounder family.Preparation TipsFlounder can be purchased whole orfilleted and fresh or frozen. Nearly anytype of cooking method can be used withsuccess.Serving SuggestionsSautéeing flounder in a skillet with a littlesesame oil, ginger, and garlic is a quick andtasty way to cook this versatile fish. Or,braise the fish with shallots, fish broth, andwhite wine.An assortmentof seafoodHalibutOne of the largest saltwater flat fish, thehalibut is found in the cold waters of theNorth Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The fishusually weighs between 10 and 155 pounds.However, some halibut hauled in byfishermen have weighed more than 600pounds. Halibut is usually available infillets or steaks. When cooked, it has a firm,white flesh and a mild flavor.Preparation TipsHalibut can be grilled, poached, baked,broiled, or sautéed. The Atlantic halibut,which is usually sold as steaks, is a bit moreflavorful than the Pacific halibut, which ismore often available as fillets.Serving SuggestionsLight marinades, particularly those madefrom red or white wine, enhance halibut’sflavor without adding fat.PerchPerch is a freshwater fish, although sometimesthe rockfish, a saltwater fish, isreferred to by this name. Common typesof perch include the yellow perch and thewalleye, which is usually found in lakes,streams, and rivers of the Great Lakes states.Preparation TipsAnother versatile fish, perch responds wellto most traditional cooking methods.Sautéed, steamed, baked, broiled, or fried,perch’s light, flaky, mild-tasting fleshresponds well. One caveat: perch in generalare very bony fish.Serving SuggestionsIn some regions of the United States, a walleyesandwich is considered a delicacy.Marinades also enhance perch’s flavor. Andperch is excellent served baked or steamed.Moderate-Fat FishModerate-fat fish contain about 6 percentfat. Their flesh ranges in color from whiteto beige and their taste from mild to muddy.Common kinds of moderate-fat fish includestriped bass, catfish, swordfish, and tuna.Striped BassThe striped bass was once abundant onboth the East and West coasts. But it hasbecome less common because of overfishingand pollution. Fish farms have becomeone of the primary suppliers of this type offish.Preparation TipsStriped bass has a pleasantly sweet flavor.Its sturdy fillets also lend themselves to avariety of cooking methods. It can bebaked, broiled, or steamed.

314 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsServing SuggestionsAn increasingly popular and healthfulmethod to cook this fish is to drizzle a filletwith a little olive oil, rub it with garlic, andthen grill until done.CatfishLong a Southern delicacy, this fish hasbecome popular in all regions of thecountry. Because of that, it is now oftenraised on farms instead of being gatheredout of only rivers and lakes.Preparation TipsThe fish has a tough skin that must beremoved. To do this, use a sharp knife andcut the skin just behind the gills. Pull offthe skin with the fingers or a tweezers.Catfish can often be bought at stores cleanedand dressed.Serving SuggestionsCatfish is often served breaded or rolled incornmeal or flour before it is fried. It canbe deep fried in fat — not necessarily thehealthiest way to cook a fish already consideredhigher in fat — until it is brown onboth sides.A healthier alternative is to poach catfishfillets in a chicken stock, white wine,and ginger. This cooking method resultsin a pleasing dish that is lower in fat thanthe traditional frying.SwordfishThere is only one species of swordfish,named for its unusually long and slenderupper jaw. It is found in temperate watersthroughout the world and is common inthe Atlantic Ocean, North Sea, Baltic Sea,and the Mediterranean Sea. Capable ofmoving through the water at up to 60 milesan hour, it is known for its power and muscular,scaleless body. It usually weighsbetween 200 and 500 pounds and measuresbetween 6 and 10 feet.Preparation TipsSwordfish is a rich-flavored fish with firm,meaty flesh. It is commonly purchased asfresh steaks and fillets, but it also can be foundsmoked, frozen, or canned. Because the fleshof swordfish is so firm, it can be prepared inalmost any manner, including sautéeing,grilling, broiling, baking, and poaching.Serving SuggestionsThe rich flavor of swordfish stands up tosauces with pronounced flavor, such astomato-caper or basil-garlic. Swordfish isalso a good fish for grilled kabobs, anotherlow-fat, healthful way to serve fish.Tuna salad sandwiches canbe an elegant luncheon.TunaThe tuna is a migratory fish found inthe temperate marine waters of theMediterranean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, andthe Indian Ocean. The most commonspecies include the bluefin, the albacore, thebonito, and the yellowfin tuna. The tunais a powerful fish that is very agile and a fastswimmer. The larger bluefin tuna usuallyweighs between 200 and 400 pounds andmeasures between 3 and 7 feet. The smallerbonito tuna rarely is more than 20 incheslong and weighs less than 5 pounds.Tuna is also the most popular cannedfish, in large part because of its low costand versatility. Several varieties are cannedand packed in oil, but the fish packed inwater provides the same protein withoutthe extra fat and calories. Canned tuna issold as white tuna (albacore) and light tuna(bluefin and yellowfin). The bonito is

High-Protein Foods 315labeled skipjack. Tuna comes in threegrades, the best being solid or fancy (largepieces), followed by chunk (smaller pieces)and flaked or grated (pieces).Tuna is sold fresh and frozen as steaks,fillets, or pieces. It is also available canned inoil or in water and either salted or unsalted.Preparation TipsAll tuna has a distinctively rich-flavored fleshthat is firmly textured yet flaky and tender.Tuna flesh tends to be soft before cooking,but it has a firm texture when cooked. Tunalends itself to several cooking methods, includingpoaching, braising, grilling, or baking.Serving SuggestionsFresh tuna is especially good with spicy andaromatic seasonings. Marinate it in teriyakisauce or in lemon juice with cracked blackpepper, then grill it. Mixed with reducedfatmayonnaise and seasonings, canned,water-packed tuna makes an excellent fillingfor sandwiches.Higher-Fat FishUp to 60 percent of calories of higher-fatfish may be derived from fat. On average,though, fish in this group have only about43 percent of calories from fat. The goodnews is that much of the fat that these fishcontain is omega-3 fatty acids, which manystudies suggest play a role in protectingagainst cardiovascular disease and enhancingbrain function. Flesh from these fishis darker and firmer and often has a strongerflavor. Common types of higher-fat fishinclude mackerel, salmon, smelt, and trout.MackerelThis oily fish is related to the tuna and isan excellent source of omega-3 fatty acid.Tuna — Make sure the edges are opaque and the center slightly translucent withflakes just beginning to separate. Let stand 3 to 4 minutes to finish cooking.Most mackerel caught is canned. It is alsosalted or smoked.Persons who live near the coasts, however,may be able to purchase it fresh fromfish markets. If purchasing it fresh, look forfish that are firm and stiff. Limpness is a keyindicator that the fish is not fresh. The fishshould be cooked and eaten as soon as possiblebecause it spoils quickly. A bitter tasteis a key sign that the fish has begun to spoil.Freezing the fish is not an option becausethis seems to drain the flavor from this fish.Preparation TipsRemove the bones if filleting the fish.Because of mackerel’s high fat content, try touse methods that do not add fat. Mackerelcan be baked, broiled, or poached.Serving SuggestionsTraditionally, mackerel is served with gooseberries.Other methods include using acitrus marinade. Mackerel can be used asa substitute for canned tuna in many recipes.It is also available smoked.SalmonSalmon can range from moderate- to highfat,depending on the species. There areseveral species of salmon in the Pacific(chinook, sockeye, coho, pink, chum) andone in the Atlantic. It has even beenacclimated to freshwater. A once threatenedspecies, it has survived thanks tosalmon farms and species management.Salmon are “anadromous,” meaning theymigrate from their saltwater habitat tospawn in fresh water. The females of somespecies can lay up to 13,000 eggs. The largerchinook salmon (also called king salmon)weighs between 30 and 40 pounds and measuresbetween 34 and 36 inches. The smallerfreshwater, or landlocked, salmon is shorter,between 8 and 24 inches, and it rarelyweighs more than 13 pounds.Salmon is sold in many forms, includingfresh, frozen, smoked, salted, dried, andcanned. Fresh and frozen salmon can bepurchased whole or as steaks, pieces, orfillets. Whole salmon is usually soldcleaned, with the head on or removed.

316 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsPreparation TipsSmelt is sold in a variety of ways, includingfresh, frozen, smoked, or dried. Smeltis also commonly sold without the head orinnards. Some people eat the bones, butit is easy to remove bones from this fish —either before eating it or while you are doingso, as you would a sardine. The whole fishcan be consumed, however.Serving SuggestionsA common method of cooking is to coatsmelt with breading and then fry it in askillet until cooked (about 2 to 3 minutes).Smelt also can be grilled.Salmon is an excellent source ofheart-healthy omega-3 fatty acids.Smoked salmon is usually sealed in plasticor frozen. Salmon’s moist flesh is flaky andtender, and the flavor varies by species fromdelicate and mild to rich and distinctive.Salmon spoils quickly because the flesh isfatty. The chinook is the fattiest salmon,and the pink and chum are leaner.Preparation TipsThe bones often included in canned salmonare edible and serve as a good source of calcium.Make sure to crush the bones well.To remove the small bones (called pinbones) from fresh fillets or steaks, use atweezers or pry them out of the flesh fromthe side.Serving SuggestionsSmoked salmon (also called lox) is oftenserved on bagels with cream cheese (choosereduced-fat or fat-free cheeses), capers, andonions, or it is added as a final touch tosandwiches, omelets, salads, and even dipsand spreads. Salmon roe is becoming morepopular as “red caviar,” but real caviarcomes from sturgeon roe. There are goodsalmon cuts for almost every cookingmethod. Fillets are delicious when grilledand served with a wedge of lemon. Salmonis good served hot or cold with a varietyof sauces.SmeltA relative of the salmon, this small, thinfish can be both a freshwater and a saltwaterfish. Some species are found in thePacific and Atlantic oceans, and othersinhabit freshwater sources. The main typesof smelt are American smelt, Europeansmelt, and capelin. All three types grow toabout 7 to 8 inches long.TroutThe trout is also part of the salmon family.It is found mainly in the cold, fresh watersof lakes and rivers, but it also can make itshome in saltwater. Like the salmon, troutthat live in the sea (the steelhead trout)return to freshwater to spawn. A favorite ofsports anglers, the trout was the first fishto be raised in captivity to forestall itsextinction. The most common speciesinclude the brown trout, the rainbow trout,the lake trout, the brook trout, the arcticchar, and the common grayling. The troutis a smaller fish and ranges in weight from1 1/2 to 13 pounds in the market and measuresup to 20 inches.Preparation TipsTrout has thin skin and minute scales, soscaling or skinning is not necessary. It isavailable whole or in fillets, fresh or frozen.Trout is also smoked, and a very smallquantity is canned. In general, trout hastender, flaky flesh with a mild flavor. Itsdelicate flavor varies slightly from onespecies to another, as does its color, whichcan be white, pink, or reddish.

High-Protein Foods 317Serving SuggestionsAlthough it is often served fried, trout alsocan be poached, baked, steamed, grilled,and broiled. Whole trout is sometimesstuffed before being cooked. Any seasoningsshould be kept mild so as not to masktrout’s delicate flavor.ShellfishThe shellfish family is divided into twobasic categories: crustaceans and mollusks.Crustaceans have elongated bodies andjointed shells. These include crab, lobster,and shrimp. Mollusks are divided into threegroups:Gastropods (or univalves) — Thesehave a single shell and single muscle. Anexample is the abalone.Bivalves — Like the clam and oyster,bivalves have two shells hinged together bya strong muscle.Cephalopods — Examples include theoctopus and the squid, which have tentaclesand ink sacs.NutritionLike fish, shellfish are rich in protein yetlow in fat and calories. Compared withother types of meat, however, the amountof cholesterol in most shellfish is aboutequivalent to that of a lean piece of beef ora chicken breast with the skin removed.Shrimp, squid, and crayfish, however, arevery high in cholesterol. They have abouttwice as much as lean beef, making themsomething to savor on occasion.SelectionWhen selecting shellfish, remember thatfresh is best. The best way to guaranteefreshness is to buy live. If your geographiclocation limits your opportunities for liveshellfish, check out the freezer case for quickfrozenitems, which can be almost as good.Just as in picking out fish, use your nose toselect shellfish. Shucked oysters and clamsshould be plump and free of any sour aroma.Fresh scallops should have a slightly sweetaroma and, when packaged, be practically freeof liquid. Fresh shrimp are firm and have amild, faintly sweet smell. Crab or lobstershould move and not have any noticeable odor.Next, view the shellfish’s appearance.The liquid packed with oysters should beclear, not pink or opaque. Scallops, lobster,and shrimp flesh should be free of any blackspots. When you buy frozen shrimp, crab,or lobster tail, make sure any exposed meatis white, not yellow, and not dried out.FISH AND SHELLFISH ALLERGIESStorageOnce you leave the market, it is importantto keep shellfish cool and refrigerate it assoon as possible. At home, shellfish shouldbe rinsed under cool, running water, placedin a container, and covered with wet papertowels. Use shellfish the day of purchase,if possible, or the next day.Do not seal live oysters, clams, or musselsin a plastic bag. They need to breathe, sostore them covered with wet paper towels.Use them as soon as possible after purchase.Shucked oysters that are refrigerated in theoriginal container should stay fresh for aweek. Plan to use commercially packagedfrozen seafood stored in your freezer within2 months for best flavor.Seafood is a common source of food allergies. About 250,000 Americansexperience allergic reactions to fish and shellfish each year.People with seafood allergies can have symptoms that range from mild to lifethreatening.Even tiny amounts of fish substances can trigger a reaction in somepeople. What’s more, these allergies are rarely outgrown.Examples of shellfish that are common causes of allergic reactions includeshrimp, crab, lobster, oyster, clam, scallop, mussel, and squid. Fish that cantrigger allergic reactions include cod, salmon, trout, herring, sardine, bass, tuna,and orange roughy.Symptoms of an allergic reaction include nasal congestion, hives, itching,swelling, wheezing or shortness of breath, nausea, upset stomach, cramps, heartburn,gas or diarrhea, light-headedness, or fainting.If you suspect that you have any food allergies, see an allergist for a carefulevaluation. This generally includes a medical history, physical examination,and skin or blood testing. If you are found to have a fish or shellfish allergy,the best advice is to avoid fish or shellfish altogether. That may be harderthan it sounds. You may not be aware that seafood is an ingredient in a dishthat you are eating. Be sure to check the labels of any product you buy.In addition, make sure that persons close to you are aware of the potential forthis kind of allergic reaction. Many people with a food allergy wear medicalalert bracelets.

318 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsSafety IssuesPersons who eat shellfish raw should beware.Raw shellfish may contain the organismsthat cause hepatitis and other diseases.Cooking will kill any microorganisms inshellfish. In addition, because shellfish filterlarge amounts of water each day, they maycontain residual amounts of any pollutantsin the water near them. Concerns aboutpotentially harmful chemicals are also aconcern about shellfish. Women who arepregnant or thinking about having a childshould check with their physician abouthow much shellfish they should eat.Another important safety note is thatshellfish are a common trigger of allergicreactions in some people (see sidebar: Fishand Shellfish Allergies, page 317).AbaloneAbalone is actually a large snail that livesin the sea. It has a single shell and a tough,muscular “foot” with which it clings tenaciouslyto rocks as it grazes on seaweed.The edible portion is this foot.Abalone is found primarily along thecoastlines of California, Mexico, and Japan.Four of California’s seven species constitutemost of the commercial catch. From largestto smallest are red, pink, green, and blackabalone, with red reaching a legal market sizeat 7 3/4 inches and black at 5 3/4 inches.Black abalone is the most affordable wildspecies today. Its meat is tougher and requiresmore pounding than the other species, butit has an excellent sweet flavor. It is an excellentsource of protein and a good source ofiron, magnesium, and phosphorus.Abalone is known by many names:“ormer” in the English Channel, “awabi”in Japan, “muttonfish” in Australia, and“paua” in New Zealand. Its iridescent shellis a source of mother-of-pearl.PreparationLike all fresh shellfish, abalone should bealive when purchased — it will move whenit is touched — and smell sweet, not fishy.Choose those that are relatively small forbest flavor. Refrigerate abalone immediatelyand cook within a day. Abalone isalso sold canned (once opened, refrigerate,covered with water in a sealed container,for up to 5 days), dried (store tightlywrapped in a cool, dry place indefinitely),and frozen (store for up to 3 months).Widely used in Chinese and Japanesecooking, abalone must be washed first toremove sand that may be caught in the flesh.Abalone must be pounded before cookingto make it tender, because the edible portionis a muscle. Use a mallet to flatten the meatto 1/8- to 1/4-inch thickness. Overcookingabalone can toughen it. Sauté abalonebriefly, for not more than 20 to 30 secondsper side. Prevent abalone from curling duringcooking by scoring the meat at 1/2-inchintervals with a sharp knife.Serving SuggestionsAbalone is an excellent addition to appetizersand salads. Tough or overcookedabalone can be added to chowders or soups.ClamClams are double-hinged mollusks that fallinto two broad categories — hard shell andsoft shell. The parts eaten are the musclesclams use to close their shells, although thesiphon (the valve used to intake water) andthe foot (which nudges this creature alongon the ocean’s floor) are also edible. Clamsgenerally are chewy and have a mild, evensweet, flavor. Taste and characteristics varyby the type of clam and its size. All are alean seafood choice and an excellent sourceof vitamin B 12 and iron.The quahog (pronounced CO-hog) isa hard-shell species from the East Coastand is the largest of Eastern clams (1 1/2 to6 inches across). Quahog is also a familyname for hard-shell clams that can includecherrystones (less than 3 inches) and littlenecks(2 to 2 1/2 inches). Also popularin the East are soft-shell clams called steamers.As the name indicates, they are greatfor steaming. On the West Coast, softshellPacific geoducks (pronounced GOOey-ducks)weigh between 2 and 4 pounds,although they can be 3 feet long and upto 5 pounds. They have an enormoussiphon that extends from the shell; this isoften sliced for sushi because it is also quitesweet.As with all filter feeders, clams sometimesingest toxic levels of planktonicmicroorganisms during a condition calledCherrystone clams. AmericanIndians called them “quahog.”

High-Protein Foods 319red tide and also can become contaminatedfrom pollution.When buying hard-shell clams such asthe littleneck or cherrystone (other varietiesinclude chowder, pismo, or butterclams), make sure the shells are tightlyclosed. If a shell is slightly open, tap it lightly.If it does not snap shut, the clam is deadand should be discarded. The shells shouldbe whole, not broken or cracked. To testa soft-shell clam, such as geoducks or steamers(another popular variety is razor clams),lightly touch the neck; if it moves, it is alive.Store live clams in an open containercovered with a moist cloth for up to 2 daysin the refrigerator. Shucked clams shouldbe plump and the liquor (liquid) surroundingthem clear. Store shucked clamsin their liquor in the refrigerator for up to3 days and in the freezer for up to 3months. If there is not enough liquor tocover the shucked clams, make your ownby dissolving 1/2 teaspoon salt in 1 cupwater.Preparation TipsGet rid of sand by soaking live clams incold, salted water (use 1/3 cup salt pergallon water) for an hour. Sand also canbe removed by covering the clams withwater, then sprinkling liberally with cornmealand letting stand for about 3 hours.Any clams that are floating after these twomethods should be discarded.Live clams should be well scrubbedunder cold, running water. Clams aremuch easier to open if they are put intothe freezer in a single layer for 30 to 45minutes. A quicker method for relaxingclams so that they are easier to open is todrop a few at a time into boiling water.Retrieve with a slotted spoon after 15seconds and open. Clams also can bemicrowaved until they open.Serving SuggestionsClams should be cooked at low heat toprevent toughening. Clams cooked in theirshells are done just when their shells open.Soft-shell clams are best for this method.Use only fresh or frozen clams for soups andstews, because the texture of canned clams istoo soft for long-cooking dishes. Clams areoften added to soups and stews. A famousdish in which they are featured is clamchowder. When adding clams to this type ofdish, do so at the last minute so they do notlose their texture. Clams are also excellentadditions to dips, salads, and quiches.CrabThere are dozens of different crabs on themarket today, varying widely in size andshape. Therefore, it is important to knowwhat kind of crab you are buying beforebringing it home.Crabs have 10 legs, the front 2 of whichhave pincers. There are freshwater and saltwatercrabs. Saltwater crabs are the mostCrab, lobster, and the tiny crayfishare all excellent steamed.plentiful. Soft-shell crabs are not a distinctvariety of crabs. Rather, they are crabs thathave shed their hard outer shell. Beforegrowing a new shell, these crabs (usually avariety called blue crabs) have a 6-hourwindow during which they have a soft shell.This window can be extended if the crustaceansare removed from water. Thebenefit of a soft-shell crab is that it can beeaten whole without bothering with a pesky,rigid exterior. Alaskan king crab is anotherterm crab buyers may encounter. Meatfrom this large crab species is frozen soonafter the catch. Then, the sweet, meatyflesh is frozen so it can be shipped to farflunglocations.Crab is a lean source of protein and anexcellent source of vitamin B 12 .Preparation TipsCrab is sold whole, cooked or alive. Chooselive crabs that are active and heavy for theirsize. Hard-shell varieties should not havesoftening shells. Refrigerate live crabscovered with a damp towel until just before

320 Part II: Encyclopedia of Foodscooking. Live crabs should be used the daythey are purchased.Cooked whole crabs and crabmeatshould have a fresh, sweet smell. Cookedcrab is available in whole pieces (lump whitemeat from the body) or in smaller pieces(flaked light and dark meat from the bodyand legs).For ease of use, consider using cannedcrabmeat. Or, if you prefer, choose pasteurizedcrabmeat, which has been heatedin cans but has not been subjected to thehigher temperatures of the canning process.For this reason, pasteurized crabmeat shouldbe stored unopened in the refrigerator nolonger than 6 months. Use it quickly afteropening. Always use your fingers to pickover crabmeat, fresh or canned, to makesure there are not tiny pieces of hidden shell.Refrigerate leftover cooked crabmeat, tightlycovered, for not more than 2 days.Serving SuggestionsCrabmeat has a tender, flaky texture and adelicate, sweet flavor. For the best possibleflavor, choose live crabs. If only cooked crabis available, add it to hot dishes during the lastminutes of cooking and cook just until hot.Crabs can be cooked in a variety of lowfatways, including steaming and broiling orin broth-based soups and gumbos. Crabcakes, traditionally held together with mayonnaiseand bread crumbs, are leaving theconfines of New England for the rest of thestates. A lower-fat version uses egg whitesin place of mayonnaise. Instead of floatingcrabs in a pan filled with oil, try dustingthem with flour and reducing the amountof oil you use.LobsterOne of the largest crustaceans, lobster hasa jointed body and limbs covered with ahard shell. The coveted edible portion ofthe lobster is generally the sweet flesh insideits tail, and sometimes in its claws. Its liver(tomalley) and eggs (coral) also can beeaten. Lobsters are prized by diners fortheir firm flesh and flavorful, yet not overpowering,taste.Lobsters can be divided into twogroups: large, clawed (American) lobstersand spiny (rock) lobsters. American lobstershail from around Maine, whereas rocklobsters can be caught in the waters off thesoutheastern United States and in thePacific. American lobsters boast claws withyet more meat, but only the tails of spinylobsters are eaten. These tails are often soldfrozen throughout the United States. Themeat is more dense and fibrous than thatof the American lobster. It lacks some ofthat characteristic sweetness, but the tailsare far more inexpensive than buying awhole American lobster.Lobster is an excellent source of zinc.Preparation TipsWhen selecting a live lobster, look for anactive one whose tail curls under its bodywhen lifted. If lobsters have been storedon ice, they may be sluggish. Bacteria formquickly in a dead lobster, so it is importantthat you purchase it live. Live lobsters willdie quickly, so they must be kept in seawater,wrapped in a wet cloth, or wrappedin several sheets of wet newspapers. Usethese methods for only a few hours (24 hoursat most), then cook the lobster. It is bestto cook lobster the same day you buy it.Whole, cooked lobsters should have theirtails curled tightly under their bodies, a signthey were alive when cooked. Cooked lobstermeat should be sweet-smelling and snowwhite.Frozen tails should be in an untornpackage with no sign of frost; the visible meatshould be free of dry-looking spots.Lobsters can be prepared in a variety ofways, including steaming, broiling, andgrilling. Another common preparationmethod is boiling. A general rule for cookinglobster with any method is to allow 12minutes per pound. The lobster is done assoon as its shell becomes red or the meat turnsopaque. A sign that a lobster has been overcookedis that its meat is stringy and tough.Serving SuggestionsThe firm flesh and pleasant flavor of lobstermake it a versatile seafood. It can be eatenplain, seasoned with lemon juice, garlic, anda drizzle of butter, or added to pâtés, salads,or sauces. Lobster bisque, essentially a creambasedlobster stew, is a classic lobster dishenjoyed by diners the world over. Becauseit is high in calories and fat, it should besavored on special occasions. Lobster meatalso can be mixed with curry sauce. It is alsoan elegant, tasteful addition when added tosalad greens and sprinkled with lemon juiceor a spicy lower-fat vinaigrette.MusselsPerhaps it is the dark shell that accountsfor its foreboding reputation. Perhaps it isthe name, which makes it sound too muchlike a stringy, tough muscle. Whatever thecase, mussels do not have the audience inthe United States that other forms ofseafood do, even though people throughoutthe world have been eating them for morethan 20,000 years.Although there are dozens of musselspecies, only two reach American marketswith any regularity. The blue mussel (whichis actually dark blue to black) and the bluegreenmussel can be used in recipes interchangeably,but the blue-green type fromNew Zealand is larger and more expensive.The blue mussel is most abundant, found

High-Protein Foods 321along the Mediterranean, Atlantic, andPacific coasts. It is usually 2 to 3 inches inlength.Many mussels are being cultivatedinstead of harvested because of the dangersposed by microscopic organisms (of red tidenotoriety) that make mussels unsafe to eatduring the spring and summer months.When choosing mussels, make sure theyare still alive by tapping on their shells. Ifthey slam shut, they are still alive. Thosewith tightly closed shells also are a goodchoice. In general, smaller mussels are moretender. Cultivated mussels are usuallysmaller, and they also lack some of the sandand grit of harvested mussels. Chooseshucked mussels that are plump and havea clear liquor (liquid). Or, opt for plainand smoked mussels packed in oil.Store live mussels in a single layer on atray in the refrigerator covered only with adamp towel or wet newspapers for up to 2days. Store shucked mussels in the refrigeratorup to 3 days. They should be coveredcompletely with their liquor (liquid). Ifyou need more liquor, combine 1 cup waterwith 1/2 teaspoon salt and pour this brineover the mussels to cover.Preparation TipsBefore cooking, use a stiff brush to scrubmussels under cold, running water. Pullout the dark threads (beard) that protrudefrom the shell. Mussels die when debearded,the term given for removal of thesethreads, so do not remove the dark threadsuntil just before cooking. Get rid of sandby soaking mussels in cold, salted water(use 1/3 cup salt per gallon of water) for 1hour. Like all shellfish, mussels should becooked gently to prevent toughening.Mussels cooked in their shells are donewhen their shells pop open. Discard anywith unopened shells.Mussels steamed withwhite wine and onionServing SuggestionsAn elegant way to serve them is simple: boilthem. Add garlic, onion, a splash of oliveoil, and white wine to the water while cooking— generally, about 8 to 10 minutes.Saffron also provides an excellent flavor.Serve with French bread. This can be brokeninto pieces to be used to soak up theflavorful broth you created while cookingthe mussels. A general rule: about 1 poundof mussels per person is needed.OctopusAlthough popular in Japan andMediterranean countries, the octopus inNorth America is more likely to be a villainof “scary” movies than the star of a seafoodmeal. But octopus is relatively inexpensiveand versatile, and it provides highly flavorful,meaty (albeit sometimes chewy) chunks.Most octopuses weigh only about 3 poundsand reach a size of only 1 to 2 feet beforebeing caught for food.Fresh octopus already dressed and readyfor dishes can be found in many supermarketsand specialty fish markets. Frozen,smoked, and canned octopus is also available.Shop for octopus the same way youshop for fish, using your nose as a guide.Octopus should smell fresh, not fishy, and ifit has eyes, they should be bright, not cloudy.As with most aquatic species, octupus thatis smaller is younger and more tender. Boththe body and all of the tentacles are edible.The ink sac contains an edible black liquidthat can be used to color and flavor foodssuch as pasta, soups, and stews.Preparation TipsAlways rinse octopus well before cooking.Although many cooks believe that an octopusmust be tenderized before cooking (suchas by beating it with a mallet or even hurlingit against a hard surface), octopus cansimply be cooked until it is tender. Cookingtime varies by size. Generally, an octopusthat weighs more than 4 pounds should

322 Part II: Encyclopedia of Foodssimmer for about 45 minutes. This seafoodcan be cooked in a variety of ways, includinggrilling, frying, steaming, and poaching.Serving SuggestionsOctopus is an excellent addition to seafoodstews and soups, adding an unusual textureto the dish. Its flavor is enhanced by garlic,tomatoes, red wine, and soy sauce.OystersOysters have many different names, whichare clues to where they come from and theirvaried taste and appearance. The marineplants they feed on account for these differences.The hard, rough, gray shell containsmeat that can vary in color from creamybeige to pale gray, in flavor from salty tobland, and in texture from tender to firm.Oysters are rich in zinc, iron, copper,and vitamin B 12 . Interestingly, it is oysters’relatively high zinc content that gave themtheir reputation as an aphrodisiac wheneaten raw.Purchase the freshest oysters you canfind. Gauge freshness by tapping on theoyster shells with your fingernail. If theysnap shut quickly or are already shut tightly,they are fresh. In general, smaller oysterswill be more tender than larger ones. Buyshucked oysters of uniform size and colorencased in a clear liquor (liquid).You may store oysters for up to 3 daysin the refrigerator using the same method asfor mussels, but the sooner you use them,the better. If any shells open during storage,tap them. If they do not close, throwthem out. Store shucked oysters, coveredby their liquor, for up to 2 days in the refrigeratorand up to 3 months in the freezer. Ifthere is not enough liquor to cover theshucked oysters, make your own by dissolving1/2 teaspoon of salt in 1 cup of water.Preparation TipsScrub live oysters under cold, running waterbefore opening. Oyster knives speciallydesigned for removing the flesh from theshells — which can be a tricky operation —are available at cooking supply stores. Oystersand other bivalves will open more easily ifthey are heated briefly — such as by steamingthem for several seconds or microwavingthem for a minute.Serving SuggestionsWhen fresh and safely available, raw oystersare a unique treat. “Raw bars” serve the traditional“shooter,” a New Orleans-inspiredhot sauce covering a raw oyster. If you servethem raw, keep them chilled (and preventthe growth of microorganisms) by puttingthem on a bed of ice.Oysters in the shell also can be cookedin numerous ways: baked, steamed, orgrilled. Oysters Rockefeller, a hot horsd’oeuvre that is baked and broiled with aspinach topping, is a traditional, elegantfavorite. Use shucked oysters in dressingsor poultry stuffings. Oyster stew is oftenmade with only heavy cream, oysters, andbutter, but a healthier alternative can becreated with evaporated milk and addedvegetables, such as potatoes, pearl onions,carrots, or mushrooms.ScallopsLike clams and oysters, scallops are bivalves(two-shelled mollusks). Scallops propel themselvesalong the ocean floor by clapping theirshells together using a well-developed musclecalled the eye, the part of the scallop that is eaten.If you avoid fish and other types ofshellfish, you may still like scallops becauseits eye is firmer than most shellfish meatand its flavor is mild yet sweet. Scallopsare rich in vitamin B 12 and potassium.Scallops are classified in two broadgroups: bay scallops and sea scallops. Bayscallops, with meat about 1/2 inch in diameter,are sweeter, more succulent, and moreexpensive. Sea scallops, with meat about1 1/2 inches in diameter, are more widelyavailable. A third type is the calico scallop,a small sea scallop from Florida, but it isoften sold as bay scallops. These scallopshave to be steamed to be opened, so theyare partially cooked when sold. They arethe cheapest of the scallops.Because scallops cannot close their shellstightly, they spoil quickly out of water, andthey are usually shucked at sea. The muscleis iced and the rest discarded. Sometimesthe coral-colored roe is left attached to beeaten with the muscle as a delicacy.Look for scallops with a sweet smell anda fresh, moist sheen. Avoid any with astrong sulfur odor. Scallops can range incolor from pale beige to creamy to orange.Avoid those that are stark white, a sign thatthey have been soaked in water as a marketingploy to increase the weight. Refrigerateshucked scallops immediately after purchaseand use within 1 to 2 days.Preparation TipsScallops must be opened like oysters if purchasedunshucked. Some sea scallops stillhave a small piece of tough connective tissueattached to one side, which should bepulled off and discarded. Scallops needonly brief cooking. Overcooking or reheatingcooked scallops will toughen them. Theroe, if attached, can be cooked right alongwith the muscle. Large scallops should besliced into smaller pieces.Serving SuggestionsScallops are suitable for a variety of preparationmethods, including sautéeing, grilling,broiling, and poaching. They also are used

High-Protein Foods 323in soups, stews, and salads. Scallops cookvery quickly — about 1 to 3 minutes —and no scallop needs to cook longer than 6to 8 minutes, no matter how large.ShrimpShrimp is the most widely consumedseafood worldwide, and it is the secondmost popular in the United States, aftertuna. The harvest of both wild and farmedshrimp is increasing rapidly to keep pacewith the soaring demand for this crustacean.It has become popular internationallybecause its sweet, mild, and yet distinctflavor is similar to that of lobster, but it iseasier to cook and costs half as much.Although hundreds of species arecaught, shrimp generally can be classifiedby origin — either warm water or coldwater. Cold-water varieties — such as thewell-known small, pink, peeled shrimp —tend to be sweeter than the larger shrimp,which typically develop in warmer waters.These larger varieties are often solduncooked and unpeeled under the name“prawns,” but the name can be used forshrimp of any size.The names of shrimp can be confusing.Many varieties of shrimp are namedafter a color (white, pink, brown), but whiteshrimp are not necessarily white. They maylook pink, brown, or gray. Confoundingthe problem, most shrimp shells changecolor when cooked.Shrimp are marketed according to size(number per pound), but market terms varygreatly. Because shrimp freeze well, most,even those classified as “fresh” in the supermarket,have been frozen at some point.Neither taste nor texture suffers much.Shrimp is sold shelled or unshelled, rawor cooked, and fresh or frozen. Shrimp alsocan be bought breaded or stuffed or as aspread for crackers or bread. Dried shrimpand shrimp paste can be found in Asiangrocery stores.Preparation TipsChoose raw, shelled shrimp that are firm,moist, and translucent. Avoid any shrimpthat smells like ammonia. Unshelled shrimpshould have shiny, firm shells. Avoid thosewith black spots and those with yellow orgritty shells, which result from a bleachingprocess to remove the spots.Before storing fresh, uncooked shrimp,rinse them well under cold, running waterand drain thoroughly. Refrigerate, tightlycovered, for up to 2 days.Shrimp are usually shelled before theyare eaten, which is easily accomplished bypeeling back the head first, then the rest ofthe shell. Shelling is easier when shrimp areFor a tasty and healthful change, grill scallops and serve with avariety of vegetables (grilled zucchini, white beans, and scallions).cold or even frozen. Shrimp are also usuallydeveined, although this is not necessarybefore eating small to medium-sizedshrimp. To devein a shrimp, cut into theshrimp lengthwise with a sharp knife. Thenuse the knife to remove the dark vein —which is actually the intestine that runsdown its back.Although there are slight differences intexture and flavor, shrimp of various sizes(except the miniatures) can usually be substitutedfor each other.As with all shellfish, shrimp should becooked briefly or it becomes tough andrubbery. Cook only until the flesh turnsopaque. To test, cut a shrimp in half, andcheck whether the flesh has turned fromtranslucent to opaque. Whole shrimpshould just begin to curl. If the shells areon, they should turn pink.

324 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsServing SuggestionsOne reason for the popularity of shrimp isits versatility. Name a cooking technique,and you probably will be able to find ashrimp recipe for it. Shrimp is served coldin shrimp cocktail. It can be grilled, boiled,broiled, roasted, curried, or stir-fried. Itgoes well with pasta and rice. It is also anexcellent ingredient in soups and can beused interchangeably with other shellfishin recipes. Garlic is a seasoning that particularlycomplements shrimp’s flavor. Thetwo are used together in well-known dishessuch as shrimp scampi.LegumesLegumes have historically been part ofmeals throughout the world. There isabundant evidence that the peanut and limabean have been used for centuries in SouthAmerica. Soybeans and mung beans,among others, have been a key part of Asiandishes throughout history. The MiddleEast is the origin of broad beans, chickpeas,and lentils. Because of this, cooking withlegumes can provide an education and anintroduction to international cuisine.Most legumes are annual plants that cangrow as vines or bushes. The shape, size, andcolor of the stems, leaves, and flowers differaccording to species. After fertilization ofthe flowers, pods develop. These containseeds of varying sizes, shapes, and colors.The plants of the legume family sharetwo main features. First, they produce single-chambered,flattened seedpods withseeds inside. Either the pod or the seedsinside (or both) are eaten.A second common feature is thatlegumes are capable of an important biologicalprocess called nitrogen fixation,which actually enriches or naturally fertilizesthe soil in which the plants grow.Accordingly, legumes (such as soybeans andalfalfa) are grown in rotation with othercrops (such as corn) that only take nutrientsfrom the soil.Legumes are sold in many forms. Theyare available as whole fresh pods, such asgreen beans, and in dried pods, such as thetamarind. Lima beans are examples oflegumes available as fresh seeds, and driedseeds include black-eyed peas. There arealso seed sprouts, such as alfalfa sprouts andsoybean sprouts. Although technically consideredlegumes, tamarind and jicama aretreated as a fruit and vegetable, respectively.Legumes are generally easy to prepareand can be either the main entrée or theside dish. Generally, dried legumes are rehydratedbefore cooking, which is done bysoaking them in water for about 6 to8 hours. An alternative andshorter method is to putthem in a pressurecooker or to simmerthem in a panwhere they can soften in less than an hour.Soaking shortens cooking time by 30minutes to up to an hour. It also has theadvantage of reducing flatulence (intestinalgas) by making them more digestible.Legumes that are sold as “quick-cooking”have been presoaked and redried beforepackaging and thus do not need to be soaked.When several types of legumes arerequired for a dish, it is best to cook eachtype separately because it is difficult to cookthem uniformly together.NutritionLegumes are great sources of nutritionbecause they carry the embryonic necessitiesfor starting a new plant. They are highin protein, folic acid, potassium, iron, magnesium,and phytochemicals (see theAppendix: Phytochemical Contents ofSelected Foods, page 484). Legumes arenot complete proteins like meats (soybeansare an exception), but they can be pairedwith complementary foods, such as grains,to ensure a meal provides a complete sourceof amino acids for building proteins. Andunlike meat, they are low in fat, high infiber, and inexpensive.Because of their low cost, legumes wereonce considered “poor man’s meat.” Butwith the increased popularity of ethniccuisines (such as Mexican, Chinese, andMediterranean), the growing popularity ofvegetarianism, and the recognized healthbenefits of legumes, they have shed thisoutdated perception.SelectionThere are expensive “designer beans,” butmost legumes are widely available at grocerystores and are an inexpensive addition tomeals. Look for a uniform appearance tothe product you are buying. Legumes shouldalso have a deep, almost glossy color. Avoid

High-Protein Foods 325buying products that are cracked, broken,dry-looking, or faded. These are most likelyto have been on the shelf for a while.StorageDried legumes are easily stored. Puttingthem in a covered container or closed plasticbag can help maintain their freshness andextend their shelf life.Legumes that are commonly used aredescribed on the following pages.AlfalfaAlso known as lucerne, alfalfa is the commonname of a legume that once was thought ofonly as animal feed. The plant is believed tohave originated in southwestern Asia aroundthe area of Asia Minor and the CaucasusMountains. Spanish explorers brought theplant to the Americas, where, in the UnitedStates, it was first established as a crop inCalifornia in the 1850s.Alfalfa grows up to 5 feet in height andbears spiral-shaped pods containing six toeight small brown or yellow seeds. Becausethe roots are capable of extending as muchas 30 feet into the soil, the alfalfa plant canreach stores of water and nutrients thatallow it to survive periods of extremedrought.Alfalfa became part of the human dieton a wide scale in the 1970s, when manypeople began to enjoy alfalfa sprouts. Today,alfalfa sprouts are sold in most grocery stores.Serving SuggestionsUsually used raw, alfalfa sprouts can beadded to salads, sandwiches, omelets, tacos,and hors d’oeuvres. They also can be usedto garnish soups and stews. In parts ofChina and Russia, the plant’s tender, youngleaves are eaten as a vegetable.Broad Beans (Fava Beans)Commonly called fava beans in the UnitedStates, broad beans are also known as haba,English, Windsor, tick, cold, horse, or fieldbeans. Broad beans get their name fromthe seeds, which are large and flat and looklike very large lima beans. The seeds rangein length from about a half inch to 2 inches.They can also vary in color from white,green, buff, brown, and purple to black.Broad beans are an excellent source ofnutrition. They are rich in fiber, folic acid,potassium, magnesium, and thiamin, toname just a few nutrients.Preparation TipsBroad beans are commonly available driedor precooked in cans, although they cansometimes be found fresh in the pod. Thebeans have a very tough skin that can beSprouting at homeIS IT SAFE TO EAT RAW SPROUTS?All plant sprouts that are eaten rawmay pose a health risk. The reason,according to the U.S. Food andDrug Administration, is that theycould be contaminated with foodbornepathogens such as theSalmonella bacterium or anotherharmful bacterium, Escherichia (E.)coli. Pregnant women, children, theelderly, and persons with compromisedimmune systems (such as peoplewith cancer) may be harmed byingesting sprouts.If you are one of the people inthese groups, avoiding sprouts wheneating out is advised. However, eventhe seeds that are used for sprouts thatare grown at home can be contaminated.removed by blanching (plunging the beansinto boiling water briefly, then running themunder cold water). This process loosens theskin, which can then be easily removed.Buying beans that are split and dried willhelp the beans cook faster and eliminate theneed to get rid of the tough outer skin.Preparation TipsAlfalfa sprouts should be washed thoroughlybefore they are eaten. Buy sprouts that lookhealthy and green. Avoid those that areoff-color, smell moldy, or look soggy. Theycan be kept for about a week in the refrigerator(see sidebar: Is It Safe to Eat RawSprouts? this page).

326 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsServing SuggestionsBroad beans are starchy and strong-flavoredand are great puréed or mashed and in salads.In Italy, broad beans are combined with otherstrong-flavored ingredients, and in Francethey are considered a good cocktail food.A simple but elegant serving suggestionis to add a little butter to the cooked beansand a sprinkle of salt and pepper to taste andthen serve topped with chopped parsley.Chickpeas (Garbanzo Beans)Botanical and archeological evidence revealsthat chickpea plants were first domesticatedin the Middle East in ancient times.Today, however, India supplies 80 to 90percent of the world’s supply of chickpeas.The many names that chickpeas go byare a nod to the many regions of the worldwhere they are now grown and eaten. InIndia, they are referred to as Bengal gram.In Spanish-speaking countries, they are garbanzo.The Arab world refers to them ashamaz (or hummus), and in Ethiopia theyare called shimbra.The plants grow in tropical to temperateregions and reach about 2 feet in height.Plants bear inflated inch-long pods enclosingone or two irregularly shaped seeds.Broad beans (fava beans)The seeds are about one-quarter to one-halfan inch in diameter and can be buff-colored,yellow, brown, black, or green. Theplant’s young, green pods and sprouts canalso be eaten.Like many legumes, chickpeas are anexcellent source of fiber. In addition, theyare a good source of magnesium.Preparation TipsChickpeas are available at most grocery storesboth canned and dried. They can be eatenfresh, fried, roasted, or boiled. Generally,chickpeas should be soaked overnight beforecooking, which is usually done by boilingthem. Dried chickpeas may take as long as2 hours before they are soft and ready to eat.A pressure cooker is also an option and canreduce cooking time by half.Serving SuggestionsChickpeas have a mild, slightly nutty flavorand a firm texture. They can be used in appetizers,salads, soups, or main dishes. Flourmade from ground chickpeas can be madeinto breads or used as batter for deep-fat frying.They also can be combined with pastaor simply served by themselves. Sometimesthey are served roasted and salted like peanuts.They are part of cuisine worldwide. In theChickpeas (garbanzo beans)Middle East, they are mashed and used as themain ingredient in hummus, a thick saucemade with lemon juice, olive oil, and sesameseed paste. Hummus is becoming a populardish in the United States. Falafel, a MiddleEastern croquette, is another dish that drawson the chickpea as its main ingredient. In theMediterranean region, chickpeas are addedto Spanish stews and Italian minestrone soups.Common BeansBeans provide a good source of dietary fiber.Beans or peas, eaten together or at separatemeals, form a high-quality protein essentiallyequivalent to that from animal sources.(For more information on green beans, alsoknown as snap or string beans, see page 257.)Common beans originated in CentralAmerica, where archaeological remains ofthese beans, found in association with theremains of maize and squash, have beencarbon dated to more than 7,000 years ofexistence. Columbus and subsequentSpanish and Portuguese explorers carriedbeans back to Europe and eventually introducedthem throughout Asia and Africa.A few of the most familiar beans aredescribed here.Black BeansMany people have become acquainted withblack beans after eating at Mexican restaurants,where they are served boiled or refried.Also known as turtle beans, black beans area common part of the cuisine throughoutCentral and South America, the Caribbean,and the southern United States. As their nameindicates, they have a completely black skin.They have a mild, somewhat sweet taste.Black beans are an excellent source offolate and a good source of iron, magnesium,phosphorus, potassium, and thiamin.

High-Protein Foods 327Preparation TipsPresoak beans. Black beans are relativelythin-skinned and cook quickly (about 30minutes) if you want to keep them somewhatfirm. For soups and stews, they mayneed to be boiled for 1 1/2 hours or longer.Serving SuggestionsBlack beans are a delicious dish all by themselves,served with a dollop of low-fat sourcream and bits of diced avocado or guacamole.They are also often stewed, accompanied byrice. They are the key ingredient in frijoles,refritos, or refried beans (but go easy on thefat), and they are the star of black bean soup.Cranberry BeansCranberry beans are about a half-inch longand are brownish with pink splotches thatdisappear when cooked. Cranberry beanshave a nutty flavor. Their creamy, redstreakedflesh has a smooth texture.Nutritionally speaking, cranberry beansare an excellent source of folate and a goodsource of iron, magnesium, phosphorus,potassium, and copper.Preparation TipsPresoak beans. Cranberry beans can be substitutedin any recipe that calls for red beansor white beans, and they can be preparedlike pinto beans (simmering in water, covered,for 50 to 60 minutes).Serving SuggestionsCranberry beans can be added to pasta dishesand salads. In Europe, they often are used instews.Kidney BeansAs their name suggests, kidney beans arekidney-shaped. They are available in anassortment of colors. Chili lovers will readilyrecognize the most common kidneyWHY DO BEANS CAUSE GASSINESS?Beans do cause flatulence in many persons who eat them. The gassiness is theresult of fermentation of the seeds’ complex sugars, or oligosaccharides, by bacteriain the large intestine. Persons who eat beans frequently find that they do notdevelop gas as much.To reduce the flatulence effect, try these strategies:• The flatulence-producing effect of beans can be further reduced by changingthe water several times during soaking and during cooking and by simmering thebeans slowly until they are tender.• If a recipe calls for salt, lemon juice, vinegar, or tomatoes, these ingredientsshould be added near the end of cooking because acidic ingredients stop theprocess by which legumes absorb liquid and soften.• Use commercially available products that can be added to dishes beforeserving. These products contain an enzyme that breaks down the complexsugars before they start causing problems.bean: the red kidney bean, which has adeep-red color and a full flavor.Another type of kidney bean is the flageolet;its seeds are small, thin, and pale-green.Mainly available dried, canned, or frozen inthe United States, flageolets are more popularin Europe. The cannellini bean isanother type of kidney bean. It is large andwhite and has a more delicate flavor thanthe red kidney bean.Kidney beans are an excellent source offolic acid and a good source of iron, magnesium,phosphorus, potassium, copper,and thiamin.Preparation TipsKidney beans commonly are canned. Ifyou choose to use fresh beans instead ofcanned, prepare red kidney beans by presoakingand then simmering them in water,covered, for 1 1/2 hours. Flageolets andcannellini beans can be cooked with thesame method for 25 to 30 minutes.Serving SuggestionsConsider red kidney beans an all-purposebean. They make good additions to chiliand can be baked, puréed, or refried.Cannellini beans can be added to salads orsoups. Flageolets are often served in awhite sauce seasoned with shallots, thyme,bay leaf, and clove. In this way, they aresaid to be served “French style.” In France,they also may be served with a roast leg oflamb.Pinto BeansPinto means “painted” in Spanish. It is anapt word to describe this bean because theyare pink or beige with reddish brown spotsand streaks. Pinto beans are popular in theAmerican Southwest and in Mexico, wherethey are an essential part of everyday cuisine.From a nutrition perspective, pinto beansare an excellent source of folate and a goodsource of iron, magnesium, phosphorus,potassium, copper, and thiamin.Preparation TipsPinto beans usually are sold dried but arealso available cooked and canned. Presoakdried beans and simmer them, covered, for50 to 60 minutes.

328 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsServing SuggestionsPinto beans are great served with rice, asrefried beans, puréed, or in chili.White BeansWhite bean is a term given to varieties ofbeans that have light-colored seeds. Thereare several varieties of white beans:Marrow beans — The largest androundest of white beans, marrow beans areoften grown in the eastern United States.They are creamy but firm after cooking andusually are available as a dried bean.Great Northern beans — GreatNorthern beans are smaller than marrowbeans and have a more delicate flavor. Theyare typically grown in the Midwest. Theystand up well to baking.Navy beans — Most people know theseas the beans found in canned pork and beanSlow cooking with molasses gives “white” navy beans their color.products. Navy beans require lengthy, slowcooking, which makes them excellent additionsto soups and baked dishes.White beans are an excellent source ofiron and folate and a good source of magnesium,phosphorus, potassium, and copper.Preparation TipsPresoak beans. Cook them in water, coveredfor marrow beans, 35 to 45 minutes;for Great Northern, 1 to 1 1/2 hours; andfor navy beans, 1 1/2 to 2 hours.Serving SuggestionsMild-flavored white beans can be puréed,baked, added to soups and stews, or combinedwith other vegetables and served withpasta. Navy bean soup is a hearty dish madefrom the navy bean. Baked beans, usuallymade of navy beans, are enjoyed cold or hot.A SEAFARING BEAN?Navy beans are so-named becausethey have been a common dish servedto sailors in the U.S. Navy since themid 1800s. Sometimes they are alsoreferred to as “Yankee beans.”Dolichos BeansDerived from the Greek word dolikhos,meaning long or elongated, the general term“dolichos beans” is used to refer to legumesof the genus Vigna and the lablab bean.Common beans considered dolichos beansinclude the adzuki bean, the black-eyedpea, the lablab bean, and the mung bean.Adzuki Beans (Azuki Beans)Adzuki beans have been cultivated andenjoyed for many centuries in Asia. TheChinese have attributed mystical power tothese beans and believe that they bring goodluck. This is one reason they are a part ofmany foods used at celebrations.The bean has a rich, somewhat sweetflavor. It has a reddish color. The plant thatbears adzuki beans has 5-inch-long cylindricalpods that contain 4 to 12 oblong seedswith flat ends. Adzuki beans are usuallysold dried, but they also may be sold asyoung pods that are eaten like green beans.Adzuki beans are an excellent source offolate and a good source of iron, magnesium,phosphorus, potassium, zinc, and copper.Preparation TipsPresoak dried beans. Simmer in water,covered, for 30 to 40 minutes.Serving SuggestionsAdzuki beans have a mild, delicate flavorand grainy texture. Sometimes they areeaten with rice. However, they are often

High-Protein Foods 329made into a flour or paste, which is usedin desserts or candies. Combined withsugar, water, starch, plant gums, and otheringredients, adzuki beans are used as a fillingfor bread, steamed cakes, and dumplings.In addition, they can be puffed like cornor sprouted. Adzuki beans may be roastedto make a substitute for coffee.Black-Eyed PeasThe black-eyed pea has many names, includingthe cowpea, callivance, cherry bean, frijol,China pea, and Indian pea. It gets its namefrom the circular black hilum, or “eye,” onthe seed’s inner curve, where it is attachedto the pod. The hilum may also be brown,red, or yellow. The seeds can be wrinkledor smooth and range in shape from roundto kidney-shaped. The plant that bearsblack-eyed peas is grown in warm regions ofthe world and can grow to 3 feet in height.Black-eyed peas are an excellent sourceof folate and a good source of magnesiumand potassium.Preparation TipsBecause black-eyed peas have thin skins,presoaking is optional. Soaked or unsoakedversions of fresh and dried black-eyed peascook in about 30 to 60 minutes, covered,over low heat. Black-eyed peas are alsoavailable frozen and canned.Lablab (Hyacinth Bean)Although grown in the United States mainlyas an ornamental plant, the lablab is a popularfood in Africa, Asia, and Central andSouth America. Seeds are less than a halfinchlong. Their color ranges from whiteto brown, red, and black. The plant itselfgrows as a vine, with large broad leaves.Lablab is an excellent source of iron andmagnesium and a good source of phosphorus,zinc, copper, and thiamin.Preparation TipsLablab pods can be eaten fresh. Driedbeans can be prepared in the same way asother legumes.Serving SuggestionsLablab sprouts can be eaten. Often, however,lablab seeds are ground into flour andused to make bread or an oatmeal-like dish.In India, lablab seeds are dried, split, andthen cooked.AdzukiMung BeanAlthough its name suggests Chinese orAsian cuisine, the mung bean has beengrown in India for centuries. India is stillone of the leading producers of this legume.Mung beans are also grown in the UnitedStates, where they are sometimes referred toas a “chickasaw pea.” Sometimes this beanis also known as green gram, golden gram,and chop suey bean (mung bean sprouts arean important ingredient in this dish).Mung bean seeds can be green (themost common), yellow, brown, or mottledblack. The seeds themselves are tiny —about one-eighth inch in diameter.Nutritionally speaking, the mung beanseed is an excellent source of folic acid anda good source of magnesium, phosphorus,and thiamin.Preparation TipsMung beans are available as dried beans or assprouts. Wash sprouts thoroughly before use.LablabServing SuggestionsBlack-eyed peas can be used to make soups,salads, fritters, and casseroles and are oftenserved with meat. They are the key ingredientin the Southern dish called “Hoppin’John,” which consists of black-eyed peascooked with salt pork and seasonings andserved with rice. According to southern U.S.tradition, eating black-eyed peas on NewYear’s Day brings good luck for the year.MungBlack-eyed peasDolichos bean varieties

330 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsLentilsBeans do not need to be soaked before cooking.Whole beans cook in about an hour.Serving SuggestionsMung bean sprouts can be used fresh in saladsor stir-fried with vegetables, noodles,and meat, poultry, seafood, or tofu.Beans can be ground into flour to makenoodles (called bean threads or cellophanenoodles because of their thinness and transparentappearance) or candy. Puréed mungbeans may be used to fill breads and pastries.They are also used to make moog dal,an Indian spread eaten with rice or bread.LentilThe lentil was probably one of the earliestlegumes to be domesticated. Now cultivatedin many parts of the world, the lentilis known as ads in Arabic, merimek inTurkey, messer in Ethiopia, heramame inJapan, and masoor, dal, or gram in India,which is now the leading producer.This bushy plant reaches a maximumof 2 feet in height. The pods are short, flat,and oblong. Seeds can be red, orange,yellow, brown, or green. The seeds areclassified as large (macrospermae) or small(microspermae), with each type containingdozens of varieties.Lentils, like many legumes, are an excellentsource of folate and a good source ofpotassium, iron, and phosphorus.Preparation TipsLentils are available in a variety of forms.They can be purchased whole, husked, andsplit like peas. They cook quickly and, thus,dried lentils do not need to be soaked beforepreparation. Different varieties call for differentcooking times — from 5 minutes foryellow lentils to 30 minutes for brown orgreen lentils. Lentils should always bewashed before cooking to remove dirt, dust,and, possibly, tiny stones.Serving SuggestionsBecause lentils do not hold their shape well,they are popularly used to make soups andstews. They also can be added to salads ormixed with grains to make breads and cakes.Lentils are particularly popular in India,where they are frequently made into a spicydish called dal. Dal is made with lentils,tomatoes, onions, and other seasonings. Dalalso can be made from many other legumes.Lima BeansLima beans were originally cultivated inSouth America, from where they werebrought to Europe, Asia, and Africa byEuropean explorers. In the southern UnitedStates, lima beans are called butter beans,and the mottled purple varieties are calledcalico or speckled butter beans. Lima beansalso may be referred to as Madagascar beans.Lima bean plants bear flat, oblong podsabout 2 to 4 inches in length that containtwo to four smooth, kidney-shaped seeds.There are numerous varieties of lima beans,and their seeds vary in size and color. Thecommonly sold seeds are pale green, butpurple, red, brown, black, and mottled onesare also available. The two most commonvarieties are the Fordhook and the baby lima,which is smaller and milder.Lima beans are a good source of iron,magnesium, phosphorus, and potassium.Preparation TipsFordhook and baby lima beans are sometimesavailable fresh in their pods. Immaturelima beans can be eaten fresh with or withoutthe pods. Although mature pods aretoo tough to be edible, the seeds are availableyear-round in frozen, canned, anddried forms that are usually labeled accordingto size rather than botanical variety.Presoak dried beans, then simmer in water,covered, for 60 to 90 minutes.Unlike many other types of beans, limabeans can be easily overcooked; they quicklybecome mushy if cooked longer than necessaryto make them soft.Serving SuggestionsThe taste of cooked lima beans is starchy butdelicate. They can be boiled and served wholeor mashed, or they can be added to soups andsalads. In succotash, a traditional Southerndish that includes peppers, tomatoes, andcorn, lima beans are the main ingredient.PeanutsDespite their name, peanuts are not nutsat all, but the seeds of a legume. They arecommonly thought of as nuts because ofLima beans

High-Protein Foods 331how they are used and because of their nutlikeshells. The “shells,” however, are actuallythe fibrous seed pods of a legume,encasing one to three seeds wrapped in anedible, papery thin seed coat. These seedpods are easy to crack and range from lessthan an inch to about 2 inches long andhave the same contours as the round seedsunderneath.Peanut plants are separated into eitherbunch or runner types. The bunch typebears seed pods close to the base of theplant, whereas the runner type has seedpods scattered along the branches. Runnertypes were introduced in the 1970s and arenow more popular than bunch types, probablybecause runner peanuts are primarilyused to make peanut butter, for which halfof all peanuts are produced.Spanish peanuts — a bunch-typepeanut with small, round seeds covered bya reddish brown skin — are usually roasted,salted, and vacuum-packed. Virginiapeanuts, which can be a runner or a bunchplant, are larger and more oval and are usuallysold roasted in the shell.Peanuts contain quite a bit of fat, but thefat in them is primarily monounsaturatedfat. Peanuts are an excellent source of magnesium,phosphorus, zinc, copper, niacin,and folate and a good source of iron.George Washington Carver, an African-American botanist who worked in the late19th century, is well known as the “Fatherof the Peanut Industry” for having ingeniouslydeveloped more than 300 uses forthe peanut, including as an ingredient inshoe polish, soap, bleach, medicine, ink,paint, and ice cream. In 1890, an Americanphysician invented what we now know aspeanut butter to provide an easily digestible,nutritious food for his elderly patients.However, long before this, other culturesmade similar edible paste from peanuts.Preparation TipsPeanuts are available in a variety of forms,including raw, dry-roasted or honeyroasted,salted or unsalted, shelled orunshelled, peeled or unpeeled, whole orchopped, and as peanut butter. Theyoung pods, leaves, and plant tips can becooked and eaten in the same manner asa green vegetable. Unshelled peanuts canbe refrigerated in an airtight container forup to 6 months, and shelled peanuts forup to 3 months. Peanuts also can becooked, a process that generally takesabout 30 minutes.Serving SuggestionsAlthough peanuts are usually consumed asa snack, turned into peanut butter, or usedto make candy or baked goods in theUnited States, they are frequently used asPeanut butter — not just for sandwichesPeanutsa vegetable in African, Indian, SouthAmerican, and Asian cooking. Peanuts canbe cooked with fish, meat, and poultry andused to flavor sauces, soups, salads, anddesserts. Peanut soup, a southern U.S.favorite, is a creamy, spicy-hot dish.

332 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsPeasLike peanuts, peas may not be immediatelyrecognizable as a legume, because theyare marketed and consumed as a vegetable.But appearances are deceiving because, likeother legumes, peas are an excellent sourceof protein. A serving of peas (about 3/4of a cup) contains as much protein as atablespoon of peanut butter, but with farless fat.The pea is an annual plant that growsfrom 1 to 5 feet high. It requires a cool,relatively humid climate. There are morethan 1,000 different types of peas. Differentplants produce smooth-seeded peas, wrinkled-seededpeas, field peas, snow peas, andsugar snap peas.Smooth-seeded peas are commonlysold frozen, whereas wrinkled-seeded peasare used for canning because they aresweeter. Field peas are grown mainly fordrying. Snow peas and sugar snap peasare grown for their edible crisp, sweet pods.Peas are a good source of iron.Preparation TipsPeas are available fresh, canned, frozen, ordried. Dried peas, which can be yellow orgreen, are sold whole. Or, they may be split.Whole dried peas need to be soaked beforecooking and may take up to 1 to 2 hours tobecome soft. Split dried peas do not needto be soaked; however, they do not holdtheir shape during cooking and so are generallyused for sauces and soups. A familiardish made of split peas is, of course, splitpea soup. Snow peas and sugar snap peasare usually sold fresh. Before eating, rinsethem off and then cut the top from a snowpea pod. Remove the string from both sidesof a sugar snap pea’s seams by pulling theattached fibrous string upward from thebottom. Although they are delicious raw,pea pods also can be cooked in the sameway as green beans. Many Asian dishes callfor them as a key ingredient.To shell fresh peas (usually green peasor English peas), use the same stringing techniqueon only one side of the pod, then useyour thumb to push out the peas. Rinsethoroughly. When buying fresh peas, lookfor bright-green, smooth, uniform pods thatare free of spots, dryness, or other blight.Serving SuggestionsPeas can be added to meals in a variety ofways. They can be braised, boiled, steamed,or stir-fried and added to pasta dishes andcasseroles. Pea pods can be substituted inany recipe that calls for green beans.Raw, fresh peas, although difficult tofind, are tasty additions to salads. So aresnow peas and sugar snap peas. Fresh andfrozen peas should be cooked only brieflyto preserve their color and flavor.SoybeansIf the only soy in your diet comes from thesoy sauce you sprinkle on chow mein, youmay be missing out on more than just atasty and versatile food. Soy is an inexpensiveway to add protein to your diet andmay also help reduce fat when substitutedfor meat in traditional dishes.Soy products come from the soybean, alegume native to northern China. TheUnited States now produces much of theworld’s soybeans. There are more than1,000 varieties of soybeans. They range insize from a pea to a cherry. Colors includered, yellow, green, brown, and black. Theprotein in soy is a “complete” protein —the most complete you can get from vegetablesources — and just as good nutritionallyas animal protein. In fact, there ismore protein in 1 cup of soybeans than in3 ounces of cooked meat. In addition, soy-beans are an excellent source of a variety ofnutrients, including iron, vitamin B 6 , andphosphorus, and a good source of potassiumand calcium. Also, they are rich in thephytochemicals called isoflavones.Soybeans are usually processed intoother products. For example, soy oil is usedto make ink for newspapers. Soybean productsare added to a variety of foods duringprocessing. Many foods, though, are madealmost entirely from soy (see sidebar: “Soy”Many Products to Choose From, page 333).For cultures in which soy is the mainsource of protein, rates of cardiovasculardisease and some kinds of cancers are relativelylow. Researchers are also looking intowhether soy plays a role in preventing osteoporosisand easing hot flashes associatedwith menopause. Some studies suggestthere may be a link (see Chapter 2 sidebar:Soy What? page 34).Although it may be too early to makespecific health claims for soy, there isevidence that adding soy to your diet makesgood nutritional sense. And, you may justdiscover a whole new range of healthfulfood products to enjoy.Preparation TipsGenerally, the soybeans now being incorporatedinto food are already processed, such asthe soybean oil in margarines and salad dressingsand the soy protein in baby formula andmeat substitutes. Or, they may already beincorporated into food products, such as tofu.Dried soybeans are often available at healthfood stores. They need to be soaked beforecooking to soften them. They are usuallysimmered, sometimes up to 9 hours, beforethey are softened enough to eat. Fresh andfrozen soybeans are now appearing in markets.Many cooks recommend cooking soybeanswith full-flavored items because they are ratherflavorless by themselves.

High-Protein Foods 333Serving SuggestionsAlthough Americans generally eat soy as partof other products, soybeans can be eatenfresh, roasted, ground into flour, or pressedinto oil. The Chinese first invented soysauce, then the Japanese borrowed theprocess to make their own sweeter version.Dark and light varieties are available. Servedark soy sauce with red meat and light soysauce with chicken or seafood. Because of itshigh sodium level, it should be used sparinglyif you are watching your salt intake.Tofu, made from coagulating soy milkuntil it forms curds, is available in soft, firm,and extra-firm consistencies, depending onhow much liquid was left in the pressedcurds. Tofu can be used in salads, soups,and stir-fried dishes.Nuts and SeedsNuts are high in fat and calories, but takenin moderation they can be part of a healthfuldiet. Nuts are not only flavorful, but,ounce for ounce, also full of nutrients.Most nuts are seeds or the dried fruitfrom trees. Peanuts, which are commonlythought of as nuts, are actually legumes. Theybelong to the same family as peas and beans.The word “nut” can be confusing. Theterm originally referred to an edible kernelsurrounded by a hard shell. In its mostscientific definition, the term now refers toa single-seed fruit with the seed surroundedby a dry, tough fruit. This definition worksfor hazelnuts, beechnuts, and chestnuts,but it does not “fit” almonds and walnuts(because their surrounding fruits aretheoretically edible) or peanuts (which arelegumes). Adding to the confusion, Brazilnuts and pine nuts are not nuts, either.They are actually seeds, and sunflower seedsare actually fruits.“SOY” MANY PRODUCTS TO CHOOSE FROMSoybean-based products take many forms. Besides oil that is pressed from soybeans,soy food products include the following:Miso — Miso is a salty, strong-flavored paste made by fermenting soybeanmeal and a grain, such as rice or wheat. It is used as a flavor enhancer and thickeningagent in many Asian dishes. Colors range from light yellow to dark orange,depending on the type of soybean used to make the miso.Soy flour — Many prepared foods include soy flour, which can be made fromwhole soybeans or soybean meal.Soy nuts — Roasted soybeans, commonly eaten as a snack.Soy sauce — Another product made from fermented soybeans, soy sauce is anessential condiment and cooking ingredient in Asian cuisine. To make soy sauce,soybeans or soy meal is mixed with ground wheat. Fermentation may take 1 to 3months.Soybean sprouts — As the name suggests, these are germinated soybeans.They are used in salads and as a garnish.Soybean milk — Soybean milk is made from soybeans that are soaked, ground,heated, and then filtered. Soy milk is a part of many baby formulas for infants whoare lactose-intolerant. Soy milk can be drunk as a beverage. Dried soy milk issometimes added to products such as ice cream.Tempeh — An essential component in Indonesian cooking, tempeh is a meatsubstitute that is made from soybeans that are soaked, dehulled, cooked, and thenfermented. Tempeh can be formed or made into patties. Tempeh is available inthe United States in health food stores.Tofu — Made by coagulating the protein from soy beans, tofu is a high-proteincurd that is used in many Asian dishes. Tofu is sold in blocks and is often used inplace of meat. It generally has a spongy texture. It can be cooked in a variety ofways to make dressings, dips, and shakes. It picks up the flavor of marinades andthus will taste like meat in many dishes.Yuba — A productmade of the protein-richskin that forms on the topof soybean milk when heatedjust to boiling, yuba hasa stringy, chewy texture.It is made of proteinand oil and is oftenused to produceimitationmeat products.Common soybeanproducts, such assoy milk, tofu, andfresh soybeans

334 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsNuts are a versatile food. They can beeaten fresh, cooked, and, sometimes, withtheir shell. They are available whole orchopped, salted and unsalted. In addition,products made from them include butters,oils, and spreads.NutritionThe protein in nuts and seeds lacks anessential amino acid called lysine, whichcan be gained from legumes and animalproducts. Although nuts are high in caloriesfor their size, they are also considereda “nutrient-dense” food. They contain alot of nutrients in relation to their calories.Nuts are also rich in different plant compounds.Flavonoids, for instance, are foundin all nuts. These antioxidants help reducethe formation of free radicals in the body thatmay contribute to cancer and cardiovasculardisease. Relative to their size, nuts are alsoamong the best plant sources for protein.Nuts are generally high in fat. In mostcases, more than 75 percent of their caloriescomes from fat (the exception being chestnuts— only 8 percent of the calories arefrom fat). But, on the plus side, it is the“right kind” of fat. Most of the fat in nutsis monounsaturated and polyunsaturated,with the exception of the coconut and palmkernel. Unlike saturated fats (typicallyfound in red meats and dairy products),these fats do not appear to increase bloodcholesterol levels. In small amounts,monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatsmay actually lower cholesterol levels.Watch the salt, however. Nuts do notcome by that naturally — it is an added feature.If you need to limit your salt intake,look for products with no added salt.SelectionPurchase nuts with a clean, uniform appearance.When buying nuts in the shell, lookfor whole, unbroken shells. To ensure maximalfreshness, look for nuts that are vacuumsealedin bags, jars, or other containers.StorageBecause of their high fat content, nuts andseeds should be stored in dark, cool, dryconditions in closed glass or plastic containersto prevent rancidity. Unshelled nutskeep better than shelled nuts, which canbecome rancid in a few weeks unless frozen.Most unshelled nuts will keep 2 months toa year in the refrigerator or a year or morein the freezer.Safety IssuesAllergies to nuts are one of the most commonkinds of food allergies. Symptoms ofan allergic reaction include nasal congestion,hives, itching, swelling, wheezing orshortness of breath, nausea, upset stomach,cramps, heartburn, gas or diarrhea, lightheadedness,or fainting. If you suspect thatyou have any food allergies, see an allergistfor a careful evaluation.The following pages are an overview ofnuts and seeds available, along with tips toinclude them in your meals.AlmondAlthough almonds are native to the warmerregions of western Asia and northern Africa,they grow well in California, where 99 percentof domestic almonds are grown.The almond fruit is the edible seed ofsweet almond trees. Almonds are teardropshapedand surrounded by a shell and anouter fleshy hull. They can be either sweetor bitter. The sweet types have a delicateyet distinctive flavor, but the bitter almondis inedible in its raw form because it containstraces of the poison prussic acid, acyanide compound. During the late 19thcentury, cross-breeding among sweetalmonds created new varieties that includethe California, Mission, Price, Carmel, andthe Nonpareil (the most popular varietytoday). Since then, approximately 30 additionalvarieties have been developed andare grown commercially.Nutritionally, almonds have morecalcium than any other nut and are an excellentsource of iron, riboflavin, and vitaminE. More than 60% of the fat comes frommonounsaturated fat.Preparation TipsAlmonds are available whole (both shelledand unshelled), sliced, slivered, diced, andchopped. If you buy whole almonds thatare not already blanched, you need toblanch them yourself by pouring boilingwater on them, draining them after aminute, and then pouring cold water onthem, draining again after a minute. Afterblanching, rub off the skins. Toastingalmonds before adding them to dishesenhances their flavor and texture.Serving SuggestionsThe mild flavor of almonds makes them apopular addition to a wide variety of dishes.They are popular as fillings and as ingredientsin pastries and other baked goods. Butalmonds also can be used in sauces, stuffing,and pasta dishes. A well-known vegetableAlmonds

High-Protein Foods 335dish is green beans amandine, which essentiallyis green beans topped with sliveredalmonds. Marzipan, a German candy, ismade from sweetened almond paste.Almond oil may be added to salads, andalmond extract or essence may be used as aflavoring in baked goods and drinks.BeechnutBeech trees grow in the temperate forestsof Europe, North America, Asia, and NorthAfrica and can be up to 120 feet tall.Beechnuts are simply the seeds (or nuts)enclosed in prickly burrs that fall to theground in the autumn. Beechnuts looklike small chestnuts and taste like hazelnuts.More than 10 species of beech treesproduce nuts.Beechnuts are an excellent source of thiaminand riboflavin and a good source ofiron. Monounsaturated and polyunsaturatedfats provide more than 80% of thefat content.Although beechnuts were once used as feedfor farm animals, they were also commonlyeaten during famines.Serving SuggestionsBeechnuts taste best roasted, a process thatmellows the flavor of these nuts. Groundbeechnuts also may be used as a coffee substitute.In Europe, oil is made from beechnutsand is used for cooking.Brazil NutThe Brazil nut grows on an evergreen tree,mainly along the Amazon, Orinoco, andRio Negro rivers of South America. About6 inches in diameter and resembling acoconut, the fruit of the Brazil nut tree has18 to 20 nuts within its hard shell. Inside,the triangular nuts are arranged like thewedges of an orange. It is the white kernelinside this shell that is eaten. This kernel isrich, creamy, and sweet and is a good sourceof phosphorus and thiamin and containssome calcium. This nut also has a high fatcontent, although most of it is unsaturated.Only after the fruits have fallen to theground are they harvested and choppedopen to obtain the nuts. Because the treesgrow wild in the heart of the Amazon jungle,the nuts can be shipped only during therainy season, when streams and rivers arenavigable. Although the nuts are obtainedonly in Brazil, most are exported, and nativeBrazilians rarely eat Brazil nuts.The Brazil nut is also known as the paranut, butternut, cream nut, and castanea.Oil from the nut is used to make soap oras an industrial lubricant.Preparation TipsBrazil nuts are available as raw, unshellednuts or shelled and roasted or dry-roasted.Because of their high fat content, bothPreparation TipsThe thin coat surrounding each cream-colorednut must be removed before it is eaten.A variety of nutsand seeds

336 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsBrazil nutsshelled and unshelled nuts should be refrigeratedor frozen to maintain freshness. Buyonly vacuum-packed nuts to maintain theirfreshness.Serving SuggestionsBrazil nuts add a crunchy texture to cakesand breads. Because of their sweetness, theyare also used in ice cream, cookies, andcandies. Brazil nuts can be difficult to shell.Keep a nutcracker handy if planning toserve them whole and in the shell, often atradition in many families at holidays.Cashew NutIndia is the world’s leading producer ofcashew nuts, although other important producersinclude Mozambique, Tanzania,Kenya, and Brazil.Cashew trees produce a fruit-like stalkcalled the cashew apple (even though it isthe shape of a pear). Attached to the endof the cashew apple is the cashew nut,which has a smooth, ash-colored outer shell.The edible kernel of the nut varies betweenthree-quarters of an inch and an inch inlength. Its generic name, Anacardium, refersto a heart shape, but cashews have more ofa kidney shape.It is impossible to buy cashews in theshell because the edible kernel is coveredwith an inner shell, and the space betweenthe inner and outer shells is filled with athick, caustic, toxic oil (related to poisonivy). Unshelled, unroasted cashew nuts willburn the mouth and lips and raise blisterson the skin.Nutritionally, cashews are an excellentsource of iron, phosphorus, and zinc anda good source of riboflavin, thiamin, andpotassium. The primary source of fat incashews is monounsaturated fat.Preparation TipsCashew nuts have a sweet, buttery flavorthat is further enhanced by roasting.Cashews are bought ready to use. Look forcashews sold in vacuum-packed cans toguarantee maximal freshness.Serving SuggestionsAlthough Americans view the cashew as anut for baking or dipped in chocolate for atreat, it also can be added to stir-fry dishesand salads. Cashews also can be made intoa delicious nut butter.ChestnutChestnut trees are found in Asia, Europe,and North America, and their fruit has beenmade popular in the lyrics of a Christmascarol. The trees that bear chestnuts werefirst cultivated in China about 5,000 yearsago. Mount Olympus, home to the gods ofancient Greece, was said to have had anabundance of chestnut trees.Cashew nutsChestnut trees are also long-lived.Some trees that were grafted more than 500years ago are still alive. The trees are alsoadaptable to poor land. The nuts are harvestedby hand once they have fallen fromthe burr, the name for the spiny outer covering.Trees typically start bearing nuts afterabout 25 years.Chestnuts can range in size from a halfinch to more than an inch, depending onthe variety. They have one rounded sideand one flat side and one rounded end andone pointed end. The roasted kernel is soft,meaty, and sweet.The common American chestnut,native to the eastern United States, oncedominated the forests of Maine to Georgia.But this tree is now nearly extinct becauseof a tree blight caused by a fungus. Today,only a small number of trees survive.Preparation TipsThe most traditional use of chestnuts is toroast them whole, with shell and skin, andto peel and eat them while they are still warm.Before roasting, cut an “x” into the flat sideof the nuts to prevent them from exploding.Chestnuts also can be boiled or steamed.Serving SuggestionsUse chestnuts as an ingredient in stuffing,casseroles, and baked goods. A glazed typeof candy (marrons glacés) is made from sugaredchestnuts. Ground chestnuts also canbe used as a coffee and chocolate substitute.Ginkgo NutThe ginkgo nut grows on what is consideredthe oldest known living species of tree. It hasremained virtually unchanged for 250 millionyears and is considered a living fossil.The ginkgo nut is the seed of an inedible,apricot-like fruit that is well known

High-Protein Foods 337Roasted chestnutsfor its strong, some might say offensive,odor. Nuts borne from female trees havehard, buff-colored shells that are pointedon either end. The meat inside has thesame shape and color, is soft, and has adelicate, sweet taste. Although the ginkgotree is commonly grown in U.S. citiesbecause it is resistant to air pollution, manypeople are unaware that it bears nuts andthat they can be eaten.In Asia, ginkgo nuts and the fanshapedleaves from the tree (Ginkgo bilobais the scientific name) have been used intraditional medicine for thousands ofyears. Extracts and powders derived fromginkgo leaves are among the top-sellingherbal supplements sold in the UnitedStates, where they are promoted as beinga memory aid.Scientists in the United States are studyingthe efficacy of ginkgo extracts, butresults so far have been inconclusive.Additionally, because scientists do not knowhow the extract works or its potential sideeffects, they are not recommending ginkgoextracts be used for medicinal purposesat this time.From a nutrition standpoint, ginkgonuts are an excellent source of phosphorus,potassium, copper, thiamin, and niacin.Preparation TipsBefore ginkgo nuts can be consumed orcooked, the hard shells must be removed.The kernels must then be soaked in hotwater to loosen the thin skins. Fresh, dried,or canned ginkgo nuts are widely availablein Asian grocery stores.Serving SuggestionsGinkgo nuts can be eaten as a snack afterthey are roasted. They are used in manyAsian main dishes and desserts. Ginkgonuts are a key ingredient in an egg-custardlikedish called chawanmushi.HazelnutThe United States produces about 9,000tons of unshelled hazelnuts, and Oregonand Washington account for 5 percent ofthe entire world’s production. The grapesizednuts have a thick, woody, brownishred shell that readily separates from the kernel.Nuts grow from leafy husks that openas the nut ripens. The nuts begin to dropfrom the trees in August. In September orOctober, they are swept up, washed, andthen dried. They are sorted for size andthen sold for processing. Hazelnuts arereferred to by a variety of names, includingfilbert or cobnut.There are 10 major species of hazelnuttrees. The most commonly grown are theEuropean, the American, and the Turkishhazelnut. Various hybrids are based onthese types. These hybrids include theWinkler, Duchilly, and the Barcelona,which is thought by many hazelnut fanciersto produce the finest nuts.Nutritionally speaking, hazelnuts arean excellent source of iron, magnesium,phosphorus, potassium, and thiamin anda good source of niacin. Monounsaturatedfat is the primary source of fat in hazelnuts.Preparation TipsThe hazelnut kernel is sweet. It is wrappedin a thin, slightly bitter-tasting, brown skin.This skin must be removed before the nutsare used. Heat the shelled nuts in a 350°Fahrenheit oven for 10 to 15 minutes untilthe skin begins to flake. Then, wrap theHazelnuts

338 Part II: Encyclopedia of Foodswarm nuts in a tea towel and rub them withthe towel after about 5 minutes to removethe skin.Serving SuggestionsHazelnuts can be eaten raw or they can beroasted. Chopped hazelnuts add crunchto salads, soups, sauces, breads, cakes, andcookies. Finely ground nuts can be usedas a replacement for flour. Hazelnut paste,made by grinding the nuts to a fine butterand mixing with sugar, is used for bakeryfillings and toppings.A fragrant oil made from pressed hazelnutsadds a nutty flavor to dressings, sauces,pastries, and coffee.Lotus SeedThe lotus plant and especially its flowershave been used as a motif in the arts ofthe ancient cultures of India, China, andEgypt for centuries. Although many peopleknow it is grown for its ornamentalflowers, the lotus plant also has edibleroots and seeds. The creamy seeds add amild flavor to cuisine in many Asiancountries.In addition to the seeds, the roots ofthe lotus plant can be eaten. When slicedand cooked, the light brown, starchy rootshave a crisp texture. They are commonlyused as a vegetable in Asian dishes. Eventhe leaves of the plant may be eaten. Youngleaves can be eaten raw. Mature leaves maybe used to wrap rice, meat, and fruit dishesbefore they are steamed.Lotus seeds are referred to by a varietyof names. Common ones include Indianlotus, hasu, and nelumbium.Preparation TipsYou can most readily find lotus seeds inAsian supermarkets, where they are soldfresh, dried, and canned. Fresh seeds aresold with the seed coat attached or removed,but both types spoil quickly. The seed coatsmust be removed before the nut can beeaten.Serving SuggestionsLotus seeds can be eaten raw. However,most commonly, they are used in cooking.Or, they are candied and eaten as a snack oradded to pastries as a filling. In Asian cooking,they may be stewed with poultry, addedto stir-fry meals, or cooked in water to makea dessert.Macadamia NutNative to Australia, the macadamia tree wasnamed for the naturalist Dr. JohnMacAdam. According to legend, he wasthe first to find the nuts edible.The macadamia nut is enclosed in avery hard, brownish shell, and the kernelis off-white in color. Each nut is about halfan inch to an inch in diameter and isenclosed in a thin, fleshy husk. This huskopens as the nut matures. The slightlyMacadamia nutssweet, creamy, rich flavor of the nutmeathas acquired a “gourmet” reputation and ahefty asking price.Macadamia nuts have the highest fatand calorie content of any nut, but they arean excellent source of magnesium, copper,and thiamin and a good source of iron andniacin. The fat in the macadamia nut isprimarily monounsaturated fat.The tree that bears macadamia nuts wasintroduced to some regions of the UnitedStates in the 1880s. It was not until the1930s, however, that a real consumer audiencemade the macadamia industry possible.Historically, Hawaii has supplied 90percent of the world’s macadamia nuts.Growers in California and Florida also havebegun contributing to domestic production.Macadamia nuts are also grown inBrazil, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Venezuela,Jamaica, South Africa, and Samoa.Preparation TipsBecause of their extremely hard shell (whichtakes up to 300 pounds of pressure to crack)and high oil content, macadamia nuts areusually sold shelled in vacuum-packed containers.The nuts can become rancid quicklybecause of their high oil content.Refrigerating them, however, can extendtheir shelf life up to 2 months.Serving SuggestionsMacadamia nuts may be bought raw orroasted, plain, chocolate-covered, or salted,and whole or chopped. They are great bythemselves as a snack. Choppedmacadamia nuts add a nice texture andflavor to salads, rice dishes, curries, cookies,cakes, candies, and ice cream. The nutsalso can be ground into a creamy butterand used as a spread. Oil made from thenuts can be added to salads or used forcooking.

High-Protein Foods 339Pecan NutBelonging to the same family as walnuts,pecan trees can be found growing wild fromIllinois to Texas and Maryland to Florida.In fact, more than 100 varieties of pecansare cultivated in the United States.Commercial cultivation of pecans, however,is limited to warm states. Georgia producesmore than a third of the total U.S. production,which totals about 200,000 tonsof unshelled pecans annually.Pecans are one of the most widelycultivated nuts in the world. The nut itselfis elongated and wrinkled, resembling awalnut, and has a buttery flavor. The shellsurrounding pecans is shiny, brown, andeasily cracked. Most of the fat in pecans isunsaturated. In addition, pecans are anexcellent source of many nutrients, includingphosphorus, thiamin, copper, and zinc,and a good source of iron and potassium.More than half of the fat in pecans ismonounsaturated fat.Preparation TipsUnshelled pecans are most widely availableduring the autumn months, although packaged,shelled nuts can be found in grocerystores year-round. Tightly wrapped, unshellednuts can be stored in a cool, dry place for upto 6 months; shelled nuts can be kept in an airtightcontainer in a freezer for up to 2 years.Pecan nutsPecan piePistachio NutPistachio nuts grow in clusters on the pistachiotree, which grows wild throughoutcentral and western Asia and is cultivated inwarmer areas of the world.The nuts are enclosed in fleshy husks.The nut itself has a hard, thin, tan shell thatpartially splits open when the nut is ripe.The shells may be dyed red or blanchedwhite by distributors to hide imperfections.Inside the shell is a smooth, pale-green kernelwrapped in a fine brownish skin. Thiskernel has a delicate and sweet flavor, whichlends itself to desserts.Shelled and unshelled nuts should bekept in an airtight container in the refrigerator,where they will keep for 3 months.Pistachios are available year-round.From a nutrition perspective, pistachiosare an excellent source of iron, magnesium,phosphorus, potassium, and thiamin. Themain source of fat in pistachios is monounsaturatedfat.Preparation TipsPistachios with fully closed shells are immatureand should be avoided. The nuts canbe eaten as a snack either raw or roasted.In addition, they can be added to puddings,cakes, candies, and luncheon meats. Or,chopped nuts can be added to stuffing,pâtés, and sauces.Serving SuggestionsMost people know and love pecan pie, asugary treat popular in the South. Pecanscan be eaten raw or roasted as a snack. Theyadd a rich flavor to breads, muffins, cakes,and other baked goods or can be sprinkledon cereal or many other types of food. Acandy with Southern roots is pecan praline,made from sugared pecans. Oil pressedfrom pecans may be used for cooking orfor salads, but it is expensive.

340 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsPistachio nutsServing SuggestionsIn Asian and Mediterranean cuisine, it iscommon to find pistachios in meat andpoultry dishes as well as in pastries. Baklava,the popular Middle Eastern dessert madewith the thin pastry called filo, containspistachios as a main ingredient, along withhoney and walnuts.Safflower SeedThe safflower plant has been cultivated inIndia, China, Persia, and Egypt for centuriesand it was only introduced in the UnitedStates in 1925. India still remains thelargest producer of safflower seed.Common names for safflower seedsinclude safflower, false saffron, and saffronthistle. Safflower seeds are about a quarterof an inch long and elongated.They are an excellent source of iron,magnesium, thiamin, and riboflavin and agood source of potassium and niacin.Preparation TipsSafflower seeds are enclosed in a fibrousseed coat that must be removed before theycan be eaten or pressed for oil. Up to 40percent of the weight of the seeds is oil.Serving SuggestionsThe seeds of the safflower are eaten friedor roasted. They are one of the primaryingredients in an Indian dish called chutney.The plant’s shoots are also edible and ofteneaten as salad greens.Sesame SeedSesame seeds are small, oval, and flat andhave a paper-thin, edible hull. They may bewhite, yellow, brown, red, or black.Lighter-colored seeds are considered preferableto dark seeds.Sesame seeds are 40 to 60 percent oilby weight. They are an excellent sourceof iron, thiamin, riboflavin, and phosphorusand a good source of potassium.Polyunsaturated fat is the primary sourceof fat.Preparation TipsAvailable hulled, unhulled, or ground,sesame seeds have a rich, nutlike flavorwhen roasted. Hulled seeds should be storedin the refrigerator because they quickly turnrancid.Serving SuggestionsAs anyone who has eaten a hamburgerknows, sesame seeds are commonly sprin-Sesame seedskled over the tops of buns. They are alsoused on bread, rolls, and crackers. Sesameseeds are mainly a condiment in the UnitedStates, but they can be added to stews for adelicate, nutlike flavor. In cuisine of MiddleEastern countries, sesame seeds are the mainingredient, along with honey and almonds,in a confection called halvah. Groundsesame seeds are also made into butter. Inthe Middle East, this is called tahini and isa popular addition to sauces and maindishes. Chickpeas and tahini can be combinedto make hummus, a popular part ofMiddle Eastern cuisine.Squash SeedCultivated worldwide, squash probably wasfirst gathered by indigenous people around8000 B.C., primarily for its seeds. Europeansettlers arriving in North America found itwas a common crop grown by AmericanIndians.Although most people are familiar witheating the flesh of squash, the seeds ofsquash by themselves are both tasty andnutritious. The most popular squash seedeaten in the United States is the pumpkinseed, which is flat with one rounded endand one end that tapers to a point. Theseeds are off-white and approximatelythree-quarters of an inch long. Theyenclose a green kernel that is delicatelynutty in flavor. In Mexico, pumpkin seedsare known as pepitas and are popular inmany dishes.The seeds of winter squash are alsocommonly eaten. The plants are harvestedwhen the fruits and, hence, the seeds arefully ripe. Summer squash, in contrast, iseaten before it and its seeds are fully ripe.Seeds from acorn squash, buttercup squash,and butternut squash are also edible. Theseeds are a healthful addition to your diet,

High-Protein Foods 341being an excellent source of iron, phosphorus,and potassium and a good sourceof thiamin and riboflavin. A little less thanhalf the fat comes from polyunsaturated fat.Preparation TipsSquash and pumpkin seeds are sold plainor salted, dried or roasted, unhulled orhulled. You also can make your own snackwhen hollowing out your Halloween jacko’-lanternor cooking your winter squash.Scoop out the seeds, rinse them, dry them,and then toast them in the oven until theyare golden brown. Soaking them in saltwater before baking adds flavor.Serving SuggestionsSeeds can be added to salads, sauces, andpasta dishes to add a crunchy texture or tosoups for additional texture.Sunflower SeedWith more than a hundred species, the sunflowergenus is thought to be native toeither western North America or SouthAmerica, although it now grows worldwide.The United States and the former countriesof the Soviet Union are among thelargest producers of sunflower seeds.Sunflower seeds are about a quarter ofan inch long, angular, and grayish green,tan, or black. They are enclosed in thinshells. Often, these shells are striped inblack and white. Two main varieties of sunflowerare cultivated commercially. TheRussian variety is grown mainly for oilbecause the seeds contain more than 40percent oil by weight. The North Americanvariety has larger seeds and is grown forhuman consumption and for bird food.Although high in calories and fat, sunflowerseeds contain mostly unsaturatedfat. In addition, they are a rich source ofSunflower seedsnutrients, including folic acid, niacin, potassium,and zinc. They are also high in fiber.Sunflower seeds are best kept in a cool, dryplace. If shelled, they should be stored inthe refrigerator to prevent rancidity.Preparation TipsSunflower seeds usually are shelled beforethey are added to dishes. Shelling by handcan be difficult, although soaking helps.Most people simply buy commerciallyshelled sunflower seeds.Roasted seeds fromsquash are also edible.Serving SuggestionsSunflower seeds can be eaten raw, roasted,and salted or unsalted and are terrific snacksby themselves. They also are excellent additionsto salads, stuffing, or yogurt. Groundseeds can be combined with flour to makebreads, as is done in Portugal and Russia.The seeds also can be roasted to make acoffee-like drink. A note to cooks: theseeds may turn green when cooked.WalnutWalnut is the common name for about 20species of deciduous trees that include thehickory and pecan tree. The two mostcommon species are the black walnut and theEnglish, also known as the Persian, walnut.The fleshy green fruit of the blackwalnut encapsulates the nut and cushionsit when it falls from the tree. Effort isrequired to pry the edible kernel from thenut’s thick, woody shell. The inside of thefruit may stain your hands.

342 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsThe kernel of the English walnut,however, is more easily removed from itsshell, which is generally thinner and easierto crack. In addition, the husks of Englishwalnuts separate when the fruit is mature,allowing the nut to drop out. Partly forthese reasons, the English walnut is themore commercially cultivated species.Nutritionally, walnuts are an excellentsource of phosphorus, zinc, copper,and thiamin and a good source of ironand potassium. More than 70 percent ofthe fat comes from polyunsaturated fat.Preparation TipsWalnuts purchased in the shell should befree of cracks or holes. Shelled nuts shouldWalnutsbe plump, meaty, and crisp. Unshelledwalnuts can be stored in a cool, dry place forup to 3 months. Shelled kernels can berefrigerated in a tightly covered containerfor up to 6 months. Shelling walnuts canbe difficult, but commercially shelledwalnuts are readily available. Toasting walnutsenhances their flavor, helps maintaincrispness, and makes them easier to chop.Serving SuggestionsWalnuts are a versatile cooking ingredientthat can be added to salads, pilafs, cookies,muffins, breads, cakes, and ice cream.Whole young nuts can be pickled in vinegar.Walnuts also can be pressed to make anoil that is typically used in salads.Walnuts also have a variety of nonculinaryuses. The shells are used as an antiskidagent for tires and as blasting grit.Ground nutshells are sometimes added tocommercial spices as a filler.The traditional Waldorf salad ismade with walnuts.

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345Dairy FoodsIncludes: Milk, Yogurt, and CheeseMilk is a bundle of nutrients, all contained in a nondescript white liquid.Although milk’s presence as a beverage at meals may not be as popularas it used to be, milk is used in many products that are consumed throughoutthe day.On the Food Guide Pyramid, milk and dairy products are placednear the top because, although they are part of a healthful diet, theyshould be consumed in moderation. Adults should consume 2 servingsof low-fat or nonfat dairy products daily;1 serving equals 1 cup of milk or yogurt or1 1/2 ounces of cheese. Children andpregnant or lactating women shouldadd an extra serving each day. Milkand other dairy foods are rich incalcium, a mineral important fordeveloping strong bones and teeth and fornerve transmission. They are also an importantsource of many vitamins and minerals. Large quantitiesof these foods, however, are not needed to ensure thatyou are getting adequate amounts of these nutrients. Just three8-ounce glasses of skim milk, for example, provide nearly all of thecalcium you need each day.Some people do not include enoughdairy foods in their diets. One reason isthe mistaken belief that all dairy productsare high in fat. Some are, but there is anabundance of low-fat and nonfat dairyproducts, from milk to yogurt to cheese.Other people do not consume dairyfoods because of intolerance to milk sugaror allergy to milk proteins. However, thosewith intolerance to milk often do not needto follow a diet that is completely milk-free(see sidebar: Lactose Intolerance, page 347).People with allergy to milk must avoid dairyfoods and may want to get help with adjustingtheir diets to ensure nutritional adequacy(see sidebar: Milk Allergy: HiddenIngredients, page 349).Another reason people do not consumedairy products is the growing consumptionof soda pop. The average American drinksabout a half gallon of milk a week but, incomparison, about 11 cans — or a gallon— of soda pop a week. Taking calcium supplementsor eating calcium-enriched foodcan help you obtain needed calcium, but dairyfoods are an easy way to get the calcium andother essential nutrients you need.BasicsMilk can be consumed in its fluid form, ina more solid form (such as yogurt), as cheese,or as a major ingredient that is added toother foods. Dairy cases now abound withmilk-based products and their reduced-fatand nonfat versions. The cornucopia ofdairy products includes the following:Fluid milk — Although cow’s milk isgenerally consumed in the United States,other cultures use milk from goats, camels,llamas, reindeer, sheep, and water buffalo.Milk is a staple in diets worldwide.Dried and concentrated milk —These products include powdered milk,evaporated milk, and condensed milk.Cheese — Cheese is made by coagulatingand draining milk or cream or a combinationof both.Yogurt — Yogurt is made by addingbacteria to milk to ferment it.Ice cream and other dairy desserts —Ice cream and other frozen desserts are

346 Part II: Encyclopedia of Foodssimply milk or cream to which sugar, flavorings,and, often, eggs have been added.Cream and sour cream — Cream is thefat that rises to the top of the surface inunprocessed milk. Sour cream is simply creamthat has been fermented or thickened. Thecream is usually “soured” by adding bacteria toit, much in the way that yogurt is created.Butter — This yellowish substance isessentially fat that has been separated fromcream. For that reason, it is discussed inFats, Oils, & Sweeteners, page 389.Processing of Milk and Milk ProductsVirtually all milk and milk used in dairyproducts is pasteurized. Pasteurization isa process invented by French chemist LouisPasteur. It uses heat to destroy harmfulbacteria in milk, but it retains the nutritionalvalue of milk.Pasteurization kills bacteria that havebeen responsible for major plagues such astuberculosis, polio, scarlet fever, and typhoidfever. It is also advantageous because itdestroys many of the bacteria that causespoilage and many of the enzymes that promoterancidity. Pasteurization, therefore,increases both shelf life and safety of milk.A common term that consumers seewhen purchasing milk is “homogenized.”Homogenization is a process introduced inthe 1950s in which fat globules in the milkare broken down so they are evenly dispersedthroughout the milk. Most milk atthe supermarket is homogenized.During homogenization, milk is forcedthrough a small opening at high pressure.The product has a smoother, richer textureand a whiter color than nonhomogenizedmilk.The processing of milk begins at the farm.NutritionMilk and dairy products provide many ofthe key nutrients needed daily, particularlycalcium (for more specific information, referto milk in the nutrient table on page 472).Milk and dairy products also supplyhigh-quality protein. Because of its animalsource, milk protein is complete — meaningit provides a sufficient amount of thenine essential amino acids (see Chapter 2,Protein, page 23).Dairy products are also naturally richin B vitamins and most of the minerals consideredto be essential in the diet, includingcalcium, magnesium, phosphorus, zinc,iodine, and selenium. In addition, milkalso contains several vitamins and mineralsthat have been added to meet the requirementsof the Food and Drug Administration.Low-fat and nonfat milk may be fortifiedwith vitamin A because this fat-solublevitamin is lost when the milk fat is removed.Vitamin D is added to all milk to help thebody better use calcium.Milk also is a good source of carbohydrates.With the exception of cheeses andbutter, milk products are higher in carbohydratesthan protein or fat. Milk’s carbohydrateis lactose, a sugar unique to milkthat is actually two sugars (glucose andgalactose) linked together. Food scientistscall this type of sugar a “disaccharide.”Lactose is not as sweet as other sugars.It helps the body absorb calcium and phosphorusand may even help in the growthof friendly bacteria needed in the intestines.In addition, galactose, one of the sugars inlactose, is a vital part of brain and nervetissue. It is released when the body digestslactose. Lactose is a bit of a paradox, however.Although it has these beneficialproperties, many people have difficultydigesting milk (see sidebar: LactoseIntolerance, page 347).

Dairy Foods 347LACTOSE INTOLERANCEAs many as 50 million Americans are estimated to have lactoseintolerance — an inability to adequately digest ordinaryamounts of dairy products such as milk and ice cream.Worldwide, nearly 70 percent of the adult population isthought to be lactose intolerant, and the condition is verycommon among American Indians and those of Asian,African, Hispanic, and Mediterranean descent.Lactose is the sugar that is naturally present in milk andmilk products. It must be broken down by lactase (an enzymefound in the intestine) before the body can use it. If there isnot enough lactase, undigested milk sugar remains in theintestine. Bacteria in the colon then ferment this sugar.Gas, cramping, and diarrhea can follow.Most of us begin to lose intestinal lactase as we age.However, this occurs to varying degrees. Thus, people withlactase deficiency vary in their ability to comfortably digestmilk and milk products.As obvious as the symptoms of lactose intolerance may be,it is not easily diagnosed from the symptoms alone. Manyother conditions, including stomach flu and irritable bowelsyndrome, can cause similar symptoms.See your physician to determine whether you are lactoseintolerant. Measurement of the hydrogen in your breathafter you have taken in lactose is a useful test because largeamounts of hydrogen indicate that lactose is not being fullydigested and that you are probably intolerant.Persons with milk allergies should avoid milk, but thosewith lactose intolerance often do not need to follow a diet thatis completely lactose-free. The following suggestions may help:• Avoid eating or drinking large servings of dairy productsat one time. (Several smaller servings over the course of afew hours are much easier to digest.)• Drink milk or eat dairy products with a meal.• Choose hard or aged cheeses, such as Swiss or cheddar,over fresh varieties. Hard cheeses have smaller amountsof lactose and are more likely to be tolerated.• Take lactase tablets or drops, such as Lactaid or DairyEase. These types of products contain the enzyme that breaksdown lactose, reducing the amount that your body mustdigest on its own.For help with meal planning, you may want to see aregistered dietitian.Despite all the nutrients in milk, thenutritional advantages of dairy productsmust be weighed against the potentialhealth drawbacks of two key components inmilk: sodium and fat. Whole milk, cream,and cheeses contain substantial amounts offat, especially saturated fat. These fats addcalories and have been tied to higher cholesterollevels and cardiovascular disease (seeChapter 3, Coronary Artery Disease, page61). However, it is important to note thatlow-fat and nonfat milk varieties are availableand are significantly lower in fat thanwhole milk. In addition, depending onhow much is consumed, milk or productsmade from milk may be a major source ofsodium — a special concern for anyonefollowing a low-sodium diet.SelectionUnless dried or canned, milk and dairy productsare perishable. For that reason, mosthave an expiration date printed on the packaging.The date often states, “Sell by . . .”and is a good indicator of freshness. Look forthe date before buying and before consuminga product. Usually, dairy products willkeep about a week beyond that date.StorageKeep milk in the coldest part of your refrigerator.Avoid storing milk in the refrigeratordoor unless it has a special compartmentdesigned to keep the milk colder thanin the rest of the refrigerator.Keep yogurt and fresh cheeses in airtightcontainers in the refrigerator. Looselywrapped, these foods will pick up smells inthe refrigerator, possibly leaving them withan undesirable taste.Cheeses such as cottage cheese, ricotta,and cream cheese will keep for 1 week afterthe sell-by date. Soft cheeses — such asBrie, Camembert, Muenster, and mozzarella— and blue-vein cheeses can keep from 1to 3 weeks. Semi-firm and hard cheeses,such as cheddar and Monterey Jack, willkeep as long or longer. Generally, theharder the cheese, the longer it will remainfresh when carefully stored.Shredded cheese will not keep as longbecause it has more surface exposed to theair. Soft cheese that has mold on it shouldbe discarded. Firm cheese that has mold cansometimes be used as long as 1/2 inch to 1

348 Part II: Encyclopedia of Foodsinch of cheese near the molded spot has beencut away and discarded. If any milk or milkproduct has a strange odor, throw it out.Safety IssuesSome small markets or independent farmersstill sell raw milk. Because it has notbeen pasteurized, this milk may containgerms that make you ill. For that reason,the sale of raw milk is often prohibited bylaw, depending on location.For some people, proteins in cow’s milkmay trigger allergic reactions. Whey proteins(beta-lactoglobulin and beta-lactalbumin)and casein are the primary proteinsthat trigger allergic reactions.Symptoms of a milk allergy may includenasal congestion, hives, itching, swelling,wheezing, shortness of breath, nausea, upsetstomach, cramps, heartburn, gas or diarrhea,light-headedness, and fainting.It is easy to confuse a milk allergy withanother common health concern related todairy foods — lactose intolerance. Lactoseintolerance (see page 347) also can lead tonausea, vomiting, cramping, and diarrhea.However, if you have lactose intolerance,you usually can eat small amounts of dairyfood without problems. In contrast, a tinyamount of a food to which you are allergiccan trigger a reaction.If you suspect that you have any foodallergies, see your physician. You may thenbe referred to an allergist for a careful evaluation.This generally includes a medicalhistory, physical examination, and skin orblood testing. If the diagnosis is a milk allergy,it is essential to eliminate milk and foodsmade with milk from your diet (see sidebar:Milk Allergy: Hidden Ingredients, page 349).MilkMilk has a wide variety of uses and thus isone of the most basic items found inkitchens worldwide. It is consumed as abeverage, poured on cereals, and used inmany different ways in cooking. In responseto consumers with different nutritionaldemands, modern food science has mademany different types of fluid milk available.Although milk can be less inviting topeople who are concerned with their weightbecause of its high fat content, some typesof milk contain no fat at all.Whole milk — Containing 3 1/2 percentmilk fat, this type of milk is often simplylabeled “milk” or “vitamin D milk” ifthat particular vitamin has been added. Ofall types of milk, whole milk is among thehighest in fat and calories. One cup has 150calories and approximately 8 grams of fat.Reduced-fat milk — Often referred toas two percent, this type of milk has hadsome milk fat removed from it. Two percentreflects the amount of fat in the milk byweight. It does not refer to the percentageof calories from fat. One cup of 2 percentmilk has 130 calories and 5 grams of fat.Low-fat milk — Also known as 1 percentmilk, this type of milk contains about100 calories and 2.6 grams of fat in 1 cup.Nonfat or skim milk — Skim milk,which contains less than 0.5 percent milkfat, is now more often labeled nonfat milk.It contains the same amount of nutrients,such as calcium, as its higher fat counterparts,but it has no fat and just 90 calories.Buttermilk — Buttermilk was once theresidue left from churning butter, buttoday’s version is made from adding a lacticacid culture to milk. The result is far lessrich than the original “natural” buttermilk,but it still retains the thick texture andacidic tang of old. Some manufacturersadd flecks of butter for an authentic lookor stabilizers to prevent separation. Becauseof its name, buttermilk may sound highin fat. Yet, in most instances it is not.Buttermilk derives its fat content from themilk used to make it, and in the UnitedStates low-fat or nonfat milk is used mostoften. Calories and fat in buttermilkdepend on what type of milk was used tomake it. Check the label for fat content.Acidophilus milk — Normally killedduring pasteurization, the healthy bacteriaculture Lactobacillus acidophilus is reintroducedinto whole, low-fat, or nonfat milkto create sweet acidophilus milk. In a/Bmilk, both acidophilus and bifidobacteriacultures are added. Acidophilus occursnaturally in the body and is found mainlyin the small intestine. Many factors canalter the level of this intestinal bacterium,including diet, alcohol consumption, illness,

Dairy Foods 349MILK ALLERGY: HIDDEN INGREDIENTSIf you are allergic to milk, it is importantto check the labels of the foodsyou eat. Milk or components of milkare common ingredients in many differentfoods, some of which you mightnot be aware of.Foods that likely contain milkinclude the following:• Butter, including artificial butterflavor, butter fat, ghee, buttermilk• Chocolate, caramel, nougat• Cheese, including cream cheese,cottage cheese, and cheese curds• Simplesse (a fat substitute)• Luncheon meats, hot dogs, andsausages• Cream, including half-and-half,nondairy creamers (containing casein)• Margarine• Yogurt• So-called nondairy items, includingcoffee lighteners, whipped toppings,imitation cheeses, and frozen or softservedessert items. These may containcasein, a milk protein.Ingredients on the label that indicatemilk or a dairy product is in theproduct include the following:• Lactalbumin• Lactoglobulin• Rennet casein• Lactose• Casein• Hydrolysates (casein hydrolysates,milk protein hydrolysates, proteinhydrolysates, whey or whey proteinhydrolysates)• Evaporated, dry, or milk solids• Whey• So-called natural flavorings (checkwith manufacturer for more information)and medications. Alterations in levels cansometimes lead to poor digestion, diarrhea,and bloating. Drinking acidophilus milkproducts may reduce intestinal infectionand diarrhea and improve milk digestionand tolerance. Studies are under way toevaluate whether these bacteria can helpregulate blood cholesterol levels and preventcancer. Calories and fat in acidophilus milkdepend on what type of milk was culturedwith the acidophilus bacterium. If wholemilk was used, for example, acidophilustreatedmilk contains the same amount offat and calories as whole milk.Lactose-reduced and lactose-free milk —These products are tailored to people whohave trouble digesting lactose, a sugarfound in milk. An enzyme called lactaseis added during the processing of this milk.The result is that lactose in the milk isreduced by at least 70 percent (lactosereduced)or up to 99.9 percent (lactose-free).Calories and fat in lactose-reduced and lactose-freemilk depend on what type of milkwas cultured.Ultrapasteurized milk (UHT) — Thismilk has been popular in Europe for manyyears, but it has only recently appeared inU.S. supermarkets. The “ultra-heat treatment”(UHT) sterilizes milk by quicklyheating it, sometimes as high as 300 degreesFahrenheit, and then quickly cooling itbefore packaging it in vacuum-packed, asepticcontainers. UHT milk can be storedfor 2 to 3 months without refrigeration,until opened. Once opened, UHT milkshould be refrigerated and quickly consumed.It can spoil, but unlike other milk,it does not curdle as a warning sign ofspoilage. The ultra-heat process makes themilk taste slightly scalded, but it is thoughtthat the treatment does not substantiallyaffect the nutrient value. The amount offat and calories in UHT milk depends onthe type of milk from which it was made.Flavored milk — Flavorings, sugar, orother sweeteners are added to fluid milk.Although some milk is flavored with strawberry,vanilla, and even peanut butterflavorings, chocolate is used most commonly.Flavored milks are higher in calories thantheir unflavored counterparts. Calories andfat in flavored milk range from 150 caloriesand no fat for 1 cup of chocolate milk madefrom skim milk to more than 210 caloriesand 8 grams of fat for 1 cup of wholechocolate milk. When purchasing flavoredmilks, look for products that are made fromskim or reduced-fat milk. Avoid thoselabeled “premium.” They often are madefrom whole milk, which is high in fat.Preparation TipsIt is easy to overcook milk when heating it.When milk is heated to a temperature thatis too high, its proteins clump together andcurds appear in the milk. When heatingmilk, always use low heat and stir frequently.Using a double boiler when heating milkalso helps prevent overheating.Anyone who has ever had homemadehot cocoa knows that heated milk candevelop a “skin” (a thickened surface). Aneasy way to prevent this is to mix a littlecornstarch into the milk before heating it.

350 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsServing SuggestionsNonfat milk has the least amount of fat andcalories but still provides all of milk’s nutrients.Many people prefer its lighter textureand taste to the heaviness of whole milk.Even the staunchest fan of whole milk caneasily be converted to using this healthieralternative. Make the change gradually.Start by mixing equal parts of whole milkwith 2 percent milk. Then, in stepwise progression,use just 2 percent, next a combinationof 2 percent and 1 percent, then just1 percent, then a combination of 1 percentSOY AND RICE “MILK”Nondairy beverages made from soybeansand rice are available forpersons who have milk allergies, arelactose-intolerant, or prefer not toeat animal products. Both soy milkand rice milk are similar in look andtaste to milk and can be used formany of the same purposes, suchas pouring on cereal or makingsmoothies and other dairy-basedbeverages.Soymilk is made from water,soybeans, malted corn and barleyextract, seaweed (used for thickeningpurposes), salt, and, depending onthe brand, a fat or oil. Rice milk ismade from water, brown rice, salt,and, depending on the brand, saffloweroil and various vitamins andminerals. Soy and rice milks havefewer calories and less fat than wholemilk, but they have more of boththan skim milk. One cup of soymilkhas about 135 calories and 5 gramsof fat. One cup of rice milk hasabout 120 calories and 2 grams of fat.and skim milk, and eventually only skimmilk. If you dislike skim milk, 1 percentor 2 percent milk is a reasonable option,especially if it keeps you drinking milk.Buttermilk can be substituted for creamin many recipes: a half cup of buttermilkhas 1 gram of fat, but the same serving oflight cream has 31 grams.Whenever possible, lower the amountof fat in a recipe by substituting a lowerfatmilk. A cream soup made with low-fatmilk is just as rich tasting, especially if youthicken the soup with a bit of flour. A cupof cocoa made with skim milk providesmore nutrients and fewer calories than theaverage chocolate dessert, and it is just aseffective for satisfying a sweet tooth.Dried & ConcentratedMilksDried and concentrated milks offer convenienceand increased shelf life. Such productsalso can be used in numerous recipesto give the taste of milk without all the watervolume of fluid milk. Dried and concentratedmilk products include the following:Powdered milk — As its name suggests,powdered milk is milk that has hadnearly all the water removed from it.Mixing it with water (follow package directions)results in fluid milk. Powdered milkis usually made from skim milk becausehaving less fat helps the product resist rancidity.Recipes sometimes call for powderedmilk to thicken sauces or to add calciumand protein to foods. Powdered milk doesnot taste like fresh milk. However, itsstability and portability make it a frequentingredient in convenience foods orprepared mixes. These qualities also makeit an excellent choice for travelers. Openedpackages of low-fat, nonfat, and butter-SELECTING MILK FORCHILDRENMilk recommendations for childrenolder than 1 year are a practicalconcern for parents. Can everyonein the family drink the same milk,or should you buy certain milk foronly the youngest members?Breast milk, of course, is recommendedduring the first year of life.If the infant is weaned during thefirst year, the best alternative is to useiron-fortified formula. Formula-fedinfants should remain on iron-fortifiedformula until 1 year of age.After age 1, the American Academyof Pediatrics recommends usingwhole milk if the use of breast milkor formula is discontinued. Untilage 2, fat should not be limited inan infant’s diet.After age 2 years, children canbegin to consume fat in moderation,just as the rest of the family does.However, whether to use low-fatmilk will vary for each child. If achild has had poor growth or achronic medical condition, discussthe appropriate fat content of milk— and diet in general — with thechild’s physician. For otherwisehealthy children older than 2 years,low-fat milk (skim, 1 percent, or2 percent) is fine — and it meansyou have to buy only one type ofmilk for the entire family.milk forms of powdered milk are good forup to 6 months. Reseal opened packagesand store in a cool, dark, and dry place toprevent the product from absorbingmoisture in the air. All opened packages

Dairy Foods 351of dried milk keep better in the refrigeratorbecause temperature and humidity arebetter controlled.Evaporated milk — Packaged in sealedcans, evaporated milk is milk from whichabout 60 percent of water has been evaporated.The milk is homogenized and packedin heat-sterilized cans that help extend shelflife. Unopened cans can be stored at roomtemperature for up to 6 months but shouldbe refrigerated and used within 5 days afterbeing opened. Evaporated milk has aslightly darker color than regular milkbecause it was heated during the evaporationprocess.Sweetened condensed milk — Thickand sold in sealed cans, condensed milk isoften used to make desserts because it isusually sweetened. Like evaporated milk,more than half of the water in sweetenedcondensed milk is removed by heating it.Up to 40 to 45 percent of this product byweight is sugar. In its undiluted form,sweetened condensed milk contains nearly13 tablespoons of sugar and 1,000 caloriesper cup. For that reason, it is best to eatsmall servings of desserts and dishes madewith this ingredient.Preparation TipsDry milk can be reconstituted accordingto package directions, or it can be mixedwith cool water in a blender for a morepleasing consistency. When using sweetenedcondensed milk, cut down on theamount of other sugar you use in the recipeto save on calories.Serving SuggestionsNonfat dry milk can add a boost of calciumto recipes for meatloaf, hot cereal, gravy, orcanned cream soups. A tablespoon contains94 milligrams of calcium but adds only 27calories. Many brands are fortified withvitamins A and D for a nutrient bonus.Evaporated milk often is used in soupsand sauces for a smooth, creamy texture.Well chilled, it also can be whipped andused as a dessert topping with only a tenthof the calories of heavy whipped cream.Cream and Sour CreamCream is made from milk fat. It is extremelyhigh in fat and calories, but it creates thecreamy, rich, indulgent taste in desserts andsauces.A century ago, cream was skimmedfrom the top of milk that was set in a coolplace. Today, machines separate commer-cially made cream. Many types of creamare sold:Heavy cream and light whipping cream —Heavy cream has between 36 and 40 percentmilk fat by weight. The thickest ofthe “sweet creams,” heavy cream is usedmainly for whipping cream and for desserts.A lower-fat version, with 30 to 36 percentmilk fat, is called light whipping cream.For this cream to whip properly, emulsifiersand stabilizers are added to the cream.Both products double in volume whenwhipped. For this reason, whipping creamis also called double cream.Light cream — Light cream contains18 to 30 percent milk fat by weight andcannot be whipped. Instead of doublingin size, it remains the same volume. Hence,it is called single cream. Other names for

352 Part II: Encyclopedia of Foodslight cream include table cream or coffeecream, because it is often the cream usedto fill coffee creamers.Half-and-half — This is a mixture ofequal parts of whole milk and light cream,homogenized to prevent separation. It containsfrom 10 to 12 percent milk fat byweight and can be substituted in manyrecipes calling for cream. The product cutscalories and fat, but it lacks some of thevelvety qualities of heavy or light cream.Half-and-half commonly is added tocoffee, although a far healthier alternativeis skim milk.Sour cream — Real sour cream contains18 to 20 percent milk fat by weight.It is created commercially by introducinga bacterial culture to cream that convertsthe milk’s sugar, lactose, into lactic acid.The acid gives sour cream its distinctive,tangy flavor. Stabilizers such as sodiumalginate, carrageenan, locust bean gum, orWHAT GOES INTO YOUR COFFEE COUNTSWhat goes into the brew you purchase at your local espresso bar matters. For example,here’s how your choice of milk affects two popular espresso-based beverages:Latte (12 ounces) Calories Fat (grams) Carbohydrates (grams)Made with whole milk 190 11 14Made with skim milk 95 0 14Cappuccino (12 ounces)Made with whole milk 155 9 11Made with skim milk 55 0 9gelatin are sometimes added to make sourcream thick and smooth, and rennet andnonfat milk solids are added to give it morebody. Low-fat and light sour creams areboth made with half-and-half according tothe same process to create a similar productwith 60 percent less fat than regular sourcream. Fat-free sour cream substitute ismade with the same process, and skim milkis used as the base.Nondairy creamers and toppings —These imitation dairy products sometimescontain coconut oil, palm kernel oil, orother highly saturated and hydrogenatedvegetable oils mixed with casein (a milkprotein) and lactose (a milk sugar). Theseingredients create a high level of saturatedfat without providing any of the vitaminsand minerals found in milk or cream. Fatfreeand sugar-free versions of regular coffeecreamers, lighteners, and nondairy whippedtoppings have various amounts of sugarsand fats. Pressurized whipped cream,packed in cans under pressure, uses gas toexpand the cream. Aerosol dessert toppingsdo not contain any milk or cream.Preparation TipsBecause cream is highly perishable, it shouldbe stored in the coolest part of the refrigeratorand used quickly. To whip cream,chill the cream thoroughly and place thebeaters and bowl in the freezer for 10 minutesbefore whipping. Whip at mediumspeed until the cream thickens.

Dairy Foods 353Serving SuggestionsAlthough air is added to whipped cream,a dollop atop a special treat adds extra fat(mostly saturated): about 3 grams for 1/4cup. Cream sauces served over pasta arealso high in fat. Instead, try a vegetablerichmarinara sauce. Substitute a lower-fatversion of cream in recipes when possible,or use milk or yogurt. For recipes calling forsour cream, try buttermilk or yogurt.CREAM GLOSSARYChantilly cream — Named forthe place in France where it isbelieved to have originated, chantillycream is made simply by addingsugar and vanilla to whipped cream.Clotted cream (also calledDevonshire cream) — A sour creamthat originated in Devonshire,England, clotted cream is thickerthan regular sour cream. After beingheated and cooled, the cream isskimmed and then eaten on sconeswith jam.Crème fraîche — A product thatfalls between fresh cream and sourcream, crème fraîche is used often inFrench cooking, in which it is servedlightly whipped and sweetened. It ismade by adding a small amount ofbuttermilk to cream and heating themixture. It is then stored in a warmplace until it thickens. This usuallytakes between 12 and 36 hours. Themixture is then refrigerated and canbe kept up to a week.Smetana — A dense Russian sourcream, smetana is traditionally servedon borscht and salads. It is alsoknown by the names smitane,smatana, or sliuki.If substitutions leave you yearning forthe real thing, or if you eat more of thelower-fat item than you would have eatenof the higher-fat ingredient, you may wantto stick to the recipe and eat a smaller servingas an occasional indulgence.CheeseDespite the high fat content of most formsof cheese, cheese remains an Americanfavorite. Dairy cases are filled with differentvarieties of cheeses, and classic foods suchas pizza, cheeseburgers, and tacos, all ofwhich use some form of cheese, guaranteegenerations of cheese lovers.The first cheese was said to have developedby accident, when milk was allowedto ferment. Whether the first cheese wasformed from Mongolian yak’s milk, theAfrican camel’s milk, or the Middle Easternewe’s milk is unknown and still debated.But the results, after thousands of years,remain the same: the earliest coagulatingcurds of milk carried in a shepherd’s pouchhave become a tempting treat, with manydifferent types from which to choose.Cheese can be made from various milks.Milk from cows is typically used in theUnited States, but milk from sheep, goats,camels, and other animals is used worldwide.In fact, some of the world’s finest gourmetcheeses are made from sheep’s milk.No matter what type of milk is used, theprocess is essentially the same. The first stepis to curdle the milk, essentially causing proteinsin the milk to clump. Bacterial culturesor certain enzymes are used to curdlethe milk. Next, the liquid surrounding thecurds, which is called the whey, is drained.

354 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsThen the curds are pressed into shapes.Salt may be added at this point. The freshlymade cheese is then allowed to age, aprocess that develops its flavor. Other ingredientsalso may be added at this point. Ingeneral, 11 pounds of milk are needed tomake 1 pound of cheese. Knowing that, itis easy to see why cheese is dense in bothcalories and fat.Like any dairy product, cheese is perishable.A general rule is that the harderthe cheese, the longer it keeps. Categoriesof cheese are determined by the methodused to make it, the type of milk used, thetexture, or even the appearance of the rind.This classification system groups cheeseswith common characteristics.Fresh CheesesThese cheeses were once made on the farmfrom surplus cream and quickly served.Today these cheeses are made with pasteurizedmilk, but they still have a shortshelf life and must be consumed quickly.Fresh cheeses are not allowed to ripen orferment very long, so they have a high moisturecontent, a mild flavor, and a smooth,creamy texture. They generally keep for 1week after purchase or the “use by” date.Common types of fresh cheeses includethe following:Cottage cheese — Usually thought of asa “diet” food, cottage cheese is a healthfulfood choice when it is made from skim orlow-fat milk. Cottage cheese is only a fewsteps from milk. It is essentially the separationof milk into curds and whey. Thecurds are partially drained before cottagecheese is packaged and sold.Cream cheese — The mild white spreadoften used for bagels, cream cheese is abetter choice than butter, but it still has a lotof fat. Up to 90 percent of the calories incream cheese are from fat. One tablespoonhas about 50 calories and about 5 grams offat. Even reduced-fat cream cheese is highin fat, with up to 75 percent of caloriesfrom fat. From a calorie and fat standpoint,fat-free cream cheeses are the best choice.Farmer’s cheese — Often used in baking,farmer’s cheese is essentially cottagecheese that has had most of the liquidFresh mozzarella cheese, tomato,and basil on crackers.

Dairy Foods 355pressed out of it. It is usually sold formedas a loaf and is relatively low in fat.Mozzarella — The pizza topping ofchoice, mozzarella is a soft, bland cheese.Unlike other fresh cheeses, mozzarella hasundergone a heating and kneading process.Whole-fat, skim, low-moisture, and fatfreeversions of mozzarella cheese are available.Fresh mozzarella, sold in specialtyand ethnic stores, is usually made fromwhole milk and, therefore, is higher in fatthan other types.Ricotta — A common ingredient inItalian dishes, ricotta is similar to cottagecheese but has a finer texture. Ricotta wasonce made from whey left over from makingother cheeses. Today, it is made fromwhey and milk.Semisoft CheesesSemisoft cheeses are firm on the outside yetsoft and moist on the inside. Because theyare aged for just a few weeks, they have asoft, moist texture and mild flavor.Semisoft cheeses are used widely incooking because they melt smoothly andeasily. They are also easy to slice and so areexcellent for hors d’oeuvres or for moreordinary uses, such as sandwich toppings.Because these cheeses are soft, they areoften coated with wax or another materialto keep them intact. Some types of semisoftcheeses are aged. Others are “washed”in brine, which causes them to develop arind on the outside. These processes alsointensify the cheese’s flavor and, in someinstances, sodium content.Some common types of semisoft cheesesinclude:Brick — The shape of this cheese is theorigin of its name. When aged, it has anassertive flavor, like cheddar cheese. Whenit is young, it is mild.GOAT CHEESESGoat’s milk has a little morecalcium than cow’s milk but itis deficient in vitamin B 12 andfolate. Goat’s milk has smallerfat globules than cow’s milk,so it does not need to behomogenized. However, itdoes need to be pasteurized forthe same reasons cow’s milkshould — to kill any germsthat might be harmfulto humans.Goat’s milk is not an acceptable alternative for persons who are lactose-intolerant,because it contains lactose in the same percentage as cow’s milk. Nor is goat’smilk or goat cheese a lower-fat alternative. Some people prefer the taste andtexture of goat cheese, but 1 1/2 ounces of hard goat cheese has 13 grams of fat —about the same as cheese made from whole cow's milk, such as cheddar.Soft goat cheeses such as Montrachet and some types of feta — a salty, whitecheese originating in Greece which can be made with goat or sheep’s milk —contain more moisture and are comparable to cheeses made from part-skim cow’smilk. One and one-half ounces of feta cheese has 9 grams of fat, about the sameamount as in an equal amount of mozzarella or Neufchâtel cheese.Edam — A Dutch specialty, this cheesehas a mild, buttery taste. It is often sold inballs or blocks coated with red wax. It isalso available smoked.Gouda — Another Dutch cheese,Gouda is sold in wedges and wheels usuallycovered in red wax. Like other semisoftcheeses, it has a mild flavor that becomessharper as it ages. Gouda can be purchasedas a smoked cheese.Jarlsberg — A Norwegian specialty, thischeese is often compared to Swiss cheese.It is softer, however, and milder. Jarlsbergis also typically sold in wedges.Limburger — Famed for its characteristicaroma, Limburger is one of the strongestflavoredsemisoft cheeses. Limburger is eas-ily sliced and can add a different twist to ordinaryfoods, such as sandwiches.Provolone — The taste of this cheesedepends on its age and how it is processed.Young provolone has a mild taste and ivorycolor. With age, its flavor becomes stronger,its texture drier, and its color darker. Thecheese is sometimes smoked or has had asmoke flavoring added to it. Provolone isoften sold in loaves.Semisoft cheeses are generally higher incalories and fat than soft cheeses. For example,1 1/2 ounces of Edam or provolonecheese has about 150 calories and about 12grams of fat. In contrast, the same amountof cottage cheese (made with 2 percentmilk) contains about 40 calories and 1 gram

356 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsREDUCED-FAT AND IMITATIONCHEESESReduced-fat cheese usually is madefrom nonfat milk, but additives areneeded to create the creamy textureof full-fat versions. Imitation cheesedoes not necessarily mean theproduct contains no milk: it mayuse casein (a milk protein) andemulsifiers, enzymes, and artificialflavorings and colors. Other imitationcheeses are made from soybeanderivatives. Both reduced-fat andimitation cheeses can be used as youwould use regular cheese if you donot plan to cook the cheese. Bothreduced-fat and imitation cheesestend to have a denser, more rubberytexture when heated and may not meltin the way traditional cheese does.of fat. However, semisoft cheeses generallycontain less fat and calories than hardcheeses because less milk is used to makesemisoft cheeses than hard cheeses.Soft, White-Rind CheesesSoft, white-rind cheeses are descendents ofnatural-rind cheeses, in which gray, green,and even red molds are allowed to grow onthe surface of the cheese as it ripens. MostNorth American cheese consumers are putoff by the colored mold growth, so thecolorful natural-rind cheeses are nearlyimpossible to obtain outside of France.Soft, white-rind cheeses are readily available,however. Instead of allowing naturalmold growth, these cheeses are sprayed withwhite mold spores that seal the outside whileallowing the interior of the cheese to main-tain a soft, butter-like consistency at maturity.These cheeses garner their characteristicflavor from bacteria that grow on the outsideand move inward. The result is a rich,creamy texture and full flavor. These cheesesoften have fewer calories than hard cheeses.Soft, white-rind cheeses include:Brie — A cheese originating in northernFrance, Brie is often sold in wedges and hasa tangy, buttery flavor.Camembert — Also originating innorthern France, Camembert has a velvetytexture and a soft, light-yellow interior.Camembert is often wrapped in foil andsold in wooden boxes.Blue or Blue-Veined CheesesBlue-veined cheeses are created by the introductionof a blue mold into the milk beforeit thickens. The blue color, however, wouldnot appear as the characteristic blue-greenveins in cheeses without exposure to air.Therefore, the cheese is pierced with steelrods to let air circulate.Most blue cheeses are made in the styleof classic European blue cheeses. They canbe firm or creamy and any color fromchalk-white to golden-yellow. The flavorof these cheeses grows stronger with age.Although these cheeses are high in fat, onlya small amount is typically used because oftheir strong flavor. Blue cheeses keep for1 to 4 weeks after purchase.Classic or blue-veined cheeses include:Gorgonzola — Sold in wheels,Gorgonzola is an Italian specialty. Theinterior of the cheese is white with veinsthat are usually more green than blue.Roquefort — Named for the area inFrance where the cheese is said to haveoriginated, Roquefort has a crumbly textureand a sharp flavor. It is made fromsheep’s milk.Hard and Firm CheesesThis category is what most people think ofwhen it comes to cheese. So-named becausethey become hardened with age, hard andfirm cheeses include the well-known cheddarand Parmesan varieties. They have a strongflavor and are widely used in cooking. Theyare also richer in calcium than softer cheesesbecause more milk is used in their production.However, this also means they arehigher in fat and calories and so should beused in moderation in a healthful diet.Hard and firm cheeses are divided intothese categories:Hard grating cheeses — Hard gratingcheeses include Parmesan and Romano. Asthe name suggests, they are often gratedbefore use, but they can be served aschunks. Both cheeses originated in Italy.Parmesan cheese takes its name from theParma region, where this cheese may beaged up to 4 years. Romano cheese probablyoriginated in Rome. Italian versionsare made from sheep’s milk; American versions,in contrast, are made from cow’s milk.Both types are common toppings for Italianfavorites such as spaghetti. In general, thesecheeses have a tangy flavor and pleasingaroma. During production, they are heatedto set the curd and reduce moisture.Aging enhances their flavor and results intheir texture becoming more crumbly.Cheddar-type cheeses — Cheddarcheese originated in the English village ofCheddar and has since been adopted bycheese lovers all over the world. Cheddar’sdistinct bite can range from mild to sharp,and the cheese is often seasoned with wineor spices. Cheddar cheese’s characteristiccolor is orange — the result of adding anatural vegetable coloring called annattoduring production. Other cheddar-typecheeses include Cantal, Cheshire, Gloucester,Wensleydale, and Leicester.

Dairy Foods 357Colby — A blander, more moist cheesethan cheddar, Colby was developed inWisconsin a century ago.Gruyère-type cheeses — Carbon dioxidegases trapped inside the cheese while itis ripening create the characteristic “eyes”of this type of cheese. The cheese usuallyis a straw-yellow color and has a mild torich, full flavor.Monterey Jack — A mild, light-coloredcheese, Monterey Jack also may be spicedup with bits of jalapeno peppers, pepperoni,or herbs and spices.Swiss cheese — Known for the holesin it, Swiss cheese is a golden-yellow cheeseand has a tangy flavor. The holes in it arecaused by pockets of gas that develop whenthe cheese is made.Processed CheesesProcessed cheese is the most common typeof cheese eaten in the United States, whereit was originally developed. In processedcheese, one or more types of cheese areheated (which stops the aging process) andmelted. An emulsifier is then added as abinding agent. Additional dairy ingredientsmay be added, such as cream, wholeor skim milk, buttermilk, or dried milk.Depending on the process, other thickenersor emulsifiers may be added forfirmness and smoothness. A commontype of processed cheese is Americancheese, which is usually derived fromcheddar cheese.Processed cheeses have a mild flavor andmelt easily and smoothly. They have anumber of uses, from spreads to pasta toppingsto dips. However, there are nutritionaltrade-offs. Processed cheeses are oftenhigher in sodium than traditional cheesesand are somewhat lower in protein andother nutrients.MIGRAINES AND CHEESEMigraines, also called vascularheadaches, are thought to involveblood vessels in the brain, althoughthe exact cause is unknown. Somecheeses contain a naturally occurringcompound called tyramine, which, insusceptible people, can cause anincrease in blood pressure, an increasein the size of blood vessels in the brain,and headache pain. For people whotake drugs called monoamine oxidaseinhibitors (MAOIs), avoidance of allfoods containing tyramine — includingaged cheeses — is essential.Tyramine is found naturally infood. It is formed from the breakdownof protein as foods age. Few studieshave measured tyramine content incheese. However, the research that hasbeen done indicates that the longer acheese has aged, the greater its tyraminecontent. Compared with otherThe U.S. Food and Drug Administration(FDA) closely regulates the composition ofprocessed cheese. Label terms that indicateyou are using a processed cheeseinclude pasteurized process cheese, cheesefood, and cheese spread.Preparation TipsTo get the most flavor from your cheese, itshould be allowed to warm to room temperature.Therefore, take cheese out of therefrigerator an hour in advance of whenyou plan to serve it. Keep the wrapperintact so the cheese does not dry out.The opposite is true if you plan to gratecheese. It grates better when it is cold, and10 minutes in the freezer speeds the process.foods, aged cheeses have the highesttyramine content. The amount oftyramine in cheeses differs greatlybecause of the variations in processing,fermenting, aging, degradation, oreven bacterial contamination. Thefollowing types of cheeses are agedor have been reported to be high intyramine and should be avoided if youare susceptible to migraines or if youtake MAOIs:• Blue cheeses• Brie• Cheddar• English Stilton• Feta• Gorgonzola• Mozzarella• Muenster• Parmesan• SwissWhen melting cheese, use a gradual,medium heat, because it can turn rubberywhen heated at a high temperature.Serving SuggestionsBecause most cheese is high in fat — about40 percent of which is saturated — itshould accompany other foods rather thanbe the centerpiece of a meal. Also, mostcheeses are high in sodium because of thesalt used for curing and flavoring.That said, the flavor and texture of cheesemean that large quantities are not needed toenjoy it. Cheese is excellent as a garnish forsoups and salads. Or, crumble bits of realblue cheese on your salad instead of pouringon fat-filled blue cheese dressing. The

358 Part II Encyclopedia of FoodsTRANSLATING AT THE CHEESECOUNTERCheese is a staple and a specialty inmany cultures, almost all of whichimport cheese from one another.Below is a guide for determining theorigin of the milk used for variouscheeses.Animal French Italian SpanishCow Vache Vacca VacaSheep Brebis Pecora OvejaGoat Chèvre Capra Cabraresult is a more authentic blue cheese tastewith less fat and fewer calories. Top pastawith a small serving of grated cheese, suchas Romano or Parmesan, but lean heavilyon a vegetable-based sauce. Use a single sliceof cheese atop a veggie-filled sandwich, ortrade the cheese for a lean slice of turkey.When making nachos, sprinkle bakedtortilla pieces lightly with sharp cheddarcheese and then top the chips with plentyof healthier options: vegetables, beans, andsalsa. If you have a craving for pizza, makeyour own. Take-out pizzas, especially ifordered with extra cheese, can supply theentire day’s fat supply with one piece.Today’s yogurt, however, is created ina much more sophisticated manner. Theprocess starts with the milk. The type ofmilk used defines the fat, calories, and, consequently,the richness of the yogurt. Forexample, nonfat yogurt comes from nonfatmilk, and low-fat yogurt is derived fromlow-fat milk.The milk is then pasteurized. One ofthe two milk proteins — the whey — iscoagulated to create yogurt’s characteristicglutinous consistency, and the substance isthen homogenized and cooled.The true yogurt-making process thenbegins with the introduction of the starterbacteria cultures. In North America, thetwo most common bacteria strains used areStreptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillusbulgaricus. These two types of friendly bacteriachange the milk’s sugar (called lactose)into lactic acid. The lactic acid is responsiblefor the tangy, acidic taste of yogurt.The more bacterial strains used, the strongerthe acidic flavor.Some of the bacterial cultures survivethe yogurt-making process. This type ofyogurt will list “active yogurt cultures” or“living yogurt cultures” on the label.Other types of yogurt are pasteurized againafter the cultures have sufficientlyfermented the yogurt. This type is labeled“heat-treated.”Active yogurt cultures help to digestcasein, a protein found in milk. There isalso some evidence that active yogurtcultures replenish the “friendly” bacteria inour intestines after the supply dwindles.This decrease in bacteria happens becauseof normal aging, illness, or use of somemedications.Yogurt did not attract Americans’ attentionuntil the health-food movement of the1960s. Even now, Europeans still consume5 times as much yogurt as North Americans.Consumption in America is growing withthe increased marketing of yogurt that hasadditional flavors added. One caution:added flavors can add calories and fat.Preparation TipsPlain yogurt can be used in place of creamor mayonnaise in recipes, but the result willbe less creamy and more tart. Cooking withYogurtYogurt is the result of milk that has been fermentedand coagulated. Its inception, probablyby accident, was thought to be around4,000 years ago when nomadic Balkan tribesstumbled on the process as a way of preservingmilk. In this age-old process, milkis left at 110 degrees Fahrenheit for severalhours to be invaded by friendly bacteria.

Dairy Foods 359yogurt can be a challenge because it curdlesso easily. Make sure to allow yogurt towarm to room temperature before slowlyheating it.Low-fat and nonfat versions of plainyogurt can be used in many recipes that callfor sour cream. The acidity from the lacticacid creates a taste similar to that of sourcream, but the texture is a bit compromised.However, a half cup of sour cream has 214calories and 21 grams of fat, and the sameamount of low-fat yogurt has 63 caloriesand 2 grams of fat. From a health standpoint,therefore, the texture becomes secondary.Another option would to be to usehalf sour cream and half yogurt.Because yogurt contains an acid thatcan work as a tenderizer, it makes a wonderfulmarinade for meats. Tandoorichicken, an Indian dish, is probably themost well-known yogurt-marinaded meal.The basic marinade consists of lemon juiceand plain yogurt.Yogurt can be used for fruit and vegetabledips, atop baked potatoes or coldcereals, or in stroganoff recipes. It can evenreplace the sour cream used with nachos orbe added to guacamole to reduce the fat.market freezer section or you can make yourown by adding ingredients to yogurt andthen freezing it. Smoothies can be madewith low-fat yogurt and fruit or fruit juiceand then whipped in a blender as a healthieralternative to malts and shakes.Ice Cream and DairyDessertsEarly versions of the frozen confection weknow as ice cream probably used snow andsweeteners to please the palates in ancientChina and the Roman Empire. The dessertmade its pilgrimage to North America in1774, when caterer Phillip Lenzi told a NewYork newspaper that he would be selling adessert he had discovered in London called“ice cream.”NONDAIRY DESSERTSMany items available in the “icecream” section of your local supermarketare not derived from dairyproducts. Referred to as nondairyfrozen desserts, these ice cream substitutesare derived from either soybeansor rice.Soymilk and tofu are the baseof soybean-based products. Water,fructose or other sweeteners, vegetableoil, and flavorings are added.Rice-based desserts are treated with aspecial process that enhances therice’s sweetness while breaking downthe proteins and starches. This basealso needs sweeteners and additives.These ice cream substitutescontain no milk or lactose, so theyprovide an alternative for personswho have milk allergies or who arelactose-intolerant. They also containno cholesterol. But some types,especially the items made from tofu,can have just as many calories asice cream.Serving SuggestionsYogurt is the ultimate convenience food.Most supermarkets stock single-servingcontainers tailor-made for lunch boxes orquick snacks. Some producers have takenthis idea a step further, presenting yogurtin push-from-the-bottom tubes that can beeaten without a spoon.Honey, fruit, and granola are popularadditions to yogurt, but yogurt can stand upto bolder additions such as chili.Yogurt also offers two great dessertopportunities: frozen yogurt and smoothies.Frozen yogurt can be found in the super-However, it was not until 1926 that refrigerationallowed the mass production of icecream. With subsequent decades came betterfreezers and an increase in ice cream consumption.Today, the average American eatsmore than 15 quarts of ice cream in a year.Part of ice cream’s popularity can beattributed to its smooth, creamy texture.The process of homogenization helps createits unique taste by breaking down the sizeof the fat globules in the milk, making asmoother product.Adding air also makes ice creamsmoother. After flavors and colors have

360 Part II Encyclopedia of Foodsbeen added, but before any mix-ins suchas fruit or candy pieces are added, the mixtureis whipped to increase its volume by150 percent. Without this added air, thedensity of ice cream would resemble thatof an ice cube. Too much air, though,creates an ice cream that is too mushy andunsatisfying in texture to serve. Air doesnot determine the difference between softserveand hard ice creams, however. Softserveice cream is not allowed to freeze fully,so it maintains its “soft” consistency andcan easily be manipulated by machine intocones or containers. Hard ice cream isallowed to freeze so it can be scooped orspooned out of containers.Ice cream can be made at home withan ice-cream maker, milk, cream, sugar,and flavors. Many recipes also call for eggs.Homemade ice cream does not contain thestabilizers used in commercial ice cream toincrease body and stave off melting. Nordoes it contain artificial flavorings, as manycommercial products do. The result is atexture and taste that are very different fromthose of commercial ice cream.Most commercial ice cream has around10 percent milk fat and added sweetenersand so a high calorie count. The countincreases with the number of high-caloriemix-ins: pieces of fruits, nuts, candy, andcookies with flavored syrups in ribbons,swirls, and ripples. Many of these ingredientshave added fat.Types of frozen dairy desserts include:Ice milk — Ice milk has fewer caloriesfrom fat because it is prepared in the samemanner as ice cream but with only 3 to 5percent milk fat. (Regular ice cream hasaround 10 percent milk fat, and premiumvarieties can be as high as 16 percent.) Mostvarieties of ice milk also have fewer caloriesoverall, but some brands add more sweetenerand flavoring to compensate for theless creamy texture.Sherbet or sorbet — Sherbet’s mainingredients are frozen, sweetened fruit juiceand water, but it also can contain milk andegg whites. Therefore, sherbet is not a safealternative to ice cream for persons withmilk or egg allergies. Sorbets and ices maybe better choices, because they are supposedto be prepared without these ingredients.Their names are not regulated, so alwayscheck the label before purchasing. Both containa liquid base (usually fruit juice), sweetener,and water, but sorbets are less creamy

Dairy Foods 361FAVORITE FLAVORWhat is the most popular ice creamflavor in North America? Vanilla,of course. It is the flavor of almost30 percent of all ice cream produced.Next on the list are chocolate andNeapolitan.than sherbets, and ices are even less creamythan sorbets, usually with a granular texture.Frozen yogurt — Frozen yogurt is madefrom fermented milk treated with a lacticacid culture (see Yogurt, page 358). It issold in either soft-serve or hard forms. Itusually contains less fat than ice cream. Italso provides the vitamins and mineralscommonly found in dairy products, unlikenondairy items. However, frozen yogurtdoes not contain the same friendly bacteriathat some forms of unfrozen yogurt do.The freezing process kills the bacteria thataid in digestion.Preparation TipsIt is fun to make ice cream at home, andseveral new makers on the market need little,if any, manual cranking. Just gather theingredients, mix, and follow the manufacturer’sdirections. Because homemade icecream does not contain the stabilizers andpreservatives of its commercial counterparts,it lasts only a few days in the freezerbefore it starts to form ice crystals and pickup the ambient smells. Therefore, it is bestto make ice cream when the amount madewill be quickly consumed.For the occasional snacker, commerciallyavailable desserts provide no real preparationtime: allow the container to soften slightlyon the counter (perhaps only a minute ortwo), and then scoop out a 1.5-cup serving.Serving SuggestionsIce cream is delicious, but it should be anoccasional indulgence, given the amountof calories and fat in it. When it is time tosplurge, limit the amount of ice cream orother dessert treat to a small serving insteadof filling a bowl. In addition, choose afrozen dessert that has less than 3 grams offat per half cup, and use it as a foundationto enhance other, healthier foods. Forexample, add fruit — such as strawberriesor bananas — to ice cream in equal ratiosinstead of pouring on the chocolate syrup.To lower your fat intake, choose sorbetsand fruit ices or low-fat ice cream and icecream substitutes. Watch your serving size,however, so calories do not become a concern.

363Herbs & SpicesHerbs and spices have been added to foods throughout history for preservation andflavor. Although they are plentiful and inexpensive today, herbs, spices, andother flavorings were considered as valuable as gold or jewels for many centuries.Quests for them helped shape human history, influencing explorers to set out for theNew World in the 15th century and also leading to the establishment of trade routesbetween Europe, Asia, and Africa.If you think about it, it is easy to understand why people long ago placed such anemphasis on flavorings for their food. Easy refrigeration of food has been only a recentdevelopment. Before its development, food perished rapidly and thus had a bad taste wheneaten. Some food was preserved with large quantities of salt. In addition, the wide varietyof foods—particularly fresh fruits and vegetables—that we enjoy today was not available. Asa result, the daily diet of people throughout much of history was bland and unexciting. It isno wonder that herbs and spices were valued.Today, modern technology, agriculture, and transportation systems make our diets fullof abundance and variety. Herbs and spices, although no longer worth their weight in gold,nevertheless still play a crucial role in shaping cuisine and adding interest to foods. They mayalso play a role in health, offering an opportunity to add flavor without adding the healthdrawbacks of excess fat or salt.BasicsAlthough many people think herbs andspices are one and the same, they are not.The definition of herbs has variedthroughout the ages. Generally, herbs arenow considered to be the aromatic leavesof plants that grow in a variety of climates.The leaves are used fresh, dried, chopped,or crushed to add a subtle taste to foods oroils. Sometimes they are steeped in waterfor teas and other beverages. Herbs are usuallyadded at the end of the cooking processbecause long cooking times can erode theirflavor.Spices have many of the same uses asherbs. They are usually grown in tropicalareas. Often, they have a more intense flavorand are derived from a wider range ofplant parts: the fruit, seed, roots, flowerbud, or bark. Spices are usually added atthe beginning of the cooking process.Both herbs and spices can be crushedfor nonculinary uses: for medicinal purposes(see Chapter 2, sidebar: HerbalProducts, page 37) or for use as fragrancesin perfumes or lotions.NutritionHerbs generally contain less fat and carbohydratesthan spices. Both do contain somenutrients. For example, basil and clovescontain calcium and potassium. The smallamounts of herbs and spices used in cooking,however, minimize the nutritional contributionsthey might make in this way.Herbs and spices add only a negligiblenumber of calories to the foods to whichthey are added. As a result, they are anexcellent replacement for both fat and saltwhen it comes to flavoring food. Creativeuse of herbs and spices can make it far easierto enjoy your meals while maintaining ahealthful diet.SelectionFresh herbs and spices deliver the mostpleasing flavor. For that reason, many seriouscooks buy spices whole (such as the wholeseed or stem) and grow their own. In addition,many cooks have their own herbgardens to have fresh herbs on hand. Herbsare both easy to grow and attractive. Theyare almost always perennial plants, so theycome back year after year.Fortunately, for those without a greenthumb, fresh herbs and spices are increasinglyavailable at the supermarket. When

364 Part II: Encyclopedia of Foodsbuying them, look for products that appearthe freshest — those whose appearance andaroma indicate that the time since they wereharvested has been minimal. Avoid productsthat have mold on them or are discolored.Dried herbs and spices are also widelyavailable. A general rule is that 1/4 teaspoonground leaves or 1 teaspoon dried leavesshould be used for each tablespoon of freshproduct.StorageBoth herbs and spices can lose their potencyover time, which is why proper storageis critical. How this is done depends onthe type of product purchased.Whole spice seeds keep longer thanground spices. Both should be kept in tightlyclosed containers in a cool, dry place.Dried herbs should be stored in the sameway. Exposure to light and heat can causeleaves to deteriorate. A rule for determiningwhether the product is still good is totest its aroma. If there is not much aroma,the product probably has lost most of itsflavor and should be replaced. Make sure todate each container when you put it in yourpantry. A rule of thumb is to keep driedherbs no longer than 6 months. It is idealto refrigerate dried herbs after 3 months.Fresh herbs are highly perishable andmay last only a few days in the refrigerator.Maximize their shelf life by managing theirmoisture. They need some to avoid wilting.However, too much can cause them to rot.A solution is to pack fresh herbs in a perforatedplastic bag in the refrigerator crisper,which will help keep the air around theproduct humid. Pat excess moisture off theleaves with a paper towel before putting thebag in the crisper.This storage method works for mostherbs, but there is a better one for basil,cilantro, sage, mint, parsley, and other leafyherbs. They are best stored like a flowerbouquet. Tie the leaves together, stemsdown, and put them in a container filledwith cold water. Store in the refrigeratorand change the water every few days. Freshherbs stored in this manner will keep forabout a week.Common HerbsBasilBasil is a member of the mint family. Mosttypes have shiny, light-green leaves and apungent, slightly sweet aroma. There aremany types of basil, each slightly differentin aroma and taste. One of the most widelyused herbs for seasoning tomatoes andtomato sauces, basil plays a key role inMediterranean, Asian, and Middle Easterncuisine. Basil particularly complements theflavor of garlic and olives. It is also pleasingcombined with lemon.Bay LeafThe green, pointed leaves, usually sold dried,are grown on a small tree belonging to theMEDICINAL USES OF HERBS AND SPICESBoth herbs and spices have been used throughout history asmedicines. In fact, some of the earliest medical manuscriptshighlight the theoretical healing properties of these plants.The best known of these ancient compilations are Inquiry IntoPlants and Growth of Plants, written around 320 B.C. byTheophrastus, a Greek philosopher who studied with Aristotle.Another herbal medicine tome, De Materia Medica, writtenaround 60 A.D., includes descriptions of more than 600 herbs.It is said to have influenced medicine for more than 1,500 years.With the growing interest in alternative medicine, manyphysicians and scientists have begun studying the therapeuticpotential of these plants. In some cases, they have found thatsome plants or extracts made from them have promise infighting disease or maintaining health. However, some of themost promising plants — such as saw palmetto for prostateenlargement — typically are not found in kitchens. Nor is itlikely that the small amounts of herbs and spices used in cookingdeliver any medical benefits.More study is needed to establish the role of these plants inhealth. Until research is complete, it is best to avoid relying onthem for medical purposes or, at the very least, you should see aqualified medical practitioner before you use them. Using themin place of traditional medicines may have harmful effects. Sideeffects can result from improperly using just about any so-callednatural product. Or, these products may interact dangerouslywith a medication you are already taking.One other caution is that regulation of the manufacturingand marketing of herbal supplements in the United States is farless strict than that of prescription medications. There are noguarantees that the herbal supplement contains the amountof active ingredient the label claims. In fact, testing of theseproducts has found wide variation among supplement brands.

Herbs & Spices 365laurel family. They add a pungent, almostevergreen, flavor to foods, and the wholeleaf must be removed before the food isserved. Bay leaves are used to season a varietyof foods. Their use is especially calledfor in simmered dishes, soups, stews, sauces,and tomato dishes. Bay leaves can easily overwhelma food, so use them with caution. Thelonger they cook, the more flavor they add.Use it judiciously, adding a little at first.Cilantro may be referred to as “fresh coriander”because its seeds are ground into thespice coriander.DillAnother member of the parsley family, dillhas feathery leaves and flat, oval-shapedbrown seeds. Both are used for seasoning.The leaves have a pungent, tangy taste, andthe seeds have a bitter flavor with carawayovertones. Dried leaves are sold as dill weed.Dill complements the flavor of fish, chicken,eggs, salads, and a variety of vegetables.It is also used as a pickle flavoring. Usefresh dill leaves whenever possible; dryingChervilA member of the parsley family, chervil hasdark-green curling leaves. Its delicate flavoris similar to that of parsley, with a hint ofanise and lemon. Considered essential inFrench cooking, it is excellent in salads,soups, and vinaigrettes and with seafood.Chervil can be used to replace parsley. Itshould be used fresh, when its flavor is best.A caution: chervil can lose flavor when itis overcooked.ChivesA member of the onion family, chives havelong, slender, hollow green stems and areusually sold in bundles. The mellow, delicateonion flavor of chives is useful for sauces,soups, baked potatoes, salads, omelets, pasta,seafood, and meat. They are also commonlyused as a garnish. In addition, their lightpurpleflowers are edible. Use fresh chiveswhen possible because dried chives have littleflavor. Chives can lose flavor when cookedtoo long.CilantroCilantro is also related to the parsley family.Its lacy green leaves have a pungent, juniperlikespicy flavor. A popular seasoning usedworldwide, cilantro particularly complementsspicy foods. It is commonly used inMediterranean, Latin American, andMiddle Eastern cuisines. Cilantro is oftenfound in salsa. It can overpower a dish.

366 Part II: Encyclopedia of Foodsflat parsleybay leafthymebasilfennellemon grasscurly parsleytarragonlemon balmlavendercauses them to lose their flavor. The leavesalso make a lacy garnish. Dill weed shouldbe used at the end of cooking so it will keepits flavor. Alternatively, heat intensifies theflavor of dill seed.FennelFennel has long, green, feathery leaves on celery-likestems. Both stem and leaves have adelicate, anise-like flavor and may be eaten asa vegetable. Flowers produce seeds that mayalso be used as a flavoring. Raw fennel stemsand leaves may be added to salads. Fennelalso can be used to flavor cheese, sauces, mayonnaise,and bread. Fennel is a traditionalseasoning for fish. Use fresh fennel wheneverpossible to maximize flavor. Overcookingcan cause fennel to lose its flavor.LavenderSpikes of pungently aromatic purple flowersand gray-green leaves make identification ofthis herb easy. It is a traditional flavoringfor teas, candies, and desserts. Lavenderalso can add a subtle and different flavorto custard and ice cream.Lemon BalmA member of the mint family, lemon balmimparts a strong lemony flavor to foods.Use it in fruit or vegetable salads, to garnishfish, or to freshen drinks. Lemon balmcan stand in for lemon peel in most recipes.In ancient times it was used to “balm”(comfort) wounds and to flavor alcoholicbeverages such as claret and mead. It even

Herbs & Spices 367chivescilantrorosemarymintdilloreganosagemarjoramsorrelchervilserved as one of the first “air fresheners” —during the Middle Ages it was strewn ontofloors and when walked on would releaseits lemon scent.Lemon GrassAlso known as citronella grass, lemon grasshas long, green stalks and serrated leaves.The stalks have a lemony aroma and flavortinged with ginger. Only the lower 4 to 6inches of the stalk is used. Lemon grass iscommon in Thai and southeast Asian cook-ing. It enhances the flavor of curries, stews,soups, chicken, and seafood. Make sure toremove the lemon grass before serving.Fresh lemon peel and grated ginger can beused in place of lemon grass.MarjoramMarjoram is made from the short, palegreenleaves of a shrub cultivated throughoutEurope for centuries. Closely relatedto oregano, marjoram has a flavor resemblingthat of mint and basil. Marjoram isused in many tomato-based dishes, but ithas a flavor that complements just aboutany food. It is used widely in Mediterraneancooking and makes an excellent flavoringfor oil and vinegar. This herb can be usedinterchangeably with oregano. Buy it freshwhen possible.MintMint’s cool, aromatic menthol taste andsmell are instantly recognizable. There arehundreds of varieties of mints: peppermint

368 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsHerb focaccia breadherb, sage enhances poultry stuffing, sausage,veal, and tomato sauces. Excellent for flavoringoils and vinegar, sage goes well withthyme and oregano.SorrelThe slender, arrow-shaped leaves of sorrelimpart a sharp or acidic flavor to creamedsoups, meats, omelets, vegetables, or breads.Its flavor is due to oxalic acid, which shouldbe avoided by people with a history ofoxalate kidney stones. Young tender leavesare mildest in flavor and may be cookedand served as a vegetable.and spearmint are the most popular. Oftenused as a dessert or candy flavoring, mintalso adds an interesting flavor to sauces, meatdishes, salads, and iced tea. Lamb is traditionallyserved with mint jelly. Herbs thatmix well with mint include cilantro, basil,and marjoram.OreganoClosely related to marjoram, oregano hasa woody stalk with small green leaves.Considered less sweet than marjoram, it isthought to have a stronger, more pepperyflavor. A ubiquitous pizza sauce flavoring,oregano is also widely used in Mediterraneancuisine (mainly Italian and Greek) and inmeat and poultry dishes. Oregano retainsits flavor when dried.ParsleyParsley has long, slender stalks and featheryleaves. It has a tangy, fresh, sometimeslemony flavor. There are two main types:curly leaf and flat leaf. The flat-leaf typehas a more intense, peppery flavor. A populargarnish, parsley also can be added tosoups, marinades, and salads. Both typesare often used to bring out the flavor ofother herbs. The flat-leaf variety is typicallyused for cooking because of its moreintense flavor. The flavor of both types isstronger in the stalks.RosemaryRosemary has needle-shaped evergreenleaves and a piney, lemon flavor. Rosemaryis used to season a variety of dishes, particularlyin Mediterranean cuisine. It maybe sprinkled on another of this region’s specialties:focaccia bread. Rosemary branchescan be burned under grilled meat or fishfor a more subtle flavor. Use rosemary judiciously.It can be overpowering.SageThe soft, somewhat furry gray-green leavesof this herb have a pungent and camphorliketaste and aroma. A strongly flavoredTarragonNative to Siberia, this herb has narrow andpointed, highly aromatic dark-green leaves.It has a delicate anise flavor with undertonesof sage. A staple in French sauces,tarragon is also widely used in chicken, fish,and vegetable dishes. It may be used as aflavoring for wine vinegar. There are twotypes of tarragon: French and Russian. TheFrench variety has a delicate flavor, whereasthe Russian tarragon has a stronger,slightly bitter taste.ThymeThere are several varieties of this herb, whichhas small, gray-green leaves and tiny purpleflowers. Garden thyme is the most widelyused for cooking. It has a strong, somewhatbitter flavor. Thyme is often used inherb butters, stuffing, soups, and disheswith potatoes or beans as the main ingredient.It is excellent in pasta sauces and isconsidered an important culinary herb inEurope, particularly in France. Lemonthyme is best suited for fish and egg dishes.Lemon thyme also can be used to makeherbal tea.

Herbs & Spices 369Common SpicesAllspiceAlso known as Jamaican pepper, allspice isground from the hard brown berries of theallspice tree, which grows in Mexico andthroughout the Caribbean. Allspice is sonamed because it imparts the flavor ofnutmeg, cloves, and cinnamon. An excellentaddition to marinades, allspice is alsoused to flavor cured and jerked meat,desserts, and sauces. It is also an ingredientin gingerbread. The finest allspice trees arethought to be grown in Jamaica. Use thespice sparingly to avoid overpowering otheringredients.Anise SeedsThe tiny gray-green anise seeds come froma plant belonging to the parsley family.They have a licorice flavor (anise is used tomake licorice), but one that also imparts afeeling of warmth when the seeds are eaten.Used to flavor breads, candies, and alcoholicdrinks, anise seeds also can be addedto cabbage or braised beef. Anise seed is acommon ingredient in Indian vegetableand fish curries. Anise complements theflavor of cinnamon and nutmeg in bakedgoods. Anise leaves can be used to makeherbal tea or added to salads.Caraway SeedsThese small, crescent-shaped brown seedshave a nutty, peppery flavor. Caraway isoften used whole in rye bread or sprinkledover the top of baked goods, particularlyin Germany and many northern Europeancountries. It can also be added to potatosalad or meat loaf or sprinkled over pasta.Ground caraway seed can have a very strongflavor. Use sparingly. Caraway also is usedto flavor aquavit, a Scandinavian liquor.CardamomCardamom is made from the seedpods of aperennial plant that is part of the gingerfamily. The seeds have a warm, sweet,slightly peppery flavor and an aroma thatcombines ginger, coriander, and nutmeg.A popular ingredient in Asian cuisine,cardamom also is used in Scandinaviancooking as a flavoring for fruit compotes,gingerbread, and meatballs. It goes wellwith sweet potatoes and squash. Green cardamompods are the most flavorful andneed to be ground before use. Pods maybe bleached or lightened, however, and thisprocessing may affect the flavor. The lightenedpods are preferred over the groundseeds, which lose their flavor quickly.Ground cardamom can be mixed withother spices and therefore have a bluntedflavor. Cardamom can be expensive.However, a little goes a long way. Less costlyversions may have less flavor.Cayenne (Crushed Red Pepper)Made from ground dried hot chili peppers,cayenne adds warmth to whatever foods itis added. Capsaicin found in the chili’sseeds and membranes gives this pepper itsfire. It is popular in Mexican, Caribbean,Chinese, and Indian cuisines. It is alsowidely used in barbecue sauces. Cayenneis the main ingredient in chili powder. Goeasy on the use of cayenne if you are notaccustomed to hot foods.Celery SeedCelery seeds are the small brown seeds ofthe celery plant. They give a strong celeryflavoring to foods. The seeds may be somewhatbitter in taste. Added to casseroles,fish, poultry, and sauces, celery seed is alsogood in potato dishes and stuffing. Celerysalt is called for in many recipes. Instead,you can use a small amount of plain celeryseed along with some lemon zest.Tandoori chicken

370 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsChili PowderA blend of dried chili peppers, chili powdervaries in intensity, flavor, and color. It istypically rusty red. The powder also maycontain cumin, garlic, oregano, or salt. Thisspice is used to flavor Southwestern cuisine.It is a common ingredient in chiliwith beans and in chili con carne. It addsheat to dishes with a dash of flavor. Becausechili powder ranges in flavor, many peoplelike to grind their own powder from thechili pepper they prefer. Add the powdersparingly while cooking until the flavor andheat you desire are achieved. The best chilipowders are ground from only chili peppers.CinnamonCinnamon is ground from the curled barkof the evergreen cinnamon and cassia treesthroughout Asia, India, and Sri Lanka.Cinnamon is sold ground or in sticks. Apopular flavoring for cookies, pies, desserts,candies, and coffees, cinnamon can be usedto season meats, pasta, and marinades. Itis excellent with sweet vegetables. Groundcinnamon has more flavor than cinnamonsticks. Its flavor deteriorates more quickly,however. Depending on the type, cinnamonmay range from strong and spicy tosweet and mellow.ClovesCloves are the oily unopened buds of theclove tree. They have a pungent flavor andaroma. Cloves add flavoring to roastedmeat and can be used in pies and bakedlicorice rootcinnamonsaffronpoppy seedcelerysaltcarawaySzechuan peppercorngingerrootsesameclovesanise

Herbs & Spices 371fruit dishes, cakes, cookies, and gingerbread.Cloves complement the flavor of nutmegand cinnamon. Ground cloves lose theirflavor quickly.CuminThe dried seeds of a plant belonging tothe parsley family, cumin has an earthy,nutty flavor and smell. Used in manycultures, cumin is a seasoning for chickpeas,the background flavor for chili, oradded to couscous, vegetable dishes, oryogurt. Cumin is often mistaken for caraway.If you grind your own cumin, toastcumin seeds in a dry skillet first to intensifyits flavor.CurryCurry powder is a mixture of spices thatmay contain coriander, cumin, pepper, chilipeppers, ginger, fenugreek, onion, cinnamon,paprika, saffron, cilantro, or turmeric.Ingredients may depend on the area ofthe world in which the curry was mixed.Curry is a staple of Indian and southeastAsian cuisine. It is used to flavor manymeat-based dishes and soups. Curry powderadds a sweet, distinctive, and sometimeshot flavor to foods. A common use is instews. Curry also complements the flavorof lamb. Because the flavor of curry mayvary, many cooks prefer to grind their own.Beware of store-bought curry powders,which may contain mostly turmeric. Thisgives dishes a yellow color, and the flavormay be bitter.fenugreekcardamommaceturmeric rootcuminnutmegstar aniseallspicevanillajuniper

372 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsFenugreek SeedsGround from the seeds of a plant belongingto the pea family, fenugreek has a bittersweetflavor but leaves a caramel or maplelikeaftertaste. A component in manyIndian dishes, fenugreek also can be addedto curry powders. Or, it may be used toflavor artificial maple syrups. Use sparingly;the flavor of fenugreek can be overpowering.Ginger (Gingerroot)In fresh form, the knobby gingerroot’s peelis discarded and its flavorful flesh is sliced,chopped, or minced and added to dishesfor its peppery, sweet, and pungent flavor.The dried form is ground from the gingerroot. This brownish gold spice has a warm,slightly sweet, slightly citrus flavor. Freshginger is popular in Asian and Indian cuisine.Ground ginger also is used in manybaked goods and desserts. Ginger is thebasis for ginger beer and ginger ale. Pickledginger root is an Asian delicacy and is oftenserved with sushi.Gingerroot is sold at many supermarkets,and it is easy to add fresh, grated gingerto dishes. Although fresh ginger canbe substituted for the dried form, do notsubstitute dried in place of fresh becausethe flavors are quite different.Juniper BerryThe hard purple berries of an evergreenbush, juniper berries have a turpentine-likeflavor. Juniper berries add a spicy, pungentflavor to game, red cabbage, or meat stews.Juniper berries give gin its flavor. Berriesshould be crushed before they are used.Licorice RootFrom this woody plant licorice flavor isextracted and used in candy and medications.The extract also may be used to colorand thicken stout or porter beers. Thesweet taste of natural licorice extract comesfrom glycyrrhizia, a naturally occurringchemical that, if ingested in large quantities,has adverse effects on blood pressure. Forthis reason, in the United States, mostlicorice candy is flavored with anise or isartificially flavored (check labels).Mace and NutmegBoth come from the same tree. Nutmeg isground from the seed. Mace is from theseed’s covering. Both have a sweet, warmflavor. Mace is somewhat more pungent.Favorites in baked goods and fruit dishes,mace and nutmeg can also enhance theflavor of stewed beef or poultry or can beadded to baked vegetables. Nutmeg is akey spice in a holiday classic, eggnog. Bothare excellent toppings for the foamed milkon espresso coffee drinks.MustardMustard seeds can be used in pickling foods.Ground seeds can be added to sauces or toadd zip to salad dressings. The condimentcan be eaten on meat and fish and added tosalad dressings or mayonnaise. Keep preparedmustard in the refrigerator to preserve itsflavor. For a different flavor, look for mustardvarieties made with wine or vinegar.PaprikaBright russet-orange in color, paprika ismade from ground sweet red peppers.Depending on the variety, paprika mayadd either a mild, sweet flavor or hot

Herbs & Spices 373VINEGARVinegar is used in almost every culture as a condiment. It canbe made from a wide range of foodstuffs — from grains, fruits,wine, or even ethyl alcohol. Essentially, the process to turn anyof these into vinegar is the same. Bacteria is added to an alcoholsolution to convert the alcohol in acetic acid. The liquid isthen processed and pasteurized to kill any organisms in it thatmight be harmful to humans. It also may be distilled before itis bottled for consumer use.Vinegar's tart, acidic flavor makes it a versatile ingredient.It is often used to make vinaigrette dressings, mustards, ormarinades, as a condiment for seafood, or to flavor dishes inwhich beans are the primary ingredient. In addition, it canbe used to pickle and preserve foods.How vinegar is used depends on what type it is:Balsamic vinegar — Considered the finest of all vinegars,balsamic vinegar is added to salads, pasta, and cooked vegetables.It has a dark color and rich flavor with herbal and wine undertones.Balsamic vinegar is traditionally made in northern Italyin the provinces of Modena and Reggio. Look for the word“tradizionale” on the label. This indicates that the vinegar hasbeen aged at least 12 years. Balsamic vinegar from Modena thatuses the term “vecchio” on the label means the vinegar has beenaged 12 years or more. “Extra vecchio” is vinegar that is 25years old or more. The vinegars from Reggio are color-codedaccording to quality: red label (highest), silver, and gold. These“real” balsamic vinegars are expensive. Commercial balsamicvinegars are not regulated and are quite different. Some chefsenhance the flavor of the vinegar by adding brown sugar or byboiling it to intensify its flavor.Cider vinegar — As the name suggests, this vinegar isderived from fruit juices — usually apple. It retains an appleflavor and is often used for pickling.Malt vinegar — This type of vinegar is made from maltedbarley. Malt vinegar is typically colorless. However, browncoloring is often added. It has a strong, sour flavor and isfrequently used as a condiment for fish and chips.Rice vinegar — Made from sake, a Japanese rice wine, ricevinegar is used in many sweet-and-sour recipes for Asian cuisine.Wine vinegar — This type of vinegar can be made fromvarious red or white wines. It is thought to have the most“bite” of any vinegar. Wine vinegar is most often used as aningredient in cooking, particularly soups and stews.Flavored vinegars are popular in gourmet shops. But it iseasy to make your own. Choose your herbs, preferably freshones, blanch them, and pat dry. Transfer the herbs to a foodprocessor and then add 1/2 to 2/3 cup of vinegar, one with aless intense flavor. Process until you have achieved the desiredconsistency. Transfer the mixture back into the bottle of vinegar.Let the mixture sit overnight, and then strain the vinegar beforeputting it back into the original container. A sprig of yourchosen herb can be added to the bottle for decoration. Althoughvinegar is acidic and is pasteurized, introducing herbs doescontaminate it. The risk for illness is not high. Make flavoredvinegar in small amounts, refrigerate it, and use it within aweek to maintain freshness. Or, better yet, purchase one ofmany commercial varieties, which have been heat-treated.warmth to food. Widely used in Hungarianand Spanish dishes, paprika adds flavorand color to potatoes, soups, baked fish,and salad dressings. Hungarian paprika isconsidered the finest and can be purchasedin specialty shops. A note of caution: itmay be hotter in flavor than other types ofpaprika.PepperPepper is one of the world’s most commonspices and one of its most versatile. Used innearly every culture, pepper is a condimentfound on tables worldwide. Ground orwhole, it can add a kick to nearly any dish,adding warmth and texture with just theright amount of subtlety. It is a popularaddition to soups, stews, cheeses, marinades,and luncheon meats.Pepper is actually the fruit of the pepperplant, which is a vine indigenous toIndia. Small white flowers on the plantproduce peppercorns. They turn variouscolors — green, red, then brown — as theymature and can be harvested and used atany time during their ripening stage.Green pepper — Typically soldcanned, green peppercorns are green pepperberries that are harvested before theymature. They are mild in flavor.Black pepper — These peppercornsare pepper berries harvested just as they areabout ready to turn red. Black pepper isthe most flavorful of all pepper varieties.It is often sold ground, although many connoisseursprefer to grind their own with apepper mill.White pepper—This milder pepper ismade from peppercorns that have turned

374 Part II: Encyclopedia of Foodsred and therefore are ripe. The dark outershell of the berries is removed before thepepper is processed. White pepper is alsotypically sold ground.Other types of pepper you may find aregray pepper and pink pepper. Gray peppercan be a mix of white and black pepper,although it can be a black pepper that hasbeen minimally processed. It typically hasa mild flavor. Pink pepper is not made fromthe berries of the pepper plant. Instead, itis derived from a South American shrubthat is a member of the ragweed family. Itsflavor is more subtle than that of pepper.For maximal flavor, buy peppercornswhole and grind them yourself. Groundpepper may have undesirable additives. Anadvantage to buying whole peppercorns isthat they can be kept for months at roomtemperature. In contrast, ground pepperkeeps its kick for 3 months or less.SaffronOne of the most expensive spices, this goldenred spice is made from the powdery stigmaof a purple-flowered crocus. Saffron is usedfor soups, seafood, poultry, and rice dishes.It is a popular seasoning in Indian, Italian,and Spanish cuisine. It also can be addedto baked goods. Saffron needs to be dissolvedin a teaspoon or so of warm waterbefore use. Powdered saffron may haveother ingredients added to it, and thesereduce its flavor.SaltSalt is made of crystallized sodium and chlorideand has been used for centuries to addflavor to food and to preserve it. Today,this condiment can be found on virtuallyevery table in Western nations.Various salts are available today:Table salt — Often supplemented withiodine, table salt consists of fine-grainedsalt crystals that may be treated to help itflow freely out of salt shakers.Sea salt — Available in both fine andcoarse grains, sea salt is made by evaporatingsea water. It can be used at the table orfor cooking. It has a bit more of a tangQUICK TIPGrinding your own spices is easy, andthe taste makes the effort well worthit. After buying fresh whole seeds,simply put them into a coffee grinderor pepper mill. You can intensify theflavor by first lightly toasting the seedsin a skillet. Another advantage ofgrinding your own spices is that wholeseeds keep longer than ground spices.In addition, you can be sure that nounwanted preservatives or other ingredientshave been added. Be sure toclean the coffee grinder or pepper millafter use. Otherwise, residues may beleft that will affect the taste of otherspices ground in it.than table salt and may contain other chemicals— such as magnesium and calcium— found naturally in sea water.Kosher salt — This coarse-grained saltis often sprinkled over baked goods or salads.It contains no additives, and many sayit tastes less salty than table salt (althoughit has the same amount of sodium as tablesalt). It is made and processed in compliancewith guidelines set forth by the Jewishreligion.Rock salt — This salt is mined fromnatural deposits in the earth’s surface. Tablesalt is typically refined from rock salt.Seasoned salt — Spices, herbs, or otheragents may be mixed with salt to make aseasoned, salty product. Most of theseproducts are made up primarily of salt.Salt plays a key role in many differentfunctions of the human body. However, toomuch of it can be harmful to your health.Eating salt in moderation can be difficult.Many foods contain some salt naturally.Prepared foods often contain high amountsof sodium, in some cases a thousand

Herbs & Spices 375milligrams of sodium or more. Foods highin salt include condiments, pickled foods,canned vegetables, convenience foods, andcured meats. Always look at the label toensure you know how much salt you aregetting.One simple but important step to cutback on salt is to taste your food first beforeadding salt to it. Too often, salting is areflex, not a necessity. A better strategy forreducing salt in your diet is to cut backgradually and reduce or eliminate preparedfoods altogether.Sesame SeedsThe tiny flat seeds of a plant native to India,sesame seeds have a nutty, slightly sweettaste. Sesame seeds are used as a toppingfor bread and crackers. A paste made fromthe seeds (tahini) is combined with chick-peas to make hummus. Toast seeds beforeusing them to enhance their flavor.Szechuan PeppercornsDespite the name, these dried berries arenot related to traditional black peppercorns.They come from a type of ash tree and havea peppery, somewhat citrus taste. Popularin Chinese cuisine, Szechuan peppercornsoften are mixed with salt or used as a flavoringfor cooking oils. This flavored oilalso can be used as a salad dressing.Although growing in popularity, Szechuanpeppercorns may be available only at storesspecializing in Asian foods.TurmericDeep yellow in color, this spice is madefrom a root related to ginger. It has a sharp,woodsy taste. Widely used in Indian cuisine,turmeric is added to potatoes and lightcoloredvegetables for both taste and itsyellowish orange color. Turmeric can besubstituted for saffron.VanillaA spice usually sold in liquid form, vanillais extracted from the dried seed pods (beans)of a tropical plant belonging to the orchidfamily. It has a sweet, rich scent and flavor.Added to cookies, cakes, and other bakedgoods, vanilla is a widely used flavoring forice cream, desserts, and coffees. Check thelabel to make sure you are getting real vanillaextract. Real vanilla extract, which hasfar more flavor than synthetic vanilla flavorings,is also much more expensive.“Vanilla” brought back from tropical areasmay contain coumarin, a harmful substancethat can cause kidney and liver damage.

377BeveragesBeverages are used to quench thirst in everyday settings. At meals, they makea flavorful complement for foods. Special occasions are marked by toasts ofa favorite beverage. Drinking coffee, tea, soda pop, juice, or water is often used todesignate breaks during an ordinary workday. Beverages are as diverse as the culturallandscape worldwide.Like the food choices we make, the choosing of beverages plays a crucial role inour health. Drinking enough water, for example, is critical for many different bodyprocesses and thus is vital for good health. In contrast, beverages high in calories,fat, or sugar can contribute to obesity, tooth decay, and other health problems.Those high in caffeine, a chemical stimulant, can have other health drawbacksif consumed in excess. Beverages high in alcohol can affect our judgment andcoordination and may even be addictive.Perhaps at no other point in time has there ever been such a wide varietyof beverages available. To help you make the most healthful choice, thefollowing sections contain information about many of the mostwidely used beverages (information about milk is contained inDairy Foods, page 345).BasicsIn the world of science, water is referred toas the universal solvent. This label is clearin practical terms in any kitchen or restaurant.Served by itself or as part of somethingelse, water is a basic ingredient in allbeverages.Throughout history, water has beenheated, chilled, brewed, carbonated, hadherbs and other flavorings steeped in it, orbeen added to other ingredients and fermented.The result is a rich array of beveragesto choose from:Coffee—Brewed from the roasted beansof the semitropical coffee plant, coffee isenjoyed around the world, and each cultureoffers a different variation on this basicbeverage.Tea—Another beverage that crosses culturallines, tea is water that is heated withdried leaves from the evergreen shrubCamellia sinensis. A variation is herbal tea,in which herbs such as chamomile are used.Juice—The liquid squeezed from fruitsand vegetables has been enjoyed as a beveragethroughout history.Soda pop—A beverage of the modernage, this highly sweetened carbonated drinkis popular despite its nutritional drawbacks.It’s high in sugar and calories and has noappreciable nutrients in it.Wine—At its most basic, wine is simplyfermented grape juice, which of courseis made up mainly of water. There are thousandsof variations of this ancient alcoholicdrink.Beer—Another international beverage,beer is water brewed with yeast, hops, andother ingredients to yield a carbonated, alcoholicdrink with a distinctive taste and yeastysmell that is enjoyed around the globe.Of course, water itself should not beoverlooked as a beverage. Served throughouthistory to quench thirst and complementmeals, water is now available in a myriadof forms, from bottled to carbonated tostraight from the tap. The numerous varietiesof water sold commercially make it easyto enjoy this clear, colorless, calorie-free, andmost ancient of all beverages.NutritionThe calories and nutritional content of beveragesdepend on what has been added to

378 Part II: Encyclopedia of Foodsthe water that is their basic ingredient orthe process that the water has been through.For example, drinks high in sugar are alsohigh in calories. Alcoholic drinks are alsohigh in calories.The most important nutritional informationto remember about beverages, however,is how vital water is to your healthand that most people do not drink enoughwater. The recommended daily amount iseight 8-ounce glasses of water.To understand why water is so important,consider that your body is one-halfto four-fifths water. Every system in yourbody depends on water. Water regulatesyour body temperature, removes wastes,carries nutrients and oxygen to your cells,cushions your joints, helps prevent constipation,aids kidney function, and helps dissolvevitamins, minerals, and other nutrientsto make them accessible to your body.Lack of water can lead to dehydration.Even slight dehydration can sap yourenergy, contribute to headaches, and makeyou feel lethargic. Dehydration poses aparticular health risk for the very youngand very old.You lose about 10 cups of fluid a daythrough sweating, exhaling, urinating, andbowel movements. Exercising or engagingin any activity that causes you to perspireincreases your daily water requirement, asdoes hot, humid, or cold weather and highaltitudes. Some beverages, such as thosewith caffeine and alcohol, are dehydrating,so if you drink them, you need even morewater to compensate.Storage and SelectionStorage and selection of beverages dependon what it is you plan to drink. The followingsections provide this information andmore for some of the most common andwidely used beverages.WaterConcerns about the safety of tap water haveresulted in a burgeoning market for bottledwater, making it one of the most widelysold commercial beverages. Within the categoryof bottled water, there is a vast arrayof water types from which to choose. TheU.S. Food and Drug Administration(FDA), which regulates bottled water,classifies them in this way:Artesian water—This type of water isdrawn from a confined aquifer (a rock formationcontaining water that stands abovethe natural water table).Distilled water—This is water that hasbeen evaporated and then condensed, leavingit free of dissolved minerals.Purified water—Purified water hasbeen demineralized. It is produced bydeionization (passing it through resins) orby reverse osmosis (passing it throughfilters to remove dissolved minerals).Distilled water is also considered purifiedwater.Mineral water—Water that containsno less than 250 parts per million (ppm)of totally dissolved, naturally occurringsolids or minerals. Mineral water can belabeled “low mineral content” (less than500 ppm) or “high mineral content” (morethan 1,500 ppm).Spring water—Spring water isobtained from an underground formationfrom which water flows naturally to thesurface. It also can be collected through abore drilled into the spring.Sparkling water—Another name forcarbonated water, sparkling water containscarbon dioxide gas that is in it naturally orhas been added to it.Seltzer water—A type of sparklingwater. The name comes from the town ofNieder Selters in Germany. Seltzer wasintroduced in the late 1700s and is consideredthe forerunner of soda pop.Soda water—A carbonated water thatcontains sodium bicarbonate.Club soda—The same as soda waterexcept that mineral salts have been added.Tonic water—Tonic water has beencarbonated and flavored with fruit extracts,sugar, or quinine.Most water sold commercially comesin handy storage containers—usually cansor tightly sealed bottles. Water in thesecontainers can be kept indefinitely, chilledor in the pantry. Be sure not to let containersfreeze, particularly carbonated typesof water. Unlike other substances, water’svolume expands when it freezes. The resultingice will break the container.

Beverages 379SAFETY OF TAP WATERMany Americans are concerned aboutthe safety of their tap water, whichhas led to a dramatic increase in salesof water filtration systems and bottledwater.Most tap water, however, is fine.It is regulated by the EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA) for safetyand purity and chlorinated to destroymost organisms that can spreaddisease. However, small amountsof microbiological and chemicalcontaminants are allowed withinEPA limits of safety or when watertreatment equipment breaks down.The EPA requires public suppliersto notify consumers if water frompublic supplies does not meet safetystandards.CoffeeCoffee beans are actually the seeds of a cherrylikefruit of the semitropical coffee plant,which is grown in Brazil, Colombia,Indonesia, and parts of Africa and CentralAmerica. The seeds are separated from thecoffee fruit and then roasted. During roastingthey acquire the rich, dark-brown color(a result of caramelization, melting, andsubsequent browning of sugars in the beans)most people associate with coffee beans.Roasting time affects both the flavor andthe color of coffee beans. Generally, thedarker the beans, the longer they have beenroasted. Longer roasted beans also typicallyhave the most intense flavor.There are dozens of varieties of coffees,many of them named after their countryor port of origin. However, all coffee beansused commercially are one of two mainspecies: Coffea arabica and Coffea robusta.Most of the beans used around the worldare arabica beans, which are grown at a highaltitude, require plenty of rainfall, and areconsidered somewhat difficult to cultivate.Robusta beans flourish at lower altitudeswith less intense care.Arabica beans, however, are thought toproduce the finest flavor. They are also themost expensive coffee beans. For this reason,supermarket coffees contain mostlyrobusta beans, although some arabica beansmay be mixed in for a richer flavor. Despitethe less intense flavor of robusta beans, theyhave about twice the caffeine content ofarabica beans (see sidebar: DecaffeinatingCoffee Beans, page 380).Coffee beans can be roasted, ground,mixed, brewed, and flavored in various ways.Preparation TipsMost tap water in the United States is safeto drink. Try serving tap water with ice anda slice of lemon or lime, which gives thewater a pleasing taste. Prices for bottledwater range a great deal. Generally, however,less expensive types of bottled water comparefavorably with more expensive versions.Serving SuggestionsWater is an excellent beverage for any occasion.Try serving sparkling water for specialoccasions, putting it in a champagne fluteor wine goblet for added visual appeal. Foreveryday occasions, make water the defaultbeverage you choose. Soda pop and otherbeverages should be chosen far less frequently.Drink a glass of water when you get up, onewith each meal, and another when you goto bed. Keep a bottle with you during theday or take regular water breaks.Common coffee drinks: café latte, perked coffee, espresso

380 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsWHAT IS INSTANT COFFEE?Instant coffee (almost always madefrom robusta beans) is simply freshlybrewed liquid coffee that has beendehydrated into a powder. Addingwater to this powder rehydrates thecoffee, thus resulting in a quick, ifperhaps less flavorful, cup of coffee.Powder particles are processed to lookmore like traditional coffee grounds.Some instant coffee brands arefreeze-dried. This means that thecoffee solution was frozen to extractthe water from it. The resultingproduct looks more like traditionalcoffee grounds and has a richer flavor.The result? Numerous specialty coffee drinksfor coffee connoisseurs to choose from:Espresso—This dark, strong, and concentratedcoffee is made by forcing hotwater through coffee that is very finelyground, darkly roasted, and specially blended.It is so rich that when served unadorned,only a small quantity is needed. Thus,espresso usually is served in a tiny cup, oftenreferred to as a demitasse. Espresso alsomay be the foundation of other specialtycoffee drinks.French presscoffee makerCafé au lait—From the French for“coffee with milk,” café au lait is made withequal parts of regular coffee and scaldedmilk. In France and Quebec, café au laitis considered a morning tradition.Café latte—Very similar to café au lait,this coffee beverage is equal parts of foamysteamed milk and espresso.Café mocha—More dessert than beverage,café mocha is made with espresso,chocolate syrup, and foamy, steamed milk.The chocolate syrup adds considerable caloriesto this coffee drink.Cappuccino—This is espresso toppedwith the creamy foam from steamed milk.Some of this milk may be added to theespresso. Sometimes sweetened cinnamon,cocoa, or vanilla powder is sprinkled overthe foamed milk.Turkish coffee—An intensely flavoredcoffee beverage, Turkish coffee is made bybringing finely ground coffee to a boilseveral times. Sugar, water, and spices suchas cinnamon or cardamom can be added.The flavor of Turkish coffee is so rich thatonly a small quantity is served.The growing interest in specialty coffeeshas spurred an interest in the types of coffeebeans used at home for the regular brew.Once, only gourmands bought whole beansand ground them at home. Now, coffeegrinders are considered routine kitchenaccessories. Specialty coffee makers are alsobecoming more commonplace.French press coffee: mix fresh groundcoffee and hot water; steep for 3 to 4minutes. The lid has a screen thatpushes the grounds to the bottom.A welcome consequence is that excellentcoffee can be made at home. The outcomeof home brewing, although somewhatdependent on the equipment you own, isaffected mainly by the type of coffee youbuy. Perhaps the best thing you can do toensure a good cup of coffee is to buy fresh,whole beans, grinding them just beforebrewing. Follow grinding instructions onyour grinder carefully, paying particularattention to recommended grind times.Avoid beans or preground coffee packedin the large, traditional round canisters.This packing method almost always allowssome oxygen into the container, which cancause the coffee to become stale. Instead,look for coffee sold in vacuum-packed bags,which have a mechanism that allows gas inthe container to escape but does not let any in.DECAFFEINATING COFFEE BEANSVirtually all coffee beans naturallycontain caffeine, a chemical stimulantthat can increase heart rate and bloodpressure and act as a diuretic and mayhave some addictive properties.There are several ways to removethe caffeine from coffee beans. Onemethod uses a solvent to removecaffeine chemically. The beans arewashed afterward to remove thesolvent. Roasting also removes anytraces. A second method is the Swisswater process, in which steam is usedto heat the beans. Then, the outerlayer of the beans, which containsmost of the caffeine, is scraped off.The Sanka brand of coffee, introducedin the early part of the 20th century,was the first caffeine-free coffee developedin the United States. Its namecomes from the French term “sanscaféine,” which means without caffeine.

Beverages 381At home, store coffee at room temperatureand try to use it as soon as possible. Ifyou use coffee from a can and it will beopen for more than 2 weeks, place it in anairtight container in the refrigerator. If thecan will be open for more than 1 month,place the coffee in an airtight container inthe freezer. Return the coffee to the refrigeratoror freezer immediately after measuringthe amount you will use.Preparation TipsIn addition to using fresh beans and grindingthem just before brewing, other waysto improve the flavor of home-brewedcoffee are the following:Start off with clean equipment—Oilresidues from previous batches of coffeecan cling to equipment and affect flavor—particularly if flavored coffee was used.Use fresh, cold water—Using hotwater will result in flatter-tasting coffee.Also, make sure the water is free of mineralsor other chemicals. If you don’t like thetaste of your tap water, consider using filteredor bottled water.Use the right amount of coffee—Fortraditional coffee-brewing machines,1 tablespoon of coffee grounds is recommendedfor each 6 ounces of water. Adjustthe amount of coffee grounds to yourpreference.Don’t steep coffee grounds in thecoffee too long—This extracts bitter substancesfrom the grounds that affect thetaste of the coffee.Consider the filter—Paper filters mayaffect the texture of the coffee. Considerusing a metal filter in your coffee makerinstead. Metal filters are available for mosttypes of machines.Avoid flavored coffees—Many of thesecoffees are made with lower-quality beans.Instead of buying them, grind your ownbeans and add coffee flavorings of yourown. Most coffee shops sell essences andflavorings just for this purpose.Serving SuggestionsCoffee complements various foods and canbe served by itself or mixed with other flavoringsthroughout the day. Coffees withcream or milk are typically consideredmorning coffees, and espresso is considereda beverage for later in the day. If you are afrequent coffee drinker, keep in mind thatcoffee is high in caffeine (up to 105 milligramsper 6-ounce cup). In addition,specialty coffees can be high in calories orfat if made with cream or whole milk orflavorings such as chocolate. Use skim milkinstead of whole milk in coffee drinkswhenever possible.Tea fieldTeaTea is said to be the universal beverage.Made from the leaves of an evergreen plant(related to the camellia flower) steeped inhot water, this beverage is a part of dailylife from Great Britain to Morocco toChina, where tea is thought to have originated.Most of the leaves grown for theworld’s tea are still grown in Asia, althoughsome is produced in the United States.All types of teas are made from theleaves of the same plant, Camellia sinensis.Typically, finer teas use only the top leafand bud; stronger, coarser brews use theleaves farther down on a branch. Tea leavesare typically dried after they are picked andthen are broken into fragments, which bringforth the oils that give tea its flavor. Climate,soil, and processing give tea different tastesand characteristics.

382 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsThe main types of tea include:Green tea—A favorite in Asia, greentea is so named because the leaves are driedand fragmented soon after picking. Teamade from these leaves is mild and fresherin taste than other types of tea. Because ofthis, green tea usually is not served withmilk or sugar. Types of green tea includegunpowder, Tencha, and Gyokuro, aJapanese tea also known as pearl dew tea.Black tea—Actually a dark reddishbrown tea when it is brewed, the stronglyflavored black tea is popular in Westernnations. It is the most processed andstrongest flavored tea. After the leaves arepicked, they are allowed to ferment in theopen sun before being dried. The size of thetea leaves determines the grading of blacktea. Common black tea varieties includeCeylon, Assam, and Darjeeling, consideredby many to be the finest black tea.COMPARING CAFFEINE CONTENTBrewed beverage(6-ounce cup)Caffeine content(in milligrams)Green tea 25Black tea 35Coffee 105Oolong teas—Oolong tea has characteristicsof both black and green teas. Itsleaves are fermented for about half the timeof black tea. Oolong tea originated in theFukien province of China, where much ofthe world’s production of oolong tea takesplace. Formosan tea, named for the formername of Taiwan, is considered by manyto be the finest oolong tea.Blended teas—Often referred to asEnglish teas, these are black teas that havebeen blended with spices and flavorings toenhance tea flavor and aroma. Thousandsof blended teas are available worldwide.Popular blended teas include English breakfastand Earl Grey.Herbal teas—Not made from tea leaves,herbal tea is a tea-like drink made by steepingherbs, flowers, and spices in heatedwater. Herbal tea has been made throughouthistory, often for medicinal purposes orsimply to make water taste better. Popularherbal teas are made from chamomile, rosehips, and mint, to name just a few. InFrance, herbal teas are referred to as “tisanes.”Herbal teas typically contain no caffeine.Instant tea—Popular in the UnitedStates since the 1950s, instant tea is tea thathas been dehydrated and granulated so thatit dissolves rapidly in water. Often, it alsocontains sugar and other flavorings.Store tea away from heat in a sealed container.Tea keeps for about 6 months. Afterthat, it loses its flavor and should be discarded.Preparation TipsThe best tea is made using whole or largefragments of tea leaves, available in manyspecialty tea shops. Many of these shops alsosell implements, such as mesh containers,which allow tea leaves to infuse their flavorinto water without leaving the leaves behind.To make a good cup or pot of tea, startby using cold, fresh, and filtered water (ifFAST FACTAlthough the English are known fortheir love of tea, ingenious Americansinvented the tea bag and began thepractice of drinking iced tea in theearly 1900s.

Beverages 383TEAS AND POSSIBLE HEALTHBENEFITSTea has been consumed throughouthistory for its supposed curativepowers, and medical research nowsuggests that there are health benefitsfrom drinking green and black teas.Several studies show an associationbetween consumption of green teaand reduction in the risk for cancerand heart disease. Green tea naturallycontains chemical compounds calledpolyphenols. Within this family ofcompounds are chemicals that appearto play a role in cell growth and programmedcell death, which could beimportant in preventing and controllingcancer. Polyphenols also areantioxidants that can help preventcell damage and may help preventformation of plaque in the arteries.you don’t like the taste of your tap water).Heat the water to a simmer—do not boil—remove from heat, and add the tea. Steepingguidelines are generally 1 teaspoon of teaper cup of water, but the amount may varyaccording to the type of tea used. Green teasusually need to be steeped in water for 1 to2 minutes, and black teas may require 3 to4 minutes. Avoid oversteeping. More than5 minutes can make all types of tea bitter.Serving SuggestionsTea is an excellent beverage at any time ofthe day. Black teas are typically served atbreakfast, often with milk and sweeteners.Herbal teas typically do not contain thestimulant caffeine and thus are excellentchoices in the evening. One note of caution:tea itself contains no calories. However,lighteners or sweeteners added to it can adda significant amount of calories and fat.Minimize fat and calories by using skimmilk. In addition, afternoon tea, an oldbut widespread tradition, often includesbaked sweets such as scones or cookies.Keep your tea break healthful by limitingthese sweets. Serve fruit or slices of wholegrainbread instead.JuiceCompared with the numerous beveragesavailable today, juice remains a nutritiouschoice. It retains most of the nutrients (vitamins,minerals, and phytochemicals) inthe original fruit or vegetable, although itmay also be higher in calories and sugarthan many suspect. There are 175 caloriesin 12 ounces of apple juice, for example,and 230 calories in grape juice. Apple juicehas 45 grams of fructose, a naturally occurringform of sugar, and grape juice has 57grams of this sugar. Tomato juice contains62 calories in a 12-ounce serving; however,it also contains 1,314 milligrams of sodium.If you are monitoring your sodium intake,always check labels of vegetable-based juices.In addition, be aware that not all juicessold today are all juice. Some may be 100percent fruit juice, but other brands mayhave juice mixed with water or simply bewater with added sugar and flavoring. TheU.S. Food and Drug Administration regulatesthe terms used on juice labels andrequires manufacturers to state the percentageof pure juice used in the product.Terms consumers may encounterinclude:100 percent juice—These juices donot contain added water.From concentrate—This juice hasundergone processing to remove most ofthe water from the original fruit juice. Theresulting concentrated liquid is frozen, andthen rehydrated. It may be considered 100percent juice if the amount of water addedback to the concentrate does not exceedFDA guidelines for 100 percent juice.Not from concentrate—The mostexpensive kind of juice in the supermarket,this is juice that does not have added wateror sweeteners. Nor has it been reduceddown to a concentrate and then rehydrated.Other terms to look for on labelsinclude cocktail, punch, drink, or beverage—Thesemay signify that only a smallpercentage of actual juice was used. It alsousually indicates that sweeteners were added.Preparation TipsNumerous juicing machines are availableon the market, many of them relativelyinexpensive. Try making your own juiceat home with one of these machines. Notonly do you guarantee that you are gettinga pure product but also you can experimentwith different combinations of fruits.Orange and pineapple, for example, makea tasty, tangy fruit juice. Carrot juice canbe blended with juice from vegetables orfruits for an extra-nutritious drink. Whenchoosing fruits at the supermarket, choosethose that are sold during their peak seasonand are properly ripened.Serving SuggestionsJuice makes an excellent addition to anymeal. To reduce the amount of caffeineyou consume, try substituting juice forcoffee at coffee breaks. If you don’t wantto make your own juice at home, numerousjuice combinations are available at thesupermarket. Check the label to make sureyou are getting fruit juice and not sweetenedwater, however.

384 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsSoda PopOnce soda pop was the exception ratherthan the rule when it came to choosing abeverage. Now, it is virtually the defaultbeverage for adults and children alike. Infact, some studies indicate that soda popmay provide up to 20 percent of teens’calories each day. In addition, up to 20percent of toddlers drink soda pop.This increased consumption is unfortunatebecause soda pop is devoid of nutrition.Instead, it is high in calories and, typically,sugar. One can of regular, nondiet soda pophas between 150 and 200 calories. It alsohas between 9 and 11 teaspoons of sugarand 30 to 70 milligrams of caffeine. Thesevalues are only part of the issue, however.By choosing soda pop, adults andchildren alike are missing out on thenutrients provided by beverages such as juiceand milk. In fact, many physicians andnutritionists are concerned that today’s teensmay be placing themselves at high risk ofosteoporosis—a bone-thinning disease—asSPORTS DRINKSSo-called sports drinks offer anotherbeverage alternative, albeit onemarketed mainly at athletes. Thedrinks contain mostly sugar, water,sodium, potassium, and flavorings.Whether they provide any additionalbenefit to athletes is debatable. Forhigh-performance athletes, there maybe some benefit from using thesedrinks because they replace sugar andsodium lost during extended periodsof exercise. Water is still the preferredbeverage for the average person andathlete. Plus, it has no calories orsugar, which most sports drinks do.they grow older because they are not gettingenough calcium during their adolescentand early adult years. Phosphates insoda pop may cause the body to eliminatecalcium during urination. There are alsoconcerns about soda pop’s effect on toothdecay because of its high sugar content andsome of the acidic chemicals within it.Preparation Tips and ServingSuggestionsSoda pop has little if any role in a healthfuldiet. If you do decide to drink it, limit itas much as possible. Selecting caffeine-freeand diet soda pop can eliminate some ofthe nutritional hazards of these beverages,but not all of them. When eating out,encourage children to order milk. At home,make sure there’s a selection of beveragesavailable—including chilled water—thatwill help family members make morehealthful choices.WineWine is the naturally fermented juice ofgrapes or other fruit, vegetables, or grains.It has been a beverage used at meals andcelebrations for thousands of years. Today,there are vineyards and wineries throughoutthe world.General types of wine include thefollowing:Red wines—Typically dry and fullbodied,common red wines are made froma variety of grapes, including cabernet sauvignon,merlot, pinot noir, syrah, and sangiovese.White wines—White wines rangewidely in flavor, from dry and tart to sweetand fruity. They also are made from variousgrapes, including chardonnay, sauvignonblanc, chenin blanc, and riesling.WINE STORAGEIt is not necessary to have a speciallybuilt wine cellar to store wine.Anywhere with a temperature from45° to 65° Fahrenheit is acceptable,as long as the temperature does notfluctuate. The warmer the temperature,the faster the wine will age.Cork-sealed wines should be storedon their sides to prevent the corkfrom drying.Rosé or blush wines—These winesalso vary in flavor from sweet to tart. Thesewines are made with red-skinned grapesbut are processed in such a way that thejuice’s contact with grape skins is limited.Sparkling wine—Sparkling is simplyanother way to say bubbly. Perhaps thebest-known sparkling wine is champagne,although there are numerous other types.

Beverages 385The flavor of sparkling wines ranges fromslightly sweet to dry. They usually have alighter flavor than traditional wines.Fortified wines—Brandy or otherliquors may be added to sherry, port, orother dessert wines to increase alcohol inthem.Aromatic wines—So-named becausethey are flavored with herbs or spices.Vermouth is an example of a flavored wine.Rice wine—Rice wine is a sweet, goldenwine and usually has a low alcohol content.It is produced by fermenting steamedrice. Sake and mirin are two well-knownrice wines. Rice wine is a frequent part ofAsian cuisine.Access to and varieties of wine haveincreased as vineyards and the art of winemakinghave spread throughout the world.Whereas only a few regions of the worldwere thought to produce excellent winedecades ago, consumers now have an arrayof wines—not to mention prices—fromwhich to choose. Wines from the traditionalwinemaking areas of France remainexcellent, of course, but they now havecompetition from wines produced inGermany, Italy, Spain, the United States,and Australia. Less traditional winemakingareas such as South America and SouthAfrica also offer enjoyable wines.A wine myth that should be dispensedwith is that wines automatically improvewith age. Wines do need about a year toFAST FACTOne of the sources for cream of tartar,an ingredient used in baking andcandy making, comes from tartaricacid in wine that crystallizes on theinside of wine barrels.Vineyardage after their production. But after that,it is recommended that most white wines bedrunk within 5 to 6 years. Many red winesimprove with age. However, the extent ofimprovement depends largely on the qualityof the wine. For less expensive varieties,age is not always a good thing.Wine does complement the flavor of avariety of foods. However, it also can behigh in calories. A 5-ounce glass of winehas 100 to 226 calories. Some studies showthat phytochemicals in wine may have somehealth benefits (see sidebar: Alcohol andHealth, page 387). However, moderation inwine consumption is still recommended.Preparation TipsMost red wines should be served at roomtemperature. White wine generally shouldbe served at a temperature between 50° and55° Fahrenheit. Use caution when chillingwhite wine. Refrigerating it for morethan 2 hours before serving can lower itstemperature too much and blunt its flavorand aroma.Serving SuggestionsAnother wine myth is that only certaintypes of wine are served with particularfoods. This is true in that certain types ofwine complement the flavors of certainfoods. Red wine, for example, is excellentwith hearty or spicy meals or with a steak.White wines complement fish or poultry,and dry, tart wines are excellent withdesserts. However, the vast majority ofdinners are casual enough that it is notnecessary to observe these guidelines.

386 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsBeerBeer is another alcoholic beverage that hasbeen enjoyed through the ages. In fact, historiansbelieve that brewing began shortlyafter humans started to cultivate grains.Over the centuries, brewing has evolvedinto a highly scientific process.Beer today generally contains about 5percent alcohol and is brewed from maltedbarley and grains such as corn or rye andflavored with hops. Yeast also is used forfermentation. The quality of the waterstrongly influences beer’s flavor and characterbecause 90 percent of beer’s volumeis water.The many varieties of beer include thefollowing:Bock beerPilsner beerWHAT ARE HOPS?Hops are plants that produce cone-likeflowers. These flowers are dried andthen used in brewing beer to give it abitter but pleasant flavor. Hop shootsalso can be cooked like asparagus andeaten.Ale—Usually strongly flavored with abitter taste, ale is popular in the pubs ofEngland and Ireland. Its color ranges fromlight gold to amber.Bock beer—A full-bodied beer witha dark color and somewhat sweet taste, bockbeer is traditionally brewed in Germanyin the fall and then drunk in spring celebrations.Fruit beerFruit beer—Fruit beers are mild beerswith concentrated fruit juice added. Apopular fruit beer in the United States ismade with cranberries.Lager—This clear, golden brew is anAmerican favorite. It is stored in casks untilsediment and residues left from the brewingprocess settle out. The residue is thenremoved.Malt liquor—Despite the name, maltliquor is a beer, one that has a higher percentageof alcohol (up to 9 percent) thanother types of beer. In comparison, mostbeers have an alcohol content, by weight,from 5 to 8 percent.Pilsner, or pilsener—This is a pale,light lager beer that was originally brewedin Pilsen in the Czech Republic. The termis now used to describe most pale, mildflavoredlager beer.Porter—The addition of roasted maltgives this beer its dark color and strongflavor. Porters may have a higher alcoholcontent than regular beer.Stout—Another favorite of the pubs inEngland and Ireland, stout has a strong,bittersweet flavor and a dark-brown color.Roasted barley helps give this beer itscharacter. Guinness is a well-known formof stout.Wheat beer—Sometimes known as“weitzen,” which is German for wheat beer,this type of beer has a pale-gold color anda mild flavor similar to that of a lager. It ismade from malted wheat, which is why itis named wheat beer.Light beer—Largely an Americancreation, light beer has fewer calories thanregular beer and less alcohol. Nonalcoholicforms of beer also are available.Unlike wine, beer is best soon after itis produced. Beer connoisseurs believe thatbeer older than 2 months should not beserved. Beer manufacturers in the United

Beverages 387ALCOHOL AND HEALTHHeavy drinking always carries risks. But increasingly, studiesare showing that light drinking (defined as 1 drink or less aday for women and 2 drinks or less a day for men) may havesome health benefits.Perhaps the most significant benefit is in cardiovascularhealth. Alcohol may help increase levels of high-densitylipoprotein (“good”) cholesterol and may help reduce theclotting that can lead to a heart attack or stroke. Red winealso is thought to contain phytochemicals (compoundsoccurring in plants) that also may help protect againstcardiovascular disease.Other studies suggest that light drinking may help protectagainst Alzheimer’s disease, senility, and macular degeneration,an eye condition that is the leading cause of blindness inpeople age 65 years or older.These benefits, however, are far from proved, and morestudy is needed to determine the role of light drinking in ahealthful lifestyle. In addition, the potential benefits comewith some substantial risks.Any alcohol is hazardous for a pregnant woman and herdeveloping fetus. In addition, it is risky for anyone with afamily history of alcohol addiction to use alcohol.Alcohol use has health risks for everyone else. Alcoholslows brain activity, which in turn affects alertness and coordination,increasing the risk of falls and accidents while driving.It also can affect sleep and sexual function, increase bloodpressure, and play a role in heartburn. There is also thehazard of drug interaction, for both over-the-counter andprescription drugs. In addition, heavy, chronic drinking hasbeen linked with an increased risk of obesity, high bloodpressure, osteoporosis, and cancer of the throat, stomach,colon, and breast. Addiction is also a risk for anyone whouses alcohol.For all of these reasons, moderation remains a key partof a healthful lifestyle. If you don’t drink, there’s no healthreason to start doing so. If you already drink, there’s noreason to stop. Just continue to enjoy wine, beer, or otherspirits in moderation.Type of AlcoholWineBeer80-proof liquorOne Drink Equals:5 ounces12 ounces1.5 ouncesStates recently have begun stamping cansor bottles with production dates to helpconsumers ensure they are getting freshbeer. Typically, beer is stored in a cool, darkplace and then chilled before serving. Beerthat is chilled, warmed, and then chilledagain may lose its flavor.Beer is relatively high in calories(between 120 and 150 calories for 12ounces)—one reason it should be drunk inmoderation. Other reasons for doing soinclude alcohol’s other health hazards (seesidebar: Alcohol and Health, above).Preparation Tips and Serving SuggestionsBeer is traditionally served in chilled glasssteins or mugs. The temperature of thebeer varies according to its type. Stouts andales are often served at room temperature,and lagers typically are chilled. The mostimportant consideration, however, is thepersonal preference of the person who isdrinking it. Beer is often a beverage reservedfor snacks and lighter meals, although insome European countries it is a staple atdinner.

Fats, oils, and sweeteners can enhance the flavor of the food you eat.However, virtually all health experts agree that intake of these foods shouldbe limited, and certain types (saturated and partially hydrogenated)should be avoided. This chapter provides information on the various typesof fats, oils, and sweeteners and the foods that contain them.

389Fats, Oils, & SweetenersIf there is any food group that we have a love-hate relationship with, it’s fats, oils, andsweeteners.On the one hand, these foods play a vital role in our enjoyment of what we eat. Fatsand oils give a creaminess, richness, crispiness, or pleasing mouth-feel to foods. Sweetenersalso satisfy a universal and natural craving. On the other hand, the pleasure that fats, oils, andsweeteners bring can come at a cost. These foods generally are high in calories, makingit difficult for someone who eats a lot of them to maintain a healthful weight.They also have other health disadvantages. Too much of the wrong kindsof fats and oils can increase the blood cholesterol level, which in turncan increase risk for cardiovascular disease. Sugar and highly sweetenedfoods also are typically high in calories and provide fewnutrients. For that reason, “empty calories” is a term often usedto describe sweeteners or foods rich in them. Sugar and toothdecay are linked when sugar is eaten in excess and dentalhygiene is poor.The Food Guide Pyramid recognizes both the advantages andthe disadvantages of these foods. It does not eliminate them. But it does place them at the verytip of the pyramid. It’s okay to use these foods as long as they are eaten sparingly. Making sure fats,oils, and sweeteners play the proper role in your diet involves knowing more about them, their role inthe diet, and what foods are rich in them. To help you do this, this chapter provides more detailedinformation on the types of fats, oils, and sweeteners you are likely to consume.Fats & OilsBasicsFats, no matter what their source, play animportant role in the food we eat. For centuries,every culture has taken advantage ofthe unique chemical properties of fats —for example, fats easily absorb other flavors.Fats also are used to cook foods, add a pleasingtexture, impart tenderness to bakedgoods, and, in societies where food is scarce,increase the calorie content of a food. Fats,therefore, are a basic ingredient in cooking.The term “fats,” however, is broad,encompassing many different substances— from butter to lard to vegetable oil. Alloils, for example, are fats. But not all fatsare oils. Although definitions vary, forcooking purposes fats are generally characterizedas follows:Fats — Generally defined as substancesthat are solid at room temperature, fatsinclude butter, cocoa butter, lard, margarine,suet, and vegetable shortening.Oils — Oils remain liquid at room temperature.Oils can be made from variousplants and seeds: vegetables, olives, rapeseed(from which canola oil is made), sunflowerseeds, corn, peanuts, soybeans, walnuts,almonds, hazelnuts, safflower seeds, grapeseed,sesame seed, mustard seed, and coconutsare among the most commonly used.No matter what form they take, fats aremade up of fatty acids, which are themolecular building blocks of fats in thesame way that amino acids combine to formprotein. At their most basic, fatty acids aremolecular chains of hydrogen, carbon, andoxygen atoms. The differences in thechemical structure of fats make some betterfor you than others (see Chapter 2, SortingOut the Fats, page 26).Sometimes a process called hydrogenationis used to make liquid oils solid at roomtemperature. This also converts unsaturatedfat into trans fat. Trans fats are usedin many processed and fast foods, such asdoughnuts, crackers, chips, and french fries.Trans fats also give margarine its butter-likeconsistency. Trans fats tend to increase yourcholesterol level and therefore should be

390 Part II: Encyclopedia of Foodseaten in only limited amounts (see Chapter3, Limit Trans Fat, page 66).NutritionFat is an essential nutrient. Our bodiesrequire small amounts of several fatty acidsto build cell membranes and to supportlife-sustaining functions (see Chapter 2,Fat as a Nutrient, page 26). That said, theold adage about “too much of a good thing”is appropriate in discussing fat. Virtually allhealth experts agree that fat intake shouldbe limited. The federal government, theAmerican Heart Association, and otherorganizations recommend that fat intakefor a healthy individual should be less than30 percent of total daily calories. They alsorecommend that less than 8 to 10 percentof total calories come from saturated fat.Although various kinds of fat have differenteffects on your blood cholesterol, allfoods that are high in fat are high incalories. High-fat foods can easily increaseyour calories, making it difficult to maintaina healthful weight. Fat packs morecalorie punch than any other type of nutrientgroup. Per gram, fat has 9 calories(about 100 calories per tablespoon, or 250calories per ounce). In contrast, proteinand carbohydrates have just 4 calories pergram. Because of this, you do not need toeat very much fat before reaching the 30percent threshold.If a low-fat diet is good, is an evenlower-fat diet better? Not necessarily.Upper limits of fat intake have been established,but the same is not true for lowerlimits. Talk with your health care providerabout the recommended fat intake that isbest for you. Even a low-fat diet can leadto weight gain if you cut back on fat buttake in excess calories by ignoring the restof what you eat. Too many calories fromany source result in added pounds. And ifthey add up to obesity, you are at increasedrisk for health problems.SelectionBe discriminating in the type of fat you consume.Limit animal fat (saturated) and transfats (hydrogenated oils). Instead, use small,sensible amounts of plant-based (monounsaturatedand polyunsaturated) fats.When purchasing products, alwayscheck the expiration dates. Rancidity is aconcern with any type of fat.Purchasing oils, of which there aredozens of varieties, involves a close readingof the package label. Most cooks prefer tobuy “cold pressed” oils, which means thatminimal heat and pressure are used toextract the oil from the original plant orseed. This type of processing is consideredimportant because it allows oil to maintainmore of the plant’s natural flavors and textures.With the exception of extra-virginolive oil, however, it is difficult to find coldpressedoils.A good alternative is to use so-calledunrefined oils. Unrefined oils are extractedwith heat. Unlike other oils, unrefined oilsundergo minimal processing after thispoint. The result is a more flavorful oiland, sometimes, a more darkly colored oil.Unrefined oils generally include virgin oliveoil and corn, nut, soybean, canola, andsesame oils. Unrefined oils break down easilyunder heat and thus should not be usedfor deep-frying. Because deep-fried foodsare not typically part of a healthful diet,you should not have to trade a flavorful oilfor one with more cooking versatility.Most oils in your supermarket, however,are not only extracted with heat but alsoundergo much more processing, includingusing chemicals to de-gum, refine, bleach,and deodorize the oil. The result? Less flavor.After experimenting with cold-pressed orFAST FACTIf you are trying to reduce the fat inyour diet, you are not alone. Foodconsumption surveys report thatabout two-thirds of American adultseat low-fat or reduced-fat foods andbeverages.unrefined oils, you will likely appreciatethe difference between these oils and theirmore highly processed counterparts.StorageThe method of storage depends on whethera fat or oil is being stored. However, bothbecome rancid given enough exposure toair, sunlight, and heat.Fats such as butter, margarine, and lardshould be tightly wrapped and refrigerated.They usually can be stored this way for upto 2 weeks. Extra butter or margarine canbe stored in the freezer for up to 2 years.Hydrogenated vegetable shortening can bestored, tightly covered, at room temperaturefor as long as 3 months.Oils require a slightly different strategy.They should be stored in airtight containersthat are opaque to prevent light from penetrating.Refrigeration is also generallyrecommended for oils. Unopened oils canbe kept this way for up to a year, althoughthey should be used within a few monthsafter they are opened.Cooler temperatures may cause oil tolook cloudy or congeal. Removing the oilfrom the refrigerator and allowing it to reachroom temperature should resolve this problem.An important guideline for evaluatingthe freshness of oil is to trust your nose. Ifthe oil smells fishy or musty, discard it.The following sections provide moreinformation on specific fats and oils.

Fats, Oils, & Sweeteners 391FatsButterButter is made from the fat that comes frommilk from cows, sheep, goats, horses, andother mammals. Most commercially producedbutter in the United States is madefrom cow’s milk.Butter making occurs in several stages.Cream that separates from milk is pasteurized(heated at a high temperature) to killany organisms that might be harmful tohuman health. Then the cream is placed ina ripening tank for 12 to 15 hours. There,it goes through another series of heat treatmentsthat give butter a crystalline structurewhen it cools, helping it to solidify.The next step is to churn the butter.This process breaks down the fat globulesin the cream. The result is that the fat iscoagulated into butter grains. The mixtureis then separated, the remaining butter pasteis worked until it is smooth, and, dependingon the producer, it may be salted.Further variations in processing influenceits characteristics, including aroma, taste,color, appearance, and quality.There are numerous butter variations.Those you find in gourmet markets includea French butter known as beurre (butter)de Charentes. Beurre de Charentes has anivory color and tastes very rich. AnotherEuropean-style butter growing in popularityin the United States is ripened butter,traditionally made in Denmark and theNetherlands, which is softer than regularbutter. It also has a slightly tangy tastebecause lactic acid is added to the creamfrom which it is made.More common variations include thefollowing:Whipped butter — Whipped butter’sname is self-explanatory. It has air beatenWHAT IS ANOIL’S SMOKE POINT, AND WHY DOES IT MATTER?An oil’s smoke point is simply the point at which fat, when heated, starts to smoke,smell acrid, and, as a result, give an unpleasant flavor to food.Each type of oil has a different smoke point. It is dependent on the free fattyacids that make up the oil. The higher the oil’s smoke point, the higher the temperatureit can withstand. Safflower and canola oils have the highest smoke pointand are the most ideal for frying or sautéing (435° to 450° Fahrenheit). Olive oilhas a lower smoke point and is best used in salad dressings (extra virgin, 250°Fahrenheit) or in baking (regular olive oil, 410° Fahrenheit).Beyond the bad flavor imparted to foods, there are health reasons to avoidusing an oil that has reached its smoke point. High temperatures can cause the oilsto decompose, and this process, in turn, can irritate the lungs and cause gastrointestinalupset.Serving SuggestionsButter is one of the most versatile cookingingredients and the foundation of numerousgourmet foods, sauces in particular. Its tastecan be enhanced by mixing it with herbs andspices and then refrigerating it again. Onepopular flavored butter is garlic butter, whichcan be made by creaming the desired amountof butter and mashed garlic cloves to taste.Oregano, marjoram, basil, or parsley also canbe added. Numerous recipes for flavoredbutter are available in cookbooks.Butter’s health drawbacks are wellknown, however, and thus it should be usedselectively. If that special dish simply cannotbe made without butter, don’t try to subintoit. The result is that it is slightly lowerin fat and calories than regular butter. It isvery soft and spreadable.Light butter — Light butter usually hasabout half the calories of regular butter. Italso generally has less fat and less saltbecause water is usually added to it.Unsalted butter — This is butter towhich no salt has been added.Clarified butter — An ingredient insome recipes, clarified butter is butter thathas the milk solids removed from it. Theadvantage is that it has a higher smoke pointthan regular butter, which increases itscooking versatility. It also keeps longer thanbutter and is thought to have a more pureflavor. Clarified butter is similar to a typeof butter called ghee that is used in India.Butter should be refrigerated and storedin opaque packaging that prevents light fromentering. In addition, the packaging shouldseal in moisture to prevent the butter frombecoming dehydrated, a process that intensifiesits color and detracts from its flavor.Preparation TipsShould you use salted butter or unsalted?Although salted butter is the most commontype in supermarkets, many serious cooksprefer to use unsalted butter in cooking andbaking. Unsalted butter is thought to havea sweeter flavor. In addition, many cooksprefer to control the salt they add to a dishor baked food.Both light butter and whipped butterwork well for toppings, but neither can besubstituted for regular butter in recipes forbaked goods because of the air or water theycontain.

392 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsHOW TO “CLARIFY” BUTTERTo make clarified butter, start bycutting unsalted butter into smallpieces. Melt the butter over lowheat for 10 to 15 minutes. Thisallows the fat to separate from themilk solids. Then gently pour orspoon off the clarified butter fat anddiscard the solids. After the fatcools, it may appear to have a grainytexture. Clarified butter keepslonger than regular butter becausethe milk solids have been removed.It generally is used only for cookingbecause it has the advantage ofhaving a higher smoke point thanregular butter. Thus, it can beheated to higher temperatures,without burning, making it a goodchoice for frying or sautéing.stitute something else. Instead, save thedish for special occasions.MargarineHydrogenation, the process used to makeliquid oils solid at room temperature, madepossible a shift from animal fat to vegetablefat as a substitute for butter. The resultingproduct — which may be blended with othermilk products or animal fats (such as lardor tallow) and salt for taste — is margarine.It has been used as a butter substitute sincethe late 19th century. Sometimes it isreferred to as oleomargarine or oleo. Oleomeans oil and refers to the vegetable oilbase of margarine.In addition to regular margarine, thedairy case may contain these variations:Salted or unsalted margarine — As thename suggests, salt has been added forflavoring or left out.Reduced-fat or nonfat margarine —These products contain 25 to 65 percent lessfat than regular margarine. To reduce fat levels,modified margarines and spreads are createdwith varying amounts of water andthickening agents, such as gelatin, rice starch,and guar gum. Some margarines even makehealth claims (see Chapter 3, sidebar:Cholesterol-Lowering Margarine? page 66).Butter-margarine blends — Designedto add butter flavor, these products areusually 40 percent butter and 60 percentmargarine.Soft margarine — These margarines areusually made from only vegetable oil andhave been processed to stay soft and spreadablewhen cold.Whipped margarine — This has hadair beaten into it, making it fluffy and easyto spread.Liquid margarine — Liquid margarinecomes in squeezable bottles, making it convenientfor picnics and other events awayfrom home. It is specially blended so that itdoes not become too thick to squeeze out ofthe bottle. It is also handy for basting andfor foods such as corn on the cob and waffles.Like butter, regular margarine is about80 percent fat (actually, law requires thispercentage of fat for the product to belabeled margarine) and has the same numberof calories. One tablespoon containsabout 100 calories and 11 grams of fat.For years, margarine was thought to bea much healthier choice than butter becauseit contains less saturated fat than butter andno cholesterol (because it is not made fromanimal fat). Although that’s true, margarineis high in trans fats, which also are linkedto cardiovascular disease. In addition, margarineis high in calories. Therefore, itshould be used in moderation.Softer margarines, such as those thatare liquid or sold in tubs, are considered ahealthier choice than harder “stick” margarinesbecause the hydrogenation processused to make margarine hard adds transfats to the product. When buying margarine,check the label and avoid productswhose labels include these terms: “partiallyhydrogenated” or “hydrogenated.” Instead,look for margarines whose main ingredientterms include “liquid” oils.Preparation TipsGenerally, only regular margarine shouldbe used for cooking and baking. Liquid,whipped, or reduced-fat versions of thisproduct burn easily or contain too muchwater or air for these purposes. Margarineshould be stored in the refrigerator and canbe frozen for several months.Serving SuggestionsHard or stick margarine is a good choicefor pastries, helping to make crusts lightand flaky. It can be used to replace butterin most recipes, although its flavor may notbe as rich as that of butter. Like butter, thistype of margarine has health drawbacks —it is high in calories and trans fats that arelinked with heart disease — and should beused in moderation.LardLard is simply a name for pure animal fatthat has been processed, including filtering,bleaching, hydrogenation, and emulsification.Lard used in cooking is typicallyrendered from pork fat. Lard rendered fromthe fat around the pig’s kidney is consideredthe best lard to use.Lard is used worldwide in cooking,although it fell out of favor in the UnitedStates during the past several decadesbecause of the amount of saturated fatin it.

Fats, Oils, & Sweeteners 393Lard is usually sold at the supermarketin the dairy case or near the refrigeratedmeat section. When purchasing lard, makesure it is tightly wrapped to prevent theproduct from absorbing other flavors. Lookat the label to determine whether it shouldbe stored at room temperature or in therefrigerator. Lard also can be frozen if it istightly wrapped.Preparation TipsBecause lard is softer and oilier than butterand contains less water, some cooks believeit is the best choice for making pie crust.The reduced water content in lard helpsmake the crust especially light, flaky, andcrumbly.Serving SuggestionsBecause lard is so high in saturated fat, itshould be used sparingly at best.Vegetable ShorteningVegetable shortening, usually sold in coffeecan-sizedcanisters, is a solid fat made fromvegetable oils. It gets its name from aproperty all fats have in common: they“shorten” gluten strands in flour-basedproducts, which results in baked goods thathave a tender texture.Although the base of shortening is oil,it has undergone a process known as hydrogenationto make the shortening solid atroom temperature. Trans fatty acids arecreated by hydrogenation. This type of fatis associated with increased risk for coronaryartery disease.Serving SuggestionsShortening results in baked goods that arelight and fluffy. Because of the health drawbacksof hydrogenation, however, shorteningshould be used sparingly.OilsCooking OilsCanola OilCanola oil is a bland-tasting oil made fromrapeseed. Its health advantages over otheroils has made it a popular choice in theUnited States, although it is also usedaround the world. Elsewhere, it may bereferred to as lear oil or low erucic acid rapeseedoil.Canola oil is the lowest in saturated fatsof all oils. Only olive oil has more monoun-Foods that contain trans fat.saturated fat. (See Chapter 2, A Comparisonof Fats, page 27.) Another positive aspectis that canola oil contains omega-3 fattyacids, which are thought to play a role inreducing cardiovascular disease.Preparation TipsBecause canola oil is relatively bland, somecooks combine it with olive oil to add additionalflavor.Serving SuggestionsCanola oil is suitable both for cooking andfor salad dressings. It is also used as aningredient in spreads that can be substitutedfor butter or margarine.Coconut OilPressed from the boiled nut meats of freshor dried coconut, coconut oil is one of thefew non-animal highly saturated fats.Preparation TipsPlain and butter-flavored vegetable shorteningsare sold in supermarkets. Plain shorteninghas little taste. Both types can be usedin place of other fats in baking and cooking.

394 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsNearly 90 percent of coconut oil is saturatedfat, topping even butter and lard insaturated fat content.Although its high saturated fat contentmakes coconut oil an unhealthful fat choice,it helps coconut oil resist rancidity. Coconutoil is a common ingredient in commercialbaked goods, ice cream, and salad dressings.It is particularly common in non-dairy coffeecreamers and whipped toppings. Thewhiff of coconut that arises from an openbottle of suntan lotion should also tell youthat coconut oil has nonfood uses.Preparation TipsCoconut oil is popular in cuisine fromSoutheast Asia, the Pacific, and the WestIndies. For these cuisines, cooks often cansubstitute a more healthful oil or mix coconutoil with another oil to reduce saturated fatin a dish. Be aware that there is coconut oilin coconut cream and coconut milk.Serving SuggestionsBecause of its saturated fat content, coconutoil should be used sparingly.Corn OilCorn oil is one of the most widely used cookingoils. It is pressed from the inside (endosperm)of corn kernels. It is more strongly flavored thanother oils. Corn oil that has undergone less processing,known as unrefined corn oil, can befound in specialty stores. It is more dense thanrefined corn oil and has a darker gold color anda hint of popcorn flavor. Corn oil has a highlevel of the essential fatty acid linoleic acid andless saturated fat than many other oils. This isone reason it is used to make margarine.Preparation TipsBecause of its high smoke point (410°Fahrenheit), corn oil is commonly used forsautéing and frying — two cooking methodsthat should be used in moderation.Many cooks believe corn oil helps makesautéed foods and fried foods crispier.Serving SuggestionsCorn oil can have a strong flavor, which iswhy it is probably best used for cookinginstead of serving “cold,” such as in a saladdressing. Corn oil’s stronger flavor workswell in margarines, but many people preferthe taste of reduced-fat or light margarinesmade with corn oil.Cottonseed OilWidely used at the turn of the century,cottonseed oil often is considered the originalvegetable oil of the United States. Itsfat is mostly polyunsaturated.Preparation TipsCottonseed oil is used mainly as salad oilor in cooking. It is often used in processedfoods because it is inexpensive.Serving SuggestionsThis oil has a neutral, clean taste that doesnot mask other flavors. It is used mainly byfood manufacturers and is not common inhome use.Flaxseed (Linseed) OilThe tall stems of the flax plant have manyuses: they contain fibers that can be madeinto linen and high-grade paper. Oil alsocan be pressed from its shiny brown, ovalshapedseeds. Flaxseed is also sometimesknown as linseed oil and is a commoningredient in paints, varnishes, and inks.This oil is low in saturated fat and high inomega-3 fatty acids, which may help protectagainst cardiovascular disease.Preparation TipsIn the United States, flaxseed oil generally isnot used for cooking purposes. Instead, thegrassy-tasting oil is often sold at health storesas a supplement. The oil is more commonlyused elsewhere in the world for cooking,particularly Eastern Europe. Flaxseed oil’slow saturated fat content means that it ismore prone to rancidity than oils with highersaturated fat content. Therefore, it shouldalways be stored in the refrigerator.Serving SuggestionsBaking with flaxseed meal is one way toincorporate this healthful oil into your diet.Flaxseed meal is available in the health foodssection of most supermarkets.Olive OilIf there is one oil that gourmands and nutritionistsagree on, it is olive oil. Low insaturated fat and rich in heart-healthymonounsaturated fats and flavor, olive oilis an excellent addition to any kitchen andmeal. Sometimes it is even referred to asthe “king of oils.”

Fats, Oils, & Sweeteners 395One of the first oils to be made byhumans, olive oil is pressed from olives thatare picked when their color turns to purplishblack and their skin develops an oilysheen. The rich flavor of olive oil variesaccording to where the olives are grown andthe type of tree that produces them. Forexample, Spanish olive oil has a strong,some would say overwhelming, flavor. Oilsproduced from California olive trees aresaid to have a mild, almost sweet flavor.Olive oil from Italy, however, is usually consideredthe best.U.S. consumers can find a wide rangeof olive oils in supermarkets and specialtyshops. Unrefined olive oil, which is lessprocessed, is considered the most flavorfuland has a greenish cast. Fresh, refined oliveoil should have a sweet, somewhat nuttyflavor and a golden color. A rule of thumbis that the more deeply colored the oil, themore flavorful it will be.Olive oil is also graded by theInternational Olive Oil Council in theseways:Extra virgin — Considered the finestolive oil, extra virgin is made without heator solvents, from the first pressing of theolives. It is the most flavorful and the mostexpensive, and so it is most often used forseasoning.Virgin — Also made without heator solvents, virgin olive oil also comesfrom the first pressing of the olives. Itis more acidic but has a less intense flavorthan extra virgin. It is widely used incooking.Regular or pure — More subdued inflavor than virgin olive oil, regular (pure)olive oil is extracted with heat or solventand may be made from pressed olives thathave been washed and treated to extractmore oil from them. This type of oil isoften blended with virgin olive oil.Light — Don’t be misled by the title— light olive oil has the same amount ofcalories and fat as regular olive oil. “Light”refers simply to color, fragrance, and flavor.Light olive oil also may be referred to as“mild.” Generally, this type of olive oil isdismissed by serious cooks. It does havethe advantage of having the highest smokepoint of all oils (468° Fahrenheit).Preparation TipsGenerally, pressing and processingare done after the olives arecollected in autumn.Shipments of freshlypressed olive oil beginarriving in specialtystores in the spring.Because most types ofolive oil have a lowsmoke point, olive oilis not suited for deepfryingor sautéing. Thebest-tasting olive oil isthe freshest.Serving SuggestionsOlive oil is best used in sauces,salad dressings, and marinades, whereits flavor can be put to full advantage.Italian and Mediterranean cuisines take fulladvantage of olive oil’s robust flavor andhealth benefits.Palm Oil and Palm Kernel OilOften thought to be the same thing, palmoil and palm kernel oil are actually two separateoils. Palm oil, which is reddish brown,is extracted from the pulp of the fruit of thepalm. Palm kernel oil, which is yellowishwhite and has a mild flavor, is extracted fromthe nut or kernel of the palm. Both, however,have this in common: they are amongthe highest of all oils in saturated fat.Palm oil is often used in margarine andin commercially prepared gravies and soups.Olives, avocados,peanuts, and theoils made fromthem are a sourceof monounsaturatedfat.

396 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsIt is also commonly used as a medium tofry potato chips. Palm kernel oil has varioususes, including in nondairy creamers, dressings,whipped creams and toppings, bakedgoods, and candy.Preparation TipsPalm kernel oil and palm oil are generallyused only for commercial food productionpurposes. They are not typically sold insupermarkets or specialty stores.Serving SuggestionsPersons following a healthful diet woulddo well to avoid both palm oil and palmkernel oil. Check the list of ingredients onthe products you buy. Avoid fatty productsthat contain these oils. Skim milk is afar healthier option for a coffee lightener.Peanut OilOne of the first native North Americansources of vegetable oil, the peanut is comprisedof about 50 percent oil. This oil isextracted by pressing steam-cooked peanuts.Peanut oil is high in monounsaturatedfat and has the added advantage of having arelatively high smoke point (410° Fahrenheit).American peanut oils are often mild inflavor. Chinese peanut oils have a strongerpeanut flavor because they are less processed.Peanut oil keeps well when stored in a cool,dark place. However, its shelf life is longerwhen it is refrigerated.Preparation TipsPeanut oil’s high smoke point makes it anexcellent choice for deep-frying, a cookingtechnique always best used in moderation.Serving SuggestionsA healthier use for peanut oil is to serve it as asalad dressing. It also adds a delicate flavor tomayonnaise recipes. The flavor of peanut oilalso complements Indian and Asian cuisine.Safflower OilSafflower oil is made from the seeds of thethistle-like safflower plant. Safflower oilhas little flavor or color, but it is rich inpolyunsaturated fat. It is also one of theoils with the least amount of saturated fat.Safflower is light in color and, like otheroils that are rich in polyunsaturated fat, isa good all-around oil.Preparation TipsSafflower oil can be substituted for otheroils in nearly any recipe. It has a high smokepoint (450° Fahrenheit), making it a goodchoice for sautéing and deep-frying, twotechniques best used in moderation.Serving SuggestionsSafflower oil is often used in salad dressingsbecause it does not solidify when chilled.It has an oily texture and a nutty flavor, makingit a good substitute for peanut oil.Olive oils vary in taste.Experiment to find theflavor you like.Soybean OilThe soybean has the distinction of beingthe plant used most often to produce vegetableoil. The oil made from the yellow-

Fats, Oils, & Sweeteners 397Peanutsish brown legume is high in polyunsaturatedfat and low in saturated fat. About15 percent of the fat provided by soybeanoil is saturated.Soybean oil is one of the most commonlyused oils for commercial food purposes.It has a smoke point of 410°Fahrenheit, making it useful for frying.However, sometimes manufacturers mayhydrogenate the oil, decreasing its healthattributes. It is commonly used in margarineand shortening.Preparation TipsAlthough soybean oil is versatile for cooking,some people find that it has a somewhatfishy taste and heavy texture. Use cautionwhen using soybean oil by itself as aseasoning or dressing.Serving SuggestionsWhen soybean oil is used as a cookingmedium, its flavor complements Asian andIndian cuisines.Sunflower OilSunflower oil is pressed from the seeds ofthis well-known, towering yellow memberof the daisy family. The oil itself is lightand mild. It is low in saturated fat and highin polyunsaturated fat.Preparation TipsSunflower oil is considered an excellent allaroundoil. Its very mild taste makes itextremely versatile for both cooking andseasoning, particularly when cooks do notwant to mask the taste of other foods.Serving SuggestionsBecause sunflower oil is relatively inexpensiveand has little or no taste, it can becombined with more expensive specialtyoils in foods such as salad dressings.Specialty OilsAlmond OilA favorite for cakes, desserts, and candies,this clear, sweet, pale-yellow oil is pressedfrom either bitter or sweet almond kernels.Both flavor and consistency may dependon where the oil was made. In Europeancountries, the oil comes from the “bitteralmond,” which is similar to a peach pit.When the bitter substance in the oil hasbeen removed, the oil is then used to makecandy. Almond oil from France, “huileSunflower seedsd’amande,” has a delicate flavor and smellslike toasted almonds. It is also expensive.Oil produced in the United States is consideredless pleasing by serious cooks, but itis more moderately priced.Preparation TipsAlmond oil becomes rancid quickly and mustbe refrigerated. When using synthetic almondflavoring in recipes, be aware that it often isnot made from almonds (instead peach pitsmay be used) and may have a bitter taste.Serving SuggestionsAlmond oil or flavoring is used in numerousdesserts and sweets, including the famousGerman holiday specialty marzipan.Almond oil may be used as a flavoring indishes in which you would have used thenut itself.Grape-seed OilThis pale-yellow oil has both a taste and anaroma that reflect where it came from —it is extracted from the tiny grape seed.Often, these seeds are left over after winemaking.Grape-seed oil is produced mostly inFrance, Italy, and Switzerland, but it is easilyfound in the United States in both groceryand specialty stores. It is low in saturatedfat and contains mostly polyunsaturatedfat. Although light in consistency and color,grape-seed oil can have a relatively strongand distinctive taste.Preparation TipsGrape-seed oil’s high smoke point (445°Fahrenheit) makes it a good all-purpose oilfor deep-frying. It can be used to gentlysauté foods. Grape-seed oil does notbecome rancid quickly and can be storedat room temperature.

398 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsServing SuggestionsGrape-seed oil’s distinctive flavor makes ita good candidate to serve cold. It is excellentas a salad dressing. A simple but elegant wayto make use of it is as a dip for bread. Cut abaguette of French bread into cubes and servethem with a small bowl of grape-seed oil.Hazelnut OilThis delicious oil tastes like the nut it waspressed from and has a rich, strong flavor.Most hazelnut oil is imported from France,but it is easily found in most food stores.One caution: it can be fairly expensive.Hazelnut oil contains mostly monounsaturatedfat.Various oils are used to “dress” salads. Flavorful extravirgin olive oil, lighter-coloredcanola oil, and pale saffloweroil are all low in saturatedfat. Check labels for coconutoil, which is high in saturatedfat and is not the healthiestchoice.Preparation TipsAlthough it can be stored at room temperature,hazelnut oil lasts longer when keptrefrigerated. Because it has a strong flavor,it is often combined with other, lighter oils.It also has a low smoke point, so it is notused for cooking.Serving SuggestionsHazelnut oil is excellent in salad dressing,drizzled over vegetables, and in cakes andpastries. It is also an unusual but pleasantaddition to sauces.Sesame OilExtracted from the oily seeds of the sesameplant, sesame oil is a flavorful, nutty-tasting,and aromatic oil. Although all sesame oilsGOURMET OILSMore expensive and hard-to-find oilsthat are also used in cooking or forflavoring include the following:Pumpkin seed oil — As its namesuggests, this oil is pressed frompumpkin seeds. Its distinctive flavorand expense mean that it is typicallyused sparingly as a condiment.Mustard seed oil — This oil ispopular in Indian cooking and oftenused as a substitute for ghee, anIndian form of clarified butter.Poppy seed oil — In France,where it is a staple in cooking, poppyseed oil is referred to as “huileblanche,” or “white oil.”Wheat germ oil — Made fromthe heart of the wheat seed, wheatgerm oil is rich in vitamin E and lowin saturated fat. It has a pleasing,nutty flavor, and is used by itself ormixed with other oils as a condiment.are rich in flavor, taste and smell range inintensity. Lighter-colored oil is milder inflavor, and darker oil is made from toastedsesame seeds and has a more intense flavor.For serious cooks, darker oil is consideredthe most desirable.Sesame oil is widely used as an accent inMiddle Eastern, Asian, and Indian cuisine.It is high in monounsaturated and polyunsaturatedfat, and it is low in saturated fat.It is used mostly to accent flavor and aromaand is used less often for frying because itburns easily.Preparation TipsGenerally, sesame oil’s strong flavor meansthat it is often added to other, less intense

Fats, Oils, & Sweeteners 399oils in cooking. Purchase sesame oil in glassor metal containers because it goes rancidmore quickly in plastic. Sesame oil keepsfor about a month in a cool place.Serving SuggestionsDrizzle sesame oil lightly over dishes justafter cooking. A small amount adds a distinctflavor and aroma.Walnut OilOil pressed from walnuts has a strong, nuttyflavor. It is also high in polyunsaturatedfat and low in saturated fat. Although widelyavailable, walnut oil remains expensive.Blander, cheaper versions can be found.Preparation TipsBecause of its intense flavor, walnut oil isoften mixed with lighter oils. Walnut oilalso has a low smoke point and will becomerancid quickly if not refrigerated.Serving SuggestionsWalnut oil is excellent as a salad dressingor drizzled over pasta or cooked vegetables.Like any nut oil, you can use walnut oil whenthe nut itself would be complementary.WHAT ARE ESSENTIAL OILS?Essential oils are extracted from variousplants for use in perfumes, foraromatherapy purposes, or for use inmedicines as flavorings. Commonessential oils used for their scentinclude rose oil, geranium oil, andlavender oil. Essential oils used forflavorings are derived from lemons,cloves, peppermint leaves, andspearmint leaves.SweetenersBasicsSweeteners come from various sources.They have been sought throughout historyfor their pleasing taste and many uses. Juststop and think of what you have eatentoday. This morning you may have sweetenedyour tea with honey and put maplesyrup on your pancakes. At lunch, you mayhave eaten a snack food made with cornsyrup — a form of sugar — and, perhaps,you finished off dinner with a cake madewith the most commonly used and bestknown sweetener of all, granulated sugar.The science of sweetness, however, goesbeyond the source of the foodstuff for thesweetener. At a molecular level, approximately100 chemicals are sweet. They allare referred to as sugars. Common ones youmay have heard of include the following:Sucrose — Table sugar is the crystallizedform of sucrose. Sucrose is referredto as a simple sugar. It is naturally occurringin all plants that depend on sunlightto produce energy. Sugar cane and sugarbeets are among the most abundant producersof sucrose in the plant kingdom.Glucose — A simple sugar that playsmany key roles in the body, glucose is a simplesugar found in fruits, honey, cereal,flour, and nuts.Fructose — The sweetest of all sugarsis found in abundance in honey and fruit.Lactose — Another simple sugar, lactoseoccurs only in milk. It is often addedto other foods during processing to improvetaste.Maltose — The result of a chemicalprocessing that uses starch and malt, maltosehas numerous commercial food uses. Itis often used in beer, bread, and baby food,among other things.QUICK TIPAlthough refrigeration helps toprevent oils from becoming rancid,the colder temperature may resultin some oils becoming cloudy orthicker. This change does not affectthe oil’s nutritional value, quality, ortaste. At room temperature, the oilwill liquefy and, usually, clarify again.Pectin — A complex sugar, pectin isfound in apples, citrus fruits, and some vegetables.It is a form of fiber.NutritionAll sugars are carbohydrates and play akey role in providing the body with energy.The calorie content depends on thetype of sweetener used. For example,table sugar has about 16 calories per teaspoon,and honey has about 21 calories perteaspoon.Generally, sweeteners often are referredto as having “empty calories.” They containfew or no vitamins, minerals, or other nutrients.And, because they are appealing, itcan be easy to eat too much. This excessWalnuts

400 Part II: Encyclopedia of Foodscould make it difficult to maintain a healthyweight. Heavy use of sweeteners also mayincrease the risk of tooth decay, which iswhy it is important to brush after eating asweet food, particularly one that is sticky,such as caramel. For these reasons, it is bestto minimize the amount of sweeteners inyour diet.Selection and StorageThese factors depend on the type of sweetener.Check the following sections, whichprovide more information on commontypes of sweeteners, for specifics.SugarSugar was once considered as valuable asgold because of its scarcity. Its use spreadthroughout the Western world afterexplorers, then armies, conquered parts ofancient Arabia. In early times, it was soldand traded in blocks, which were thenground into powder.Although sugar is a carbohydrate thatoccurs naturally in every fruit and vegetable,it is found in the greatest quantitiesas sucrose in sugar cane, which is grownin the tropics, and sugar beets, which canbe cultivated in colder climates. JuiceThere are many types of sweeteners.extracted from the crushed cane or slicedbeets is then processed to make sugar.Typically, the juice is boiled, and thenchemicals are added to the solution to purifyit. The resulting syrup is known asmolasses. Continued processing separatescrystals from the molasses and other byproducts.The crystals are then dried andpackaged as sugar.The most common types of sugarsfound in supermarkets are as follows:Granulated white sugar — Oftenreferred to as table sugar, this is the mostcommonly used type of sugar. There aredifferent grades of granulated white sugar,and the size of the sugar crystal determineshow it is used. Regular, extra-fine, or finesugar is the sugar found most commonlyin the sugar bowl and called for in mostcookbook recipes. Superfine sugar or ultrafinesugar has the smallest crystal size andis often used in cakes and meringues andto sweeten fruits or iced drinks. Superfinesugar dissolves the most easily in water.Brown sugar — Brown sugar is sold indark and light varieties. It is simply whitesugar crystals coated in a molasses syrup toadd a natural mellow flavor and color. Darkbrown sugar has more color and a strongermolasses flavor. Its fuller flavor is called forin recipes for gingerbread and baked beans.Lighter types are usually used in baking.Neither type of brown sugar is consideredraw sugar, although they do look similar to it.Confectioners’ sugar — Also known aspowdered sugar, this is granulated sugarthat has been ground into a powder. Asmall amount of cornstarch can be added toprevent clumping. Confectioners’ sugartypically is used to make icing, in whippingcream, and as a topping for desserts.Decorating or coarse sugar — Alsocalled sugar crystals, decorating sugar hasgranules about four times larger than those

Fats, Oils, & Sweeteners 401of regular granulated sugar. It undergoesa special processing method to make it resistantto color change and breakdown at hightemperatures. This makes it useful for makingfondants or liqueurs.Sanding sugar — Also called coloredsugar, sanding sugar is used for decoratingand is characterized by large crystals. Thisis desirable in decorating because it givesthe food a sparkling appearance.Flavored sugar — This is simply granulatedsugar that has been combined orscented with various ingredients such ascinnamon or vanilla.Fruit sugar — Slightly finer than“regular” sugar, fruit sugar is used in drymixes such as gelatin desserts, puddingmixes, and drink mixes. The more uniformcrystals prevent separation or settlingof smaller crystals to the bottom of the box.In addition to sweetening items, sugarplays an important role in making food. Itis a critical ingredient in bread, in which itprovides food for yeast and thus helps breadto rise. It also adds to the flavor and crustcolor of baked goods and helps extend shelflife.In large amounts, sugar inhibits thegrowth of yeast and molds in jams andjellies. Sugar syrups protect frozen andcanned foods from browning and withering.In ice cream, beverages, baked goods,and other products, sugar adds bulk,texture, and body. It is also used in manycondiments, such as ketchup and saladdressing, where it blends flavors, reducesacidity, and helps create a smooth texture.Sugar has a long shelf life. Kept tightlywrapped and in a cool, dark place, it willkeep for months or even years.Preparation TipsSugar adds flavor and calories but little else.Therefore, it is best for most of us tominimize its role in our diet. Make a littlego a long way. To do so:• Add spices, such as cinnamon or nutmeg,to foods to jazz up flavor while reducingsweeteners used in them.• Add fruit or yogurt to foods such ascereal, instead of a sweetener.• Avoid sweetened soft drinks, andminimize fruit juices with added sugar.Better yet, drink water.• Check labels for sugar or any one of thechemical names for it: glucose, sucrose,lactose, or fructose, to name just a few.Also, watch for corn syrup or malt syrup,two more widely used sweeteners in foodmanufacturing.Serving SuggestionsManufacturers can reduce the fat in manyfoods, but it is hard to do without sugar.Sugar is a key component of baked goodsand desserts and is used to enhance theflavor of everything from sweet-and-sourstir-fry to ham. The amount of sugar usedin a recipe often can be reduced by up tohalf without compromising the flavor.However, this is not always the case, so abit of trial and error is required.Sugar caneSUGAR IN THE RAWMany so-called raw sugars aremarketed in the United States. Twopopular types of raw sugar are thecoarse-textured dry Demerara sugar,which is produced in the SouthAmerican country of Guyana, andthe moist, fine-textured muscovado,or Barbados, sugar. Demerara sugaris light brown and is characterized bylarge golden crystals that are slightlysticky. It is excellent as a topping forhot cereals and is widely used inspecialty coffee houses. Muscovado,or Barbados, sugar is a dark, richbrown sugar and retains a strongmolasses flavor. Turbinado sugar isanother variation of raw sugar. Ithas undergone steam processing toremove some of the lingering molassesin it. Its crystals are light-golden andgenerally are larger than those ofregular sugar. Turbinado sugar tastesvery similar to brown sugar.HoneyIn ancient times, this thick, sweet, goldenliquid was thought of as a healing agent, agift from the gods, and a symbol of wealth.Today, this sweetener is still revered,although not as highly, for being a naturalsource of sweet flavor.Honey is made by bees. The basicingredient is nectar gathered from flowers.Enzymes in the bee’s saliva convert thenectar into honey. Essentially, this is asimple matter of chemistry, in which thesugar (sucrose) in nectar is converted intofructose and glucose.As the phrase “busy as a bee” suggests,bees work hard to make honey. The beemust make up to 100,000 round trips from

402 Part II: Encyclopedia of Foodshive to flower and back just to make a quartof honey.Honey is divided into three basic categories:• Liquid honey, which is extracted fromthe comb• Chunk-style honey, a liquid honey withpieces of the honeycomb• Comb honey, a square or round piece ofthe honeycomb, with the honey insideWithin these three categories arehundreds of different types of honey.Honey’s color ranges from light to dark.The flavor ranges from mild to strong anddepends on the type of flower from whichthe nectar was taken. In general, the darkerthe honey, the stronger the flavor.One tablespoon of honey has about 64calories. Although sugar has about 48calories per tablespoon, honey does havesome advantages over sugar. Its sweeteningpower is stronger. And honey, unlikeother sweeteners, does contain traceamounts of vitamins and minerals.If kept in a sealed container and a cooldark place, honey can be kept for a longtime. Cooler temperatures, such as in arefrigerator, may cause honey to thicken.Warming it up, however, restores honey’sappearance. Its taste is not altered. However,very warm temperatures can change honey’sflavor.Preparation TipsMost honey sold in stores is pasteurized,filtered, and blended. Some cooks buyhoney directly from an apiary because theybelieve that these processes alter or dullhoney’s delicate flavor. Honey also can beused as a substitute for sugar (about 1/2cup honey for 1 cup of sugar) in manyrecipes. Keep in mind, however, that honeymay cause food to brown more quickly. Inaddition, you will need to reduce the liquidin the recipe.Serving SuggestionsHoney adds moisture to cakes, breads, andother confections. It is also an excellenttopping for most baked goods. One othercommon use is as a glaze for meats suchas ham.SyrupsSugar also comes in syrups — thick,viscous, sweet liquids that have varioustastes and uses. The most common typesinclude the following:Cane syrup — Thick and extremelysweet, cane syrup is made from sugar cane.It is a common ingredient in Caribbeanand Creole recipes.Grain syrups — Sweet syrups can bemade from several grains: barley, wheat,corn, or rice. They are not as sweet as sugarbut are commonly used in food manufacturingbecause they do not readily formcrystals. Corn syrup is perhaps the mostwidely used grain syrup. It is made by processingcorn starch and is available in lightand dark forms. Malt syrup, made fromevaporated corn mash and sprouted barley,is another common grain syrup. It has astrong flavor and is used in bread making.Golden syrup — Popular in England,golden syrup is similar in consistency tocorn syrup and has a golden color. It ismade from sugar cane juice and has a toastedflavor. It is also known as light treacle.Maple syrup — The best known of allsyrups, maple syrup is made by boiling thesap of certain species of maple trees (Acersaccharum) found mainly in Quebec, NewYork, and Vermont. This clear, subtlyflavored syrup is sweeter than sugar and hasa distinctive flavor.Molasses — Molasses, a dark viscoussyrup, is a by-product of the sugar-makingprocess and is generally used for flavoringfoods or as a glaze. It is poured over foodsas a condiment in some regions of theUnited States. Light molasses is producedduring the first stages of the sugar-extractionprocess. Dark molasses is made during thesecond stage and is referred to as unsulfuredmolasses. Blackstrap molasses, made duringthe final stage of sugar production, is darklycolored and has an intense flavor.Black treacle — Black treacle is athick, black, and sticky syrup. It is verysimilar to molasses and is a by-product ofthe sugar-production process. Black treacleis sweeter than molasses. A lightercoloredand lighter-flavored form is alsoavailable. Both are more common inEngland.Palm syrup — This dark, thick, andintensely flavored syrup is made frompalms. It is an ingredient in some Asian

Fats, Oils, & Sweeteners 403HONEY AND INFANTSMany parents are unaware that honeyshould not be served to childrenyounger than 1 year because it maycontain a small amount of botulismtoxin. The amount of this toxin inhoney is not enough to harm adultsand children older than 1 yearbecause their immune systems havematured. But in infants, this toxincan be life-threatening.a distinctive taste that cannot be duplicated,chocolate is the universal favorite when itcomes to flavor. In fact, ancient cultureseven thought it was a gift from the gods, onewith medicinal properties. It is perhaps themost popular sweet flavoring worldwide.Chocolate is made from the beans ofthe cacao tree, which grows in the warm,humid weather of the equatorial regions.Like coffee beans, the beans of the cacaotree must be dried, chopped, and roastedbefore use. The processing of the beansresults in a dark brown liquid called chocolateliquor. This fluid — which is 55 percentfat, 17 percent carbohydrate, and 11 percentprotein — is used to make virtually alltypes of chocolate.Different types of chocolate contain varyingamounts of cocoa butter — a vegetablefat derived from the cacao bean — and solidsfrom the cacao bean. Chocolate typesinclude the following:recipes and usually is sold only at specialtymarkets.Preparation TipsMost grain syrups are used commercially.In contrast, maple syrup is typically used athome. Pure maple syrup is found in supermarkets.However, pancake syrups commonlycontain either a small portion ofmaple syrup or maple flavoring that is thenmixed with a grain syrup. Many types ofsyrups are used to make candy. Keep inmind that syrups high in sugar have a higherboiling point than water.Serving SuggestionsMaple syrup is typically used as a toppingfor waffles and pancakes. Numerous typesof syrups can be used as glazes for meats(ham, in particular, and also poultry or fish)or on top of vegetables, such as carrots.Molasses also makes an excellent glaze.Sugar syrups make an excellent glazefor pound cakes and bundt cakes.ChocolateIf there is one flavoring that everyone seemsto love, it’s chocolate. Rich and sweet, with

404 Part II: Encyclopedia of FoodsUnsweetened — Sometimes referred toas baker’s chocolate, this dark, rich, andbitter chocolate does not have any sugaradded to it. It is usually added to recipes inwhich sugar is an ingredient.Bittersweet — This dark, rich chocolateis comprised mostly of chocolate liquor,meaning it is rich in cacao solids, but it mayhave some milk solids and other flavoringsadded to it.Semisweet — A favorite of makers ofchocolate chip cookies, semisweet chocolatecontains more milk solids and otherflavorings than bittersweet chocolate.Milk — The sweetest of all chocolates,milk chocolate has a light-brown color anda mild chocolate flavor.White — This ivory-colored chocolatecontains no cacao bean solids, but it doescontain cocoa butter, which gives it a rich,creamy mouth-feel. It differs from whitealmond bark or candy coating, which usesvegetable fat as a base instead of cocoa butter.ARTIFICIAL SWEETENERSAspartame (better known as Nutra-Sweet), acesulfame-K, saccharin, andsucralose are synthetic substancesthat have been approved by the U.S.Food and Drug Administration.They are used commercially and inthe home to sweeten products. Theycontain few or no calories but areseveral hundred times sweeter thansugar. For more information, seeChapter 2, page 21.Imitation chocolate — Typically usedin baking chips, imitation chocolate replacessome or all of the cocoa fat with other vegetablefats. It is high in fat (mostly saturatedfat) and does contain caffeine.Cocoa is another common type ofchocolate. It is a powdered form of chocolatemade from chocolate liquor. However,all cocoa butter has been removed from it.A tablespoon of unsweetened cocoa powdercontains about 15 calories and just under 1gram of fat.Cocoa typically is not sweetened and isadded to recipes in which sugar is used.There are two main types of cocoa: naturaland “Dutch-process.” Natural cocoa is lightin color and has a strong chocolate flavor.In contrast, Dutch-process has a mildertaste but is darker in color.Chocolate’s nutritional value varies.One ounce of unsweetened chocolate has145 calories, 16 grams of fat, and 9 gramsof saturated fat. In comparison, an ounceof semisweet chocolate has 135 calories, 9grams of fat, and 5 grams of saturated fat.Chocolate also is a source of protein andcontains trace amounts of vitamins andsome minerals, such as potassium.Chocolate should be stored in a cool,dark place and can be kept for severalMade from maple syrup, maple sugar istwice as sweet as regular table sugar.WHAT IS LIQUID SUGAR?Liquid sugars were first developedbefore processing made distributionof granulated sugars practical. Itis generally used for commercialpurposes in products in which dissolvedgranulated sugar is desired. Adarker liquid sugar is also available.It is called amber liquid and is darkerand has more of a cane sugar flavor.Invert sugar is another type ofliquid sugar. It helps prevent sugarcrystallization and also helps theproduct it is in retain moisture.Invert sugar is sweeter than regulartable sugar and is generally availableonly for commercial uses.

Fats, Oils, & Sweeteners 405months. Dark chocolate can be stored for upto a year. Varying temperatures will causelighter, whitish areas to appear on chocolate— something that does not affect taste andis resolved when the chocolate is melted.Chocolate also can be frozen, but it must bewrapped tightly to prevent moisture fromdamaging the chocolate when it is thawed.Preparation TipsCocoa can be used as a substitute for chocolatein recipes. However, when this substitutionis made, fat needs to be added tothe cocoa to ensure that the final productwill be moist. Each square of unsweetenedchocolate can be replaced with 3 tablespoonsof cocoa and 1 tablespoon of cookingoil.Melting chocolate is difficult becauseit burns easily. For that reason, it is best touse a double boiler to melt chocolate. Avoidsplashing any water into the melting chocolatebecause doing so can cause the chocolateto become hard and thus unusable.Chopping the chocolate into small bitsbefore melting it helps achieve the smooth,even consistency that many recipes require.Always look at the ingredient list of thechocolate you buy to ensure that you arenot getting a substitute.Serving SuggestionsChocolate is the classic dessert ingredient,providing the flavoring power for cakes,tortes, frostings, mousses, creams, and othersweets too numerous to count.Chocolate’s high fat content andhigh calories mean it should be used inmoderation. Use chocolate as an accentto a healthier food — such as a dip forstrawberries — rather than as the mainingredient. Reduced-calorie hot cocoamixes are an excellent way to feed achocolate craving without the fat andcalories. Or, simply save chocolate forspecial occasions.

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GlossaryAcute: Term used to describe disorders or symptoms that occurabruptly or that run a short course; opposite of ChronicAerobic: Requiring the presence of oxygen. Aerobic exercise, forexample, requires increased oxygen consumption. Opposite ofAnaerobicAmbulatory: Able to walkAmino acid: A component of protein, containing nitrogen. The bodyproduces many amino acids; those it needs but cannot make are knownas essential amino acids and must be obtained through the dietAnaerobic: Able to live without oxygen (as certain bacteria), or atype of exercise in which short, vigorous bursts of activity requiringlittle additional oxygen are performed. Opposite of AerobicAnemia: Condition characterized by a reduced number of redblood cells, amount of hemoglobin, or amount of bloodAneurysm: The localized bulging of a blood vessel, usually anartery, to form a bulge or sacAnorexia: Loss of appetite, often due to depression, fever, illness,widespread cancer, or addiction to alcohol or drugsAnorexia nervosa: An eating disorder characterized by aberranteating patterns and disturbed ideas about body weightAntibody: Protein of the immune system that counteracts or eliminatesforeign substances known as antigensAntigen: Substance foreign to the body that causes antibodiesto formApnea: Temporary cessation of breathingArteriosclerosis: Condition in which the walls of arteries becomehard and thick, sometimes interfering with blood circulationArtery: Blood vessel that carries blood from the heart to othertissues of the bodyAsymptomatic: Without symptomsAtherosclerosis: Condition in which fatty deposits accumulatein the lining of the arteries, resulting in restricted, less flexible pathwaysfor the bloodAtrophy: Wasting of tissue or an organ due to disease or lack of useAutoimmune: Reaction of the body against one or some of itsown tissues that are perceived as foreign substances, resulting inproduction of antibodies against that tissueBacteria: Single-celled microorganisms, some of which causedisease and some of which are beneficial to biological processesBenign: Harmless; not progressive or recurrentBlood pressure: Force placed on the walls of the arteries. SeeDiastole and SystoleBowel: Small or large intestine. The small intestine is sometimescalled the small bowel. The large intestine is also called the colonBrand-name drug: A drug carrying a trademark name designatedby its manufacturerCachexia: Malnutrition and wasting due to illnessCaffeine: A stimulant found naturally in coffee, tea, chocolate,and cocoa; may be added to, for example, soft drinks and overthe-counterdrugs407

408 GlossaryCalorie: The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of1 gram of water by 1° CentigradeCancer: General term for various conditions characterized byabnormal growth of cells, forming malignant tumors that candevelop in various parts of the body. See Malignant and BenignCapillaries: Minute blood vessels connecting the smallest arteriesto the smallest veinsCarbohydrate: A group of compounds composed of starches orsugars, found primarily in breads and cereals and in fruits andvegetablesCarcinogen: A potential cancer-causing agentCardiac: Pertaining to the heartCardiopulmonary: Pertaining to both heart and lungsCardiovascular: Pertaining to the heart and blood vesselsCarotid artery: Main (right and left) artery of the neck whichcarries blood to the head and brainCerebrovascular: Pertaining to the blood vessels of the brainChemotherapy: Treatment of disease by chemicals that have adirect effect on the disease-causing organism or disease cells; widelyused in the treatment of cancerCholesterol: A fat-like substance made in the liver and found inthe blood, brain, liver, and bile and as deposits in the walls of bloodvessels. Essential to the production of sex hormones. Found infoods of animal sourcesChromosome: One of 46 rod-shaped structures in the nucleusthat carry genetic information to each cellChronic: Term used to describe long-lasting disease or conditions.Opposite of AcuteClinical: Pertaining to information gathered from direct observationof patients, as distinct from laboratory findingsCoagulate: To solidify or change from a liquid to a semisolid, aswhen blood clotsColon: The large intestine extending from the small intestine and endingin the anus. It is responsible for extracting water from undigestedfood and storing the waste, which is eliminated in bowel movementsColorectal: Pertaining to the colon and rectumComplex carbohydrate: A substance that contains several sugarunits linked together, such as starchConstipation: The difficult or infrequent passage of stoolCoronary: Pertaining to the arteries that supply blood to the heartCoronary artery disease: Narrowing or blockage of one or moreof the coronary arteries, resulting in decreased blood supply to theheart (ischemia). Also called “ischemic heart disease”Corticosteroids: Hormones produced by the cortex of the adrenalglands; also, synthetic hormones used as medicationsDebility: A state of physical weaknessDehydration: A lack of an adequate amount of fluid in the body.Dehydration may be accompanied by dry mouth, thirst, constipation,dizziness, concentrated urine, or feverDeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): A substance found in the nucleusof cells that carries genetic informationDextrose: A simple sugar that is found in the bloodDiabetes mellitus: Disorder characterized by high levels of glucosein the blood. Diabetes mellitus may be caused by a failure of thepancreas to produce sufficient insulin or by resistance of the bodyto the action of insulinDiabetic ketoacidosis: A serious condition that develops in personswith diabetes when there is not enough insulin and the body beginsbreaking down fat, producing ketones (acids)Diagnosis: Identification of a disease or disorder

Glossary 409Diarrhea: An increase in the number or liquidity of bowel movementsDiastole: Period during the heart cycle in which the muscle relaxes,followed by contraction (Systole). In a blood pressure reading, thelower number is the diastolic measurementDiastolic pressure: The lowest blood pressure reached during therelaxation of your heart. Recorded as the second number in ablood pressure measurementDigestion: Breakdown of food so it can be absorbedDuodenum: The part of the small intestine next to the stomachEdema: Swelling of body tissues due to excessive fluidEndocardium: The thin, inner membrane that lines the heart.See Epicardium and MyocardiumEnzyme: A complex protein that stimulates a chemical reactionEpicardium: The thin membrane on the surface of the heart. SeeEndocardium and MyocardiumEpinephrine: Adrenal hormone that increases heart rate and bloodpressure and affects other body functionsEsophagus: The muscular tube that connects the throat to thestomachEstrogen: Hormone produced primarily in women that contributesto the development of female secondary sex characteristicsand cyclic changes such as menstruation and pregnancy. An oralreplacement dose of estrogen is often used to lessen the effects ofmenopause, among other effects. The hormone is also producedin small quantities in menEthanol: Grain or ethyl alcoholFats: A group of organic compounds that are composed of fattyacids. Fats are either saturated or unsaturated. Unsaturated fats areclassified further as either monounsaturated or polyunsaturatedFatty acids: Substances that occur in foods; different fatty acidshave different effects on cholesterol and triglyceride levelsFiber: As applies to food, a substance that resists digestion andpasses through the system essentially unchanged. Fiber adds bulkto the diet and aids in the passage of bowel movementsFlatulence: Excessive gas in the stomach or intestineFracture: To break or crack a bone; or, a break or a crack in a boneFructose: A sugar found in fruit, corn syrup, and honeyGallbladder: Structure located under the liver that stores bile andthen releases it into the small intestineGastric: Pertaining to the stomachGastroenteritis: An inflammatory condition of the stomach andintestines leading to nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, anddiarrhea. Usually of bacterial or viral originGastrointestinal tract: The stomach and intestinesGene: Structure within a chromosome that is responsible for inheritanceof a particular characteristicGeneralized: Overall, not limited to one area of the bodyGenetic engineering: Manufacture, alteration, or repair of geneticmaterial by synthetic meansGeriatrics: The branch of medicine that specializes in the care ofproblems related to agingGerm: A microorganism that causes diseaseGestational diabetes: Diabetes that develops during pregnancy,resulting in improper regulation of glucose levels in thebloodGland: Any organ or tissue that releases a substance to be usedelsewhere in the body; endocrine glands release hormones directlyinto the bloodstream

410 GlossaryGlucose: A form of sugar. All of carbohydrate and part of fat canbe changed by the body into glucose; used by the body for energyGluten: Protein found in grains such as wheat, rye, oats, and barley.Gluten helps hold in the gas bubbles when flour dough risesGlycogen: Stored form of carbohydrate in the liver and musclesGoiter: Enlargement of the thyroid glandGout: A condition in which excess uric acid may lead to arthritisand kidney stonesHDL cholesterol: High-density lipoprotein cholesterol; a typeof cholesterol thought to help protect against atherosclerosis; knownas “good” cholesterolHeart attack: Descriptive term for a myocardial infarction: anincident caused by the blockage of one or more of the coronaryarteries, resulting in interruption of blood flow to a part of theheartHeartburn: Pain due to regurgitation (reflux) of juices from thestomach into the esophagus; pyrosisHemoglobin: A iron-containing protein found in the red bloodcells. Hemoglobin transports oxygen to body tissuesHemorrhage: Loss of blood from a blood vesselHemorrhoid: Swollen vein in and around the anus that may bleedHepatic: Pertaining to the liverHeredity: Genetic transmission of traits from parent to offspringHernia: Protrusion of an organ or part of an organ into surroundingtissuesHigh blood pressure: See HypertensionHormone: A substance secreted in the body and carried throughthe bloodstream to various tissues of the body, where it serves aregulatory functionHydrogenation: A process that changes an unsaturated fat to amore saturated oneHyper-: Prefix meaning “excessive” or “increased”Hyperactivity: Condition of disturbed behavior characterized byconstant overactivity, distractibility, impulsiveness, inability toconcentrate, and aggressivenessHypercholesterolemia: Increased level of cholesterol in the bloodstreamHyperglycemia: Increased level of sugar (glucose) in the bloodstreamHyperlipidemia: Excess of fats (lipids) in the bloodstreamHyperplasia: Excessive growth of tissuesHypertension: Condition in which the blood is pumped throughthe body under abnormally high pressure; also known as highblood pressureHypo-: Prefix meaning “inadequate” or “insufficient”Hypoglycemia: Condition in which the sugar (glucose) in thebloodstream decreases below normal levelsHypotension: Low blood pressureIatrogenic disease: Disorder or disease resulting as a side effect ofa prescribed treatmentIdiopathic: Pertaining to a condition or disease of unknown causeIleum: Lower portion of the small intestineImmobilize: To make a limb or part immovable in order to promotehealingImmunity: State of being resistant to a disease, particularly aninfectious oneIndigestion: Impaired digestion, commonly refers to abdominalpain after meals

Glossary 411Infarct: An area of tissue that dies because of lack of blood supplyInfection: Disease caused by invasion of body tissue by bacteria,viruses, or fungiInfectious: Ability to transmit a disease caused by microorganismsInferior vena cava: Large vein returning blood from your legsand abdomen to your heartInflammation: Body tissue’s reaction to injury that leads toswelling, pain, heat, and rednessInsulin: A hormone made by the pancreas or taken by injectionthat regulates the amount of sugar (glucose) in the bloodstreamInsulin pump: A device that delivers a predetermined amountof insulin into the bodyInsulin reaction: A condition in insulin-taking diabetics resultingin low blood sugar (hypoglycemia) due to excess insulin orinadequate carbohydrate intakeIntestines: Portion of the digestive tract extending from stomachto anus and responsible for much of the absorption of nutrients.See Duodenum, Ileum, Jejunum, and ColonIntolerance: Inability to endure, as with pain or a drug therapyInvoluntary: Not controlled through willIrradiation of food: A process of exposing food to low-dose radiationin order to extend shelf life by killing microorganisms and insectsIschemia: Deficiency of blood flow within an organ or part of anorgan. Often refers to the situation in which an artery is narrowedor blocked by spasm or atherosclerosis and cannot deliver sufficientblood to the organ it suppliesJejunum: The portion of the small intestine located between theduodenum and ileumJoint: The point of juncture between two or more bones wheremovement occursKetoacidosis: A disturbance of body chemistry that occurs in starvationor as a complication of type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetesKetone: An acidic substance produced when the body must usefat for energyKidneys: The two bean-shaped organs located in the back portionof the upper abdomen that are responsible for excreting urine andregulating the water and chemical contents of the bloodKilogram: A metric unit of weight; 1 kilogram equals 2.2 poundsor 1,000 gramsKyphosis: Excessive curvature of the upper spine, resulting inhumpback, hunchback, or rounding of the shoulders. May resultfrom diseases such as osteoarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis, osteoporosis,or rickets, from conditions such as compression fracture,or from a congenital abnormalityLactation: The production of breast milkLactose: The sugar found in milkLaparoscopy: Examination of the inside of the abdominal cavityby means of a laparoscope (a viewing instrument) insertedthrough a small incisionLDL cholesterol: Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; providescholesterol for necessary body functions, but in excessive amountsit tends to accumulate in artery walls; known as “bad” cholesterolLesion: Area of tissue that is injured or diseased such as a wound,abscess, sore, tumor, mole, or cystLipid: Description term for a fat or fat-like substance found inthe blood, such as cholesterolLipoproteins: Proteins that combine with lipids to make themdissolve in bloodLiver: A large organ in the upper abdomen that is the site ofmany metabolic functions, including the secretion of bile, themanufacture of proteins, and the storage of glycogen and certainvitamins

412 GlossaryLungs: The two organs of respiration that bring air and bloodinto close contact so that oxygen can be added to and carbondioxide removed from the bloodMalabsorption: Inadequate absorption of nutrients from the smallintestine. Symptoms and signs of malabsorption syndrome includeloose, fatty stools, diarrhea, and weight loss, but anemia is not a symptomMalignant: Harmful, as in cancerous tissue that can grow uncontrollablyand spread (metastasize)Malnutrition: Deficiency of nourishment in the body due to lackof healthful food or improper digestion and distribution of nutrientsMasticate: ChewMelanoma: A pigmented tumor of the skin and, in rare instances,of the mucous membranes. A malignant melanoma can be invasiveand spread to lymph nodes and other sites more frequently thanother skin cancersMembrane: A thin layer of tissue that lines, separates, or coversorgans or structuresMenopause: The age-related, permanent cessation of menstruationMenstruation: Monthly shedding of blood and tissue from the liningof the uterusMetabolism: Physical and chemical processes by which food istransformed into energy and tissues are broken down into wasteproductsMetastasis: Spreading of a disease from one part of the body toanother, usually refers to movement of malignant cells (as in cancer)or bacteria through the lymph or bloodMicrobes: Microscopic one-celled organisms such as bacteria,many of which cause diseaseMineral: A class of nutrients made from inorganic compoundsMitosis: Type of cell division in which the new cells have the samenumber of chromosomes as the parent cellmm Hg (millimeters of mercury): Unit used for measuring bloodpressureMono-: Prefix meaning “one”Muscle: Tissue that produces movement by its ability to contractMusculoskeletal: Pertaining to the muscles and the skeletonMyalgia: Muscle tenderness or painMyocardial infarction: Heart attack; death of an area of heartmuscle due to lack of blood supplyMyocardium: The heart muscle. See Endocardium and EpicardiumNausea: An unpleasant sensation in the stomach, often followedby vomitingNecrosis: Changes due to death of cells or organsNerve: A bundle of nerve fibers through which nerve impulsespassNeuropathy: A functional or structural change in nervesNucleus: Center portion of cells essential for cell growth, nourishment,and reproductionNutrients: Substances supplied by food that provide nourishmentfor the bodyNutrition: A combination of processes by which the body receivesand uses the substances necessary for its function, for energy, andfor growth and repair of the bodyObesity: Abnormal body weight, usually defined as more than30 percent above average for age, height, and bone structureOcclusion: Closure of a passage such as ducts or blood vessels.In dentistry, the alignment of upper and lower teeth when the jawsare closedOlfactory: Pertaining to the sense of smell

Glossary 413-oma: Suffix meaning “tumor”; generally not a cancerOncology: The study of cancerOrganic food: Food that is grown and processed without the useof chemicals, including fertilizers, insecticides, artificial coloring,and additivesOrthostatic hypotension: Decrease in blood pressure upon standing;may lead to light-headedness or fainting-osis: suffix meaning “diseased state”Osteoporosis: Reduction in bone that can result in weak bonesand fracturesOver-the-counter (OTC): Sold without a prescriptionPancreas: Gland that produces enzymes essential to the digestionof food. The islets of Langerhans within the pancreas secrete insulininto the bloodParasite: An organism that lives on or within another organismat the expense of the hostParathyroid gland: Endocrine glands located behind the thyroidgland that maintain the level of calcium in the bloodParenteral: Method of administering medication or nutritionother than via the digestive tract, such as intravenous, subcutaneous,or intramuscularPareve: A term describing food made without animal or dairyingredients, according to kosher dietary regulationsPasteurization: A method of killing bacteria in milk and otherliquids by heating to moderately high temperatures for a shorttimePathogen: Disease-producing microorganismPathology: Study of the cause and nature of a diseasePernicious: Destructive, sometimes fatal. Pernicious anemia iscaused by the inability to absorb vitamin B 12 from the intestinal tractPharmacology: Study of drugs and their effects on living beingsPhytochemicals: Plant chemicals that when eaten may have aneffect on healthPica: An uncommon urge to eat nonfood items such as laundrystarch, dirt, baking powder, or frost from the freezerPinch: A measure of dry ingredients equivalent to approximately1/16 of a teaspoonPlacebo: Substance given for psychological benefit or as part of aclinical research study; it has no specific pharmacologic activityagainst illnessPlaque: A film or deposit of bacteria and other material on the surfaceof a tooth that may lead to tooth decay or periodontal diseasePlasma: Fluid part of the blood and lymphPoly-: Prefix meaning “multiple”Polyp: A protruding growth, often on a stalkPrimary care physician: Physician responsible for a person’sgeneral health careProgesterone: Female sex hormone responsible for, among otherthings, preparation of the uterine lining for implantation of thefertilized eggPrognosis: Prediction of the course or outcome of a diseaseProstate gland: Gland located at the base of the bladder in menthat contributes to production of seminal fluidProtein: One of many complex nitrogen-containing compounds,composed of amino acids; essential for the growth and repair oftissuePuberty: The time when body changes particular to the sex occurand when reproduction becomes possiblePulmonary: Pertaining to the lungs

414 GlossaryPulse: Expansion of an artery after each contraction of the heartRadiation therapy: The use of high-energy penetrating waves totreat disease. Sources of radiation used in radiation therapy includex-ray, cobalt, and radiumRectum: The lowest portion of the large intestine. Stores stool untilit is emptiedRenal: Pertaining to the kidneysRenal failure: The inability of the kidneys to excrete wastes, concentrateurine, and maintain electrolyte balanceRetinopathy: Abnormality of the retina that may cause deteriorationof eyesightRisk factors: A factor that increases the chance of developing oraggravating a conditionRoughage: Indigestible fiber of fruits, vegetables, and cerealsSaline: Salt (sodium chloride) solutionSaliva: Fluid secreted by the salivary and mucous glands of themouth that moistens food and begins the process of digestionSauté: To cook food quickly in a small amount of oil or seasonedliquid over a high heatSclerosis: Hardening or thickening of an organ or tissue, usuallydue to abnormal growth of fibrous tissueScreening: Tests or observations applied to a large cohort ofindividuals to identify disease or risk of diseaseSecretion: The process of producing a substance by a gland; also,the substance producedSedentary: Lacking exercise; inactiveSepsis: Infection with disease-causing microorganisms or othertoxins in the bloodstreamSide effects: Undesirable effect of a medication or other treatmentSpleen: The largest organ in the lymphatic system. Located nearthe stomach, it has a role in the production, storage, and breakdownof blood cellsSquamous cell carcinoma: A malignant tumor arising from cellsknown as squamous epithelium; a common form of skin cancerStenosis: The narrowing or closure of an opening or passagewayin the bodySterilization: The process by which all microorganisms are killed,as in sterilization of surgical instrumentsSteroids: See CorticosteroidsStomach: A sac-like organ to which food is delivered by the esophagus.After the food is processed mechanically by a churning actionand chemically with gastric acids, it passes from the stomach tothe small intestineStool: Body waste excreted from the bowel; fecesStroke: An injury of the brain due to bleeding or to an interruptionof the blood supplySucrose: The simple sugar processed from sugarcane and sugar beetsSyndrome: A constellation of symptoms that characterize anailmentSystemic: Affecting or pertaining to the entire body rather thanone of its partsSystole: The portion of the heart cycle during which the heartmuscle is contractingSystolic pressure: The highest blood pressure produced by thecontraction of the heart. Recorded as the first number in a bloodpressure measurementThoracic: Having to do with the chest (thorax)

Glossary 415Thyroid gland: The endocrine gland that produces thyroid hormoneThyroxine: One of the forms of thyroid hormone that is involved inthe control of the pace of chemical activity (metabolism) in the bodyTissue: A collection of similar cells that form a body structureToxin: A poisonTransient ischemic attack: Symptoms caused by temporary lackof circulation to part of the brainTransplantation: The surgical transfer of an organ or tissue fromone position (or person) to anotherTrauma: The process or event leading to an injury or woundTriglyceride: A form of fat that the body can make from sugar,alcohol, or excess caloriesTruncal obesity: Fat deposited in the thorax and abdomen, insteadof the hips and thighsTumor: A new growth of tissue; a neoplasmUlcer: An open sore on the skin or a mucous membraneUlcerative colitis: A disease characterized by inflammation of thelining of the colon and rectumUrine: Fluid waste produced in the kidneys, stored in the bladder,and released through the urethraVascular: Pertaining to blood vessels; includes veins and arteriesVegans: People who do not eat any food of animal originVein: A blood vessel that returns blood to the heartVenous: Pertaining to veinsViral: Pertaining to or caused by a virusVirus: Tiny organism that causes disease; viruses range from minor(common cold) to potentially deadly (AIDS)Vital signs: Respiration, heart rate, and body temperatureVitamins: Organic substances that are essential for most metabolicfunctions of the body; they are fat-soluble (A, D, E, K) andwater-soluble (B vitamins and C).Vomit: The ejection of contents of the stomach through the mouth;also, the material itselfX-ray: Electromagnetic vibrations of short wavelength thatpenetrate most matter and produce an image on film; also calledroentgen ray

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eading listAmerican Diabetes Association Complete Guide to Diabetes: the Ultimate Home DiabetesReference. Second edition. Alexandria, VA, American Diabetes Association, 1999Calhoun S, Bradley J: Nutrition, Cancer, and You: What You Need to Know, and Whereto Start. Lenexa, KS, Addax Publishing Group, 1997Collazo-Clavell M (editor): Mayo Clinic on Managing Diabetes. Rochester, MN,Mayo Clinic, 2001Corriher SO: Cookwise: The Hows and Whys of Successful Cooking. New York,William Morrow, 1997Donovan MD (editor): The Professional Chef’s Techniques of Healthy Cooking.New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1997Duyff RL: The American Dietetic Association’s Complete Food & Nutrition Guide.Minneapolis, Chronimed Publishing, 1998Ensminger AH, Ensminger ME, Konlande JE, Robson JRK: Foods & NutritionEncyclopedia. Second edition. Boca Raton, CRC Press, 1994Ensminger AH, Ensminger ME, Konlande JE, Robson JRK: The Concise Encyclopediaof Foods and Nutrition. Second edition. Boca Raton, CRC Press, 1995Fortin F, D’Amico S: The Visual Food Encyclopedia: the Definitive Practical Guide toFood and Cooking. New York, Macmillan Publishing, 1996Gersh BJ (editor): Mayo Clinic Heart Book: the Ultimate Guide to Heart Health.Second edition. New York, William Morrow & Company, 2000Hagen PT (editor): Mayo Clinic Guide to Self-Care: Answers for Everyday HealthProblems. Second edition. Rochester, MN, Mayo Clinic, 1999Heinerman J: Heinerman’s New Encyclopedia of Fruits & Vegetables. West Nyack, NY,Parker, 1995Hensrud DD (editor): Mayo Clinic on Healthy Weight. Rochester, MN, Mayo Clinic, 2000Herbst ST: The Food Lover’s Tiptionary: an A to Z Culinary Guide With More Than4,500 Food and Drink Tips, Secrets, Shortcuts, and Other Things Cookbooks Never TellYou. New York, Hearst Books, 1994417

418 Reading ListHerbst ST: The New Food Lover’s Companion: Comprehensive Definitions of Nearly6,000 Food, Drink, and Culinary Terms. Third edition. Hauppauge, NY, Barron’sEducational Series, 2001Hoffman M, Joachim D (editors): Prevention’s the Healthy Cook: the Ultimate IllustratedKitchen Guide to Great Low-Fat Food: Featuring 450 Homestyle Recipes and Hundredsof Time-Saving Tips. Emmaus, PA, Rodale Press, 1997Johnson RV (editor): Mayo Clinic Complete Book of Pregnancy & Baby’s First Year.New York, William Morrow & Company, 1994Larson DE (editor): Mayo Clinic Family Health Book. Second edition. New York,William Morrow & Company, 1996Margen S: The Wellness Encyclopedia of Food and Nutrition: How to Buy, Store, andPrepare Every Fresh Food. New York, Rebus, 1992Rinzler CA: The New Complete Book of Food: A Nutritional, Medical and CulinaryGuide. New York, Checkmark Books, 1999Robbers JE, Tyler VE: Tyler’s Herbs of Choice: The Therapeutic Use of Phytomedicinals.New York, Haworth Herbal Press, 1999Sarubin A: The Health Professional’s Guide to Popular Dietary Supplements. Chicago,American Dietetic Association, 2000Sheps SG (editor): Mayo Clinic on High Blood Pressure. Rochester, MN, Mayo Clinic, 1999Shils ME, Olson JA, Shike M, Ross AC (editors): Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease.Ninth edition. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1999Stare FJ, Whelan EM: Fad-Free Nutrition. Alameda, CA, Hunter House Publishers, 1998Web SitesCancerAmerican Cancer Society: http://www.cancer.orgAmerican Institute for Cancer Research: http://www.aicr.orgCancerNet: http://cancernet.nci.nih.gov/index.htmlNational Cancer Institute: http://rex.nci.nih.govDiabetesAmerican Diabetes Association: http://www.diabetes.org/

Reading List 419National Institute of Diabetes & Digestive & Kidney Diseases:http://www.niddk.nih.gov/index.htmHeart DiseaseAmerican Heart Association: http://www.americanheart.org/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/index.htmHypertensionDietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH): http://dash.bwh.harvard.eduNutritionAmerican Dietetic Association: http://www.eatright.orgDietary Guidelines for Americans: http://warp.nal.usda.gov:80/fnic/dga/index.htmlFood Guide Pyramid: http://www.nal.usda.gov:8001/py/pmap.htmHealthy People 2010: http://web.health.gov/healthypeople/Mayo Clinic (health Web site): http://www.MayoClinic.comTuft’s Nutrition Navigator: http://navigator.tufts.edu/USDA Food and Nutrition Information Center: http://warp.nal.usda.gov:80/fnic/ObesityNational Institutes of Health: Aim for a Healthy Weight:http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/public/heart/obesity/lose_wt/index.htmShape Up America!: http://www.shapeup.orgOsteoporosisNational Osteoporosis Foundation: http://www.nof.orgOsteoporosis and Related Bone Diseases National Resource Center: http://www.osteo.orgSupplementsNational Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements:http://ods.od.nih.gov/databases/ibids.html(All Web sites were retrieved on June 29, 2001.)

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APPENDIXDIETARY REFERENCE INTAKESANDNUTRIENTS IN FOODSThe tables on pages 422 to 429 are from Dietary Reference Intakes, National Academyof Sciences, National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2001.The data on pages 434 to 483 are from U.S. Department of Agriculture, AgriculturalResearch Service. 1999. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 13.Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp. In someinstances, manufacturers’ data also were used. This does not indicate an endorsement ofthe product. “0” value = negligible level. (-) = value not available. Values were roundedto nearest decimal point.421

422 AppendixTABLE 1: DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES (DRIS): RECOMMENDED INTAKESFOR INDIVIDUALS. VITAMINS: FOOD AND NUTRITION BOARD, INSTITUTEOF MEDICINE, NATIONAL ACADEMIESLife Stage Vitamin A Vitamin C Vitamin D Vitamin E Vitamin K Thiamin RiboflavinGroup (μg/d) a (mg/d) (μg/d) b,c (mg/d) d (μg/d) (mg/d) (mg/d)Infants0–6 mo 400* 40* 5* 4* 2.0* 0.2* 0.3*7–12 mo 500* 50* 5* 5* 2.5* 0.3* 0.4*Children1–3 y 300 15 5* 6 30* 0.5 0.54–8 y 400 25 5* 7 55* 0.6 0.6Males9–13 y 600 45 5* 11 60* 0.9 0.914–18 y 900 75 5* 15 75* 1.2 1.319–30 y 900 90 5* 15 120* 1.2 1.331–50 y 900 90 5* 15 120* 1.2 1.351–70 y 900 90 10* 15 120* 1.2 1.3> 70 y 900 90 15* 15 120* 1.2 1.3Females9–13 y 600 45 5* 11 60* 0.9 0.914–18 y 700 65 5* 15 75* 1.0 1.019–30 y 700 75 5* 15 90* 1.1 1.131–50 y 700 75 5* 15 90* 1.1 1.151–70 y 700 75 10* 15 90* 1.1 1.1> 70 y 700 75 15* 15 90* 1.1 1.1Pregnancy 18 y 750 80 5* 15 75* 1.4 1.419–30 y 770 85 5* 15 90* 1.4 1.431–50 y 770 85 5* 15 90* 1.4 1.4Lactation 18 y 1,200 115 5* 19 75* 1.4 1.619–30 y 1,300 120 5* 19 90* 1.4 1.631–50 y 1,300 120 5* 19 90* 1.4 1.6NOTE: This table (taken from the Dietary Reference Intake reports, see www.nap.edu) presents Recommended Dietary Allowances(RDA) in bold type and Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*). RDAs and AIs may bothbe used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group.For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to coverneeds of all individuals in the group, but lack of data or uncertainty in the data prevent being able to specify with confidencethe percentage of individuals covered by this intake.a As retinol activity equivalents (RAEs). 1 RAE = 1 μg retinol, 12 μg β-carotene, 24 μg α-carotene, or 24 μg β-cryptoxanthin.To calculate RAEs from REs of provitamin A carotenoids in food, divide the REs by 2. For preformed vitamin A in foods orsupplements and for provitamin A carotenoids in supplements, 1 RE = 1 RAE.b Calciferol. 1 μg Calciferol = 40 IU vitamin D.c In the absence of adequate exposure to sunlight.d As α-tocopherol. α-tocopherol includes RRR-α-tocopherol, the only form of α-tocopherol that occurs naturally in foods,and the 2R-stereoisomeric forms of α-tocopherol (RRR-, RSR-, RRS-, and RSS-α-tocopherol) that occur in fortified foodsand supplements. It does not include the 2S-stereoisomeric forms of α-tocopherol (SRR-, SSR-, SRS-, and SSS-αtocopherol),also found in fortified foods and supplements.

Dietary Reference Intakes 423Niacin Vitamin B 6Folate Vitamin B 12Pantothenic Biotin Choline(mg/d) e (mg/d) (μg/d) f (μg/d) Acid (mg/d) (μg/d) (mg/d) g2* 0.1* 65* 0.4* 1.7* 5* 125*4* 0.3* 80* 0.5* 1.8* 6* 150*6 0.5 150 0.9 2* 8* 200*8 0.6 200 1.2 3* 12* 250*12 1.0 300 1.8 4* 20* 375*16 1.3 400 2.4 5* 25* 550*16 1.3 400 2.4 5* 30* 550*16 1.3 400 2.4 5* 30* 550*16 1.7 400 2.4 h 5* 30* 550*16 1.7 400 2.4 h 5* 30* 550*12 1.0 300 1.8 4* 20* 375*14 1.2 400 i 2.4 5* 25* 400*14 1.3 400 i 2.4 5* 30* 425*14 1.3 400 i 2.4 5* 30* 425*14 1.5 400 2.4 h 5* 30* 425*14 1.5 400 2.4 h 5* 30* 425*18 1.9 600 j 2.6 6* 30* 450*18 1.9 600 j 2.6 6* 30* 450*18 1.9 600 j 2.6 6* 30* 450*17 2.0 500 2.8 7* 35* 550*17 2.0 500 2.8 7* 35* 550*17 2.0 500 2.8 7* 35* 550*e As niacin equivalents (NE). 1 mg of niacin = 60 mg of tryptophan; 0-6 months = preformed niacin (not NE).f As dietary folate equivalents (DFE). 1 DFE = 1 μg food folate = 0.6 μg of folic acid from fortified food oras a supplement consumed with food = 0.5 μg of a supplement taken on an empty stomach.g Although AIs have been set for choline, there are few data to assess whether a supply of choline is neededat all stages of the life cycle, and it may be that the choline requirement can be met by endogenous synthesisat some of these stages.h Because 10-30 percent of older people may malabsorb food-bound B 12, it is advisable for those older than50 years to meet their RDA mainly by consuming foods fortified with B 12or a supplement containing B 12.i In view of evidence linking folate intake with neural tube defects in the fetus, it is recommended that allwomen capable of becoming pregnant consume 400 μg from supplements or fortified foods in addition tointake of food folate from a varied diet.j It is assumed that women will continue consuming 400 μg of folic acid from supplements or fortified fooduntil their pregnancy is confirmed and they enter prenatal care, which ordinarily occurs after the end of thepericonception period—the critical time for formation of the neural tube.

424 AppendixTABLE 2: DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES (DRIS): RECOMMENDEDINTAKES FOR INDIVIDUALS. MINERALS: FOOD AND NUTRITIONBOARD, INSTITUTE OF MEDICINE, NATIONAL ACADEMIESLife Stage Calcium Chromium Copper Fluoride Iodine IronGroup (mg/d) (μg/d) (μg/d) (mg/d) (μg/d) (mg/d)Infants0–6 mo 210* 0.2* 200* 0.01* 110* 0.27*7–12 mo 270* 5.5* 220* 0.5* 130* 11*Children1–3 y 500* 11* 340 0.7* 90 74–8 y 800* 15* 440 1* 90 10Males9–13 y 1,300* 25* 700 2* 120 814–18 y 1,300* 35* 890 3* 150 1119–30 y 1,000* 35* 900 4* 150 831–50 y 1,000* 35* 900 4* 150 851–70 y 1,200* 30* 900 4* 150 8> 70 y 1,200* 30* 900 4* 150 8Females9–13 y 1,300* 21* 700 2* 120 814–18 y 1,300* 24* 890 3* 150 1519–30 y 1,000* 25* 900 3* 150 1831–50 y 1,000* 25* 900 3* 150 1851–70 y 1,200* 20* 900 3* 150 8> 70 y 1,200* 20* 900 3* 150 8Pregnancy 18 y 1,300* 29* 1,000 3* 220 2719–30 y 1,000* 30* 1,000 3* 220 2731–50 y 1,000* 30* 1,000 3* 220 27Lactation 18 y 1,300* 44* 1,300 3* 290 1019–30 y 1,000* 45* 1,300 3* 290 931–50 y 1,000* 45* 1,300 3* 290 9NOTE: This table presents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type and Adequate Intakes(AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*). RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake.RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthybreastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed tocover needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data or uncertainty in the data prevent being able tospecify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.Sources: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997);Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B 6, Folate, Vitamin B 12, PantothenicAcid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, andCarotenoids (2000); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium,Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001). These reportsmay be accessed via www.nap.edu.

Dietary Reference Intakes 425Magnesium Manganese Molybdenum Phosphorus Selenium Zinc(mg/d) (mg/d) (μg/d) (mg/d) (μg/d) (mg/d)30* 0.003* 2* 100* 15* 2*75* 0.6* 3* 275* 20* 380 1.2* 17 460 20 3130 1.5* 22 500 30 5240 1.9* 34 1,250 40 8410 2.2* 43 1,250 55 11400 2.3* 45 700 55 11420 2.3* 45 700 55 11420 2.3* 45 700 55 11420 2.3* 45 700 55 11240 1.6* 34 1,250 40 8360 1.6* 43 1,250 55 9310 1.8* 45 700 55 8320 1.8* 45 700 55 8320 1.8* 45 700 55 8320 1.8* 45 700 55 8400 2.0* 50 1,250 60 13350 2.0* 50 700 60 11360 2.0* 50 700 60 11360 2.6* 50 1,250 70 14310 2.6* 50 700 70 12320 2.6* 50 700 70 12

426 AppendixTABLE 3: DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES (DRIS): TOLERABLE UPPER INTAKELEVELS (UL a ). VITAMINS: FOOD AND NUTRITION BOARD, INSTITUTE OFMEDICINE, NATIONAL ACADEMIESLife Stage Vitamin A Vitamin C Vitamin D Vitamin EGroup (μg/d) b (mg/d) (μg/d) (mg/d) c,d Vitamin K Thiamin RiboflavinInfants0–6 mo 600 ND f 25 ND ND ND ND7–12 mo 600 ND 25 ND ND ND NDChildren1–3 y 600 400 50 200 ND ND ND4–8 y 900 650 50 300 ND ND NDMales, females9–13 y 1,700 1,200 50 600 ND ND ND14–18 y 2,800 1,800 50 800 ND ND ND19–70 y 3,000 2,000 50 1,000 ND ND ND> 70 y 3,000 2,000 50 1,000 ND ND NDPregnancy 18 y 2,800 1,800 50 800 ND ND ND19–50 y 3,000 2,000 50 1,000 ND ND NDLactation 18 y 2,800 1,800 50 800 ND ND ND19–50 y 3,000 2,000 50 1,000 ND ND NDa UL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified,the UL represents total intake from food, water, and supplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be establishedfor vitamin K, thamin, riboflavin, vitamin B 12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs, extra cautionmay be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.b As preformed vitamin A only.c As α-tocopherol; applies to any form of supplemental α-tocopherol.d The ULs for vitamin E, niacin, and folate apply to synthetic forms obtained from supplements, fortified foods, or acombination of the two.e β-Carotene supplements are advised only to serve as a provitamin A source for individuals at risk of vitamin A deficiency.f ND = Not determinable due to lack of data on adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability tohandle excess amounts. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.Sources: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary ReferenceIntakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B 6, Folate, Vitamin B 12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); DietaryReference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A,Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc(2001). These reports may be accessed via www.nap.edu.

Dietary Reference Intakes 427Niacin Vitamin B 6Folate Pantothenic Choline(mg/d) d (mg/d) (μg/d) d Vitamin B 12Acid Biotin (g/d) Carotenoids eND ND ND ND ND ND ND NDND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND10 30 300 ND ND ND 1.0 ND15 40 400 ND ND ND 1.0 ND20 60 600 ND ND ND 2.0 ND30 80 800 ND ND ND 3.0 ND35 100 1,000 ND ND ND 3.5 ND35 100 1,000 ND ND ND 3.5 ND30 80 800 ND ND ND 3.0 ND35 100 1,000 ND ND ND 3.5 ND30 80 800 ND ND ND 3.0 ND35 100 1,000 ND ND ND 3.5 ND

428 AppendixTABLE 4: DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES (DRIS): TOLERABLE UPPER INTAKELEVELS (UL a ). MINERALS: FOOD AND NUTRITION BOARD, INSTITUTE OFMEDICINE, NATIONAL ACADEMIESLife Stage Boron Calcium Copper Fluoride Iodine IronGroup Arsenic b (mg/d) (g/d) Chromium (μg/d) (mg/d) (μg/d) (mg/d)Infants0–6 mo ND f ND ND ND ND 0.7 ND 407–12 mo ND ND ND ND ND 0.9 ND 40Children1–3 y ND 3 2.5 ND 1,000 1.3 200 404–8 y ND 6 2.5 ND 3,000 2.2 300 40Males, females9–13 y ND 11 2.5 ND 5,000 10 600 4014–18 y ND 17 2.5 ND 8,000 10 900 4519–70 y ND 20 2.5 ND 10,000 10 1,100 45> 70 y ND 20 2.5 ND 10,000 10 1,100 45Pregnancy 18 y ND 17 2.5 ND 8,000 10 900 4519–50 y ND 20 2.5 ND 10,000 10 1,100 45Lactation 18 y ND 17 2.5 ND 8,000 10 900 4519–50 y ND 20 2.5 ND 10,000 10 1,100 45a UL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified,the UL represents total intake from food, water, and supplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be establishedfor arsenic, chromium, and silicon. In the absence of ULs, extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommendedintakes.b Although the UL was not determined for arsenic, there is no justification for adding arsenic to food or supplements.c The ULs for magnesium represent intake from a pharmacologic agent only and do not include intake from food and water.d Although silicon has not been shown to cause adverse effects in humans, there is no justification for adding silicon tosupplements.e Although vanadium in food has not been shown to cause adverse effects in humans, there is no justification for addingvanadium to food, and vanadium supplements should be used with caution. The UL is based on adverse effects in laboratoryanimals and this data could be used to set a UL for adults but not children and adolescents.f ND = Not determinable due to lack of data on adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability tohandle excess amounts. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.Sources: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary ReferenceIntakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B 6, Folate, Vitamin B 12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); DietaryReference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A,Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc(2001). These reports may be accessed via www.nap.edu.

Dietary Reference Intakes 429Magnesium Manganese Molybdenum Nickel Phosphorus Selenium Vanadium Zinc(mg/d) c (mg/d) (μg/d) (mg/d) (g/d) (μg/d) Silicon d (mg/d) e (mg/d)ND ND ND ND ND 45 ND ND 4ND ND ND ND ND 60 ND ND 565 2 300 0.2 3 90 ND ND 7110 3 600 0.3 3 150 ND ND 12350 6 1,100 0.6 4 280 ND ND 23350 9 1,700 1.0 4 400 ND ND 34350 11 2,000 1.0 4 400 ND 1.8 40350 11 2,000 1.0 3 400 ND 1.8 40350 9 1,700 1.0 3.5 400 ND ND 34350 11 2,000 1.0 3.5 400 ND ND 40350 9 1,700 1.0 4 400 ND ND 34350 11 2,000 1.0 4 400 ND ND 40

430 AppendixTABLE 5: A QUICK LOOK – VITAMINS, THEIR FUNCTIONS AND FOOD SOURCESBelow are recommended vitamin intakes for adults aged 19 or older.(For infants, children, or women who are pregnant or lactating, see pages 422-423 and 426-427.)VitaminVitamin AMen:19 years or older – 900 microgramsWomen:19 years or older – 700 microgramsUpper limit:3,000 micrograms/dayVitamin DMen and women:19–50 years – 5 micrograms51–70 years – 10 micrograms71 years or older – 15 microgramsUpper limit:50 micrograms/dayVitamin EMen and women:19 years or older – 15 milligramsUpper limit:1,000 milligrams/day from supplement/fortified foodsVitamin KMen:19 years or older – 120 microgramsWomen:19 years or older – 90 microgramsUpper limit:Not established*Vitamin CMen:19 years or older – 90 milligramsWomen:19 years or older – 75 milligramsUpper limit:2,000 milligrams/dayThiamin (B 1)Men:19 years or older – 1.2 milligramsWomen:19 years or older – 1.1 milligramsUpper limit:Not established*Food SourcesFat-Soluble VitaminsVitamin A (retinol): eggs, liver,fortified dairy products, vitamin A-fortified foods. Beta-carotenes(converted by the body into vitamin A):dark green, yellow, and red vegetablesand fruitFortified dairy products, egg yolk, fattyfish; also made by skin exposed tosunlightVegetable oil, wheat germ, margarine,nuts, green leafy vegetables, beansGreen leafy vegetables, milk, dairyproducts, meats, eggs, cereals, fruits;also made by bacteria in gutWater-Soluble VitaminsCitrus fruits, strawberries, melon,tomatoes, green and red peppers,collard greens, broccoli, spinach,potatoesWheat germ, whole and enrichedgrains, brewer's yeast, organ meats,pork, legumes, seeds, nutsFunctionsGrowth, reproduction, maintenanceof body tissues, immune function,visionBuilding and maintenance of bonesand teeth, calcium and phosphorusmetabolismAntioxidant: protects cell membranesand red blood cells from oxidationdamage; immune functionFormation of blood clotting substancesand building of bonesMaintains collagen (intracellularcement): blood vessel integrity;enhances immunity, wound healing;antioxidant; increases absorption ofiron from plant foodsCarbohydrate metabolism, nervefunction, growth, and muscle tone

Vitamins 431Riboflavin (B 2)Men:19 years or older – 1.3 milligramsWomen:19 years or older – 1.1 milligramsUpper limit:Not established*Niacin (B 3)Men:19 years or older – 16 milligramsWomen:19 years or older – 14 milligramsUpper limit:35 milligrams/day from supplement/fortified foodsPyridoxine (B 6)Men and women:19 –50 years – 1.3 milligrams51 years or older –Men: 1.7 milligramsWomen: 1.5 milligramsUpper limit:100 milligrams/dayFolateMen and women:19 years or older – 400 microgramsUpper limit:1,000 micrograms/day fromsupplement/fortified foodsCobalamin (B 12)Men and women:19 years or older – 2.4 microgramsUpper limit:Not established*BiotinMen and women:19 years or older – 30 microgramsUpper limit:Not established*CholineMen:19 years or older – 550 milligramsWomen:19 years or older – 425 milligramsUpper limit:3,500 milligramsDairy products, whole and enrichedgrain products, animal proteinsAnimal protein, enriched grains, driedbeans and peasFish, poultry, meat, liver, whole grains,potatoLegumes, green leafy vegetables,fortified grain products, yeast, oranges,nutsAnimal and dairy productsEgg yolk, organ meats (kidney, liver),milk, dark green vegetablesEggs, liver, soybeans, cauliflower,lettuce, fats that are emulsified such asmargarine and salad dressingsEnergy release in cells, maintenanceof tissuesEnergy release in cells, growthhormone production, skin and gutmaintenance, nerve functionEnergy release in cells, red blood cellformation, nerve functionPrevention of birth defects, red bloodcell formation, growth and celldivisionRed blood cell formation, nervefunction, energy release in cellsFormation of fatty acids, utilizationof B vitamins, nerve maintenanceGrowth and development, nervetransmission, component oflipoproteins and cell membranes(continues)

432 AppendixA QUICK LOOK – VITAMINS, THEIR FUNCTIONS AND FOOD SOURCES (continued )Pantothenic AcidMen and women:19 years or older – 5 milligramsUpper limit:Not established*Animal products, whole-grain cereals,legumesConversion of energy into bloodglucose, hormone synthesis, vitaminutilization, nerve functionThese values are from the tables on pages 422-423 and 426-427.*Upper limits not determinable. Caution is advised in consuming amounts above recommended intakes.TABLE 6: A QUICK LOOK – MINERALS, THEIR FUNCTIONS AND FOOD SOURCESBelow are recommended mineral intakes for adults aged 19 or older.(For infants, children, or women who are pregnant or lactating, see pages 424-425 and 428-429.)MineralCalciumMen and women:19–50 years – 1,000 milligrams51 years or older – 1,200 milligramsUpper limit:2,500 milligrams/dayChromiumMen:19–50 years – 35 micrograms51 years or older – 30 microgramsWomen:19–50 years – 25 micrograms51 years or older – 20 microgramsUpper limit:Not established*Food SourcesMilk and milk products, fish withedible bones, dark green vegetables,fortified foodsBrewer’s yeast, wheat germ, cheese,whole grainsFunctionsBone development and maintenance,nerve function, blood clotting, musclecontractionGlucose regulation, muscle functionCopperMen and women:19 years or older – 900 microgramsUpper limit:10,000 microgramsFluorideMen:19 years and older – 4 milligramsWomen:19 years or older – 3 milligramsUpper limit:10 milligrams/dayIodineMen and women:19 years or older – 150 microgramsUpper limit:1,100 microgramsLiver, seafoods, nuts and seeds, cocoapowderFluoridated water, tea, ocean fish withedible bonesIodized salt, seafoodFormation of red blood cells,pigmentation, bone maintenanceReduction of dental caries, bonemaintenanceThyroid function, growth, mentaldevelopment, energy metabolism

Minerals 433IronMen:19 years or older – 8 milligramsWomen:19–50 years – 18 milligrams51 years or older – 8 milligramsUpper limit:45 milligramsMagnesiumMen:19–30 years – 400 milligrams31 years or older – 420 milligramsWomen:19–30 years – 310 milligrams31 years or older – 320 milligramsUpper limit:350 milligrams from supplement onlyManganeseMen:19 years or older – 2.3 milligramsWomen:19 years or older – 1.8 milligramsUpper limit:11 milligramsMolybdenumMen and women:19 years or older – 45 microgramsUpper limit:2,000 microgramsPhosphorusMen and women:19 years or older – 700 milligramsUpper limit:19–70 years – 4,000 milligrams/day71 years or older – 3,000 milligrams/daySeleniumMen and women:19 years or older – 55 microgramsUpper limit:400 milligrams/dayZincMen:19 years or older – 11 milligramsWomen:19 years or older – 8 milligramsUpper limit:40 milligrams/dayMeat, liver, egg yolk, dark greenvegetables, whole and enriched grainproductsNuts, seeds, whole grains, wheat germ,bran, green vegetables, bananasWhole grains, fruits, vegetables, teaMilk, beans, grain productsAnimal and high-protein vegetableproducts, whole grainsSeafood, meats, liver and kidney,onions, grainsMeat, liver, eggs, seafoods, wholegrainsFormation of hemoglobin in bloodand myoglobin in muscle, whichhelps with utilization of oxygenEnzyme, nerve and muscle function,bone growthReproduction, growth, boneformation, glucose regulationEnzyme systems, nerve function,mental developmentBone development and maintenance,energy releaseAntioxidant, fat utilization, heartmuscle maintenanceGrowth, wound healing, taste andsmell sensitivityThese values are from the tables on pages 424-425 and 428-429.*Upper limits not determinable. Caution is advised in consuming amounts above recommended intakes.

434 AppendixTABLE 7: NUTRIENTS IN FOODSFRUITSServing sizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Fiber (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Acerola (West Indian cherry), 1 cup 98 31 0 0 8 1 12 0 18 11rawApple, raw, with skin 1 medium (2 3/4″ diameter) 138 81 0 0 21 4 10 0 7 10Apricot, raw 2 apricots 70 34 1 0 8 2 10 0 6 13Apricot, dried, uncooked 9 halves 32 75 1 0 19 3 14 1 15 37Avocado, raw 1 200 324 4 31 15 10 22 2 78 82Banana, raw 1 medium (7″ to 7 7/8″ long) 118 109 1 1 28 3 7 0 34 24Blackberry, raw 1/2 cup 72 37 1 0 9 4 23 0 14 15Blueberry, raw 1/2 cup (about 53 berries) 73 41 0 0 10 2 4 0 4 7Breadfruit, raw 1/4 small fruit 96 99 1 0 26 5 16 1 24 29Cantaloupe, raw 1 medium wedge 138 48 1 0 12 1 15 0 15 23(1/4 of medium melon)Carambola (starfruit), raw 1 large (4 1/2″ long) 127 42 1 0 10 3 5 0 11 20Casaba melon, raw 1 cup, cubes 170 44 2 0 11 1 9 1 14 12Cherimoya, raw 1/8 fruit, without skin and seeds 68 64 1 0 16 2 16 0 (-) 27Cherry, sweet, raw 1/2 cup, without pits (11 fruits) 73 52 1 1 12 2 11 0 8 14Cherry, sour, red, raw 1/2 cup, without pits (11 fruits) 78 39 1 0 9 1 12 0 7 12Coconut meat (nuts), raw 1 piece (1 1/4″ x 1″ diameter) 23 80 1 8 3 2 3 1 7 25Cranberry, raw 1/2 cup, whole 48 23 0 0 6 2 3 0 2 4Currant, red and white, raw 1/2 cup 56 31 1 0 8 2 18 1 7 25Date, domestic, natural, 5 dates, dried 42 114 1 0 31 3 13 0 15 17and dryDurian, raw or frozen 1/4 cup, chopped or diced 61 89 0 3 16 2 4 0 18 23Elderberry, raw 1/2 cup 73 53 0 0 13 5 28 1 4 28Feijoa, raw 3 fruits, without peel 150 74 2 1 16 (-) 26 0 14 30Fig, raw 3 medium (2 1/4″ diameter) 150 111 1 0 29 5 53 1 26 21Fig, dried, uncooked 2 figs 38 97 1 0 25 5 55 1 22 26Gooseberry, raw 1/2 cup 75 33 1 0 8 3 19 0 8 20Grapefruit, raw, pink, red, 1/2 medium (approx 4″ diameter), 128 41 1 0 10 1 15 0 10 10and whitewithout peelGrapes, American type 1/2 cup (18 fruits) 46 31 0 0 8 0 6 0 2 5(slip skin), rawGrapes, red or green, 1/2 cup, seedless (18 fruits) 80 57 1 0 14 1 9 0 5 10seedless, rawGuava, common, raw 1 fruit, without peel 90 46 1 1 11 5 18 0 9 23Honeydew melon, raw 1 wedge 125 44 1 0 11 1 8 0 9 13(1/8 of 5 1/4″ diameter melon)

Nutrients in Foods 435Potassium (mg)Sodium (mg)Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)143 7 0 0 (-) 1 1,644 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.0 14 0.0 752 75 0 0 0 0 0159 0 0 0 0 0 8 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 4 0.0 73 7 0 0 0 0 0207 1 0 0 0 0 7 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 6 0.0 1,828 183 1 0 0 0 0434 3 0 0 0 1 1 0.0 0.0 1 0 0.0 3 0.0 2,281 228 0 0 0 0 01,204 20 1 0 0 1 16 0.2 0.2 3.8 2 0.5 124 0.0 1,230 123 3 5 19 4 0467 1 0 0 0 1 11 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.7 23 0.0 96 9 0 0 0 0 0141 0 0 0 1 0 15 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 24 0.0 119 12 1 0 0 0 065 4 0 0 0 0 9 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 5 0.0 73 7 1 0 0 0 0470 2 0 0 0 1 28 0.1 0.0 1 0 0.1 13 0.0 38 4 1 0 0 0 0426 12 0 0 0 0 58 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.2 23 0.0 4,449 444 0 0 0 0 0207 3 0 0 0 1 27 0.0 0.0 1 (-) 0.1 18 0.0 626 62 0 0 0 0 0357 20 0 0 (-) 1 27 0.1 0.0 1 (-) 0.2 29 0.0 51 5 0 0 0 0 0(-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) 6 0.1 0.1 1 (-) (-) (-) 0.0 7 1 (-) (-) (-) (-) 0162 0 0 0 0 0 5 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 3 0.0 155 15 0 0 0 0 0134 2 0 0 0 0 8 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 6 0.0 994 99 0 0 0 0 080 5 0 0 0 2 1 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 6 0.0 0 0 0 7 0 0 034 0 0 0 0 0 6 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 1 0.0 22 2 0 0 0 0 0154 1 0 0 0 0 23 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 4 0.0 67 7 0 0 0 0 0271 1 0 0 0 1 0 0.0 0.0 1 0 0.1 5 0.0 21 2 0 0 0 0 0265 0 0 0 0 (-) 12 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 (-) 0.0 27 3 (-) (-) (-) (-) 0203 4 0 0 (-) 0 26 0.1 0.0 0 0 0.2 4 0.0 435 44 1 0 0 0 0233 5 0 0 0 (-) 30 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 57 0.0 0 0 (-) (-) (-) (-) 0348 2 0 0 0 1 3 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.2 9 0.0 213 21 1 0 0 0 0271 4 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 3 0.0 51 5 0 0 0 0 0149 1 0 0 0 0 21 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 5 0.0 218 22 0 0 0 0 0178 0 0 0 0 2 44 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 13 0.0 159 15 0 0 0 0 088 1 0 0 0 0 2 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 2 0.0 46 5 0 0 0 0 0148 2 0 0 0 0 9 0.1 0.0 0 0 0.1 3 0.0 58 6 1 0 0 0 0256 3 0 0 0 1 165 0.0 0.0 1 0 0.1 13 0.0 713 71 1 0 0 0 0339 13 0 0 0 1 31 0.1 0.0 1 0 0.1 8 0.0 50 5 0 0 0 0 0(continues)

436 AppendixFRUITS (continued)Serving sizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Fiber (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Jackfruit, raw 1/2 cup, sliced 83 78 1 0 20 1 28 0 31 30Jujube, raw 3.5 oz 100 79 1 0 20 (-) 21 0 10 23Jujube, dried 1 oz 28 82 1 0 21 (-) 22 0 10 28Kiwi fruit, fresh, raw 1 large, without skin 91 56 1 0 14 3 24 0 27 36Kumquat, raw 4 fruits, without peel 76 48 1 0 12 5 33 0 10 14Lemon, raw, with peel 1 fruit, without seeds 108 22 1 0 12 5 66 1 13 16Lime, raw 1 fruit (2″ diameter) 67 20 0 0 7 2 22 0 4 12Longan, raw 10 fruits, without peel 32 19 0 0 5 0 0 0 3 7Longan, dried 10 g 10 29 0 0 7 (-) 5 1 5 20Loquat, raw 1/2 cup, cubed 75 35 0 0 9 1 12 0 10 20Lychee, raw 10 fruits, without peel 96 63 1 0 16 1 5 0 10 30Lychee, dried 10 fruits 25 69 1 0 18 1 8 0 11 45Mango, raw 1/2 fruit, without peel 104 67 1 0 18 2 10 0 9 11Mulberry, raw 1/2 cup 70 30 1 0 7 1 27 1 13 27Nectarine, raw 1 fruit (2 1/2″ diameter) 136 67 1 1 16 2 7 0 11 22Olives, ripe, canned 10 large (1/3 cup) 44 51 0 5 3 1 39 1 2 1Orange, raw, all 1 fruit (2 5/8″ diameter) 131 62 1 0 15 3 52 0 13 18commercial varietiesPapaya, raw 1/4 medium (about 1/2 cup cubes) 76 30 0.5 0 8 2 18 0 8 4Passion fruit, purple, raw 4 fruits, without peel 72 68 2 0 16 8 8 0 20 48Peach, raw 1 medium (2 1/2″ diameter) 98 42 1 0 11 2 5 0 7 12Pear, raw 1 medium (2 1/2 per pound) 166 98 1 1 25 4 18 0 10 18Pear, Asian, raw 1 fruit 122 51 1 0 13 4 5 0 10 13(2 1/4” high 2-1/2” diameter)Persimmon, Japanese, raw 1/2 fruit (2 1/2″ diameter) 84 59 0 0 16 3 7 0 8 14Pineapple, raw 1/2 cup, diced 78 38 0 0 10 1 5 0 11 5Plantain, cooked 1/2 cup, mashed 100 116 1 0 31 2 2 1 32 28Plum, raw 1 fruit (2 1/8″ diameter) 66 36 1 0 9 1 3 0 5 7Pomegranate, raw 1 fruit (3 3/8″ diameter) 154 105 1 0 26 1 5 0 5 12Prickly pear, raw 1 fruit, without peel 103 42 1 1 10 4 58 0 88 25Prune (dried plum), uncooked 1/4 cup, pitted (about 5 fruits) 43 102 1 0 27 3 22 1 19 34Pummelo, raw 1/2 cup sections 95 36 1 0 9 1 4 0 6 16Quince, raw 1 fruit, without peel 92 52 0 0 14 2 10 1 7 16Raisins, seedless 1/4 cup, packed 41 124 1 0 33 2 20 1 14 40

Nutrients in Foods 437Potassium (mg)Sodium (mg)Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)250 2 0 0 0 0 6 0.0 0.1 0 (-) 0.1 12 0.0 245 25 0 0 0 0 0250 3 0 0 0 (-) 69 0.0 0.0 1 (-) 0.1 (-) 0.0 40 4 (-) (-) (-) (-) 0149 2 0 0 0 (-) 4 0.0 0.1 0 (-) (-) (-) 0.0 (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) 0302 5 (-) (-) (-) (-) 89 0.0 0.0 0 (-) 0.1 35 0.0 159 16 1 0 0 0 0148 5 0 0 0 0 28 0.1 0.1 0 (-) 0.0 12 0.0 230 23 0 0 0 0 0157 3 0 0 (-) (-) 83 0.1 0.0 0 0 0.1 (-) 0.0 32 3 (-) 0 0 0 068 1 0 0 0 0 19 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 5 0.0 7 1 0 0 0 0 085 0 0 0 0 (-) 27 0.0 0.0 0 (-) (-) (-) 0.0 (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) 066 5 0 0 0 (-) 3 0.0 0.0 0 0 (-) (-) 0.0 0 0 (-) (-) (-) (-) 0198 1 0 0 0 0 1 0.0 0.0 0 (-) 0.1 10 0.0 1,138 114 1 0 0 0 0164 1 0 0 0 1 69 0.0 0.1 1 (-) 0.1 13 0.0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0278 1 0 0 0 0 46 0.0 0.1 1 (-) 0.0 3 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0161 2 0 0 0 1 29 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.1 14 0.0 4,030 403 1 0 0 0 0136 7 0 0 (-) 0 25 0.0 0.1 0 (-) 0.0 4 0.0 18 2 0 0 0 0 0288 0 0 0 0 1 7 0.0 0.1 1 0 0.0 5 0.0 1,001 101 1 0 0 0 04 384 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 177 18 1 1 3 0 0237 0 0 0 0 1 70 0.1 0.1 0 0 0.1 40 0.0 269 28 0 0 0 0 0196 3 0 0 0 1 47 0.0 0.0 1 0 0.0 29 0.0 216 22 1 0 0 0 0252 20 0 0 (-) 0 20 0.0 0.0 1 (-) 0.0 12 0.0 504 52 1 0 0 0 0193 0 0 0 0 0 6 0.0 0.0 1 0 0.0 3 0.0 524 53 1 0 0 0 0208 0 0 0 0 2 7 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.0 12 0.0 33 3 1 0 0 0 0148 0 0 0 0 1 5 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 10 0.0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0135 1 0 0 0 1 6 0.0 0.0 0 (-) 0.1 6 0.0 1,820 182 0 0 0 0 089 1 0 0 1 0 12 0.1 0.0 0 0 0.1 8 0.0 18 2 0 0 0 0 0465 5 0 0 (-) 1 11 0.0 0.1 1 0 0.2 26 0.0 909 91 0 0 0 0 (-)114 0 0 0 0 0 6 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.1 1 0.0 213 21 0 0 0 0 0399 5 0 0 (-) 1 9 0.0 0.0 0 1 0.2 9 0.0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0227 5 0 0 (-) 1 14 0.0 0.1 0 (-) 0.1 6 0.0 53 5 0 0 0 0 0317 2 0 0 0 1 1 0.0 0.1 1 0 0.1 2 0.0 844 85 1 0 0 0 0205 1 0 0 0 (-) 58 0.0 0.0 0 (-) 0.0 (-) 0.0 0 0 (-) (-) (-) (-) 0181 4 0 0 (-) 1 14 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 3 0.0 37 4 1 0 0 0 0310 5 0 0 0 0 1 0.1 0.0 0 0 0.1 1 0.0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0(continues)

438 AppendixFRUITS (continued)Serving sizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Fiber (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Rambutan, canned, 1/2 cup, drained 75 62 0 0 16 1 17 0 5 7syrup packRaspberry, raw 1/2 cup (30 fruits) 62 30 1 0 7 4 14 0 11 7Rhubarb, raw 1/2 cup, diced 61 13 1 0 3 1 52 0 7 9Sapodilla, raw 1 fruit 170 141 1 2 34 9 36 1 20 20Strawberry, raw 1/2 cup, whole (5 fruits) 72 22 0 0 5 2 10 0 7 14Tamarind, raw 10 fruits 20 48 1 0 13 1 15 1 18 23Tangerine, raw 1 medium (2 3/8″ diameter) 84 37 1 0 9 2 12 0 10 8Watermelon, raw 1/2 cup, diced 76 24 0 0 5 0 6 0 8 7VEGETABLESServing sizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Fiber (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)Amaranth leaves, cooked 1/2 cup 66 14 1 0 3 (-) 138 2 36 48 423Artichoke, cooked 1 medium globe 120 60 4 0 13 6 54 2 72 103 425Arugula, raw 1 cup 20 5 1 0 1 0 32 0 9 10 74Asparagus, raw 4 medium spears 64 14 1 0 3 1 13 1 11 36 175(5 1/4″ to 7″ long)Asparagus, cooked, boiled, drained, 1/2 cup (6 spears, 90 22 2 0 4 1 18 1 9 49 144without salt1/2″ base)Bamboo (shoots), cooked 1/2 cup (1/2″ slices) 60 7 1 0 1 1 7 0 2 12 320Beans, snap, green, cooked, boiled, 1/2 cup 67 22 1 0 5 2 29 1 16 24 187drained, without saltBeans, snap, yellow, cooked, boiled, 1/2 cup 67 22 1 0 5 2 29 1 16 24 187drained, without saltBeet, cooked, boiled, drained 1/2 cup slices 85 37 1 0 8 2 14 1 20 32 259Beet greens, cooked 1/2 cup 72 19 2 0 4 2 82 1 49 30 655

Nutrients in Foods 439Sodium (mg)Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)Potassium (mg)Sodium (mg)Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)32 8 0 0 0 (-) 4 0.0 0.0 1 0 0.0 6 0.0 2 0 (-) (-) (-) (-) 093 0 0 0 1 0 15 0.0 0.1 1 0 0.0 16 0.0 80 8 0 0 0 0 0176 2 0 0 0 1 5 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 4 0.0 61 6 0 0 0 0 0328 20 0 0 (-) 1 25 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 24 0.0 102 10 0 0 1 0 0120 1 0 0 0 1 41 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 13 0.0 19 2 0 0 0 0 0126 6 0 0 (-) 0 1 0.1 0.0 0 0 0.0 3 0.0 6 1 0 0 0 0 0132 1 0 0 0 0 26 0.1 0.0 0 0 0.1 17 0.0 773 77 0 0 0 0 088 2 0 0 0 0 7 0 0.0 0 0 0.1 2 0.0 278 28 0 0 0 0 014 1 0 1 1 27 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.1 37 0.0 1,830 183 (-) 0 0 0 0114 1 0 0 0 12 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.1 61 0.0 212 22 0 0 0 0 05 0 0 0 0 3 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 19 0.0 475 47 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 1 8 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.1 82 0.0 373 37 1 0 0 0 010 0 0 0 2 10 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.1 131 0.0 485 49 0 0 0 0 02 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 1 0.0 0 0 (-) 0 0 0 02 0 0 0 0 6 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.0 21 0.0 416 42 0 0 0 0 02 0 0 0 0 6 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.0 21 0.0 51 5 0 0 0 0 065 0 0 0 1 3 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 68 0.0 30 3 0 0 0 0 0174 0 0 0 1 18 0.1 0.2 0 0 0.1 10 0.0 3,672 367 0 0 0 0 0(continues)

440 AppendixVEGETABLES (continued)Serving sizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Fiber (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)Bitter melon (balsam-pear), leafy tips, 1/2 cup 29 10 1 0 2 0 12 0 27 22 175cooked, boiled, drained, without saltBitter melon (balsam-pear), pods, 1/2 cup 62 12 1 0 3 1 6 0 10 22 198cooked, boiled, drained, without salt (1/2″ pieces)Broccoli, cooked, boiled, drained, 1/2 cup 78 22 2 0 4 2 36 1 19 46 228without salt(about 2 spears)Broccoli, raw 1/2 cup (about 3 florets) 33 9 1 0 2 (-) 15 0 8 22 107Brussels sprouts, cooked, boiled, 1/2 cup 78 30 2 0 7 2 28 1 16 44 247drained, without salt(about 4 medium)Cabbage, cooked, boiled, drained, 1/2 cup, shredded 75 17 1 0 3 2 23 0 6 11 73without saltCabbage, raw 1 cup, shredded 70 18 1 0 4 2 33 0 11 16 172Carrot, cooked 1/2 cup 78 35 1 0 8 3 24 0 10 23 177Carrot, raw 1 medium 61 26 1 0 6 2 16 0 9 27 140Cassava, raw 1/4 cup 51 82 1 0 20 1 8 0 11 14 140Cauliflower, cooked, boiled, drained, 1/2 cup (1″ pieces) 62 14 1 0 3 2 10 0 6 20 88without saltCauliflower, raw 1/2 cup 50 13 1 0 3 1 11 0 8 22 152Celeriac, cooked, boiled, drained, 1/2 cup, pieces 77 21 1 0 5 1 20 0 9 51 134without saltCeleriac, raw 1/2 cup 78 33 1 0 7 1 34 0 16 90 234Celery, cooked, boiled, drained, 2 stalks 75 14 1 0 3 1 32 0 9 19 213without saltCelery, raw 2 medium stalks 80 13 1 0 3 1 32 0 9 20 230(7 1/2″–8″ long)Chayote, fruit, cooked, boiled, 1/2 cup (1″pieces) 80 17 1 0 4 2 10 0 10 23 138drained, without saltChicory greens, raw 1 cup, chopped 180 41 3 1 8 7 180 2 54 85 756Chicory roots, raw 1/2 cup (1″pieces) 45 33 1 0 8 (-) 18 0 10 27 131Chinese cabbage (bok choy), cooked, 1/2 cup, shredded 85 10 1 0 2 1 79 1 9 25 316boiled, drained, without saltChinese cabbage (bok choy), raw 1 cup, shredded 70 9 1 0 2 1 74 1 13 26 176Chinese cabbage (napa), cooked 1/2 cup 55 7 1 0 1 (-) 16 0 4 10 47Collards, cooked, boiled, drained, 1/2 cup, chopped 95 25 2 0 5 3 113 0 16 25 247without saltCorn, sweet, yellow, cooked, 1/2 cup, cut 82 89 3 1 21 2 2 1 26 84 204boiled, drained, without salt

Nutrients in Foods 441Sodium (mg)Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)4 0 0 0 0 16 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.2 25 0.0 503 50 0 0 0 0 04 0 0 0 0 20 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 32 0.0 70 7 0 0 0 0 020 0 0 0 1 58 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.1 39 0.0 1,082 108 1 0 0 0 09 0 0 0 1 30 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 23 0.0 990 99 0 0 0 0 016 0 0 0 1 48 0.1 0.1 0 0 0.1 47 0.0 561 56 1 0 0 0 06 0 0 0 0 15 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 15 0.0 99 10 0 0 0 0 013 0 0 0 1 23 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 30 0.0 93 9 0 0 0 0 051 0 0 1 1 2 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.2 11 0.0 19,152 1,915 0 0 0 0 021 0 0 0 1 6 0.1 0.0 1 0 0.1 9 0.0 17,159 1,716 0 0 0 0 07 0 0 0 0 11 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 14 0.0 13 1 0 0 0 0 09 0 0 0 0 27 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 27 0.0 11 1 0 0 0 0 015 0 0 0 0 23 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 29 0.0 10 1 0 0 0 0 047 0 0 0 0 3 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 3 0.0 0 0 (-) (-) (-) (-) 078 0 0 0 1 6 0.0 0.0 1 0 0.1 6 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 068 0 0 0 1 5 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 17 0.0 99 10 0 0 0 0 070 0 0 0 0 6 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 22 0.0 107 10 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 6 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 14 0.0 37 4 (-) 0 0 0 081 1 1 1 1 43 0.1 0.2 1 2 0.2 197 0.0 7,200 720 4 0 0 0 023 0 0 0 0 2 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 10 0.0 3 0 (-) 0 0 0 029 0 0 0 0 22 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 35 0.0 2,183 218 0 0 0 0 046 0 0 0 (-) 32 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 46 0.0 2,100 210 0 0 0 0 06 2 0 0 0 2 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 23 0.0 48 5 (-) (-) (-) (-) 09 0 0 1 1 17 0.0 0.1 1 0 0.1 88 0.0 2,973 297 1 0 0 0 014 0 0 0 1 5 0.2 0.1 1 1 0.0 38 0.0 178 18 0 0 0 0 0(continues)

442 AppendixVEGETABLES (continued)Serving sizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Fiber (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)Corn, sweet, yellow, cooked, 1 ear kernels 77 83 3 1 19 2 2 0 25 79 192boiled, drained, without saltCress (watercress), raw 1 cup 34 4 1 0 0 1 41 0 7 20 112Cucumber, with peel, raw 1/2 cup, slices 52 7 0 0 1 0 7 0 6 10 75Eggplant, cooked, boiled, drained, 1/2 cup (1″cubes) 50 14 0 0 3 1 3 0 6 11 123without saltFennel, bulb, raw 1/2 cup, sliced 87 13 0 0 3 1 21 0 7 22 180Fennel seed (spice) 1 teaspoon 2 7 0 0 1 1 24 0 8 10 34Fenugreek seed (spice) 1 teaspoon 4 12 1 0 2 1 6 1 7 11 28Garlic, raw 1 teaspoon (about 3 4 0 0 1 0 5 0 1 4 111 clove)Gingerroot, raw 5 slices (1″ diameter) 11 8 0 0 2 0 2 0 5 3 46Gingerroot, raw 1 teaspoon 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8Horseradish, prepared 1 teaspoon 5 2 0 0 1 0 3 0 1 2 12Jerusalem artichoke, raw 1/2 cup, slices 75 57 2 0 13 1 11 3 13 59 322Jicama (yam bean), raw 1/2 cup, slices 60 23 0 0 5 3 7 0 7 11 90Kelp (seaweed), raw 1/8 cup 10 4 0 0 1 0 17 0 12 4 9Kohlrabi, cooked, boiled, drained, 1/2 cup, slices 83 24 1 0 6 1 21 0 16 37 281without saltKohlrabi, raw 1/2 cup 70 18 1 0 4 2 16 0 13 31 236Leek (bulb and lower leaf 1/2 cup 52 16 0 0 4 1 16 1 7 9 45portion), cooked, boiled,drained, without saltLeek (bulb and lower leaf 1/2 cup 45 27 1 0 6 1 26 1 12 16 80portion), raw, choppedLettuce, butterhead (includes 1 cup, shredded 55 7 1 0 1 1 18 0 7 13 141Boston and Bibb types), rawLettuce, iceberg (includes crisphead 1 cup, shredded 55 7 1 0 1 1 10 0 5 11 87types), rawLettuce, looseleaf, raw 1 cup, shredded 56 10 1 0 2 1 38 1 6 14 148Lettuce, romaine, raw 1 cup, shredded 56 8 1 0 1 1 20 1 3 25 162Mushroom, cooked, boiled, 7 medium 84 22 2 0 4 2 5 1 10 73 299drained, without saltMushroom, raw 1/2 cup, pieces 35 9 1 0 1 0 2 0 4 36 130Okra, cooked, boiled, drained, 1/2 cup slices 80 26 2 0 6 2 50 0 46 45 258without salt

Nutrients in Foods 443Sodium (mg)Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)13 0 0 0 1 5 0.2 0.1 1 1 0.0 36 0 167 17 0 0 0 0 014 0 0 0 0 15 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 3 0.0 1,598 159 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 3 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 7 0.0 112 11 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 1 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 7 0.0 32 3 0 0 0 0 023 0 0 0 0 5 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 12 0.0 58 6 (-) (-) (-) (-) 02 0 0 0 (-) 0 0.0 0.0 0 (-) (-) (-) 0.0 3 0 (-) 0 0 0 02 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 (-) (-) 2 0.0 2 0 (-) 0 (-) (-) 00 0 0 0 0 1 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 1 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 1 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 016 0 0 0 0 1 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 3 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 03 0 0 0 1 3 0.2 0.0 1 1 0.1 10 0.0 15 2 0 0 0 0 02 0 0 0 0 12 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 7 0.0 13 1 0 0 0 0 023 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 18 0.0 12 1 0 0 0 0 017 0 0 0 1 45 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 10 0.0 29 3 1 0 0 0 014 0 0 0 0 42 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 11 0.0 24 3 0 0 0 0 05 0 0 0 0 2 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 13 0.0 24 3 (-) 0 0 0 09 0 0 0 0 5 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 29 0.0 42 4 0 0 0 0 03 0 0 0 0 4 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 40 0.0 534 53 0 0 0 0 05 0 0 0 0 2 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 31 0.0 182 18 0 0 0 0 05 0 0 0 0 10 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 28 0.0 1,064 106 0 0 0 0 04 0 0 0 0 13 0.1 0.1 0 0 0.0 76 0.0 1,456 146 0 0 0 0 02 1 0 0 10 3 0.1 0.3 4 2 0.1 15 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 3 1 0.0 0.1 1 1 0.0 4 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 04 0 0 1 1 13 0.1 0.0 1 0 0.2 37 0.0 460 46 1 0 0 0 0(continues)

444 AppendixVEGETABLES (continued)Serving sizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Fiber (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)Okra, cooked, boiled, drained, 8 pods (3″ long) 85 27 2 0 6 2 54 0 48 48 273without saltOnion, cooked 1 medium 94 41 1 0 10 1 21 0 10 33 156Onion, raw 1/2 cup, chopped 80 30 1 0 7 1 16 0 8 26 126Parsley, raw 1 tablespoon 4 1 0 0 0 0 5 0 2 2 21Parsnip, cooked, boiled, drained, 1/2 cup, slices 78 63 1 0 15 3 29 0 23 54 286without saltParsnip, raw 1/2 cup 67 50 1 0 12 3 24 0 19 47 249Pepper, hot chili, green, raw 1 pepper 45 18 1 0 4 1 8 1 11 21 153Pepper, hot chili, red, raw 1 pepper 45 18 1 0 4 1 8 1 11 21 153Pepper, sweet, green, raw 1/2 cup, chopped 75 20 1 0 5 1 7 0 7 14 131Pepper, sweet, red, raw 1/2 cup, chopped 75 20 1 0 5 1 7 0 7 14 132Pepper, sweet, yellow, raw 1/2 cup, chopped 75 20 1 0 5 1 8 0 9 18 159Potato, baked, flesh, without salt 1/2 cup 61 57 1 0 13 1 3 0 15 31 239Potato, baked, flesh and skin, 1 potato 202 220 5 0 51 5 20 3 54 115 844without salt (2 1/3″ x 4 3/4″)Radish, raw 1/2 cup, slices 58 12 0 0 2 1 12 0 5 10 135(13 medium)Rutabaga, cooked 1/2 cup, cubes 85 33 1 0 7 2 41 0 20 48 277Rutabaga, raw 1/2 cup, cubes 70 25 1 0 6 2 33 0 16 41 236Salsify (vegetable oyster), cooked, 1/2 cup, slices 68 46 2 0 10 2 32 0 12 38 191boiled, drained, without saltScallion (including top and bulb) 1/2 cup 50 16 1 0 4 1 36 1 10 19 138Spinach, cooked, boiled, drained, 1/2 cup 90 21 3 0 3 2 122 3 78 50 419without saltSpinach, raw 1 cup 30 7 1 0 1 1 30 1 24 15 167Squash, summer, all varieties, 1/2 cup, slices 90 18 1 0 4 1 24 0 22 35 173cooked, boiled, drained,without saltSquash, winter, all varieties, cooked, 1/2 cup, cubes 103 40 1 1 9 3 14 0 8 21 448baked, without saltSweet potato, cooked, baked in skin, 3/4 cup 150 155 3 0 36 5 42 1 30 83 522without saltTaro, cooked, without salt 1/2 cup 66 94 0 0 23 3 12 1 20 50 319Taro leaves, cooked, steamed, 1/2 cup 72 17 2 0 3 1 62 1 15 20 333without saltTomatillo, raw 1/2 cup, chopped 66 21 1 1 4 1 5 0 13 26 177

Nutrients in Foods 445Sodium (mg)Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)4 0 0 1 1 14 0.1 0.0 1 0 0.2 39 0 489 49 1 0 0 0 03 0 0 0 1 5 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 14 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 02 0 0 0 0 5 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 15 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 02 0 0 0 0 5 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 6 0.0 198 20 0 0 0 0 08 0 0 0 1 10 0.1 0.0 1 0 0.1 45 0.0 0 0 1 0 0 0 07 0 0 0 1 11 0.1 0.0 0 0 0.0 44 0.0 0 0 (-) 0 0 0 03 0 0 0 0 109 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 11 0.0 347 35 0 0 0 0 03 0 0 0 0 109 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 11 0.0 4,838 484 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 66 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.2 16 0.0 471 47 1 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 142 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.2 16 0.0 4,247 425 1 0 0 0 02 0 0 0 0 138 0.0 0.0 1 0 0.1 20 0.0 179 18 (-) 0 (-) (-) 03 0 0 0 0 8 0.1 0.0 1 0 0.2 6 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 016 1 1 0 2 26 0.2 0.1 3 1 0.7 22 0.0 0 0 0.1 0 0 0 014 0 0 0 0 13 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 16 0.0 5 1 0 0 0 0 017 0 0 0 1 16 0.1 0.0 1 0 0.1 13 0.0 477 48 0 0 0 0 014 0 0 0 0 18 0.1 0.0 0 0 0.1 15 0.0 406 41 0 0 0 0 011 0 0 0 0 3 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.1 10 0.0 0 0 0 (-) (-) (-) 08 0 0 0 0 9 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 32 0.0 193 20 0 0 0 0 063 1 0 1 1 9 0.1 0.2 0 0 0.2 131 0.0 7,371 737 1 0 0 0 024 0 0 0 0 8 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.1 58 0.0 2,015 202 1 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 5 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 18 0.0 258 26 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 10 0.1 0.0 1 0 0.1 29 0.0 3,646 365 0 0 0 1 015 0 0 1 1 37 0.1 0.2 1 1 0.0 34 0.0 32,733 3,273 0 0 0 0 010 0 0 0 0 3 0.1 0.0 0 0 0.2 13 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 1 26 0.1 0.3 1 0 0.1 35 0.0 3,073 307 (-) 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 8 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 5 0.0 75 7 0 0 0 0 0(continues)

446 AppendixVEGETABLES (continued)Serving sizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Fiber (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)Tomato, red, ripe, raw 1 medium, whole 123 26 1 0 6 1 6 1 14 30 273(2 3/5″ diameter)Turnip, cooked, boiled, drained, 1/2 cup, cubes 78 16 1 0 4 2 17 0 6 15 105without saltTurnip, raw 1/2 cup, cubes 65 18 1 0 4 1 20 0 7 18 124Water chestnut, cooked 1/2 cup, slices 70 35 1 0 9 2 3 1 4 13 83Water chestnut, raw 1/2 cup, slices 62 60 1 0 15 2 7 0 14 39 362Yam, cooked, boiled, drained, or 1/2 cup, cubes 68 79 1 0 19 3 10 0 12 33 456baked, without saltGRAINS (INCLUDING BREADS, CEREALS, FLOUR, AND PASTA)BREADSServing sizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Fiber (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)Bagels, plain, enriched, without calcium 1/2 bagel 35 96 4 1 19 1 6 1 10 34 36propionate (includes onion, poppy, (3 1/2″ diameter)sesame)Biscuits, plain or buttermilk, 1 biscuit 35 127 2 6 17 0 17 1 6 151 78commercially bakedBread, cornbread, dry mix, enriched 1 oz 28 119 2 3 20 2 16 1 7 139 32(includes corn muffin mix)(about 3 tablespoons)Bread, cornbread, prepared (made 1 piece 65 173 4 5 28 (-) 162 2 16 110 95with 2% milk)Bread, cracked-wheat 1 slice 25 65 2 1 12 1 11 1 13 38 44Bread, French or Vienna 1 slice 25 69 2 1 13 1 19 1 7 26 28(includes sourdough) (4 3/4″ × 4″×1/2″)Bread, mixed-grain 1 slice 26 65 3 1 12 2 24 1 14 46 53(includes whole-grain, 7-grain)Bread, oat bran 1 slice 30 71 3 1 12 1 20 1 11 42 44

Nutrients in Foods 447Sodium (mg)Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)Sodium (mg)Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)11 0 0 0 0 23 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.1 18 0.0 766 76 0 0 0 0 039 0 0 0 0 9 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 7 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 044 0 0 0 0 14 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 9 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 06 0 0 0 0 1 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 4 0.0 3 0 0 0 0 0 09 0 0 0 0 2 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.2 10 0.0 0 0 1 0 0 0 05 0 0 0 0 8 0.1 0.0 0 0 0.2 11 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0190 0 0 0 0 0 0.2 0.1 2 0 0.0 31 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0368 0 0 0 7 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.0 21 0.0 1 0 1 1 2 2 0315 0 0 0 2 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.0 30 0.0 33 3 0 1 2 0 1428 0 0 0 0 0 0.2 0.2 1 0 0.0 42 0.0 180 35 (-) 1 1 2 26135 0 0 0 6 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.1 15 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0152 0 0 0 8 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.0 24 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0127 0 0 0 8 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.1 21 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0122 0 0 0 9 0 0.2 0.1 1 0 0.0 24 0.0 2 0 0 0 0 1 0(continues)

448 AppendixGRAINS (INCLUDING BREADS, CEREALS, FLOUR, AND PASTA) (continued )BREADS (continued )Serving sizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Fiber (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)Bread, pita, white, enriched 1 small pita 28 77 3 0 16 1 24 1 7 27 34(4″ diameter)Bread, pumpernickel 1 slice 26 65 2 1 12 2 18 1 14 46 54Bread, raisin, enriched 1 slice 26 71 2 1 14 1 17 1 7 28 59Bread, reduced-calorie, white 1 slice 23 48 2 1 10 2 22 1 5 28 17Bread, rye 1 slice 32 83 3 1 15 2 23 1 13 40 53Bread, wheat (includes wheat berry) 1 slice 25 65 2 1 12 1 26 1 12 38 50Bread, wheat bran 1 slice 36 89 3 1 17 1 27 1 29 67 82Bread, white, commercially prepared 1 slice 25 67 2 1 12 1 27 1 6 24 30(includes soft bread crumbs)Bread, whole-wheat, commercially 1 slice 28 69 3 1 13 2 20 1 24 64 71preparedCroissants, butter 1 medium croissant 57 231 5 12 26 1 21 1 9 60 67English muffins, raisin-cinnamon 1 muffin 57 139 4 2 28 2 84 1 9 39 119(includes apple-cinnamon)Rolls, dinner, plain, commercially 1 roll (1 oz) 28 85 2 2 14 1 34 1 7 33 38prepared (includes brown-and-serve)Rolls, dinner, whole-wheat 1 roll (1 oz) 28 75 2 1 14 2 30 1 24 64 77Rolls, hamburger or hotdog, plain 1 roll 43 123 4 2 22 1 60 1 9 38 61Taco shells, baked 2 medium 26 122 2 6 16 2 42 1 27 64 46(approx 5″ diameter)Tortillas, ready-to-bake or -fry, corn 1 medium tortilla 26 58 1 1 12 1 46 0 17 82 40(approx 6″ diameter)Tortillas, ready-to-bake or -fry, flour 1 medium tortilla 32 104 3 2 18 1 40 1 8 40 42(approx 6″ diameter)CEREALSCereals, corn grits, white, regular, quick, 1/2 cup 121 73 2 0 16 0 0 1 5 15 27enriched, cooked with water, with salt(corn)Cereals, cream of rice, cooked with 1/2 cup 122 63 1 0 14 0 4 0 4 21 24water, without saltCereals, cream of wheat, regular, cooked 1/2 cup 126 67 2 0 14 1 25 5 5 21 21with water, without saltCereals, farina, enriched, cooked with 1/2 cup 117 58 2 0 12 2 2 1 2 14 15water, without salt (wheat)

Nutrients in Foods 449Sodium (mg)Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)150 0 0 0 8 0 0.2 0.1 1 0 0.0 27 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0174 0 0 0 6 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.0 21 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0101 0 0 0 5 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.0 23 0.0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0104 0 0 0 5 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.0 22 0.1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0211 0 0 0 10 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.0 28 0.0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0133 0 0 0 8 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.0 19 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0175 0 0 1 11 0 0.1 0.1 2 0 0.1 25 0.0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0135 0 0 0 7 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.0 24 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0148 1 0 1 10 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.1 14 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0424 0 0 0 13 0 0.2 0.1 1 0 0.0 35 0.1 424 106 0 7 3 1 38255 1 0 0 9 0 0.2 0.2 2 0 0.0 46 0.0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0148 0 0 0 8 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.0 27 0.0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0136 1 0 1 14 0 0.1 0.0 1 0 0.1 9 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0241 0 0 0 11 0 0.2 0.1 2 0 0.0 41 0.0 0 0 1 1 0 1 04 0 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.0 0 0 0.0 27 0.0 0 0 1 1 2 2 042 0 0 0 1 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 30 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0153 0 0 0 7 0 0.2 0.1 1 0 0.0 39 0.0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0270 0 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.0 38 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 4 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 4 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.0 1 0 0.0 23 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 11 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.0 27 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0(continues)

450 AppendixGRAINS (INCLUDING BREADS, CEREALS, FLOUR, AND PASTA) (continued )CEREALS (continued )Serving sizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Fiber (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)Cereals, oatmeal, regular or quick or 1/2 cup 117 73 3 1 13 2 9 1 28 89 66instant, fortified, plain, cooked withwater, without saltCereals, ready-to-eat, 40% Bran Flakes, 2/3 cup 33 106 4 0 26 5 15 5 78 182 191Ralston Purina(about 1 ounce)Cereals, ready-to-eat, corn flakes 1 cup 28 102 2 0 24 1 1 9 3 11 25(Kellogg’s)(1 ounce)Cereals, ready-to-eat, rice, puffed, fortified 2 cups 28 113 2 0 25 0 2 9 7 27 32(1 ounce)Cereals, ready-to-eat, wheat, puffed, 2 cups 24 87 3 0 19 1 7 8 35 85 83fortified(about 1 ounce)CRACKERSCrackers, crispbread, rye 3 crispbreads or 30 110 2 0 25 5 9 1 23 81 96crackersCrackers, matzo, plain 1 matzo (1 ounce) 28 112 3 0 24 1 4 1 7 25 32Crackers, melba toast, plain 3 pieces 15 58 2 0 11 1 14 0 9 29 30Crackers, saltines 6 small crackers 18 78 2 4 13 0 21 1 5 19 23Crackers, saltines, fat-free, low-sodium 6 small saltines 30 118 3 0 25 1 7 2 8 34 34Crackers, wheat, regular 6 small thin 12 57 1 2 8 0 6 0 7 26 22square crackersCrackers, whole-wheat 6 small crackers 24 106 2 4 16 2 12 1 24 71 71FLOURBuckwheat flour, whole-groat 1 cup 120 402 15 4 85 12 49 5 301 404 692Corn flour, masa, enriched, yellow 1 cup 114 416 11 4 87 0 161 8 125 254 340Cornmeal, whole-grain, yellow 1 cup 122 442 10 4 94 9 7 4 155 294 350Peanut flour, defatted 1 cup 60 196 31 0 21 9 84 1 222 456 774Potato flour 1 cup 160 571 11 1 133 9 104 2 104 269 1,602Rice flour, white 1 cup 158 578 9 2 127 4 16 1 55 155 120Rye flour, medium 1 cup 102 361 10 2 79 15 24 2 77 211 347Semolina (wheat), enriched 1 cup 167 601 21 2 122 7 28 7 78 227 311Soy flour, defatted 1 cup 100 329 47 1 38 18 241 9 290 674 2,384Wheat flour, durum 1 cup 192 651 26 5 137 (-) 65 7 276 975 827Wheat flour, white, all-purpose, enriched, 1 cup 125 455 13 1 95 3 19 6 28 135 134bleachedWheat flour, white, all-purpose, self- 1 cup 125 442 12 1 93 3 422 6 24 745 155rising, enriched

Nutrients in Foods 451Sodium (mg)Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)1 1 0 1 9 0 0.1 0.0 0 0 0.0 5 0.0 19 2 0 0 0 0 0304 1 0 1 (-) 17 0.4 0.5 6 0 0.1 115 2.0 1,440 432 0 0 0 0 0298 0 0 0 1 14 0.4 0.4 5 0 0.5 99 0.0 700 210 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 3 0 0.7 0.5 10 0 0.0 5 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 1 0 0 29 0 0.6 0.4 8 0 0.0 8 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 079 1 0 1 11 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 9 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 10 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.0 33 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0124 0 0 0 5 0 0.1 0.0 1 0 0.0 19 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0234 0 0 0 2 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.0 22 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0191 0 0 0 6 0 0.1 0.2 2 0 0.0 37 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 095 0 0 0 1 0 0.1 0.0 1 0 0.0 5 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0158 0 0 0 3 0 0.0 0.0 1 0 0.0 7 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 013 4 1 2 7 0 0.5 0.2 7 1 0.7 65 0.0 0 0 1 1 1 1 06 2 0 1 0 0 1.6 0.9 11 1 0.4 213 0.0 535 54 0 1 1 2 043 2 0 1 19 0 0.5 0.2 4 1 0.4 31 0.0 572 57 1 1 1 2 0108 3 1 3 4 0 0.4 0.3 16 2 0.3 149 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 088 1 0 1 2 6 0.4 0.1 6 1 1.2 40 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 1 0 2 24 0 0.2 0.0 4 1 0.7 6 0.0 0 0 0 1 1 1 03 2 0 6 36 0 0.3 0.1 2 1 0.3 19 0.0 0 0 1 0 0 1 02 2 0 1 0 0 1.4 1.0 10 1 0.2 257 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 1 020 2 4 3 2 0 0.7 0.3 3 2 0.6 305 0.0 40 4 0 0 0 1 04 8 1 6 172 0 0.8 0.2 13 2 1.0 83 0.0 0 0 0 1 1 2 03 1 0 1 42 0 1.0 0.6 7 1 0.1 193 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 1 01,587 1 0 1 43 0 1.0 0.5 7 0 0.0 192 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0(continues)

452 AppendixGRAINS (INCLUDING BREADS, CEREALS, FLOUR, AND PASTA) (continued )FLOUR (continued )Serving sizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Fiber (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)Wheat flour, white, cake, enriched 1 cup 137 496 11 1 107 2 19 10 22 116 144Wheat flour, whole-grain 1 cup 120 407 16 2 87 15 41 5 166 415 486GRAINSAmaranth 1/2 cup 98 365 14 6 65 15 149 7 259 444 357Barley, pearled, cooked 1/2 cup 79 97 2 0 22 3 9 1 17 42 73Buckwheat groats, roasted, cooked 1/2 cup 84 77 3 1 17 2 6 1 43 59 74Bulgur (wheat) 1/2 cup 91 76 3 0 17 4 9 1 29 36 62Hominy, canned, white (corn) 1/2 cup 83 59 1 1 12 2 8 1 13 29 7Millet, cooked 1/2 cup 87 104 3 1 21 1 3 1 38 87 54Flax seed 1/2 cup 77 381 15 26 26 22 154 5 280 386 528Popcorn, air-popped 2 cups 16 61 2 1 12 2 2 0 21 48 48Quinoa 1/2 cup 85 318 11 5 59 5 51 8 179 349 629Rice bran, crude 1/2 cup 59 186 8 12 29 12 34 11 461 989 876Rice, brown, long-grain, cooked 1/2 cup 98 108 3 1 22 2 10 0 42 81 42Rice, white, long-grain, regular, cooked 1/2 cup 79 103 2 0 22 0 8 1 9 34 28Rye 1/2 cup 85 283 12 2 59 12 28 2 102 316 223Sorghum 1/2 cup 96 325 11 3 72 0 27 4 0 276 336Triticale 1/2 cup 96 323 13 2 69 0 36 2 125 344 319Wheat bran, crude 1/2 cup 29 63 5 1 19 12 21 3 177 294 343Wild rice, cooked 1/2 cup 82 83 3 0 17 1 2 0 26 67 83PASTACouscous, cooked 1/2 cup 79 88 3 0 18 1 6 0 6 17 46Macaroni, cooked, enriched 1/2 cup 70 99 3 0 20 1 5 1 13 38 22Noodles, egg, cooked, enriched 1/2 cup 80 106 4 1 20 1 10 1 15 55 22Noodles, Japanese, soba, cooked 1/2 cup 57 56 3 0 12 0 2 0 5 14 20Noodles, Japanese, somen, cooked 1/2 cup 88 115 4 0 24 0 7 0 2 24 26Pasta, fresh-refrigerated, plain, cooked 1/2 cup 70 92 4 1 17 0 4 1 13 44 17Spaghetti, cooked, enriched, without 1/2 cup 70 99 3 0 20 1 5 1 13 38 22added saltSpaghetti, whole-wheat, cooked 1/2 cup 70 87 4 0 19 3 11 1 21 62 31

Nutrients in Foods 453Sodium (mg)Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)3 1 0 1 7 0 1.0 0.6 9 1 0.0 211 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 1 06 4 0 5 85 0 0.5 0.3 8 1 0.4 53 0.0 0 0 1 0 0 1 020 3 1 2 0 4 0.1 0.2 1 1 0.2 48 0.0 0 0 1 2 1 3 02 1 0 0 7 0 0.1 0.0 2 0 0.1 13 0.0 5 1 0 0 0 0 03 1 0 0 2 0 0.0 0.0 1 0 0.1 12 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 05 1 0 1 1 0 0.1 0.0 1 0 0.1 16 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0173 1 0 0 2 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 1 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 02 1 0 0 1 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.1 17 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 026 3 1 2 4 1 0.1 0.1 1 1 0.7 215 0.0 0 0 4 2 5 19 01 0 0 0 2 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 4 0.0 31 3 0 0 0 1 018 3 1 2 0 0 0.2 0.3 2 1 0.2 42 0.0 0 0 0 0 1 2 03 4 0 8 9 0 1.6 0.2 20 4 2.4 37 0.0 0 0 4 2 4 4 05 1 0 1 10 0 0.1 0.0 1 0 0.1 4 0.0 0 0 1 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 6 0 0.1 0.0 1 0 0.1 46 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 05 3 0 2 30 0 0.3 0.2 4 1 0.2 51 0.0 0 0 2 0 0 1 06 0 0 0 0 0 0.2 0.1 3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 1 1 05 3 0 3 0 0 0.4 0.1 1 1 0.1 70 0.0 0 0 1 0 0 1 01 2 0 3 23 0 0.2 0.2 4 1 0.4 23 0.0 0 0 1 0 0 1 02 1 0 0 1 0 0.0 0.1 1 0 0.1 21 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 04 0 0 0 22 0 0.0 0.0 1 0 0.0 12 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 15 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.0 49 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 06 0 0 0 17 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.0 51 0.1 16 5 0 0 0 0 2634 0 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.0 0 0 0.0 4 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0142 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 2 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 04 0 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.0 45 0.1 14 4 0 0 0 0 231 0 0 0 15 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.0 49 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 02 1 0 1 18 0 0.1 0.0 0 0 0.1 4 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

454 AppendixHIGH-PROTEIN FOODSMEATServing SizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)BeefChuck, arm pot roast, trimmed to 1/4″ fat, 3 oz 85 296 23 22 0 9 3 16 184 207choice, braisedCured, corned brisket, cooked 3 oz 85 213 15 16 0 7 2 10 106 123Flank, trimmed to 0″ fat, choice, braised 3 oz 85 224 23 14 0 5 3 20 218 286Ground, extra lean, baked, medium 3 oz 85 213 21 14 0 6 2 14 105 190Ground, regular, baked, medium 3 oz 85 244 20 18 0 9 2 13 116 188Rib, eye, small end (ribs 10-12), trimmed 3 oz 85 261 21 19 0 11 2 20 156 292to 1/4″ fat, choice, broiledRib, shortribs, choice, braised 3 oz 85 400 18 36 0 10 2 13 138 190Rib, whole (ribs 6-12), trimmed to 1/4″ fat, 3 oz 85 306 19 25 0 10 2 16 149 262choice, broiledRound, bottom round, trimmed to 1/4″ fat, 3 oz 85 241 24 15 0 5 3 19 208 240choice, braisedRound, eye of round, trimmed to 1/4″ fat, 3 oz 85 205 23 12 0 5 2 20 175 305choice, roastedRound, full cut, trimmed to 1/4″ fat, choice, 3 oz 85 204 23 12 0 5 2 21 202 333broiledRound, top round, trimmed to 1/4″ fat, 3 oz 85 190 26 9 0 6 2 25 199 356choice, broiledShort loin, porterhouse steak, separable 3 oz 85 183 22 10 0 6 3 23 179 312lean only, trimmed to 1/4″ fat, choice,broiledShort loin, T-bone steak, trimmed to 1/4″ 3 oz 85 263 20 20 0 7 2 20 156 273fat, choice, broiledTenderloin, trimmed to 1/4″ fat, choice, 3 oz 85 258 21 19 0 7 3 22 178 310broiledTop sirloin, trimmed to 1/4″ fat, choice, 3 oz 85 229 23 14 0 9 3 24 187 309broiledLambGround, broiled 3 oz 85 241 21 17 0 19 2 20 171 288Leg, shank half, trimmed to 1/4″ fat, choice, 3 oz 85 191 22 11 0 9 2 21 168 277roastedLoin, trimmed to 1/4″ fat, choice, broiled 3 oz 85 269 21 20 0 17 2 20 167 278Shoulder, whole (arm and blade), trimmed 3 oz 85 292 24 21 0 21 2 20 158 211to 1/4″ fat, choice, braisedOstrichTop loin, cooked 3 oz 85 130 24 3 0 5 3 (-) (-) (-)

Nutrients in Foods 455Sodium (mg)Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)50 6 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 3 0 0.2 8 2.5 0 0 0 9 9 1 84964 4 0 0 (-) 0 0.0 0.1 3 0 0.2 5 1.4 0 0 0 5 8 1 8360 5 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 4 0 0.3 8 2.8 0 0 (-) 6 6 0 6142 5 0 0 (-) 0 0.0 0.2 4 0 0.2 8 1.5 0 0 (-) 5 6 1 7051 4 0 0 16 0 0.0 0.1 4 0 0.2 8 2.0 0 0 (-) 7 8 1 7454 5 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 4 0 0.3 6 2.6 0 0 (-) 8 8 1 7143 4 0 0 (-) 0 0.0 0.1 2 0 0.2 4 2.2 0 0 0 15 16 1 8053 4 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.1 3 0 0.2 5 2.4 0 0 (-) 10 11 1 7043 4 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 3 0 0.3 9 2.0 0 0 0 6 7 1 8250 4 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.1 3 0 0.3 5 1.8 0 0 (-) 5 5 0 6152 4 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 3 0 0.3 8 2.6 0 0 0 4 5 0 6851 4 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 5 0 0.5 9 2.1 0 0 (-) 3 4 0 7259 4 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 4 0 0.3 7 1.9 0 0 0 3 4 0 5954 4 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 3 0 0.3 6 1.8 0 0 0 8 9 1 5750 4 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 3 0 0.3 5 2.0 0 0 (-) 7 8 1 7353 5 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 3 0 0.3 8 2.3 0 0 0 6 6 1 7769 4 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 6 1 0.1 16 2.2 0 0 0 7 7 1 8255 4 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 6 1 0.1 19 2.3 0 0 0 4 4 1 7765 3 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 6 1 0.1 15 2.1 0 0 0 8 8 1 8564 5 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 5 1 0.1 14 2.4 0 0 0 9 9 2 9965 (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) 1 1 1 79(continues)

456 AppendixHIGH-PROTEIN FOODS (continued )Serving SizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)PorkBackribs, roasted 3 oz 85 315 21 25 0 38 1 18 166 268Bacon, cooked: broiled, pan-fried, or 3 strips 19 109 6 9 0 2 0 5 64 93roastedCanadian-style bacon, grilled 3 oz 70 129 17 6 1 7 1 15 206 271Feet, cured, pickled 3 oz 85 173 11 14 0 27 0 3 29 260Ground, cooked 3 oz 85 252 22 18 0 19 1 20 192 308Ham, boneless, regular (approximately 3 oz 85 151 19 8 0 7 1 19 239 34811% fat), roastedLeg (ham), whole, roasted 3 oz 85 232 23 15 0 12 1 19 224 299Loin, center rib (chops), bone-in, braised 3 oz 85 213 23 13 0 21 1 15 150 329Loin, sirloin (chops), bone-in, braised 3 oz 85 208 22 13 0 15 1 16 148 276Loin, tenderloin, broiled 3 oz 85 171 25 7 0 4 1 30 247 377Loin, whole, braised 3 oz 85 203 23 12 0 18 1 16 154 318VealGround, broiled 3 oz 85 146 21 6 0 14 1 20 184 286Leg (top round), roasted 3 oz 85 136 24 4 0 5 1 24 199 331Loin, roasted 3 oz 85 184 21 10 0 16 1 21 180 276Rib, roasted 3 oz 85 194 20 12 0 9 1 19 167 251Sirloin, roasted 3 oz 85 172 21 9 0 11 1 22 190 298Variety meatsBrain, simmered 3 oz 85 136 9 11 0 8 2 12 299 204Heart (beef), simmered 3 oz 85 149 24 5 0 5 6 21 212 198Kidney (beef), cooked 3 oz 85 122 22 3 1 14 6 15 260 152Liver (beef), braised 3 oz 85 137 21 4 3 6 6 17 343 200Pancreas, braised 3 oz 85 230 23 15 0 14 2 18 385 209Thymus, braised 3 oz 85 271 19 21 0 9 1 9 309 368Sausages/luncheon/deli meatsBeef, lunch meat, thin sliced 3 oz 85 150 24 3 5 9 2 16 143 365Bologna, beef and pork 3 oz 85 269 10 24 2 10 1 9 77 153Bratwurst, pork 3 oz 85 256 12 22 2 37 1 13 127 180Frankfurter, beef 1 frankfurter (5″) 45 142 5 13 1 9 1 1 39 75Frankfurter, turkey 1 frankfurter 45 102 6 8 1 48 1 6 60 81Italian sausage, pork 1 link, 4/lb 83 268 17 21 1 20 1 15 141 252

Nutrients in Foods 457Sodium (mg)Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)86 3 0 0 33 0 0.4 0.2 3 0 0.3 3 0.5 8 3 (-) 9 11 2 100303 1 0 0 5 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.1 1 0.3 0 0 0 3 5 1 161,074 1 0 0 17 0 0.6 0.1 5 0 0.3 3 0.5 0 0 0 2 3 1 40785 1 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0.3 3 0 0 0 0 5 6 1 7862 3 0 0 30 1 0.6 0.2 4 0 0.3 5 0.5 7 2 0 7 8 2 801,275 2 0 0 17 0 0.6 0.3 5 1 0.3 3 0.6 0 0 0 3 4 1 5051 3 0 0 39 0 0.5 0.3 4 1 0.3 9 0.6 9 3 0 5 7 1 8034 2 0 0 35 0 0.5 0.2 4 0 0.3 2 0.5 6 2 (-) 5 6 1 6243 2 0 0 34 1 0.6 0.2 3 1 0.3 3 0.5 6 2 (-) 5 6 1 7054 2 0 0 41 1 0.8 0.3 4 1 0.4 5 0.8 6 2 (-) 2 3 1 8041 2 0 0 39 1 0.5 0.2 4 1 0.3 3 0.5 6 2 0 4 5 1 6871 3 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 7 1 0.3 9 1.1 0 0 0 3 2 0 8858 3 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.3 8 1 0.3 14 1.0 0 0 0 2 1 0 8879 3 0 0 (-) 0 0.0 0.2 8 1 0.3 13 1.1 0 0 0 4 4 1 8878 3 0 0 (-) 0 0.0 0.2 6 1 0.2 11 1.2 0 0 0 5 5 1 9471 3 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.3 8 1 0.3 13 1.2 0 0 0 4 3 1 87102 1 0 0 (-) 1 0.1 0.1 2 0 0.2 6 7.3 0 0 2 2 2 1 1,74653 3 1 0 33 1 0.1 0.3 3 1 0.2 2 12 0 0 1 1 1 1 164114 4 1 0 239 1 0.2 3.4 5 1 0.4 83 44 1,055 317 0 1 1 1 32960 5 4 0 (-) 20 0.2 3.5 9 4 0.8 184 60.4 30,327 9,012 (-) 2 1 1 33151 4 0 0 (-) 17 0.2 0.4 3 4 0.2 3 14.1 0 0 (-) 5 5 3 22399 2 0 0 (-) 26 0.1 0.2 2 2 0.1 1 1.3 0 0 (-) 7 7 4 2501,224 3 0 0 24 0 0.1 0.2 4 0 0.3 9 2 0 0 0 1 1 0 35867 2 0 0 10 0 0.1 0.1 2 0 0.2 4 1.1 0 0 0 9 11 2 47474 2 0 0 18 1 0.4 0.2 3 0 0.2 2 0.8 0 0 0 8 10 2 51462 1 0 0 6 0 0.0 0.0 1 0 0.1 2 0.7 0 0 0 5 6 1 27642 1 0 0 7 0 0.0 0.1 2 0 0.1 4 0.1 0 0 0 3 3 2 48765 2 0 0 18 2 0.5 0.2 3 0 0.3 4 1.1 0 0 0 8 10 3 65(continues)

458 AppendixHIGH-PROTEIN FOODS (continued )Serving SizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)Sausages/luncheon/deli meats(continued )Luncheon meat, jellied, beef 3 oz 85 94 16 3 0 9 3 15 118 342Mortadella, pork 3 oz 85 265 14 22 3 15 1 9 83 139Pastrami, beef 3 oz 85 297 15 25 3 8 2 15 128 194Pastrami, turkey 3 oz 85 120 16 5 1 8 1 12 170 221Pepperoni, pork, beef 3 oz 85 422 18 37 2 8 1 14 101 295Pork, lunch meat, thin sliced 3 oz 85 300 11 27 2 8 1 12 73 172Pork sausage, fresh, cooked 3 oz 85 314 17 27 1 27 1 14 156 307Salami, beef 3 oz 85 223 13 18 2 8 2 12 96 191Turkey roll, light meat 3 oz 85 125 16 6 0 34 1 14 156 213Game meatsAntelope, roasted 3 oz 85 128 25 2 0 3 4 24 179 316Bear, simmered 3 oz 85 220 28 11 0 4 9 20 145 224Beaver, roasted 3 oz 85 180 30 6 0 19 9 25 248 343Beefalo, roasted 3 oz 85 160 26 5 0 20 3 0 213 390Bison, roasted 3 oz 85 122 24 2 0 7 3 22 178 307Boar, wild, roasted 3 oz 85 136 24 4 0 14 1 23 114 337Buffalo, water, roasted 3 oz 85 111 23 2 0 13 2 28 187 266Caribou, roasted 3 oz 85 142 25 4 0 19 5 23 198 264Deer, roasted 3 oz 85 134 26 3 0 6 4 20 192 285Elk, roasted 3 oz 85 124 26 2 0 4 3 20 153 279Goat, roasted 3 oz 85 122 23 3 0 14 3 0 171 344Hare, stewed 3 oz 85 147 28 3 0 15 4 26 204 291Moose, roasted 3 oz 85 114 25 1 0 5 4 20 150 284Muskrat, roasted 3 oz 85 199 26 10 0 31 6 22 230 272Opossum, roasted 3 oz 85 188 26 9 0 14 4 29 236 372Rabbit, domesticated, roasted 3 oz 85 167 25 7 0 16 2 18 224 326Raccoon, roasted 3 oz 85 217 25 12 0 12 6 26 222 338Squirrel, roasted 3 oz 85 147 26 4 0 3 6 24 179 299POULTRYChickenBroilers or fryers, breast, meat and skin, 3 oz 85 168 25 7 0 12 1 23 182 209roastedBroilers or fryers, breast, meat only, 3 oz 85 141 27 3 0 13 1 25 196 220roasted

Nutrients in Foods 459Sodium (mg)Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)1,124 3 0 0 14 0 0.1 0.2 4 1 0.2 6 4.4 0 0 (-) 1 1 0 291,060 2 0 0 19 0 0.1 0.1 2 0 0.1 3 1.3 0 0 0 8 10 3 481,044 4 0 0 9 0 0.1 0.1 4 0 0.2 6 1.5 0 0 0 9 12 1 79890 2 0 0 14 0 0.0 0.2 3 0 0.2 4 0.2 0 0 0 2 2 1 461,733 2 0 0 20 0 0.3 0.2 4 2 0.2 3 2.1 0 0 0 14 18 4 671,100 1 0 0 24 0 0.3 0.1 2 0 0.2 5 1 0 0 0 10 13 3 471,101 2 0 0 15 2 0.6 0.2 4 1 0.3 2 1.5 0 0 0 9 12 3 711,000 2 0 0 12 0 0.1 0.2 3 1 0.2 2 2.6 0 0 0 8 8 1 55416 1 0 0 19 0 0.1 0.2 6 0 0.3 3 0.2 0 0 0 2 2 1 3746 1 0 0 (-) 0 0.2 0.6 (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) 0 0 (-) 1 1 0 10760 9 0 (-) (-) 0 0.1 0.7 3 (-) 0.2 5 2.1 0 0 0 3 5 2 8350 2 0 (-) (-) 3 0.0 0.3 2 1 0.4 9 7.1 0 0 1 2 2 1 9970 5 (-) (-) (-) 8 0.0 0.1 4 0 (-) 15 2.2 0 0 (-) 2 2 0 4948 3 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 3 (-) 0.3 7 2.4 0 0 0 1 1 0 7051 3 0 (-) (-) 0 0.3 0.1 4 (-) 0.4 5 0.6 0 0 0 1 1 1 6548 2 0 (-) (-) 0 0.0 0.2 5 0 0.4 8 1.5 0 0 (-) 1 0 0 5251 4 0 0 (-) 3 0.2 0.8 5 2 0.3 4 5.6 0 0 0 1 1 1 9346 2 0 0 (-) 0 0.2 0.5 6 (-) (-) (-) (-) 0 0 (-) 1 1 1 9552 3 0 0 (-) 0 (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) 0 0 (-) 1 0 0 6273 4 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.5 3 (-) 0.0 4 1.0 0 0 0 1 1 0 6438 2 0 13 0 0 0.0 0.1 5 (-) 0.3 7 5 0 0 1 1 1 1 10459 3 0 0 (-) 4 0.0 0.3 4 (-) 0.3 3 5.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 6681 2 0 0 (-) 6 0.1 0.6 6 1 0.4 9 7.1 0 0 (-) 0 0 0 10349 2 0 (-) (-) 0 0.1 0.3 7 (-) 0.4 9 7.1 0 0 1 1 3 3 11040 2 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 7 1 0.4 9 7.1 0 0 (-) 2 2 1 7067 2 0 (-) (-) 0 0.5 0.4 4 (-) 0.4 9 7.1 0 0 1 3 4 2 82101 2 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 4 1 0.3 8 5.5 0 0 1 1 1 1 10361 1 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.1 11 1 0.5 3 0.3 79 23 0 2 3 1 7264 1 0 0 24 0 0.0 0.1 12 1 0.5 3 0.3 18 5 0 1 1 1 73(continues)

460 AppendixHIGH-PROTEIN FOODS (continued )Serving SizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)Chicken (continued )Broilers or fryers, dark meat, meat and 3 oz 85 215 22 13 0 13 1 19 143 187skin, roastedBroilers or fryers, dark meat, meat only, 3 oz 85 174 23 8 0 13 1 21 166 206roastedBroilers or fryers, drumstick, meat and 3 oz 85 183 23 9 0 10 1 19 148 194skin, roastedBroilers or fryers, meat only, roasted 3 oz 85 161 25 6 0 13 1 21 166 206Broilers or fryers, thigh, meat and skin, 3 oz 85 210 21 13 0 10 1 19 148 189roastedBroilers or fryers, wing, meat and skin, 3 oz 85 246 23 17 0 13 1 16 128 156roastedCornish game hens, meat and skin, roasted 3 oz 85 221 19 16 0 11 1 15 124 209Liver, simmered 3 oz 85 133 21 5 1 12 7 18 265 119Pâté, chicken liver, canned 3 oz 85 171 11 11 6 9 8 11 149 81TurkeyBreast, meat and skin, roasted 3 oz 85 161 24 6 0 18 1 23 179 245Breast, meat only, roasted 3 oz 85 93 19 1 0 6 0 17 195 263Dark meat, roasted 3 oz 85 159 24 6 0 27 2 20 173 246Ground, cooked 3 oz 85 200 23 11 0 21 2 20 167 229Leg, meat and skin, roasted 3 oz 85 177 24 8 0 27 2 20 169 238Thigh, pre-basted, meat and skin, roasted 3 oz 85 133 16 7 0 7 1 14 145 205Wing, meat and skin, roasted 3 oz 85 195 23 11 0 20 1 21 167 226DuckMeat and skin, roasted 3 oz 85 286 16 24 0 9 2 14 133 173Meat only, roasted 3 oz 85 171 20 10 0 10 2 17 173 214GooseMeat and skin, roasted 3 oz 85 259 21 19 0 11 2 19 229 280Meat only, roasted 3 oz 85 202 25 11 0 12 2 21 263 330Pâté de foie gras, canned (goose liver 3 oz 85 393 10 37 4 60 5 11 170 117pâté), smokedEGGSEgg substitute, liquid 1/2 cup 126 105 15 4 1 67 3 11 152 414Egg, white, raw 2 large whites 67 33 7 0 1 4 0 7 9 95Egg, whole, raw, fresh 1 large egg 50 75 6 5 1 25 1 5 89 61Egg. yolk, raw 1 large yolk 17 59 3 6 0 23 1 1 81 16

Nutrients in Foods 461Sodium (mg)Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)74 2 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 5 1 0.3 6 0.2 171 49 (-) 4 5 3 7879 2 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 6 1 0.3 7 0.3 61 19 0 2 3 2 7976 2 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 5 1 0.3 7 0.3 85 25 0 3 4 2 7773 2 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 8 1 0.4 5 0.3 45 14 0 2 2 2 1 7671 2 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 5 1 0.3 6 0.2 140 41 0 4 5 3 7970 2 0 0 (-) 0 0.0 0.1 6 1 0.4 3 0.2 134 40 0 5 6 4 7154 1 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 5 1 0.3 2 0.2 90 27 0 4 7 3 11243 4 0 0 (-) 13 0.1 1.5 4 5 0.5 655 16.5 13,919 4,176 1 2 1 1 536328 2 0 0 39 9 0.0 1.2 6 2 0.2 273 6.9 616 185 1 3 4 2 33354 2 0 0 (-) 0 0.0 0.1 5 1 0.4 5 0.3 0 0 (-) 2 2 2 631,216 1 0 0 26 0 0.0 0.1 7 0 0.3 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 3567 4 0 0 35 0 0.1 0.2 3 1 0.3 8 0.3 0 0 1 2 1 2 7291 2 0 0 (-) 0 0.0 0.1 4 1 0.3 6 0.3 0 0 0 3 4 3 8765 4 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 3 1 0.3 8 0.3 0 0 0 3 2 2 72371 4 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 2 1 0.2 5 0.2 0 0 (-) 2 2 2 5352 2 0 0 (-) 0 0.0 0.1 5 0 0.4 5 0.3 0 0 0 3 4 3 6950 2 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.2 4 1 0.2 5 0.3 178 54 1 8 11 3 7155 2 0 0 (-) 0 0.2 0.4 4 1 0.2 9 0.3 65 20 1 4 3 1 7659 2 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.3 4 1 0.3 2 0.3 59 18 1 6 9 2 7765 3 0 0 (-) 0 0.1 0.3 3 2 0.4 10 0.4 34 10 (-) 4 4 1 82593 1 0 0 (-) 2 0.1 0.3 2 1 0.1 51 8.0 2,835 851 (-) 12 22 1 128222 2 0 0 31 0 0.1 0.4 0 3 0.0 19 0.4 2,711 271 1 1 1 2 1109 0 0 0 12 0 0.0 0.3 0 0 0.0 2 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 063 1 0 0 15 0 0.0 0.3 0 1 0.1 24 0.5 318 96 1 2 2 1 2137 1 0 0 7 0 0.0 0.1 0 1 0.1 24 0.5 323 97 1 2 0 1 213(continues)

462 AppendixHIGH-PROTEIN FOODS (continued )FINFISH AND SHELLFISHServing SizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)Finfish (lean)Bass, sea, mixed species, cooked, dry heat 3 oz 85 105 20 2 0 11 0 45 211 279Cod, Atlantic, cooked, dry heat 3 oz 85 89 19 1 0 12 0 36 117 207Flounder (and sole species), cooked, 3 oz 85 99 21 1 0 15 0 49 246 292dry heatHalibut, Atlantic and Pacific, cooked, 3 oz 85 119 23 2 0 51 1 91 242 490dry heatOcean perch, Atlantic, cooked, dry heat 3 oz 85 103 20 2 0 116 1 33 235 298Perch, mixed species, cooked, dry heat 3 oz 85 99 21 1 0 87 1 32 218 292Pike, northern, cooked, dry heat 3 oz 85 96 21 1 0 62 1 34 240 281Roughy, orange, cooked, dry heat 3 oz 85 76 16 1 0 32 0 32 218 327Snapper, mixed species, cooked, dry heat 3 oz 85 109 22 1 0 34 0 31 171 444Tuna, light, canned in water, without salt, 3 oz 85 99 22 1 0 9 1 23 139 201drained solidsFinfish (moderate fat)Bass, freshwater, mixed species, cooked, 3 oz 85 124 21 4 0 88 2 32 218 388dry heatCatfish, channel, wild, cooked, dry heat 3 oz 85 93 15 3 0 8 0 24 260 356Salmon, chinook, smoked (lox), regular 3 oz 85 99 16 4 0 9 1 15 139 149Salmon, coho, wild, cooked, moist heat 3 oz 85 156 23 6 0 39 1 30 253 387Salmon, pink, cooked, dry heat 3 oz 85 127 22 4 0 14 1 28 251 352Salmon, sockeye, canned, drained solids 3 oz 85 130 17 6 0 203 1 25 277 320with boneSwordfish, cooked, dry heat 3 oz 85 132 22 4 0 5 1 29 286 314Trout, rainbow, wild, cooked, dry heat 3 oz 85 128 19 5 0 73 0 26 229 381Tuna, fresh, bluefin, cooked, dry heat 3 oz 85 156 25 5 0 9 1 54 277 275Tuna, light, canned in oil, without salt, 3 oz 85 168 25 7 0 11 1 26 264 176drained solidsFinfish (high fat)Mackerel, Atlantic, cooked, dry heat 3 oz 85 223 20 15 0 13 1 82 236 341Salmon, Atlantic, wild, cooked, dry heat 3 oz 85 155 22 7 0 13 1 31 218 534Salmon, chinook, cooked, dry heat 3 oz 85 196 22 11 0 24 1 104 315 429Salmon, sockeye, cooked, dry heat 3 oz 85 184 23 9 0 6 0 26 235 319Sardine, Atlantic, canned in oil, drained 3 oz 85 177 21 10 0 325 2 33 417 338solids with boneSmelt, rainbow, cooked, dry heat 3 oz 85 105 19 3 0 65 1 32 251 316Trout, mixed species, cooked, dry heat 3 oz 85 162 23 7 0 47 2 24 267 394

Nutrients in Foods 463Sodium (mg)Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)74 0 0 0 40 0 0.1 0.1 2 1 0.4 5 0.3 181 54 (-) 1 0 1 4566 0 0 0 32 1 0.1 0.1 2 0 0.2 7 0.9 39 12 0 0 0 0 4789 1 0 0 49 0 0.1 0.1 2 0 0.2 8 2.1 32 9 2 0 0 1 5859 0 0 0 40 0 0.1 0.1 6 0 0.3 12 1.2 152 46 1 0 1 1 3582 1 0 0 47 1 0.1 0.1 2 0 0.2 9 1.0 39 12 (-) 0 1 0 4667 1 0 1 14 1 0.1 0.1 2 1 0.1 5 1.9 27 9 (-) 0 0 0 9842 1 0 0 14 3 0.1 0.1 2 1 0.1 15 2.0 69 20 (-) 0 0 0 4369 1 0 0 40 0 0.1 0.2 3 1 0.3 7 2.0 69 20 (-) 0 1 0 2248 0 0 0 42 1 0.0 0.0 0 1 0.4 5 3.0 98 30 (-) 0 0 1 4043 1 0 0 68 0 0.0 0.1 11 0 0.3 3 2.5 48 14 0 0 0 0 2677 1 0 1 14 2 0.1 0.1 1 1 0.1 14 1.9 98 30 (-) 1 2 1 7442 0 0 0 12 1 0.1 0.0 2 1 0.0 9 2.4 42 13 (-) 1 1 1 621,700 0 0 0 32 0 0.0 0.1 4 1 0.2 2 2.8 75 22 (-) 1 2 1 2045 0 0 0 39 1 0.1 0.1 7 1 0.5 8 3.8 92 27 (-) 1 2 2 4873 1 0 0 49 0 0.2 0.1 7 1 0.2 4 2.9 116 35 (-) 1 1 1 57457 1 0 0 30 0 0.0 0.2 5 0 0.3 8 0.3 150 45 1 1 3 2 3798 1 0 0 52 1 0.0 0.1 10 0 0.3 2 1.7 116 35 (-) 1 2 1 4348 0 0 0 11 2 0.1 0.1 5 1 0.3 16 5.4 43 13 (-) 1 1 2 5943 1 0 0 40 0 0.2 0.3 9 1 0.4 2 9.2 2,142 643 (-) 1 2 2 4243 1 0 0 65 0 0.0 0.1 11 0 0.1 5 1.9 66 20 (-) 1 3 2 1571 1 0 0 44 0 0.1 0.4 6 1 0.4 1 16.2 153 46 (-) 4 6 4 6448 1 0 0 40 0 0.2 0.4 9 2 0.8 25 2.6 37 11 (-) 1 2 3 6051 0 0 0 40 3 0.0 0.1 9 1 0.4 30 2.4 422 127 (-) 3 5 2 7256 0 0 0 32 0 0.2 0.1 6 1 0.2 4 4.9 178 54 (-) 2 4 2 74430 1 0 0 45 0 0.1 0.2 4 1 0.1 10 7.6 191 57 0 1 3 4 12165 2 0 1 40 0 0.0 0.1 2 1 0.1 4 3.4 49 14 (-) 0 1 1 7757 1 0 1 14 0 0.4 0.4 5 2 0.2 13 6.3 54 16 (-) 1 4 2 63(continues)

464 AppendixHIGH-PROTEIN FOODS (continued )Serving SizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)ShellfishAbalone, mixed species, cooked, fried 3 oz 85 161 17 6 9 31 3 48 184 241Clams, breaded and fried 3 oz 85 333 9 20 29 15 2 23 176 196Crab, Alaska king, cooked, moist heat 3 oz 85 82 16 1 0 50 1 54 238 223Crab, blue, canned 1/3 cup 45 44 9 0 0 45 0 17 117 168Crayfish, mixed species, wild, cooked, 3 oz 85 70 14 1 0 51 1 28 230 252moist heatLobster, northern, cooked, moist heat 3 oz 85 83 17 1 1 52 0 30 157 299Mussel, blue, cooked, moist heat 3 oz 85 146 20 4 6 28 6 31 242 228Octopus, common, cooked, moist heat 3 oz 85 139 25 2 4 90 8 51 237 536Oysters, battered or breaded, and fried 3 oz 85 225 8 11 24 17 3 14 120 111Scallops, breaded and fried 3 oz 85 228 9 11 23 11 1 19 173 173Shrimp, mixed species, breaded and fried 3 oz 85 206 18 10 10 57 1 34 185 191(about 11 shrimp)Shrimp, mixed species, canned 1/4 cup 32 38 7 1 0 19 1 13 75 67Shrimp, mixed species, cooked, moist heat 3 oz 85 84 18 1 0 33 3 29 116 155Spiny lobster, mixed species, cooked, 3 oz 85 122 22 2 3 54 1 43 195 177moist heat

Nutrients in Foods 465Sodium (mg)Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)502 1 0 0 44 2 0.2 0.1 2 2 0.1 12 0.6 4 2 (-) 1 2 1 80616 1 0 0 7 0 0.2 0.2 2 0 0.0 31 0.8 90 27 (-) 5 8 5 65911 6 1 0 34 6 0.0 0.0 1 0 0.2 43 9.8 25 8 (-) 0 0 0 45150 2 0 0 14 1 0.0 0.0 1 0 0.1 19 0.2 2 1 0 0 0 0 4080 1 1 0 31 1 0.0 0.1 2 0 0.1 37 1.8 43 13 1 0 0 0 113323 2 2 0 36 0 0.0 0.1 1 0 0.1 9 2.6 74 22 1 0 0 0 61314 2 0 6 76 12 0.3 0.4 3 1 0.1 64 20.4 258 77 (-) 1 1 1 48391 3 1 0 76 7 0.0 0.1 3 1 0.6 20 30.6 230 69 1 0 0 0 82414 10 0 0 56 3 0.2 0.2 3 1 0.0 19 0.6 222 66 (-) 3 4 3 66542 1 0 0 23 0 0.1 0.5 0 0 0.0 31 0.3 82 25 (-) 3 7 0 64292 1 0 0 35 1 0.1 0.1 3 0 0.1 7 1.6 161 48 (-) 2 3 4 15054 0 0 0 13 1 0.0 0.0 1 0 0.1 1 0.4 19 6 0 0 0 0 55190 1 0 0 34 2 0.0 0.0 2 0 0.1 3 1.3 186 56 0 0 0 0 166193 6 0 0 50 2 0.0 0.0 4 0 0.1 1 3.4 17 5 (-) 0 0 1 77(continues)

466 AppendixHIGH-PROTEIN FOODS (continued )LEGUMESServing SizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Fiber (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)Alfalfa seeds, sprouted, raw 1 cup 33 10 1 0 1 1 11 0 9 23 26Broad beans (fava beans), mature seeds, 1/2 cup 85 94 6 0 17 5 31 1 37 106 228cooked, boiled, without saltChickpeas (garbanzo beans, Bengal gram), 1/2 cup 82 134 7 2 22 6 40 2 39 138 239mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without saltCommon beansBeans, black, mature seeds, cooked, 1/2 cup 86 114 8 0 20 7 23 2 60 120 305boiled, without saltBeans, cranberry (Roman), mature seeds, 1/2 cup 89 120 8 0 22 9 44 2 44 119 342cooked, boiled, without saltBeans, Great Northern, mature, boiled 1/2 cup 88 104 7 0 19 6 60 2 44 146 346Beans, kidney, all types, mature seeds, 1/2 cup 89 112 8 0 20 6 25 3 40 126 357cooked, boiled, without saltBeans, navy, mature, boiled, without salt 1/2 cup 91 129 8 0 24 6 64 2 54 143 335Beans, pinto, mature seeds, cooked, 1/2 cup 86 117 7 0 22 7 41 2 47 137 400boiled, without saltBeans, small white, mature seeds, cooked, 1/2 cup 90 127 8 1 23 9 65 3 61 151 414boiled, without saltDolichos beansBeans, adzuki, mature seeds, cooked, 1/2 cup 115 147 9 0 28 0 32 2 60 193 612boiled, without saltBlack-eyed peas, mature seeds, cooked, 1/2 cup 86 100 7 1 17 3 22 3 82 121 321boiled, without saltLablab bean (hyacinth bean), mature, boiled 1/2 cup 97 113 8 1 20 (-) 39 4 79 116 327Mung beans, mature seeds, cooked, 1/2 cup 101 106 7 0 19 8 27 1 48 100 269boiled, without saltMung beans, mature seeds, sprouted, 1/2 cup 62 13 1 0 3 0 7 0 9 17 63cooked, boiled, drained, without saltMung beans, mature seeds, sprouted, raw 1 cup 104 31 3 0 6 2 14 1 22 56 155Other lentils & legumesLentils, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, 1/2 cup 99 115 9 0 20 8 19 3 36 178 365without saltLima beans, large, mature seeds, cooked, 1/2 cup 94 108 7 0 20 7 16 2 40 104 478boiled, without saltPeanuts, all types, raw 1/3 cup 48 273 12 24 8 4 44 2 81 181 340Peanuts, all types, oil-roasted, with salt 1/3 cup 48 276 13 23 9 4 42 1 88 246 324(halves and whole)Peanuts, all types, cooked, boiled, with 1/3 cup 59 189 8 13 13 5 33 1 61 118 107salt (shelled)

Nutrients in Foods 467Sodium (mg)Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)2 0 0 0 0 3 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 12 0.0 51 5 0 0 0 0 04 1 0 0 2 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.1 88 0.0 13 2 0 0 0 0 06 1 0 1 3 1 0.1 0.1 0 0 0.1 141 0.0 22 2 0 0 0 1 01 1 0 0 1 0 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.1 128 0.0 5 1 0 0 0 0 01 1 0 0 1 0 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.1 183 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 02 1 0 0 4 1 0.1 0.0 1 0 0.1 90 0.0 2 0 (-) 0 0 0 02 1 0 0 1 1 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.1 115 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 1 0 0 5 1 0.2 0.0 0 0 0.1 127 0.0 2 0 (-) 0 0 0 02 1 0 0 6 2 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.1 147 0.0 2 0 1 0 0 0 02 1 0 0 1 0 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.1 123 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 09 2 0 1 1 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.1 139 0.0 7 1 0 0 0 0 016 2 0 0 2 0 0.1 0.0 1 0 0.1 121 0.0 9 1 0 0 0 0 07 3 0 0 3 0 0.3 0.0 0 0 0.0 4 0.0 0 0 (-) 0 0 0 02 1 0 0 3 1 0.2 0.1 1 0 0.1 160 0.0 24 2 1 0 0 0 06 0 0 0 0 7 0.0 0.1 1 0 0.0 18 0.0 9 1 0 0 0 0 06 0 0 0 1 14 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.1 63 0.0 22 2 0 0 0 0 02 1 0 0 3 1 0.2 0.1 1 1 0.2 179 0.0 8 1 0 0 0 0 02 1 0 0 4 0 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.2 78 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 09 2 1 1 3 0 0.3 0.1 6 1 0.2 116 0.0 0 0 4 3 12 7 0206 3 1 1 4 0 0.1 0.1 7 1 0.1 60 0.0 0 0 4 3 12 7 0446 1 0 1 3 0 0.2 0.0 3 0 0.1 44 0.0 0 0 2 2 6 4 0(continues)

468 AppendixHIGH-PROTEIN FOODS (continued )Serving SizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Fiber (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)Other lentils & legumes (continued )Peanut butter, chunk style, with salt 2 Tblsp 32 188 8 16 7 2 13 1 51 101 239Peanut butter, smooth style, with salt 2 Tblsp 32 190 8 16 6 2 12 1 51 118 214Peas, edible-podded, boiled without salt 1/2 cup 80 34 3 0 6 2 34 2 21 44 192Peas, green, cooked without salt 1/2 cup 80 67 4 0 12 4 22 1 31 94 217Peas, split, mature, boiled without salt 1/2 cup 98 116 8 0 21 8 14 1 35 97 355Soybeans, mature, cooked, boiled, without salt 1/2 cup 86 149 14 8 9 5 88 4 74 211 443Soybeans, mature seeds, sprouted, 1/2 cup 47 38 4 2 3 0 28 1 28 63 167cooked, steamedSoybeans, mature seeds, sprouted, raw 1 cup 70 84 9 5 7 1 47 1 50 115 339Soybeans, miso 1/2 cup 138 283 16 8 38 7 91 4 58 210 226Soybeans, tempeh 1/2 cup 83 165 16 6 14 0 77 2 58 171 305Soybeans, tofu, firm 1/2 cup 126 97 10 6 4 1 204 2 58 185 222Soybeans, tofu, lite, firm 1/2 cup 125 46 8 1 1 0 45 1 12 101 79Soybeans, tofu, soft 1/2 cup 124 76 8 5 2 0 138 1 33 114 149NUTS & SEEDSAlmonds, dry roasted, without salt 1/3 cup 46 275 10 24 9 5 122 2 132 225 343addedwhole kernelsBeechnuts, dried 1 oz 28 163 2 14 9 (-) 0 1 0 0 288Brazil nuts, dried, blanched 1/3 cup shelled 47 306 7 31 6 3 82 2 105 280 280(11 kernels)Cashew nuts, dry roasted, without 1/3 cup halves 46 262 7 21 15 1 21 3 119 224 258salt addedand wholeChestnuts, European, roasted 1/3 cup 48 117 2 1 25 2 14 0 16 51 282Ginkgo nuts, dried 1 oz 28 99 3 1 21 (-) 6 0 15 76 283Hazelnuts (filberts) 1/3 cup whole 45 283 7 27 8 4 51 2 73 131 306Lotus seeds, dried 1/4 cup 8 27 1 0 4 (-) 13 0 17 50 109Macadamia nuts, dry roasted, without 1/3 cup whole 45 321 3 34 6 4 31 1 53 88 162salt addedor halvesPecans 1/3 cup halves 36 249 3 26 5 3 25 1 44 100 148Pistachio nuts, dry roasted, without salt added 1/3 cup 43 243 9 20 12 4 46 2 51 207 441Safflower seed kernels, dried 1 oz 28 147 5 11 10 (-) 22 1 100 183 195Sesame seeds, whole, dried 1/4 cup 36 206 6 18 8 4 351 5 126 226 168Squash and pumpkin seed kernels, dried 1/4 cup 34 187 8 16 6 1 15 5 185 405 278Squash and pumpkin seeds, whole, 1/4 cup 16 71 3 3 9 (-) 9 0 42 15 147roasted, without salt addedSunflower seed kernels, dry roasted, 1/4 cup 32 186 6 16 8 3 22 1 41 370 272without salt addedWalnuts, English 1/3 cup halves 33 218 5 22 5 2 35 1 53 115 147

Nutrients in Foods 469Sodium (mg)Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)156 1 0 1 2 0 0.0 0.0 4 0 0.1 29 0.0 0 0 3 3 8 5 0149 1 0 0 2 0 0.0 0.0 4 0 0.1 24 0.0 0 0 3 3 8 4 03 0 0 0 0 38 0.1 0.0 0 0 0.1 23 0.0 104 11 0 0 0 0 02 1 0 0 1 11 0.2 0.0 2 0 0.2 51 0.0 478 48 0 0 0 0 02 1 0 0 1 0 0.2 0.0 1 1 0.0 64 0.0 7 1 0 0 0 0 01 1 0 1 6 1 0.1 0.2 0 0 0.2 46 0.0 8 1 2 1 2 4 05 0 0 0 0 4 0.1 0.0 1 0 0.0 38 0.0 5 0 0 0 0 1 010 1 0 0 0 11 0.2 0.1 1 1 0.1 120 0.0 8 1 0 1 1 3 05,015 5 1 1 2 0 0.1 0.3 1 0 0.3 45 0.0 120 12 0 1 2 5 05 2 1 1 7 0 0.1 0.1 4 0 0.2 43 0.8 569 57 0 1 1 4 010 1 0 1 12 0 0.1 0.1 0 0 0.1 42 0.0 10 1 0 1 1 3 0106 0 0 (-) (-) 0 0.0 0.0 0 (-) 0.0 (-) 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 1 010 1 0 0 11 0 0.1 0.0 1 0 0.1 55 0.0 9 1 0 1 1 3 00 2 1 1 4 0 0.0 0.4 2 0 0.1 15 0.0 0 0 12 2 15 6 011 0 0 0 (-) 4 0.1 0.1 0 0 0.2 32 0.0 0 0 (-) 2 6 6 01 2 1 0 1,381 0 0.5 0.1 1 0 0.1 2 0.0 0 0 1 8 11 11 07 3 1 0 5 0 0.1 0.1 1 1 0.1 32 0.0 0 0 0 4 12 6 01 0 0 1 1 12 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.2 33 0.0 11 0 1 0 0 0 04 0 0 0 (-) 8 0.1 0.1 3 0 0.2 30 0.0 309 31 (-) 0 0 0 00 1 1 3 2 3 0.3 0.1 1 0 0.3 51 0.0 18 2 7 3 21 4 00 0 0 0 (-) 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 8 0.0 4 0 (-) 0 0 0 02 1 0 1 2 0 0.3 0.0 1 0 0.2 4 0.0 0 0 0 5 26 1 00 2 0 2 2 0 0.2 0.0 0 0 0.1 8 0.0 28 3 1 2 15 8 04 1 1 1 3 1 0.4 0.1 1 0 0.7 21 0.0 227 23 2 2 10 6 01 1 0 1 (-) 0 0.3 0.1 1 1 0.3 45 0.0 14 1 (-) 1 1 8 04 3 1 2 2 0 0.3 0.1 2 0 0.3 35 0.0 3 0 (-) 2 7 8 06 3 0 1 2 1 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.1 20 0.0 131 13 0 3 5 7 03 2 0 0 (-) 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 1 0.0 10 1 (-) 1 1 1 01 2 1 1 25 0 0.0 0.1 2 2 0.2 76 0.0 0 0 16 2 3 10 01 1 1 1 2 0 0.1 0.1 1 0 0.2 33 0.0 14 1 1 2 3 16 0

470 AppendixDAIRY FOODSCHEESEServing SizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Fiber (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)American, pasteurized processed 2 oz 57 213 13 18 1 0 349 0 13 422 92Blue 1 1/2 oz 43 150 9 12 1 0 224 0 10 165 109Brick 1 1/2 oz 43 158 10 13 1 0 286 0 10 192 58Brie 1 1/2 oz 43 142 9 12 0 0 78 0 9 80 65Camembert 1 1/2 oz 43 170 8 10 0 0 165 0 8 147 79Caraway 1 1/2 oz 43 160 11 12 1 0 286 0 9 208 40Cheddar, low fat 1 1/2 oz 43 74 10 3 1 0 176 0 7 206 28Cheddar, whole 1 1/2 oz 57 171 11 14 1 0 307 0 12 218 42Cheese food 2 oz 57 186 11 14 4 0 326 0 17 428 158Cheese spread 2 oz 57 165 9 12 5 0 319 0 16 496 137Cheshire 1 1/2 oz 43 165 10 13 2 0 273 0 9 197 40Colby 1 1/2 oz 43 167 10 14 1 0 291 0 11 194 54Cottage, creamed, large curd 2 cups 420 434 52 19 11 0 252 1 22 554 354Cottage, creamed, small curd 2 cups 450 465 56 20 12 0 270 1 24 593 379Cottage, nonfat, uncreamed, 2 cups 290 245 50 1 5 0 92 1 11 302 94large, small, or dry curdCottage, 1% 2 cups 452 327 56 5 12 0 275 1 24 605 386Cottage, 2% 2 cups 452 405 62 9 16 0 310 1 27 680 435Cream cheese 2 Tblsp (1 oz) 28 99 2 10 1 0 23 0 2 34 12Cream cheese, fat free 2 Tblsp (1 oz) 28 28 4 0 2 0 54 0 4 126 47Edam 1 1/2 oz 43 152 11 12 1 0 311 0 13 228 80Farmer’s 1 1/2 oz 43 150 9 12 1 0 300 0 12 225 38Feta 1 1/2 oz 43 112 6 9 2 0 209 0 8 143 26Fontina 1 1/2 oz 43 165 11 13 1 0 234 0 6 147 27Goat 1 1/2 oz 43 155 9 13 1 0 127 1 12 159 67Gorgonzola 1 1/2 oz 43 150 9 14 0 0 225 0 (-) (-) (-)Gouda 1 1/2 oz 43 152 11 12 1 0 298 0 12 232 51Gruyère 1 1/2 oz 43 176 13 14 0 0 430 0 15 257 34Limburger 1 1/2 oz 43 139 9 12 0 0 211 0 9 167 54Monterey Jack 1 1/2 oz 43 159 10 13 0 0 317 0 11 189 34Mozzarella, part skim 1 1/2 oz 43 108 10 7 1 0 275 0 10 197 36Mozzarella, whole 1 1/2 oz 43 120 8 9 1 0 220 0 8 158 29Muenster 1 1/2 oz 43 157 10 13 0 0 305 0 12 199 57Neufchâtel 1 1/2 oz 43 111 4 10 1 0 32 0 3 58 49Parmesan 1 Tblsp 5 23 2 2 0 0 69 0 3 40 5Provolone 1 1/2 oz 43 149 11 11 1 0 321 0 12 211 59Ricotta, part skim 1/2 cup 124 171 14 10 6 0 337 1 18 226 155Ricotta, whole 1/2 cup 124 216 14 16 4 0 257 0 14 196 130Romano 1 1/2 oz 43 164 14 11 2 0 452 0 17 323 37

Nutrients in Foods 471Sodium (mg)Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin D (IU)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)811 2 0 0 8 0 0.0 0.2 0 0 0.0 4 0.4 686 164 (-) 0 11 5 1 54593 1 0 0 6 0 0.0 0.2 0 1 0.1 15 0.5 307 97 (-) 0 8 3 0 32238 1 0 0 6 0 0.0 0.2 0 0 0.0 9 0.5 460 128 (-) 0 8 4 0 40268 1 0 0 6 0 0.0 0.2 0 0 0.1 28 0.7 284 77 (-) 0 7 3 0 43358 1 0 0 6 0 0.0 0.2 0 1 0.1 26 0.6 393 107 (-) 0 6 3 0 31293 1 0 0 6 0 0.0 0.2 0 0 0.0 8 0.1 448 123 (-) (-) 8 4 0 40260 1 0 0 6 0 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.0 5 0.2 99 27 (-) 0 2 1 0 9264 1 0 0 6 0 0.0 0.2 0 0 0.0 8 0.4 450 118 (-) 0 9 4 0 45905 2 0 0 9 0 0.0 0.3 0 0 0.1 4 0.6 518 124 (-) (-) 9 4 0 36921 1 0 0 6 0 0.0 0.2 0 0 0.1 4 0.2 447 107 (-) (-) 8 4 0 31298 1 0 0 6 0 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.0 8 0.4 419 104 (-) (-) 8 4 0 44257 1 0 0 6 0 0.0 0.2 0 0 0.0 8 0.4 440 117 (-) 0 9 4 0 401,700 2 0 0 38 0 0.1 0.7 1 1 0.3 51 2.6 685 202 (-) 1 12 5 1 631,822 2 0 0 41 0 0.1 0.7 1 1 0.3 55 2.8 734 216 (-) 1 13 6 1 6737 1 0 0 31 0 0.1 0.4 0 0 0.2 43 2.4 87 22 (-) 0 1 0 0 191,835 2 0 0 41 0 0.1 0.7 1 1 0.3 56 2.9 167 50 (-) 0 3 1 0 201,835 2 0 0 46 0 0.1 0.8 1 1 0.3 59 3.2 316 90 (-) 0 6 2 0 3884 0 0 0 1 0 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.0 7 0.1 405 108 (-) 0 6 3 0 31158 0 0 0 1 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 11 0.1 270 81 (-) 0 0 0 0 0410 2 0 0 6 0 0.0 0.2 0 0 0.0 7 0.7 390 108 (-) 0 7 3 0 38285 1 (-) (-) (-) 0 (-) 0.1 (-) (-) (-) (-) 0.7 450 129 (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-)475 1 0 0 6 0 0.1 0.4 0 0 0.2 14 0.7 190 54 (-) 0 6 2 0 38340 1 0 0 6 0 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.0 3 0.7 499 123 (-) 0 8 4 1 49219 0 0 0 2 0 0.0 0.3 0 0 0.0 1 0.1 567 170 (-) 0 9 3 0 34585 (-) (-) (-) (-) 0 (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) 450 90 (-) (-) 9 (-) (-) 38348 2 0 0 6 0 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.0 9 0.7 274 74 (-) 0 7 3 0 48143 2 0 0 6 0 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.0 4 0.7 518 128 (-) 0 8 4 1 47340 1 0 0 4 0 0.0 0.2 0 1 0.0 24 0.4 545 134 (-) 0 7 4 0 38228 1 0 0 6 0 0.0 0.2 0 0 0.0 8 0.4 404 108 (-) 0 8 4 0 38198 1 0 0 6 0 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.0 4 0.4 248 75 (-) 0 4 2 0 25159 1 0 0 6 0 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.0 3 0.3 337 102 (-) 0 6 3 0 33267 1 0 0 6 0 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.0 5 0.6 476 134 (-) 0 8 4 0 41170 0 0 0 1 0 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.0 5 0.1 482 128 (-) (-) 6 3 0 3293 0 0 0 1 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.1 35 9 (-) 0 1 0 0 4372 1 0 0 6 0 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.0 4 0.6 347 112 (-) 0 7 3 0 29155 2 0 0 21 0 0.0 0.2 0 0 0.0 16 0.4 536 140 (-) 0 6 3 0 38104 1 0 0 18 0 0.0 0.2 0 0 0.1 15 0.4 608 166 (-) 0 10 4 0 63510 1 0 0 6 0 0.0 0.2 0 0 0.0 3 0.5 162 60 (-) 0 7 3 0 44(continues)

472 AppendixDAIRY FOODS (continued )Serving SizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Fiber (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)CHEESE (continued )Roquefort 1 1/2 oz 43 157 9 13 1 0 281 0 13 167 39Swiss 1 1/2 oz 43 160 12 12 1 0 409 0 15 257 47Tilsit 1 1/2 oz 43 145 10 11 1 0 298 0 6 213 27CREAMHalf & half 1 fl oz 30 39 1 3 1 0 32 0 3 29 39Light 1 fl oz 30 59 1 6 1 0 29 0 3 24 37Sour 1 Tblsp 12 26 0 3 1 0 14 0 1 10 17Substitute, dry (nondairy creamer) 2 Tblsp a 12 66 1 4 7 0 3 0 0 51 97Substitute, liquid (nondairy 1 fl oz a 30 41 0 3 3 0 3 0 0 19 57creamer)Whipped, pressurized 1 fl oz 6 15 0 1 1 0 6 0 1 5 9Whipping, heavy 1 fl oz 30 103 1 11 1 0 19 0 2 19 22Whipping, light 1 fl oz 30 88 1 9 1 0 21 0 2 18 29FROZEN DESSERTIce cream, chocolate 1 1/2 cup 198 428 8 22 56 2 216 2 57 212 493Ice cream, vanilla 1 1/2 cup 198 398 7 22 47 0 253 0 28 208 394Ice milk, vanilla 1 1/2 cup 198 276 8 8 45 0 276 0 30 216 417Tofu, frozen dessert, vanilla 1 1/2 cup 225 600 6 33 63 0 (-) (-) (-) (-) 90Yogurt, softserve (chocolate) 1 cup 144 230 6 9 39 3 212 2 39 200 376MILKAcidophilus milk, low fat (1%) 1 cup 244 90 8 3 12 0 300 0 34 234 381Buttermilk 1 cup 245 99 8 2 12 0 285 0 27 219 371Chocolate, low fat 1 cup 250 158 8 3 26 1 287 1 33 257 426Condensed, sweetened 1 fl oz a 38 123 3 3 21 0 108 0 10 97 142Dry, instant 1/3 cup b 23 82 8 0 12 0 283 0 27 226 392Dry, nonfat 1/3 cup a 30 109 11 0 16 0 377 0 33 290 538Evaporated, nonfat 1 fl oz a 32 25 2 0 4 0 92 0 9 62 106Evaporated, whole 1 fl oz a 32 42 2 2 3 0 82 0 8 64 95Goat 1 cup 244 168 9 10 11 0 326 0 34 270 499Low fat (1%) 1 cup 244 102 8 3 12 0 300 0 34 235 381Low lactose milk, low fat (1%) 1 cup 246 103 9 3 12 0 303 0 34 236 384Nonfat (skim) 1 cup 245 86 8 0 12 0 302 0 28 247 406Reduced fat (2%) 1 cup 244 121 8 5 12 0 297 0 33 232 377Rice milk 1 cup 245 120 0.4 2 25 0 20 c 0 10 34 69

Nutrients in Foods 473Sodium (mg)Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin D (IU)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)769 1 0 0 6 0 0.0 0.2 0 1 0.1 21 0.3 445 127 (-) (-) 8 4 1 38111 2 0 0 5 0 0.0 0.2 0 0 0.0 3 0.7 359 108 (-) 0 8 3 0 39320 1 0 0 6 0 0.0 0.2 0 0 0.0 9 0.9 444 124 (-) 0 7 3 0 4312 0 0 0 1 0 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.0 1 0.1 131 32 (-) 0 2 1 0 1112 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 1 0.1 190 55 (-) 0 4 2 0 206 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 1 0.0 95 23 (-) 0 2 1 0 522 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 24 2 (-) 0 4 0 0 024 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 27 3 (-) (-) 3 0 0 08 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 51 12 (-) 0 1 0 0 511 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 1 0.1 438 125 (-) 0 7 3 0 4110 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 1 0.1 169 89 (-) 0 6 3 0 33150 1 0 0 5 1 0.1 0.4 0 1 0.1 32 0.6 824 236 (-) 1 13 6 1 67158 1 0 0 5 1 0.1 0.5 0 1 0.1 10 0.8 810 232 (-) 0 13 6 1 7168 1 0 0 5 1 0.1 0.4 0 1 0.1 12 1.3 327 93 0 0 5 2 0 27270 (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) (-) 4 9 19 0141 1 0 0 3 0 0.1 0.3 0 1 0.1 16 0.4 230 62 (-) 0 5 3 0 7122 1 0 0 5 2 0.1 0.4 0 1 0.1 12 0.9 500 144 96 0 2 1 0 10257 1 0 0 5 2 0.1 0.4 0 1 0.1 12 0.5 81 20 (-) 0 1 1 0 9152 1 0 0 5 2 0.1 0.4 0 1 0.1 12 0.9 500 148 100 0 2 1 0 749 0 0 0 6 1 0.0 0.2 0 0 0.0 4 0.2 125 31 (-) 0 2 1 0 13126 1 0 0 6 1 0.1 0.4 0 1 0.1 11 0.9 545 163 133 0 0 0 0 4161 1 0 0 8 2 0.1 0.5 0 1 0.1 15 1.2 659 198 101 0 0 0 0 637 0 0 0 1 0 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.0 3 0.1 125 37 25 0 0 0 0 133 0 0 0 1 1 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.0 2 0.1 77 17 (-) 0 1 1 0 9122 1 0 0 3 3 0.1 0.3 1 1 0.1 1 0.2 451 137 29 0 7 3 0 28123 1 0 0 5 2 0.1 0.4 0 1 0.1 12 0.9 500 144 98 0 2 1 0 10123 1 0 0 5 2 0.1 0.4 0 1 0.1 12 0.9 504 145 100 (-) 2 1 0 10126 1 0 0 5 2 0.1 0.3 0 1 0.1 13 0.9 500 149 98 0 0 0 0 4122 1 0 0 5 2 0.1 0.4 0 1 0.1 12 0.9 500 139 98 0 3 1 0 1886 0 0 0 (-) 1 0.1 0.0 1 0 0.0 91 0.0 5 0 0 (-) 0 1 0 0(continues)

474 AppendixDAIRY FOODS (continued )Serving SizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Fiber (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)MILK (continued )Soy 1 cup 245 81 7 5 4 3 10 c 1 47 120 345Whole 1 cup 244 150 8 8 11 0 291 0 33 228 370YOGURTLow fat, plain 1 cup 245 155 13 4 17 0 447 0 43 352 573Low fat, fruit 8-oz container 227 225 9 3 42 0 314 0 30 247 402Skim, plain 1 cup 245 137 14 0 19 0 488 0 47 383 625Whole milk, plain 1 cup 245 150 9 8 11 0 296 0 28 233 379a No serving size specified for this item by the Food Guide Pyramid.b Makes 1 cup reconstituted milk.c Not calcium-fortified. Calcium-fortified soy and rice milks, which provide the same amount of calcium as cow’s milk, are abetter choice.FATS AND OILSFATS (PLANT & ANIMAL)Serving SizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Fiber (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)Sodium (mg)Butter, whipped, with salt 1 Tblsp 9 67 0 8 0 0 2 0 0 2 2 78Butter, with salt 1 Tblsp 14 102 0 12 0 0 3 0 0 3 4 117Butter, without salt 1 Tblsp 14 102 0 12 0 0 3 0 0 3 4 1Lard 1 Tblsp 13 115 0 13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Margarine-butter blend, 60% corn oil 1 Tblsp 14 102 0 11 0 0 4 0 0 3 5 127margarine and 40% butterMargarine, hard, corn oil 1 Tblsp 14 101 0 11 0 0 4 0 0 3 6 133(hydrogenated and regular)Margarine, hard, unspecified oil, 1 Tblsp 14 99 0 11 0 0 2 0 0 2 9 1without saltMargarine, liquid, soybean and 1 Tblsp 14 102 0 11 0 0 9 0 1 7 13 111cottonseed oils (hydrogenated)

Nutrients in Foods 475Sodium (mg)Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin D (IU)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)29 1 0 0 3 0 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.1 4 0.0 78 7 (-) 0 1 1 2 0120 1 0 0 5 2 0.1 0.4 0 1 0.1 12 0.9 307 76 98 0 5 2 0 33172 2 0 0 8 2 0.1 0.5 0 1 0.1 27 1.4 162 39 (-) 0 2 1 0 15121 2 0 0 6 1 0.1 0.4 0 1 0.1 19 1.0 111 27 (-) 0 2 1 0 10187 2 0 0 9 2 0.1 0.6 0.3 2 0.1 30 1.5 17 5 (-) 0 0 0 0 4114 1 0 0 5 1 0.1 0.4 0 1 0.1 18 0.9 301 74 (-) 0 5 2 0 31Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)Phytosterol (mg)0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 287 71 0 5 2 0 20 (-)0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 434 107 0 7 3 0 31 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 434 107 0 7 3 0 31 (-)0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 5 6 1 12 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 507 113 1 4 5 2 12 490 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 504 113 2 2 5 3 0 800 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 501 113 2 2 5 3 0 370 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 507 113 1 2 4 5 0 25(continues)

476 AppendixFATS AND OILS (continued )Serving SizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Fiber (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)Sodium (mg)Fats (Plant & Animal) (continued )Margarine, reduced fat (40% fat) corn 1 Tblsp 14 50 0 6 0 0 3 0 0 2 4 139Margarine, soft, corn (hydrogenated) 1 Tblsp 14 101 0 11 0 0 4 0 0 3 6 153Shortening, household, soybean and 1 Tblsp 13 113 0 13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0cottonseed oils (hydrogenated)PLANT OILSCanola 1 Tblsp 14 124 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Coconut 1 Tblsp 14 117 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Corn 1 Tblsp 14 120 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Cottonseed 1 Tblsp 14 120 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Olive 1 Tblsp 14 119 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Palm 1 Tblsp 14 120 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Palm kernel 1 Tblsp 14 117 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Peanut 1 Tblsp 14 119 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Safflower, linoleic (over 70%) 1 Tblsp 14 120 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Soybean 1 Tblsp 14 120 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Sunflower, linoleic, (60% and over) 1 Tblsp 14 120 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0SPECIALTY OILSAlmond 1 Tblsp 14 120 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Grape-seed 1 Tblsp 14 120 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Hazelnut 1 Tblsp 14 120 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Poppyseed 1 Tblsp 14 120 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Sesame 1 Tblsp 14 120 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Walnut 1 Tblsp 14 120 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Wheat germ 1 Tblsp 14 120 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Nutrients in Foods 477Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)Phytosterol (mg)0 (-) (-) 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 518 116 (-) 1 2 2 0 390 (-) (-) 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 506 113 (-) 2 4 4 0 680 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 1 3 6 3 0 260 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 3 1 8 4 0 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 12 1 0 0 120 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 3 2 3 8 0 1320 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 5 4 2 7 0 440 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 2 2 10 1 0 300 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 3 7 5 1 0 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 1 11 2 0 0 130 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 2 2 6 4 0 280 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 6 1 2 10 0 600 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 2 2 3 8 0 340 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 7 1 3 9 0 140 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 5 1 10 2 0 360 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 1 2 10 0 240 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 1 11 1 0 160 (-) (-) 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 (-) 2 3 8 0 360 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 1 2 5 6 0 1180 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 1 3 9 0 240 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 26 3 2 8 0 75

478 AppendixSWEETENERSServing SizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)Sodium (mg)Chocolate, baking, unsweetened squares 1 square (1 oz) 28 148 3 16 8 21 2 88 118 236 4Chocolate, milk chocolate 1 bar (1.5 oz) 44 226 3 14 26 84 1 26 95 169 36Chocolate, semisweet, chips 60 pieces (1 oz) 28 136 1 9 18 9 1 33 37 103 3Cocoa powder, unsweetened 1 Tblsp 5 11 1 1 3 6 1 25 37 76 1Honey, strained or extracted 1 Tblsp 21 64 0 0 17 1 0 0 1 11 1Sugar, brown 1 tsp, packed 5 17 0 0 4 4 0 1 1 16 2Sugar, maple 1 tsp 3 11 0 0 3 3 0 1 0 8 0Sugar, powdered (confectioners’) 1 tsp 3 10 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0Sugar, white, granulated 1 tsp 4 16 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0Sugar, white, granulated 1 individual packet 6 23 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0Syrup, corn, dark 1 Tblsp 20 56 0 0 15 4 0 2 2 9 31Syrup, corn, high-fructose 1 Tblsp 19 53 0 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 0Syrup, corn, light 1 Tblsp 20 56 0 0 15 1 0 0 0 1 24Syrup, malt 1 Tblsp 24 76 1 0 17 15 0 17 56 77 8Syrup, maple 1 Tblsp 20 52 0 0 13 13 0 3 0 41 2Syrup, molasses 1 Tblsp 20 53 0 0 14 41 1 48 6 293 7Syrup, sorghum 1 Tblsp 21 61 0 0 16 32 1 21 12 210 2Syrup, table blends, corn, refiner, 1 Tblsp 20 64 0 0 17 5 0 2 2 13 14and sugarSyrup, table blends, pancake, with 1 Tblsp 20 53 0 0 14 1 0 0 2 1 122% maple

Nutrients in Foods 479Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)1 1 0 2 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 2 0.0 28 2.8 0 9 5 0 01 0 0 2 0 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.0 4 0.2 81 24 0.5 8 4 0 100 0 0 1 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 1 0.0 6 0.5 0 5 3 0 00 0 0 (-) 0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0 0.0 2 0.0 1 0 (-) 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 2 0 0.1 3 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 0 1 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 4 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.1 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 1 0.0 0 0 (-) 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

480 AppendixBEVERAGESALCOHOLIC BEVERAGESServing SizeWeight (g)CaloriesFat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Fiber (g)Alcohol (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)BeerLight 1 can or bottle 354 99 0 5 0 11 18 0 18 42 64(12 fl oz)Regular 1 can or bottle 356 146 0 13 1 13 18 0 21 43 89(12 fl oz)Distilled spirits80 proof (gin, rum, vodka, whiskey) 1.5 fl oz 42 97 0 0 0 14 0 0 0 2 186 proof (gin, rum, vodka, whiskey) 1.5 fl oz 42 105 0 0 0 15 0 0 0 2 194 proof (gin, rum, vodka, whiskey) 1.5 fl oz 42 116 0 0 0 17 0 0 0 2 1100 proof (gin, rum, vodka, whiskey) 1.5 fl oz 42 124 0 0 0 18 0 0 0 2 1WineDessert, dry 5 fl oz 147 186 0 6 0 23 12 0 13 13 136Dessert, sweet 5 fl oz 147 226 0 17 0 23 12 0 13 13 136Table, red 5 fl oz 147 106 0 2 0 14 12 1 19 21 165Table, rosé 5 fl oz 147 105 0 2 0 14 12 1 15 22 146Table, white 5 fl oz 147 100 0 1 0 14 13 0 15 21 118

Nutrients in Foods 481Sodium (mg)Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)11 0 0 0 4 0 0.0 0.1 1 0 0.1 15 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 018 0 0 0 4 0 0.0 0.1 2 0 0.2 21 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 013 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 013 0 0 0 1 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 07 0 0 1 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 3 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 07 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 2 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 07 0 0 1 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0(continues)

482 AppendixBEVERAGES (continued )COFFEEServing SizeWeight (g)CaloriesProtein (g)Fat (g)Carbohydrates (g)Fiber (g)Calcium (mg)Iron (mg)Magnesium (mg)Phosphorus (mg)Potassium (mg)Sodium (mg)Brewed, prepared with tap water 6 fl oz 178 4 0 0 1 0 4 0 9 2 96 4Instant, decaffeinated, powder, 6 fl oz 179 4 0 0 1 0 5 0 7 5 63 5prepared with waterInstant, regular, prepared with 6 fl oz 179 4 0 0 1 0 5 0 7 5 64 5waterSubstitute, cereal grain beverage, 6 fl oz 180 9 0 0 2 0 5 0 7 13 43 7prepared with waterSODAClub soda 12 fl oz 355 0 0 0 0 0 18 0 3.55 0 7 75Cola, contains caffeine 12 fl oz 370 152 0 0 38 0 11 0 4 44 4 15Cola, low calorie, with aspartame, 12 fl oz 355 4 0 0 0 0 14 0 4 32 0 21contains caffeineCream soda 12 fl oz 371 189 0 0 49 0 19 0 4 0 4 45Ginger ale 12 fl oz 366 124 0 0 32 0 11 1 4 0 4 26Grape soda 12 fl oz 372 160 0 0 42 0 11 0 4 0 4 56Lemon-lime soda 12 fl oz 368 147 0 0 38 0 7 0 4 0 4 40Orange, contains caffeine 12 fl oz 372 179 0 0 46 0 19 0 4 4 7 45Pepper-type 12 fl oz 368 151 0 0 38 0 11 0 0 40 4 37Root beer 12 fl oz 370 152 0 0 39 0 19 0 4 0 4 48TEABlack (unspecified), brewed, 6 fl oz 178 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 5 2 66 5prepared with tap waterHerb, chamomile, brewed 6 fl oz 178 2 0 0 1 0 4 0 2 0 16 2Herb, not chamomile, brewed 6 fl oz 178 2 0 0 0 0 4 0 2 0 16 2

Nutrients in Foods 483Zinc (mg)Copper (mg)Manganese (mg)Selenium (μg)Vitamin C (mg)Thiamin (mg)Riboflavin (mg)Niacin (mg)Pantothenic acid (mg)Vitamin B 6(mg)Folate (μg)Vitamin B 12(μg)Vitamin A (IU)Vitamin A (RE)Vitamin E (mg)Saturated fat (g)Monounsaturated fat (g)Polyunsaturated fat (g)Cholesterol (mg)Caffeine (mg)0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1030 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 1 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 570 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 1 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 370 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.1 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 500 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 370 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 9 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 360 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 1 0.0 36 4 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.0 1 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

484 AppendixTABLE 8: PHYTOCHEMICAL CONTENTS OF SELECTED FOODSCarotenoids (g)Isoflavones (mg)Alpha-caroteneBeta-caroteneBeta-cryptoxanthinLutein & zeaxanthinLycopeneDaidzeinGenisteinFruitsApples, raw, with skin 30Apricots, raw 0 2,554 0 0 5Apricots, dried, uncookedAvocados, raw 28 53 36Bananas, raw 5 21 0 0 0Blackberries, rawBlueberries, raw 0 35Breadfruit, rawCantaloupe, raw 27 1,595 0 40 0Carambola (starfruit), raw (2) 42 36 42Casaba melon, rawCherimoya, rawCherries, sweet, raw 28Cherries, sour, red, rawCoconut meat (nuts), rawCranberries, rawCurrants, red and white, rawDates, domestic, natural and dryDurian, raw or frozen 6 23 0Elderberries, rawFeijoa, rawFigs, rawFigs, dried, uncookedGooseberries, rawGrapes, American type (slip skin), rawGrapes, red or green, seedless, rawGrapefruit, raw, pink and red, all areas (not white) 5 603 12 13 1,462Guavas, common, raw 984 66 1,150Honeydew melon, rawJackfruit, raw (2) 360 36 17Jujube, rawKiwi fruit, fresh, rawKumquats, raw 0Lemons, raw, with peelLimes, rawLongans, rawLongans, dried

GlyciteinTotal isoflavonesXXXTerpenesXEllagic acidInositol phosphates(phytates)XXLignansCoumestrolFormononetinBiochanin AOther phytochemicalsIndolesIsothiocyanatesPhenols & cycliccompoundsSulfides & thiolsPhytochemicals 485

486 AppendixPHYTOCHEMICAL CONTENTS OF SELECTED FOODS (continued)Carotenoids (g)Isoflavones (mg)Alpha-caroteneBeta-caroteneBeta-cryptoxanthinLutein & zeaxanthinLycopeneDaidzeinGenisteinLoquats, rawLychees, rawLychees, driedMangos, raw 17 445 11Mangosteen, canned, syrup pack 1 16 9Mulberries, rawNectarines, raw 0 101 59Olives, ripe, cannedOranges, raw, all commercial varieties 16 51 122 187 0Papayas, raw 0 276 761 75 0Passion-fruit, yellow, raw 35 525 46Peaches, raw 1 97 24 57 0Pears, raw 6 27Pears, Asian, rawPersimmons, Japanese, raw 253 1,447 834 158Pineapple, raw (2) 230 89 399Plantains, cookedPlums, raw 98 16Pomegranates, rawPrickly pears, raw 0 24 3Prunes (dried plums), uncookedPummelo, raw 0 0Quinces, rawRaisins, seedlessRambutan, canned, syrup pack 0 2 0Raspberries, raw 12 8 0Rhubarb, rawSapodilla, rawStrawberries, raw 5Tamarinds, raw 0 8Tangerines, raw 14 71 485 243 0Watermelon, raw 0 295 103 17 4,868VegetablesAmaranth leaves, cookedArtichokes, cookedArugula, rawAsparagus, raw 12 493Asparagus, cooked, boiled, drained

GlyciteinTotal isoflavonesX XXXXX XTerpenesEllagic acidInositol phosphates(phytates)LignansCoumestrolFormononetinBiochanin AOther phytochemicalsIndolesIsothiocyanatesPhenols & cycliccompoundsSulfides & thiolsPhytochemicals 487

488 AppendixPHYTOCHEMICAL CONTENTS OF SELECTED FOODS (continued)Carotenoidsm (g)Isoflavones (mg)Alpha-caroteneBeta-caroteneBeta-cryptoxanthinLutein & zeaxanthinLycopeneDaidzeinGenisteinBamboo (shoots), cookedBeans, snap, green, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 92 552 0 700 0Beans, snap, yellow, cooked, boiled, drained, without saltBeet greens, cooked, boiled, drained without salt 2,560Beets, cooked, boiled, drainedBitter melon (balsam pear), leafy tips, cooked, boiled,drained, without saltBitter melon (balsam pear), pods, cooked, boiled, drained,without saltBroccoli, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 0 1,042 0 2,226 0Broccoli, raw 1 779 0 2,445 0Brussels sprouts, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 0 465 0 1,290 0Cabbage, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 90Cabbage, raw 0 65 0 310 0Carrots, cooked 4,109 8,015Carrots, baby, raw 4,425 7,275 0 358 0Cassava, raw 0 8 0Cauliflower, cooked, boiled, drained, without saltCauliflower, rawCeleriac, cooked, boiled, drained, without saltCeleriac, rawCelery, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 0 210 0 250 0Celery, raw 0 150 0 232 0Chayote, fruit, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 0 0 0Chicory greens, rawChicory roots, rawCabbage, chinese (bok choy), boiled, drained, without saltCabbage, chinese (bok choy), rawCabbage, napa, cooked 49 133 0Collards, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 90 4,418 20 8,091 0Corn, sweet, yellow, canned, whole kernel, drained solids 33 30 0 884 0Cress, water, rawCucumber, with peel, raw 138Eggplant, cooked, boiled, drained, without saltFennel, bulb, rawFennel seed (spice)Fenugreek seed (spice)Garlic, raw

GlyciteinTotal isoflavonesTerpenesEllagic acidInositol phosphates(phytates)X X XX X XX X XXXX X XX X XX XX X XX X XXXLignansCoumestrolFormononetinBiochanin AIndolesIsothiocyanatesOther phytochemicalsXPhenols & cycliccompoundsSulfides & thiolsPhytochemicals 489

490 AppendixPHYTOCHEMICAL CONTENTS OF SELECTED FOODS (continued)Carotenoidsm (g)Isoflavones (mg)Alpha-caroteneBeta-caroteneBeta-cryptoxanthinLutein & zeaxanthinLycopeneDaidzeinGenisteinGingerroot, rawHorseradish, prepared 0 0 0Jerusalem artichokes, rawJicama (yam bean), rawKelp (seaweed), rawKohlrabi, cooked, boiled, drained, without saltKohlrabi, rawLeeks (bulb and lower leaf-portion), cooked, boiled,drained, without saltLeeks (bulb and lower leaf-portion), raw, choppedLettuce, iceberg (includes crisphead types), raw 2 192 0 352 0Mushrooms, black, dried 0 0 0Mushrooms, rawOkra, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 0 170 0 390 0Onion, cookedOnions, rawParsley, rawParsnips, cooked, boiled, drained, without saltParsnips, rawPeppers, hot chili, green, rawPeppers, hot chili, red, rawPeppers, sweet, green, raw 22 198Peppers, sweet, red, raw 59 2,379 2,205Peppers, sweet, yellow, raw 120Potatoes, baked, flesh, without saltRadishes, rawRutabagas, cookedRutabagas, rawSalsify (vegetable oyster), cooked, boiled, drained, without saltScallions (including tops and bulbs)Spinach, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 0 5,242 0 7,043 0Spinach, raw 0 5,597 0 11,938 0Squash, summer, crookneck and straightneck, raw 0 90 0 290 0Squash, winter, acorn, cooked, boiled, mashed, without salt 0 490 0 66 0Sweet potato, cooked, baked in skin, without salt 0 9,488 0 0 0Taro, cooked, without saltTaro, rawTaro leaves, cooked, steamed, without salt

GlyciteinTotal isoflavonesTerpenesEllagic acidInositol phosphates(phytates)XXXXX XX XXXXLignansCoumestrolFormononetinBiochanin AIndolesIsothiocyanatesPhenols & cycliccompoundsSulfides & thiolsOther phytochemicalsPhytochemicals 491

492 AppendixPHYTOCHEMICAL CONTENTS OF SELECTED FOODS (continued)Carotenoids (g)Isoflavones (mg)Alpha-caroteneBeta-caroteneBeta-cryptoxanthinLutein & zeaxanthinLycopeneDaidzeinGenisteinTaro leaves, rawTomatilloTomatoes, red, ripe, raw 112 393 0 130 3,025Turnip greens, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt 0 4,575 0 8,440 0Turnips, rawWater chestnuts, cookedWater chestnuts, rawYam, cooked, boiled, drained, or baked, without salt 0GrainsAmaranthBarley, branBuckwheat groats, roasted, cookedBulgur, cookedHominy, canned, whiteMillet, cookedOat branQuinoaRice bran, crudeRice, brown, long-grain, cookedRice, white, long-grain, regular, cookedRyeSorghumTriticaleWheat branWild rice, cookedLentils and LegumesAlfalfa seeds, sprouted, raw 0 0Beans, adzuki, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without saltBeans, black, mature seeds, raw 0 0Beans, cranberry, mature seeds, cooked, boiled,without saltBeans, kidney, all types, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, 0 0without saltBeans, pinto, mature seeds, raw 0.01 0.26Beans, small white, mature seeds, raw 0 0.74Broadbeans (fava beans), mature seeds, raw 0.02 0

0.27 3.61 trace 0.560.74 0 0.82 00.030 X 0 0 0.4100XXXXGlyciteinTotal isoflavonesTerpenesEllagic acidInositol phosphates(phytates)LignansCoumestrolFormononetinBiochanin AOther phytochemicalsXIndolesXIsothiocyanatesPhenols & cycliccompoundsSulfides & thiolsPhytochemicals 493

494 AppendixPHYTOCHEMICAL CONTENT OF SELECTED FOOD ITEMS (continued)Carotenoids (g)Isoflavones (mg)Alpha-caroteneBeta-caroteneBeta-cryptoxanthinLutein & zeaxanthinLycopeneDaidzeinGenisteinChickpeas (garbanzo beans, bengal gram), mature seeds, raw 0.04 0.06Cowpeas, catjang, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt 0.01 0.02Lentils, mature seeds, raw 0 0Lima beans, large, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt 0 0Miso 16.13 24.56Mung beans, mature seeds, raw 0.01 0.18Natto 21.85 29.04Peanuts, all types, raw 0.03 0.24Peas, split, mature seeds, raw 2.42 0Soy sauce made from soy (tamari)Soybeans, mature cooked, boiled, without salt 26.95 27.71Soybeans, mature seeds, sprouted, raw 19.12 21.6Tempeh 17.59 24.85Tofu, firm, prepared with calcium sulfate & nigari 9.44 13.35Tofu, soft, prepared with calcium sulfate & nigari 11.99 18.23OtherTea, green, Japanese 0.01 0.04Tea, jasmine, Twinings 0.01 0.03Wine, redNutrient values are in 100 grams of edible food unless otherwise noted. Data on the phytochemical contents of foods are limited. “0”value = phytochemicals are not present. “X” = the amount of phytochemicals is unspecified. Blanks indicate that no data are available.This table was compiled from the following sources: Meagher LP, Beecher GR: Assessment of Data on the Lignan Content of Foods.J Food Composition Analysis 13:935-947, 2000; Milner JA: Nonnutritive components in foods as modifiers of the cancer process. InPreventive Nutrition: the Comprehensive Guide for Health Professionals. 2nd ed. Edited by A Bendich, RJ Deckelbaum. Totowa,New Jersey, Humana Press, 2001, pp 131-154; Setiawan B, Sulaeman A, Giraud DW, Driskell JA: Carotenoid content of selectedIndonesian fruits. J Food Composition Analysis 14:169-176, 2001; USDA–Iowa State University Database on the Isoflavone Contentof Foods—1999: Table of analytical isoflavone values and table of analytical Coumestrol, Biochanin A, and Formononetin values(http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/Data/isoflav/isoflav.html); USDA–NCC Carotenoid Database for US Foods—1998(http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/Data/car98/car98.html).

Phytochemicals 495Other phytochemicals1 0 0 1.520.030.01 X02.87 42.550.198.17 58.930.26 X2.4254.66 X40.71 X2.10 43.522.08 24.742.03 31.100.05 X 0.03 X0.04 X 0.03 XXGlyciteinTotal isoflavonesTerpenesEllagic acidInositol phosphates(phytates)LignansCoumestrolFormononetinBiochanin AIndolesIsothiocyanatesPhenols & cycliccompoundsSulfides & thiols

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CreditsTop 10 Causes of Death (U.S. Population) (page 6)Modified from Hoyert DL, Kochanek KD, Murphy SL: Deaths: final data for1997. National Vital Statistics Reports 47:1-104, 1999.Healthy People 2010 (page 7)From the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Healthy People 2010(Conference Edition, in two volumes). Washington, DC, January 2000.Eat 5 A Day for Better Health (page 8)By permission of the Produce for Better Health Foundation.Dietary Guidelines for Americans (page 9)From the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, DietaryGuidelines Advisory Committee, 2000. Nutrition and Your Health: DietaryGuidelines for Americans, 2000.The Food Guide Pyramid (pages 11 and 79)Modified from the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Department ofHealth and Human Services, The Food Guide Pyramid.How Many Servings Do You Need Each Day? (page 13)Modified from the International Food Information Council Foundation, U.S.Department of Agriculture Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion, and the FoodMarketing Institute: The Food Guide Pyramid: Beyond the Basic 4. Revised 1996.Pyramids (page 15)Mayo Clinic Healthy Weight Pyramid: From Energy density: how to eat more andachieve a healthy weight. Mayo Clinic Women’s HealthSource, January 2001, p 2. Bypermission of Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research.California Pyramid: From Heber D: The Resolution Diet. Garden City Park,New York, Avery Publishing Group, 1999, p 80. By permission of the author.Asian Pyramid and Mediterranean Pyramid: From Putting the whole back inwholesome. Supplement to Mayo Clinic Women’s HealthSource, November 1998. Bypermission of Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research.Body Mass Index Table (page 49)Modified from National Institutes of Health Clinical Guidelines on theIdentification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults, 1998.497

498 CreditsIllustration (top) on page 50From Weight control: what works and why. Medical Essay (Supplement to MayoClinic Health Letter), June 1994, p 1. By permission of Mayo Foundation for MedicalEducation and Research.Classification of High Blood Pressure (page 54)From National Institutes of Health. The Sixth Report of the Joint NationalCommittee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High BloodPressure, 1997.Illustration on page 55From Sheps SG: Mayo Clinic on High Blood Pressure. Rochester, Minnesota,Mayo Clinic, 1999, p 11. By permission of Mayo Foundation for Medical Educationand Research.The Combination Diet From the DASH Study (page 56)Modified from National Institutes of Health. The DASH Diet (Publication No.98-4082), 1998.Illustration on page 62From Larson DE: Mayo Clinic Family Health Book. New York, William Morrowand Company, 1996, p B-3. By permission of Mayo Foundation for MedicalEducation and Research.Mini-Glossary of Lipid-Related Terms (page 63)Modified from McGoon MD: Mayo Clinic Heart Book. New York, WilliamMorrow and Company, 1993, pp 347-355. By permission of Mayo Foundation forMedical Education and Research.Your Blood Lipid Test Results—What Do Those Numbers Mean? (page 65)From Cholesterol: put knowledge behind your numbers to lower your confusionlevel. Medical Essay (Supplement to Mayo Clinic Health Letter), June 1993, p 4. Bypermission of Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research.How You Grow Shorter (page 68)From Osteoporosis: it’s never too late to protect your bones. Medical Essay(Supplement to Mayo Clinic Health Letter), October 1997, p 2. By permission ofMayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research.Osteoporosis in Men (page 70)From Osteoporosis: it’s never too late to protect your bones. Medical Essay(Supplement to Mayo Clinic Health Letter), October 1997, p 3. By permission ofMayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research.

Credits 499How Much Vitamin D Is Enough? (page 71)Data from Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary ReferenceIntakes: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, andFluoride. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1997, pp 250-287.Tips for Selecting and Taking a Calcium Supplement (page 72)From Osteoporosis: it’s never too late to protect your bones. Medical Essay(Supplement to Mayo Clinic Health Letter), October 1997, p 7. By permission of MayoFoundation for Medical Education and Research.Logo on page 91From US Food and Drug Administration: Irradiation: A Safe Measure for Safer Food.May-June 1998 FDA Consumer (revised June 1998).Health Claims (page 93)Modified from US Food and Drug Administration Center for Food Safety and AppliedNutrition: A food labeling guide, September 1994 (editorial revisions June 1999).Sources of Bacteria (page 148)Data from USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service: Four simple steps to food safety,September 1999.Cooking It Safe (page 149)Modified from USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service: Cook it safely! It’s a matterof degrees, September 1999.Portions of the text of Grains (pages 269-289) and Beverages (pages 377-387) are from thefollowing articles on http://www.MayoClinic.com (retrieved May 1, 2001):Celiac disease: when food becomes the enemyPalm oil in breakfast cerealsWhat is hominy?Facts on flaxseedThe wonder of water: a drink to your healthWater, water everywhere

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IndexAAbalone, 318Acceptable daily intakes, sweeteners, 21-23Acerola, 154Acer saccharum, 402Acesulfame-K, 22–23, 404Acidophilus milk, 348–349Acid orange, 167Actinidia deliciosa, 181Active yogurt cultures, 358Adequate intake, 6ADI, see Acceptable daily intakesAdulthood, nutrition needs, 43Adzuki beans, 328-329African ginger, 237Agaricus bisporus, 245Agecoronary artery disease, 65hypertension, 54osteoporosis, 68AI, see Adequate IntakeAim for Fitness, as dietary guidelinesfor Americans, 8–9Albumen, egg, 297Alcoholcancer, 77health, 387hypertension, 56limiting amount, daily, 86, 87osteoporosis, 73Alcoholic beveragesbeer, 386–387, 480–481content, 10distilled spirits, 480–481during supper, 86–87wine, 384–385, 480–481Ale, 386Alfalfa, 325Alligator pear, 157Allium ampeloprasum, 243Allium cepa, 247Allium cepa var. aggregatum, 256Allium sativum L., 236All-purpose flour, 286–287Allspice, 369Almond, 334–335Almond oil, 397Alpha-carotene, 32Amaranth, 212, 272Amaranthus dubius, 212American Academy of Pediatrics, 15American Cancer Society, 14–15American Dietetic Association, 15American gooseberry, 162American Heart Association, 14–15Americans, dietary guidelines, 8–10American Society for Clinical Nutrition, 15America's health goals, Healthy People2010, 6–8Amino acids, classification, 25Ananas comosus, 199Anemia, nutrition needs, 44Animal, as food source, cancer concerns,76–77Anise seeds, 369Annona cherimola, 169Antioxidantsasparagus, 215grapefruit, 176lemon, 183lime, 184orange, 193tomato, 264vitamins and minerals as, 31–33Apium graveolens, 225–226Apoprotein, in coronary artery disease, 63Apple, 155, 223Apricot, 156Armoracia rusticana, 238Aromatic wines, 385Arteries, hypertension effects, 54–55Artesian water, 378Artichoke, 213Artificial sweeteners, 404Artocarpus altilis, 166Artocarpus communis, 166Artocarpus heterophyllus, 179Arugula, 214Asian currant, 161Asian ginger, 237Asian noodles, 289Asian pear, 197Asian Pyramid, 14Asparagus, 215Asparagus officinalis, 215Aspartame, 22, 404Atherosclerosis, 61–62Aubergine, 234Averrhoa carambola, 168Avocado, 157Azuki beans, 328–329BBacon, 305Bacteria, in kitchen, 148Bagels, 283Balsamic vinegar, 373Balsam pear, 218Bamboo, 216Bambusa, 216Bamia, 246Banana, 158Barbados cherry, 154Barley, 272–273Barley flour, 272Basil, 364Bay leaf, 364–365Beechnut, 335Beef, 299–301, 454–455Beef cuts, 298Beefalo, 301Beer, 386–387, 480–481Beet, 217Behavior modification, in obesity, 53Belgian endive, 228Berriesblackberry, 159blueberry, 159–160cranberry, 160–161currant, 161elderberry, 162gooseberry, 162mulberry, 163nutrient content, 165501

502 Indexraspberry, 163–164strawberry, 164Beta-carotene, 32, 34Beta vulgaris, 217Beveragesalcoholic, see Alcoholic beveragesbasics, 377–378coffee, 379–381, 482–483juice, 383soda pop, 384, 482–483sugars, 10tea, 381–383, 482–483water, 378–379Bindi, 246Bioflavonoids, in lemon, 183Bitter cucumber, 218Bitter gourd, 218Bitter melon, 218Bittersweet chocolate, 404Bivalves, 317Black beans, 326–327Blackberry, 159, 165Black currant, 161Black-eyed peas, 329Black pepper, 373Black tea, 382Black treacle, 402Blended teas, 382Blood lipids, in coronary artery disease, 62,64–65Blood pressure, measurement, 54Blood sugar, levels in diabetes, 60Blood testing, in coronary artery disease,63–64Blueberry, 159–160, 165Blue cheeses, 356Blue-veined cheeses, 356Blush wines, 384BMI, see Body mass indexBock beer, 386Body frame, in osteoporosis, 68Body mass index, in obesity, 48–49Body protein, 24–25Body shape, in obesity, 48, 50Bok choy, 229Bone health, in osteoporosis, 69Bone mass, in osteoporosis, 69Bone mineral density, in women, 69Botulism toxin, in honey, 403Bounceberry, 160–161Brainhypertension effects, 54–55as meat, 307Bramble berry, 159Bran, 269, 273definition, 273grain, 269Brassica campestris L., 229Brassica napus L., 254Brassica oleracea, 219, 221Brassica oleracea L. (botrytis), 224Brassica oleracea var. acephala, 230Brassica oleracea var. caulorapo, 242Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera, 220Brassica rapa, 265Brazil nut, 335–336Bread flour, 287Breadfruit, 166Breadsingredients, 282–283nutrients, 446–449types, 283–285Breakfastmakeover, 131–132, 135meal planning, 80–81sample menus, 96–123Breastfeeding, nutrition needs, 43–45Brick cheese, 355Brie, 356Broad beans, 325–326Broccoli, 219Brown bagging, 81–82Brown sugar, 400Brussels sprouts, 220Buckwheat, 273Buckwheat flours, 273Buckwheat groats, 273Buckwheat noodles, 289Buffalo, 301“Build a healthy base,” 9–10Bulgur, 281Burgers, in lunch meal planning, 83Butter, 391Butter–margarine blends, 392Buttermilk, 348CCabbage, 221Cabbage turnip, 242Café au lait, 380Café mocha, 380Caffeineosteoporosis, 73tea content, 382Cake flour, 287Calamondin, 167Calciumamaranth leaves, 212chicory, 228collards, 230osteoporosis, 70–73spinach, 258supplement selection, 72California Pyramid, 14Camellia sinensis, 377Camembert, 356Cancerbiology, 74–75causes, 75nutrition connection, 74risk reduction, 75–77terminology, 73–74Cancer preventionbroccoli, 219brussels sprouts, 220cabbage, 221carrot, 222cauliflower, 224cherry, 170collards, 230cress, 232grapefruit, 176lemon, 183radish, 253Cane syrup, 402Canola oil, 393Cantaloupe, 189–190Cappuccinodescription, 380milk content, 352Capsicum annuum, 250–251Capsicum frutescens, 250–251Carambola, 168Caraway seeds, 369Carbohydratescomplex, 19–21simple sugars, 18–19sugar substitutes, 21–23Cardamom, 369Cardiovascular diseasediabetes, 59physical activity, 66

Index 503Carica papaya, 194Carotenoids, 32, 34Carrot, 222Cashew nut, 336Cassava, 223Catfish, 314Cauliflower, 224Cayenne, 369Cebollin, 256Celeriac, 225Celery, 226Celery seed, 369Celiac disease, 286Cellulose, 20Cephalopods, 317Cereals, 80, 285–286, 448–451Cereza, 154Chantilly cream, 353Chayote, 227Cheddar-type cheeses, 356Chee-Chang, 266Cheesesbasics, 353–354blue and blue-veined, 356firm, 356–357fresh, 354–355hard, 356–357migraine link, 357nutrients, 470–473origins, 358processed, 357semisoft, 355–356soft, white-rind, 356Chemicals, in fish, 312Cherimoya, 169Cherry, 170Chervil, 365Chestnut, 336Chichorium intybus, 228Chicken, 292–293, 458–461Chickpeas, 326Chicory, 228Children, milk selection, 350Children’s Pyramid, 14Chili powder, 370Chinese apple, 201Chinese cabbage, 229Chinese date, 180Chinese gooseberry, 181Chinese grapefruit, 203Chinese jujube, 180Chinese water chestnut, 266Chives, 365Chocolate, 403–405Cholesterolcoronary artery disease, 63–66dietary guidelines for Americans, 10as nutrient, 27–28Chunk-style honey, 402Cider vinegar, 373Cilantro, 365Cinnamon, 370Citrofortunella mitis, 167Citrullus lanatus, 189–190Citrus aurantifolia, 184Citrus aurantium L., 193Citrus grandis, 203Citrus limonia, 183Citrus paradisi, 176Citrus reticulata, 209Citrus sinensis L., 193Clam, 318–319Clarified butter, 391Clotted cream, 353Cloves, 370–371Club soda, 378Coarse sugar, 400–401Cochin ginger, 237Cocktail, as juice label, 383Cocoa, 404Coconut, 171Coconut oil, 393–394Cocos nucifera, 171Cod, 312Coffeebean decaffeination, 380milk additives, 352nutrients, 482–483types, 379–381Colby, 357Colinabo, 242Collards, 230Colocasia esculenta L. Schott, 262Comb honey, 402Common beans, 326, 466–467Common herbsbasil, 364bay leaf, 364–365chervil, 365chives, 365cilantro, 365dill, 365–366fennel, 366lavender, 366lemon balm, 366–367lemon grass, 367marjoram, 367mint, 367–368oregano, 368parsley, 368rosemary, 368sage, 368sorrel, 368tarragon, 368thyme, 368Common pear, 197Common spicesallspice, 369anise seeds, 369caraway seeds, 369cardamom, 369cayenne, 369celery seed, 369chili powder, 370cinnamon, 370cloves, 370–371cumin, 371curry, 371Fenugreek seeds, 372ginger, 372juniper berry, 372licorice root, 372mace and nutmeg, 372mustard, 372paprika, 372–373pepper, 373–374saffron, 374salt, 374–375sesame seeds, 375Szechuan peppercorns, 375turmeric, 375vanilla, 375Complete proteins, 24Complex carbohydrates, 19–21Concentrated milk, 350–351Confectioner’s sugar, 400Constipation, nutrition needs, 44Cooking methodsfood safety, 149meat, in cancer, 77recipes, 127–128Cooking oils, 393–397Corn, 231, 273–275

504 IndexCorn oil, 394Coronary artery diseaseatherosclerosis, 61–62blood lipids, 62blood testing, 63–64medications, 66physical activity, 66risk factors, 64–66Cottage cheese, 354Cottonseed oil, 394Crab, 319–320Cracked grains, 273Cracked wheat, 281Crackers, nutrients, 450–451Cranberry, 160–161, 165Cranberry beans, 327Cream, 351–353, 472–473Cream cheese, 354Crème fraîche, 353Cress, 232Cross-contamination, in food poisoning, 148Crushed red pepper, 369Cucumber, 233Cucumis melo, 189–190Cucumis melo L. indorus, 189–190Cucumis melo var. reticulatus, 189–190Cucumis sativus, 233Cucurbita maxima, 259–260Cucurbita moschata, 259–260Cucurbita pepo, 259–260Cumin, 371Currant, 161, 165Curry, 371Custard apple, 169Cydonia oblonga, 204Cynara scolymus, 213DDaily values, 30Dairy desserts, 359–361, 472–473Dairy foodsbasics and storage, 345–348cheeses, 353–348, 470–473cream, 351–353, 472–473dried and concentrated milks, 350–351milk, 348–350, 472–475product serving size, 13–14sour cream, 351–353yogurt, 358–359, 474–475Dark rye flour, 279DASH, see Dietary Approaches to StopHypertensionDate, 172Daucus carota, 222Decaffeination, coffee beans, 380Decorating sugar, 400–401Defrosting, in food safety, 148–149Deli meats, nutrients, 456–459De Materia Medica, 364Desserts, 359–361, 472–473Devonshire cream, 353Dewberry, 159Diabetes mellituscontrol, 60–61definition, 57–58diagnosis, 60long-term complications, 58–59prevention, 59type 1, 58type 2, 58Dietcancer risk, 75–77cholesterol reduction, 66combination, from DASH, 56fiber-rich, 20–21Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension, 56Dietary fiberbreadfruit, 166cherimoya, 169kumquat, 182pear, 197Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 8–10, 21Dietary protein, 24–25Dietary Reference Intakesdefinition, 5–6minerals, 31, 424–425, 428–429vitamins, 30. 422–423, 426–427Dill, 365–366Dioscorea alata, 267Diospyros kaki, 198Diospyros virginiana, 198Distilled spirits, nutrients, 480–481Distilled water, 378Dolichos beans, 328, 466–467Dried milk, 350–351Drinkalcoholic, see Alcoholic beveragesas juice label, 383DRIs, see Dietary Reference IntakesDuck, 294, 460–461Duckling, 294Durian, 173Durio zibethinus Murr, 173Durum, 280Durum flour, 287Dutch process cocoa, 404EEAR, see Estimated Average RequirementEdam, 355Eggplant, 234Egg products, 297Eggs, 296–297, 460–461Elderberry, 162, 165Eleocharis dulcis, 266Eleocharis tuberosa, 266“Empty calories,” sweeteners, 399–400Endosperm, grains, 269English teas, 382Enriched, 92Ergot, and rye, 280Eriobotrya japonica, 186Eruca vesicaria sativa, 214Eschalot, 256Espresso, 380Essential oils, 399Estimated Average Requirement, 6Estrogen deficiency, in osteoporosis, 68Estrogen replacement therapy, in osteoporosis,69–70Ethnic cuisine, meal planning, 86–88European gooseberry, 162European pear, 197Evaporated milk, 351Evening mealmakeover, 143–144, 147meal planning, 84–86sample menus, 96–123Exercisediabetes, 61hypertension, 55–56Extra virgin olive oil, 395Eye disease, from diabetes, 58–59Eyes, hypertension effects, 54–55FFamily Actinidiaceae, kiwi, 181Family Amaranthaceae, amaranth, 212Family Amaryllidaceaegarlic, 236

Index 505leek, 243onion, 247scallion, 256Family Anacardiaceae, mango, 188Family Annonaceae, cherimoya, 169Family Apiaceae, parsley, 248Family Araceae, taro, 262Family Arecaceae, coconut, 171Family Asteraceaelettuce, 244salsify, 255Family Bombacaceae, durian, 173Family Bromeliaceae, pineapple, 199Family Cactaceae, prickly pear, 202Family Caprifoliaceae, elderberry, 162Family Caricaceae, papaya, 194Family Chenopodiaceaebeets, 217spinach, 258Family Compositaeartichoke, 213chicory, 228Jerusalem artichoke, 239Family Convolvulaceae, sweet potato, 261Family Cruciferaearugula, 214broccoli, 219brussels sprouts, 220cabbage, 221cauliflower, 224Chinese cabbage, 229collards, 230cress, 232horseradish, 238kohlrabi, 242radish, 253rutabaga, 254turnip, 265Family Cucurbitaceaebitter melon, 218chayote, 227cucumber, 233melons, 189–190squash, 259–260Family Cyperaceae, water chestnut, 266Family Dioscoreaceae, yam, 267Family Ebenaceae, persimmon, 198Family Ericaceaeblueberry, 159–160cranberry, 160–161Family Euphorbiaceae, cassava, 223Family Fungi, 245Family Graminaceae, bamboo, 216Family Gramineae, corn, 231Family historycoronary artery disease, 65hypertension, 54osteoporosis, 68Family Laminariaceae, kelp, 241Family Lauraceae, avocado, 157Family Leguminosaejicama, 240snap beans, 257tamarind, 208Family Liliaceae, asparagus, 215Family Malpighiaceae, acerola, 154Family Malvaceae, okra, 246Family Moraceaebreadfruit, 166fig, 175jackfruit, 179mulberry, 163Family Musaceae, banana, 158Family Myrtaceaefeijoa, 174guava, 178Family Oleaceae, olives, 192Family Oxalidaceae, carambola, 168Family Palmaceaecoconut, 171date, 172Family Passifloraceae, passion fruit, 195Family Polygonaceae, rhubarb, 206Family Punicaceae, pomegranate, 201Family Rhamnaceae, jujube, 180Family Rosaceaeapple, 155apricot, 156blackberry, 159cherry, 170loquat, 186nectarine, 191peach, 196pear, 197plum, 200quince, 204raspberry, 163–164strawberry, 164Family Rutaceaecalamondin, 167grapefruit, 176kumquat, 182lemon, 183lime, 184orange, 193pummelo, 203tangerine, 209Family Sapindaceaelongan, 185lychee, 187rambutan, 205Family Sapotaceae, sapodilla, 207Family Saxifragaceaecurrant, 161gooseberry, 162Family Solanaceaeeggplant, 234peppers, 250–251potato, 252tomatillo, 263tomato, 264Family Umbelliferaecarrot, 222celeriac, 225celery, 226fennel, 235parsnip, 249Family Vitaceae, grapes, 177Family Zingiberaceae, ginger, 237Farina, 281Farinetta, 273Farmer's cheese, 354–355Fatsalternatives, 127basics, 389–390butter, 391dietary guidelines for Americans, 10lard, 392–393margarine, 392nutrients, 474–477nutrients and substitutes, 26–29serving size, 12–13vegetable shortening, 393Fat-soluble vitamins, 31Fat substitutes, 28–29Fatty acids, 26–27Fava beans, 325–326FDA, see U.S. Food and DrugAdministrationFeeding, toddlers, 42Feijoa, 174Feijoa sellowiana O., 174Fennel, 235, 366

506 IndexFenugreek seeds, 372Fiberartichoke, 213avocado, 157banana, 158carambola, 168carrot, 222categories, 19–21chicory leaves, 228collards, 230corn, 231date, 172fig, 175guava, 178jicama, 240kiwi, 181kohlrabi, raw, 242lemon, 183orange, 193parsnip, 249passion fruit, 195persimmon, 198prickly pear, 202prunes, 200sapodilla, 207squash, 259–260sweet potato, 261taro root, 262yam, 267Ficus carica, 175Fig, 166, 175Finfish, nutrients, 462–463Firm cheeses, 356–357Fishbasics, 310–312catfish, 314chemicals, 312cod, 312finfish, 462–463flat fish, 312flounder, 313fresh fish, 310frozen fish, 310halibut, 313higher-fat fish, 315–317lean fish, 312mackerel, 315moderate-fat fish, 313–315perch, 313polychlorinated biphenyls, 312round fish, 312salmon, 315–316salted fish, 311smelt, 316smoked fish, 311striped bass, 313–314swordfish, 314trout, 316–317tuna, 314–315whole fish, 310Fish fillets, 310Fish steaks, 3105 a Day for Better Health, 8Flaked barley, 272Flat breads, 283Flat fish, 312Flavored sugar, 401Flax, 275Flaxseed oil, 394Flounder, 313Flourbasics, 286–287as bread ingredient, 282definition, 273nutrients, 450–453Foeniculum vulgare (dulce), 235Folateartichoke, 213asparagus, 215beet, 217bok choy, 229brussels sprouts, 220chicory leaves, 228collards, 230corn, 231cress, 232feijoa, 174lettuce, 244orange, 193parsnip, 249spinach, 258Food additives, 90–91Food Guide Pyramidcategories, 11–14dietary guidelines for Americans, 9milk and dairy product placement, 345snacks, 84Food labels, in meal planning, 88–90Food poisoning, from cross-contamination,148Food safetybotulism toxin in honey, 403tap water, 378techniques for, 10, 148–149Food serving, in food safety, 149Food sources, antioxidants, 32Fortified, definition, 92Fortified wines, 385Fortunella japonica, 182Fortunella margarita, 182Fragaria americana, 164Fragaria vesca, 164Freezer burn, meat, 299Freezing, in food safety, 149French bread, 284French press coffee, 380Fresh cheeses, 354–355Fresh fish, 310Fresh pork, 304"From concentrate," as juice label, 383Frozen dessert, nutrients, 472–473Frozen fish, 310Frozen yogurt, 361Fructose, 399Fruit beer, 386Fruitsacerola, 154apple, 155apricot, 156avocado, 157banana, 158berries, 159–165breadfruit, 166calamondin, 167carambola, 168cherimoya, 169cherry, 170coconut, 171date, 172dietary guidelines for Americans, 9–10durian, 173feijoa, 174fig, 175grapefruit, 176grapes, 177guava, 178jackfruit, 179jujube, 180kiwi, 181kumquat, 182lemon, 183lime, 184longan, 185

Index 507loquat, 186lychee, 187mango, 188melons, 189–190nectarine, 191nutrients, 434–438olives, 192orange, 193papaya, 194passion fruit, 195peach, 196pear, 197persimmon, 198pineapple, 199plum, 200pomegranate, 201prickly pear, 202pummelo, 203quince, 204rambutan, 205in recipes, 128rhubarb, 206sapodilla, 207serving size, 12–13tamarind, 208tangerine, 209Fruit sugar, 401Functional foods, supplements as, 34–39GGame birds, 294–295Game meats, 309, 458–459Garbanzo beans, 326Garden cress, 232Garden rocket, 214Garlic, 236Gassiness, from beans, 327Gastropods, 317Genetically engineered foods, 92Germdefinition, 273grains, 269–270Ginger, 237, 372Gingerroot, 372Ginkgo nut, 336–337Globe artichoke, 213Glucose, 309Glutathione, in asparagus, 215Gluten, 287, 393Goat cheeses, 355Golden syrup, 402Goose, 295, 460–461Gooseberry, 162, 165Gorgonzola, 356Gouda, 355Gourmet oils, 398Goutberry, 159Grain flakes, 273Grain productsAsian noodles, 289breads, 282–285cereals, 285–286flour, 286–287pasta, 287–289Grainsamaranth, 272barley, 272–273basics, 269–271buckwheat, 273corn, 273–275dietary guidelines for Americans, 9flax, 275millet, 276nutrients, 446–453oats, 276–277quinoa, 277in recipes, 128rice, 277–279rye, 279–280serving size, 12–13wheat, 280–281wild rice, 282Grain syrups, 402Granada, 201Granadilla, 195Granulated white sugar, 400Grapefruit, 176Grapes, 177Grape-seed oil, 397–398Great Northern beans, 328Great raifort, 238Green beans, 257Green pepper, 373Green tea, 382Grenadier, 201Groats, 281Grocery shopping, for healthful meals,88–90Ground beef substitutes, 301Growth of Plants, 364Gruyère-type cheeses, 357Guava, 178Gumbo, 246Gums, 20Guyava, 178HHalf-and-half, 352Halibut, 313Ham, 304–305Hamburger, irradiated, 299Hand washing, in food safety, 148Hard cheese, 356Hard grating cheeses, 356Hard wheat, 280Hardening of the arteries, see AtherosclerosisHare, 305–306Haricots, 257Hazelnut, 337–338Hazelnut oil, 398HCAs, see Heterocyclic aminesHDL, see High-density lipoproteinsHealth, and alcohol, 387Health benefits, tea, 383Health claims, 93Healthful weight, in dietary guidelines forAmericans, 8–9Health organizations, guidelines, 14–15Healthy People 2010, 6–8Hearthypertension effects, 54–55as meat, 307–308Heartburn, nutrition needs, 44Heart disease, preventioncarrot, 222grapes, 177Heavy cream, 351Helianthus tuberosus, 239Hemicellulose, 20Herbal supplements, 36–38Herbal teas, 382Herbsbasics, 363–364common, see Common herbsmedicinal uses, 364in recipes, 126Heterocyclic amines, in cancer, 77Hibiscus esculentus, 246High blood pressuredefinition, 53–54effects on body, 54–55

508 Indexrisk factors, 54treatment, 55–57High-density lipoproteins, cholesterol,63–66Higher-fat fish, 315–317High-fat foods, in cancer, 76–77High-protein foodsfinfish, 462–463fish, 310–317legumes, 466–469meat, 298–309, 454–459nuts, 468–469poultry, 291–297, 458–461seeds, 468–469serving size, 13–14shellfish, 317–324, 464–465High-sodium foods, in hypertension, 56Hominy, 276Honey, 401–402Honeydew, 189–190Hops, 386Horseradish, 238Hot red peppers, 250–251Hulled barley, 272Hyacinth bean, 329Hydrogenated fats, 27Hypertension, see High blood pressureIIce cream, 359–361Ice milk, 360Imitation cheeses, 356Imitation chocolate, 404Indian date, 208Indian fig, 202Indoles, in cabbage, 221Infantshoney danger, 403nutrition needs, 40–41Infections, from diabetes, 59Ingredients, modification, 126–127Inquiry Into Plants, 364Insoluble fiber, 20Instant coffee, 380Instant oatmeal, 277Instant tea, 382Intense sweeteners, 21–23Ipomoea batatas, 261IronJerusalem artichoke, 239spinach, 258Irradiated foodshamburger, 299preparation, 91–92Isatin, in prunes, 200Isoflavones, 34Italian cress, 214JJackfruit, 179Jakfruit, 179Jamaican ginger, 237Jamberry, 263Japanese medlar, 186Japanese persimmon, 198Japanese plum, 186Jarlsberg, 355Jerusalem artichoke, 239Jicama, 240Jugged hare, 306Juice, 383Jujube, 180Juniper berry, 372KKaki, 198Kelp, 241Kidney beans, 327Kidneysfailure from diabetes, 59hypertension effects, 54–55meat, 308Kiwi, 181Kohlrabi, 242Kosher salt, 374Kumquat, 182LLablab, 329Lactobacillus acidophilus, 348Lactobacillus bulgaricus, 358Lactose, 399Lactose-free milk, 349Lactose intolerance, 347Lactose-reduced milk, 349Lactuca sativa, 244Lady’s finger, 246Lager, 386Lamb, 301–303, 454–455Laminaria, 241Lard, 392–393Latte, milk content, 352Lavender, 366Laxatives, in prunes, 200LDL, see Low-density lipoproteinsLean fish, 312Leek, 243LegumesAdzuki beans, 328–329alfalfa, 325basics, 324–325black beans, 326–327black-eyed peas, 329broad beans, 325–326chickpeas, 326common beans, 326cranberry beans, 327dolichos beans, 328kidney beans, 327lablab, 329lentil, 330lima beans, 330mung beans, 329–330nutrients, 466–469peanuts, 330–331peas, 332pinto beans, 327–328soybeans, 332–333white beans, 328Lemon, 183Lemon balm, 366–367Lemon grass, 367Lentil, 330, 466–469Lepidium sativum, 232Lettuce, 244Licorice root, 372Lifestylecoronary artery disease, 65–66osteoporosis, 68Light beer, 386Light butter, 391Light cream, 351–352Light olive oil, 395Light whipping cream, 351Lignin, 20Lima beans, 330Limburger, 355Lime, 184Lingonberry, 160–161

Index 509Linseed oil, 394Liquid, as bread ingredient, 282Liquid honey, 402Liquid margarine, 392Liquid sugar, 404Litchi, 187Litchi chinensis Sonn., 187Liver, 308Living yogurt cultures, 358Lobster, 320Longan, 185Long-grain rice, 278Loquat, 186Low-density lipoproteins, cholesterol,63–66Low-fat milk, 348Lunch, see Noon mealLuncheon meats, nutrients, 456–459Lychee, 187Lycopene, 32, 264Lycopersicon esculentum, 264MMacadamia nut, 338Macaroni, 287Mace, 372Mackerel, 315Macronutrientscarbohydrates, 18–23fats, 26–29protein, 23–26Magnesiumbeet greens, 217chicory, 228okra, 246prickly pear, 202spinach, 258Maize, 273–275Malpighia glabra L., 154Malpighia punicifolia L., 154Malt liquor, 386Maltose, 399Malt vinegar, 373Malus pumila, 155Malus sylvestris, 155Manga, 188Mangifera indica L., 188Mango, 188Mangot, 188Manihot aipi Phol, 223Manihot esculenta Crantz, 223Manihot ultissima Phol, 223Manilkara zapota, 207Manioc, 223MAOIs, see Monoamine oxidase inhibitorsMaple syrup, 402Margarinecoronary artery disease, 66types, 392Marinades, food safety issues, 149Marjoram, 367Marrow beans, 328Ma-Tai, 266Ma Ti, 266May apple, 186Meal, 273Meal planningbreakfast, 80–81eat well, 79ethnic cuisine, 86–88grocery shopping, 88–90lunch, 81–83snack time, 83–84supper, 84–86Meatsbacon, 305basics, 298–299beef, 299–301brain, 307buffalo, 301cooking and cancer, 77fresh pork, 304game meats, 309ham, 304–305heart, 307–308kidney, 308lamb, 301–303liver, 308nutrients, 454–459ostrich, 303pork, 303–304rabbit and hare, 305–306sausage, 308–309serving size, 12–13supper portion, 86USDA grades, 300veal, 306–307Medicinecoronary artery disease, 66diabetes, 61herbs and spices as, 364hypertension, 57osteoporosis, 69Mediterranean Pyramid, 14Medium-grain rice, 278Melons, 189–190Menushealthful, 128–129two-week period, 95–123Mexican green tomato, 263Mexican potato, 240Mexican turnip, 240Micronutrients, vitamins and minerals,29–33Migraines, cheese link, 357Milkassociated products, 346nutrients, 472–475processing, 346selection for children, 350types, 348–350Milk allergy, 349Milk chocolate, 404Milk products, serving size, 12–13Millet, 276Mineralsas antioxidants, 31–33functions and sources, 432–433as micronutrients, 31recommended intakes for individuals,424–425supplements, 38–39tolerable upper intake levels,428–429Mineral water, 378Mint, 367–368Miso, 333Moderate-fat fish, 313–315Molasses, 402Momordica charantia, 218Monoamine oxidase inhibitors, 357Monounsaturated fatavocado, 157olives, 192Monounsaturated fatty acids, 26Monterey Jack, 357Morning sickness, nutrition needs, 44Morus, 163Mountain radish, 238Mozzarella, 355Mulberry, 163, 165–166Mung bean, 329–330

510 IndexMung bean noodles, 289Musa paradisiaca L., 158Mushroom, 245Muskmelon, 189–190Mussels, 320–321Mustard, 372Mustard seed oil, 398NNapa cabbage, 229National Institutes of Health, 15Native persimmon, 198Natural cocoa, 404Natural sweeteners, 23Navy beans, 328Nectarine, 191Nephelium lappaceum, 205Nephelium longana, 185Nerve damage, from diabetes, 59Niacin, in cooked mushrooms, 245Nondairy creamers, 352Nondairy desserts, 359Nonfat margarine, 392Nonfat milk, 348Non-nutritive sweeteners, 21–23Noodles, 287–289Noon mealmakeover, 136, 139–140planning, 81–83sample menus, 96–123Nopal, 202Nopalitos, 202"Not from concentrate," as juice label, 383Nutmeg, 372NutraSweet, 22Nutrientsalcoholic beverages, 480–481berries, 165carbohydrates, 18–23cheese, 470–473cholesterol as, 27–28coffee, 482–483cream, 472–473fats, 26–29, 474–477finfish, 462–463on food labels, 88–90frozen dessert, 472–473fruits, 434–438grains, 446–453legumes, 466–469macronutrients, see Macronutrientsmeat, 454–459micronutrients, 29–33milk, 472–475nuts, 468–469phytochemicals as, 33–35plant oils, 476–477poultry, 458–461protein, 23–26saturated fats as, 26–27seeds, 468–469shellfish, 464–465soda, 482–483specialty oils, 476–477sweeteners, 478–479tea, 482–483upper limit, 6various claims, 92vegetables, 438–446water, 33yogurt, 474–475Nutritionadulthood, 43boosting in menu, 129breastfeeding, 43–45cancer connection, 74diabetes, 60–61hypertension, 57in grains, 270–271infancy, 40–41pregnancy, 43–45preschool years, 41school-age children, 42seniors, 45stage of life, 39–40teenage years, 43weight loss, 51–52Nutsalmond, 334–335basics, 333–334beechnut, 335brazil nut, 335–336cashew nut, 336chestnut, 336ginkgo nut, 336–337hazelnut, 337–338macadamia nut, 338nutrients, 468–469pecan nut, 339pistachio nut, 339–340walnut, 341–342OOat bran, 277Oat flour, 277Oat groats, 276Oats, 276–277Obesitybehavior modification, 53definition, 47–48nutrition considerations, 51–52physical activity, 52–53risk factors, 48–50special situations, 51Octopus, 321–322Oilsbasics, 389–390cooking oils, 393–397plant oils, 476–477serving size, 12–13specialty oils, 397–399, 476–477Okra, 246Old-fashioned rolled oats, 276–277Olea europaea, 192Olestra, 28–29Olive oil, 394–395Olives, 192Omega-3 fatty acids, 27“100 percent juice,” as juice label, 383Onion, 247Oolong teas, 382Opuntia ficus-indica, 202Orange, 193Oregano, 368Organic foods, 91Oriental persimmon, 198Osteoporosisimmobilization in, 69men, 70risk factors, 67–69risk reduction, 69–73Ostrich, 303, 454–455Overweightedness vs. obesity, 48Oyster plant, 255Oysters, 322PPachyrhizus erosus, 240Palmitate, in cereals, 285Palm kernel oil, 395–396Palm oil, 395–396Palm syrup, 402–403

Index 511Papaya, 194Paprika, 372–373Parsley, 248, 368Parsnip, 249Partially hydrogenated vegetable oil, 66Passiflora edulis, 195Passion fruit, 195Pasta, 287–289, 452–453Pastinaca sativa L., 249PCBs, see Polychlorinated biphenylsPeach, 196Peanut oil, 396Peanuts, 330–331Pear, 197Pearled barley, 272Pearled grain, 273Peas, 332Pecan nut, 339Pectin, 20, 155, 399Peppers, 250–251, 373–374Perch, 313Persea americana, 157Persimmon, 198Pesticides, in foods, 90Petroselinum crispum, 248Phaseolus vulgaris, 257Phoenix dactylifera L., 172Phosphorus, in celeriac, 225Phyllostachys, 216Physalis ixocarpa, 263Physical activitycardiovascular disease, 66dietary guidelines for Americans, 9weight loss, 52–53Phytochemicalsbroccoli, 219brussels sprouts, 220cabbage, 221carrot, 222cauliflower, 224cherry, 170collards, 230cress, 232garlic, 236grapes, 177nectarine, 191nutrient, 33–35onion, 247radish, 253Pilsener, 386Pilsner, 386Pineapple, 199Pineapple guava, 174Pink currant, 161Pinto beans, 327–328Pistachio nut, 339–340Plantain, 158Plant-based diet, 66Plant fibers, 20Plant oils, nutrients, 476–477Plants, as food source, 75–76Plum, 200Polished grains, 273Polishings, 273Polychlorinated biphenyls, in fish, 312Polyunsaturated fatty acids, 26Pomegranate, 201Pomelo, 203Pommelo, 203Poor man’s meat, 324Popcorn, 275Poppy seed oil, 398Pork, 303–304, 456–457Porter, 386Potassiumamaranth leaves, 212bamboo, 216banana, 158breadfruit, 166celeriac, 225chicory leaves, 228pomegranate, 201potato, 252rutabaga, 254squash, 259–260sweet potato, 261water chestnuts, 266yam, 267Potato, 252Pot barley, 272Poultrybasics, 291–292chicken, 292–293duck, 294eggs, 296–297game birds, 294–295goose, 295nutrients, 458–461serving size, 13–14turkey, 296Powdered milk, 350Pregnancy, nutrition needs, 43–45Preschool years, nutrition needs, 41Prickly pear, 202Processed cheeses, 357Protein, 23–26Provolone, 355Prunes, 200Prunus armeniaca, 156Prunus avium, 170Prunus domestica, 200Prunus persica, 196Prunus persica var. nectarina, 191Prunus salicina, 200Psidium guajava, 178Pummelo, 203Pumpernickel, 284Pumpkin seed oil, 398Punch, as juice label, 383Punica granatum, 201Pure olive oil, 395Purified water, 378Pyrus communis, 197Pyrus malus, 155Pyrus pyrifolia, 197QQuahog, 318Quick-cooking oats, 277Quince, 204Quinoa, 277RRabbit, 305–306Racehypertension, 54osteoporosis, 68Radicchio, 228Radish, 253Rambutan, 205Raphanus sativus L., 253Raspberry, 163–165RDA, see Recommended DietaryAllowancesRecipesBalsamic Roasted Chicken, 144Banana Raspberry Smoothie, 116Bruschetta Pomodoro, 115Chicken and Couscous Vegetable Salad,100Citrus Spinach Salad With Honey

512 IndexYogurt Dressing, 139Curried Tuna Salad With Pita Triangles,136Fried Chicken, 144Granola with Raisins, Apples, andCinnamon, 132Grilled Ahi Tuna with Mango-Pineapple Chutney, 111Grilled Beef Kabobs, 119Grilled Chicken with Tomato and CornSalsa, 108Grilled Steak, 147Mediterranean Pasta Salad, 123Minestrone Soup, 140modification, 125–128Pasta with Marinara Sauce and GrilledVegetables, 143Poached Pears in Red Wine, 107Quick Pork with Pineapple-Orange-Basil Sauce, 103Rustic Wrap, 120Soft Tacos with Sautéed Vegetables andSmoky Salsa, 99Southwest Caesar Salad, 96Southwestern Scramble, 135Southwestern Turkey Pocket Fajita, 104Spaghetti with Meatballs, 143Spiced Muffins, 131Spinach Salad with Bacon andMushrooms, 139Steak with Steamed Vegetables, SobaNoodles, and Ginger Sauce, 147Tuna Salad Sandwich, 136Turkish Chicken with Spiced Dates,112Recommended Dietary Allowancesdefinition, 65 a Day for Better Health, 8minerals, 424–425vitamins, 422–423Red cole, 238Red currant, 161Red date, 180Reduced-fat cheeses, 356Reduced-fat margarine, 392Reduced-fat milk, 348Red wines, 384Refrigeration, in food safety, 149, 399Resistance training, in weight loss, 53Rheum, 206Rheum officinale, 206Rheum palmatum, 206Rheum rhaponticum, 206Rhubarb, 206Ribes grossularia, 162Ribes hirtellum, 162Ribes nigrum, 161Ribes petraeum, 161Ribes rubrum, 161Ribes sativum, 161Ribes ussuriense, 161Ribes vulgare, 161Riboflavinbeet greens, 217chicory, 228cooked mushrooms, 245spinach, 258Rice, 277–279Rice milk, 350Rice noodles, 289Rice vinegar, 373Rice wine, 385Ricotta, 355Risk factorscoronary artery disease, 64–66hypertension, 54obesity, 48–50osteoporosis, 67–69Rock salt, 374Rocket, 214Rolled grains, 273Romano beans, 257Roquefort, 356Roquette, 214Rosemary, 368Rosé wines, 384Roughage, 20Round fish, 312Round-grain rice, 277–278Rubus fructicosus, 159Rubus idaeus, 163–164Rubus strigosus, 163–164Rubus villosus, 159Rutabaga, 254Rye, 279–280Rye bread, 284Rye flour, 279SSaccharin, 22, 404Safflower oil, 396Safflower seed, 340Saffron, 374Sage, 368Salads, in lunch meal planning, 82–83Salmon, 315–316Salsify, 255Saltalternatives, 127food preparation, 10types, 374–375Salted fish, 311Salted margarine, 392Sambucus canadensis, 162Sambucus coerulea, 162Sanding sugar, 401Sand pear, 197Sandwiches, in lunch meal planning,82–83Sapodilla, 207Saturated fatscoconut, 171coronary artery disease, 66nutrient, 26–27Saturated fatty acids, 26–27Sausage, 308–309, 456–459Scallion, 256Scallops, 322–323School-age children, nutrition needs, 42Scotch barley, 272Seafood, serving size, 13–14Sea salt, 374Seasoned salt, 374Sechium edule, 227Seedsnutrients, 468–469safflower seed, 340sesame seed, 340, 375squash seed, 340–341sunflower seed, 341Selenium, 32Self-rising flour, 287Seltzer water, 378Semisoft cheeses, 355–356Semisweet chocolate, 404Semolina, 287Seniors, nutrition needs, 45Serving size, food groups, 12–14Sesame oil, 398–399Sesame seeds, 340, 375Sexcoronary artery disease, 65

Index 513hypertension, 54osteoporosis, 67–68Shaddock, 203Sharon’s fruit, 202Shellfishabalone, 318basics, 317–318clam, 318–319crab, 319–320lobster, 320mussels, 320–321nutrients, 464–465octopus, 321–322oysters, 322scallops, 322–323shrimp, 323–324Shell membranes, egg, 297Sherbet, 360–361Short-grain rice, 277–278Shrimp, 323–324Simple sugars, 18–19Skim milk, 348Smelt, 316Smetana, 353Smoke point, oil, 391Smoked fish, 311Smokinghypertension, 56osteoporosis, 73Snacksmeal planning, 83–84sample menus, 96–123Snap beans, 257Soda pop, 384, 482–483Soda water, 378Soft margarine, 392Soft wheat, 280Soft white-rind cheeses, 356Solanum melogena esculentum, 234Solanum tuberosum L., 252Soluble fiber, 20, 155Sorbet, 360–361Sorrel, 368Sour cream, 351–353Sourdough, 284–285Sour orange, 193Soy, 34Soybean milk, 333Soybean oil, 396–397Soybean sprouts, 333Soybeans, 332–333Soy flour, 333Soy milk, 350Soy nuts, 333Soy products, 333Soy sauce, 333Sparkling water, 378Sparkling wine, 384–385Specialty oils, 397–399, 476–477Spicesbasics, 363–364common, see Common spicesmedicinal uses, 364recipes, 126Spinach, 258Spinacia oleracea L., 258Splenda, 23Sports drinks, 384Spring water, 378Sprouts, raw, 325Squash, 259–260Squash seed, 340–341Stage of life, nutritionadulthood, 43breastfeeding, 43–45infancy, 40–41needs, 39–40pregnancy, 43–45preschool years, 41school-age children, 42senior, 45teenage, 43Star apple, 168Starch, 19Starfruit, 168Steal-cut oats, 276Steel-cut grains, 273Stem turnip, 242Stinking rose, 236Stout, 386Strawberry, 164–165Strawberry tomato, 263Strength training, in weight loss, 53Streptococcus thermophilus, 358String beans, 257Striped bass, 313–314Sucralose, 23, 404Sucrose, 399Sugar in the raw, 401Sugar substitutes, 21–23Sugarsalternatives, 127from beverages and food, 10types, 400–401Sunchoke, 239Sunflower artichoke, 239Sunflower oil, 397Sunflower seed, 341Sunnett, 22–23Supper, see Evening mealSupplementscalcium, 72cancer risk reduction, 76definition, 34–36herbal, 36–38usage, 38vitamins and minerals, 38–39Sweet anise, 235Sweet cherry, 170Sweet corn, 231Sweetened condensed milk, 351Sweetenersacceptable daily intakes, 21–23basics, 399–400chocolate, 403–405honey, 401–402nutrients, 478–479sugar, 400–401syrups, 402–403Sweet orange, 193Sweet peppers, 250–251Sweet potato, 261Sweets, serving size, 12–13Swiss cheese, 357Swordfish, 314Syrups, 402–403Szechuan peppercorns, 375TTable salt, 374Table sugar, 18Tamarind, 208Tamarindus indica, 208Tangerine, 209Tapioca, 223Tap water, 378Taro, 262Tarragon, 368Tea, 381–383, 482–483Tea bag, invention, 382Teenage years, nutrition needs, 43Tempeh, 333

514 IndexTemperature, cooking, in cancer, 77Terpenes, in cherry, 170Thiamin, in Jerusalem artichoke, 239Thyme, 368Tira, 214Toddlers, feeding tips, 42Tofu, 333Tolerable upper intake levelsminerals, 428–429vitamins, 426–427Tomate verde, 263Tomatillo, 263Tomato, 264Tonic water, 378Topinambour, 239Toppings, 352Toxins, nutrition effects, 44Trace minerals, 31Tragopogon porrifolius, 255Trans fat, in coronary artery disease, 66Tree melon, 194Triglycerides, 26, 63Trout, 316–317Tsao, 180Tuna, 314–315Turkey, 296, 460–461Turkish coffee, 380Turmeric, 375Turnip, 265Type 1 diabetes, 58Type 2 diabetes, 58Tyramine, in cheese, 357UUL, see Ultra-heat treatmentUL, see Upper LimitUltra-heat treatment, milk, 349Ultrapasteurized milk, 349Univalves, 317Unsalted butter, 391Unsalted margarine, 392Unsaturated fat, in coronary artery disease, 66Unsweetened chocolate, 404Upper intake levels, tolerableminerals, 428–429vitamins, 426–427Upper Limit, nutrients, 6USDA, see U.S. Department of AgricultureU.S. Department of AgricultureFood Guide Pyramid, 11–14meat grades, 300U.S. Food and Drug Administrationcheese regulation, 357fat substitutes, 28–29health claims, 93supplements, 36sweetener ADI, 21–23water regulation, 378VVaccinium macrocarpon, 160–161Vaccinium myrtillis, 159–160Vaccinium oxycoccus, 160–161Vanilla, 375Variety meat, nutrients, 456–457Vascular headaches, cheese link, 357Veal, 306–307, 456–457Vegetable oyster, 255Vegetable Pyramid, 14Vegetablesamaranth, 212artichoke, 213arugula, 214asparagus, 215bamboo, 216beets, 217bitter melon, 218broccoli, 219brussels sprouts, 220cabbage, 221carrot, 222cassava, 223cauliflower, 224celeriac, 225celery, 226chayote, 227chicory, 228Chinese cabbage, 229collards, 230corn, 231cress, 232cucumber, 233dietary guidelines for Americans, 9–10eggplant, 234fennel, 235garlic, 236ginger, 237horseradish, 238Jerusalem artichoke, 239jicama, 240kelp, 241kohlrabi, 242leek, 243lettuce, 244mushroom, 245nutrients, 438–446okra, 246onion, 247parsley, 248parsnip, 249peppers, 250–251potato, 252radish, 253in recipes, 128rutabaga, 254salsify, 255scallion, 256serving size, 12–13snap beans, 257spinach, 258squash, 259–260sweet potato, 261taro, 262tomatillo, 263tomato, 264turnip, 265water chestnut, 266yam, 267Vegetable shortening, 393Very low-density lipoproteins, 63Vinegar, 373Virgin olive oil, 395Vitamin Aacerola, 154amaranth leaves, 212apricot, 156arugula, 214beet greens, 217bok choy, 229broccoli, 219brussels sprouts, 220carambola, 168carrot, 222cherry, 170chicory leaves, 228collards, 230cress, 232guava, 178jackfruit, 179loquat, 186mango, 188

Index 515nectarine, 191passion fruit, 195peach, 196peppers, 250–251persimmon, 198prunes, 200spinach, 258squash, 259–260storage in body, 31sweet potato, 261tangerine, 209taro leaves, 262tomato, 264Vitamin B 6banana, 158chicory, 228fig, 175pomegranate, 201potato, 252spinach, 258sweet potato, 261taro root, 262water chestnuts, 266Vitamin Cacerola, 154amaranth leaves, 212as antioxidant, 32apple, 155apricot, 156artichoke, 213asparagus, 215banana, 158beet greens, 217bitter melon, 218bok choy, 229breadfruit, 166broccoli, 219brussels sprouts, 220cabbage, 221carambola, 168cauliflower, 224celeriac, 225celery, 226chayote, 227cherimoya, 169cherry, 170chicory leaves, 228collards, 230corn, 231cress, 232durian, 173feijoa, 174function, 30grapefruit, 176guava, 178jackfruit, 179jicama, 240jujube, 180kiwi, 181kohlrabi, 242kumquat, 182lemon, 183lettuce, 244lime, 184longan, 185lychee, 187mango, 188nectarine, 191okra, 246orange, 193papaya, 194parsley, 248parsnip, 249passion fruit, 195peach, 196pear, 197peppers, 250–251persimmon, 198pineapple, 199plum, 200pomegranate, 201potato, 252prickly pear, 202pummelo, 203quince, 204radish, 253rhubarb, 206rutabaga, 254sapodilla, 207scallion, 256snap beans, 257spinach, 258squash, 259–260sweet potato, 261tangerine, 209taro leaves, 262tomatillo, 263tomato, 264turnip, 265yam, 267Vitamin Dosteoporosis, 70–73storage in body, 31Vitamin E, 31–32Vitamin K, 31Vitaminsas antioxidants, 31–33functions and sources, 430–432recommended intakes for individuals,422–423supplements, 38–39tolerable upper intake levels, 426–427types, 29–31Vitis, 177VLDL, see Very low-density lipoproteinsWWalking, for weight loss, 52Walnut, 341–342Walnut oil, 399Water, 33, 378–379Water chestnut, 266Watercress, 232Watermelon, 189–190Water-soluble vitamins, 30–31Wax beans, 257Weight-bearing exercise, in osteoporosis,73Weight controlcoronary artery disease, 65diabetes, 61Weight lossby behavior modification, 53hypertension, 55nutrition needs, 51–52obesity, 48physical activity, 52–53Weight management programs, 51Weitzen, 386West Indian cherry, 154Wheat, 280–281Wheat beer, 386Wheat berries, 281Wheat flakes, 281Wheat germ oil, 398Wheat seed, 281Whipped butter, 391Whipped margarine, 392White beans, 328Which chocolate, 404White currant, 161White pepper, 214, 373–374

516 IndexWhite wines, 384Whole fish, 310Whole-grain flour, 287Whole grains, 273Whole milk, 348Whole-wheat flour, 287Wild rice, 282Wine, 384–385, 480–481Wine vinegar, 373Women, bone mineral density, 69XXiquima, 240YYam, 267Yam bean, 240Yeast, bread ingredient, 282–283Yellow snap beans, 257Yogurtnutrients, 474–475preparation and serving, 358–359Yolk, egg, 297Yuba, 333Yuca, 223ZZea mays L., 231Zinc, in napa cabbage, 229Zingiber officinale, 237Ziziphus jujuba, 180