Key Stages for Fungi - fungi4schools

TG01: Introduction/overviewA Teacher’s Guide toKey Stages for FungiThe British Mycological Society’smaterials for the classroomWhy fungal biology mattersThis teaching pack has been produced to draw attention to the lack of fungal biology inthe National Curriculum. We think this is important because questions to year 10 pupils(and many others) reveal their almost complete ignorance of these organisms. Ask anaverage group of year 10s if they think fungi are bacteria, plants or something differentand the vast majority will choose bacteria and the rest plants. The right answer will berarely, if ever, encountered.Fungi are not bacteria, because fungi are eukaryotes which have the complexcell structures and abilities to make tissues and organs that we expect of higherorganisms. But fungi are not plants, and are so different from plants that no amount ofplant biology will give an adequate understanding of any fungus. Similarly, althoughmore closely related, in molecular terms, to animals than to plants, fungi are not animalsand a deficiency of fungal biology cannot be compensated by more zoology.Awareness and understanding of fungi is a worthwhile educational goal, notleast because we depend on fungi every day of our lives and fungi form what isarguably the largest kingdom of organisms on the planet. However, it’s probably a moreimportant consideration that the fact that they are practically ignored in the NationalCurriculum means that pupils are not being introduced to the full range of living things.Teaching biology this way is like trying to teach reading with only two-thirds of thealphabet.Currently very little of either cell or fungal biology appears in any of the GCSEscience specifications. Included in this package is an article that discusses thedeficiencies in the curriculum specifications in UK primary and secondary schools insome detail and we will not repeat it here.The bulk of the material in this package, though, is an assortment of learningresources designed for you to use in your teaching to do something about the situation.These ready-made (and classroom-tested) lessons and workshop sessions cover a rangeof fungal topics from cell structure and function, through biotechnology to health topicsand plant growth and disease. The resources are in a number of accessible formats, sothe content can be adapted to the needs of individual teachers and pupils, and targeted todifferent areas of the National Curriculum. They also include games and activities,aiming to increase knowledge and awareness of fungi in an active, entertaining, wayand thereby maintain interest in biology as a science.The British Mycological Society’s materials for the classroomThe materials provided here have been designed for pupils in years 8 to 11 of secondaryschool. Earlier years are catered for by other BMS resources. We have tried to use alevel of language and presentation that will suit this range of ages and the class sheetshave all been well received in classroom tests. However, younger pupils may have aClassroom materials may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use © British Mycological Society 2005.1

TG02: Fungal CellsA Teacher’s Guide toFungal CellsThe British Mycological Society’sguide to teaching balanced Cell BiologyThis package is aimed at KS4 and higher KS3 level students and is intended to allowteachers to maintain student interest in the subject whilst covering the NationalCurriculum. It also goes into more depth about fungi, which are currently over-lookedin the National Curriculum.Many people think fungi are plants, which is incorrect as they are in a eukaryoticKingdom of their own. An even more surprising misunderstanding emerged recentlywhen we asked year 10 pupils at a Summer School “Are fungi plants, animals, bacteriaor none of these?” The majority answered ‘bacteria’! We think the reason for this is thatessentially the only reference to fungi in GCSE specifications (particularly the DoubleAward specifications taken by the overwhelming majority of pupils) refers to them asdecomposers in phrases that always link fungi and bacteria, such as “Describe the roleof decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi…” (OCR GCSE Biology and ScienceDouble Award A); “When putrefying (decay) bacteria and fungi break down the wasteproducts from dead animals and plants ammonium compounds are produced…” (AQABiology (Human) and Science Double Award (co-ordinated)); “Decomposers: The roleof bacteria and fungi…” (CCEA GCSE Science: Biology and Single Award (modular));“Soil bacteria and fungi act as decomposers…” (WJEC Science Biology and DoubleAward). This conjunction produces a misunderstanding in the minds of many pupils thatthe National Curriculum does nothing to correct.The National Curriculum’s instruction that “…Pupils should be taught: (a) aboutsimilarities and differences in structure between plant and animal cells…” is well servedby standard textbooks such as:Biology for you (Revised National Curriculum Edition for GCSE. G. Williams)Teaching Secondary Biology (Open University Text book, M. Reiss)Biology for AQA (Heinemann, A. Fullick)University-level texts we would recommend to enhance your knowledge include:Molecular Biology of the Cell, 4 th Ed. (Garland Science, Alberts et al.)Essential Cell Biology, 2 nd Ed. (Garland Science, Alberts et al.)Useful websites include:http://www.inspiringlearningforall.gov.ukhttp://www.dfes.gov.ukhttp://www.cellsalive.com/http://www.exploringscience.co.uk/All of these sources inevitably concentrate on animals and plants so we will emphasisehere how fungal cells compare.Classroom materials may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use © British Mycological Society 2005.1

TG02: Fungal CellsCellsThe most important point to make is that animals, plants and fungi are all EUKARYOTES,so a clear distinction should be emphasised between all of these organisms and thePROKARYOTIC cells of bacteria. Comparison diagrams are included on the class sheets.It was first discovered about 170 years ago that all living things are made up of cells.Robert Hooke used a microscope in the seventeenth century to look at slivers of cork;he discovered it consisted of “a great many little boxes”. This comparison to boxes ledto the name ‘cells’. In 1838 it was concluded that plants are made up of cells and thefollowing year the same discovery was made with regard to animals. Fungi have cells,too, though their biology differs greatly from both animals and plants. Every plant,animal or fungus is made up of a vast colony of individual cells performing specializedfunctions that are coordinated by communication systems. Although from the outsidespecies look different, all living things are fundamentally similar inside.A cell is a small, membrane-enclosed unit filled with a concentrated aqueous solution ofchemicals. Cells have the ability to produce identical copies of themselves by growingand dividing in a process called mitosis. The simplest life forms on earth are singlecelledorganisms and the most complex include organisms like ourselves, which aremade up of communities of cells derived by the growth and division of a single foundercell. It can be said, therefore, that cells are the fundamental units of life.Cells from different organisms differ from each other although they generally carry outthe same basic functions. All cells have the same basic features. These common featuresinclude a cell membrane, a semi-fluid substance called cytosol (cytosol is known ascytoplasm when it contains organelles), chromosomes that carry DNA, and tinyorganelles called ribosomes that produce proteins. The characteristic organelles ofeukaryotes are nuclei, mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum (also known asGolgi apparatus). Other more specialist features are present in specific cells such as thecell wall present in plant and fungal cells, and chloroplasts in plant cells. All cells aremade up of four major chemical components: proteins, nucleic acids, lipids andpolysaccharides. Together, these are known as macromolecules. It is the chemicalnature and arrangement of these macromolecules in a cell of one organism that makes itdifferent to that of another.Most bacteria are single-celled organisms (there are some filamentous bacteria calledactinomycetes) and have the simplest structure; in particular they contain no membraneboundorganelles (that is, no nucleus, no mitochondria, no endoplasmic reticulum, nochloroplasts). The simplest classification of cells is whether or not a cell has a nucleus;if it does it is classed as a eukaryotic cell, those that don’t are classed as prokaryotic.Therefore, bacteria are prokaryotic cells.The basic bacterial structure consists usually of a semi-rigid protective coat called a cellenvelope; a plasma membrane which encloses the cytoplasm and acts as a selectivebarrier; organelles which synthesize proteins called ribosomes; a nucleoid - the regionwhere the cell’s DNA is located; pili, which are attachment structures on the surface;and some have flagella which provide the cell with locomotion.2Classroom materials may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use © British Mycological Society 2005.

TG02: Fungal CellsFungi are eukaryotes, just like animals and plants. Although they have the same basicgenetic structures as animals and plants, there are some differences arising from thefungal lifestyle that need special explanation. Fungi can exist as single-celled organisms(yeast) but most commonly exist in the multi-cellular form (‘filamentous moulds’) whenthey are typically made up of a network of tiny filaments called hyphae. Hyphae makeup an interwoven mass called a mycelium that surround and infiltrates the material onwhich the fungi feed and allow efficient uptake of nutrients. Fungal cell walls containchitin, this polysaccharide is not present in plants but is present in insects and otherarthropods.In animals, even lower animals, the movement of cells and cell populations plays acrucial role in the life of the organism. So cell migration (and everything that controls it)is a key feature of all aspects of animal biologyPlant cells, on the other hand, are encased in walls and have little scope for movementrelative to each other. Changes in shape and form in plants depend on control of theorientation and position of the mitotic division spindle, because the new cell wall whichwill separate the parental cell into two daughters arises at the equator of the mitoticdivision spindle. Consequently, the orientation and position of the dividing parentalnucleus will determine the orientation and position of the daughter cell wall (and therelative sizes and shapes of the daughter cells).Fungi are also encased in walls; but their basic structural unit, the hypha, has twopeculiarities that make them totally different from plants and animals. These are thathyphae grow only at their tips and that cross-walls form only at right angles to the longaxis of the hypha. Hyphae are NEVER divided down their long axis. No amount of ‘celldivision’ in fungi will turn one hypha into two hyphae. Instead, a hypha must branch tocreate a second growing hyphal tip. To make a fungal tissue in an organised way, theposition(s) at which branches emerge and their direction(s) of growth must becontrolled.The above summarises the basic background information we think necessary to conveya balanced understanding of basic cell biology at GCSE level. The accompanyingcollection of class sheets offer several different ways in which to fit this informationinto KS3 Module 7a, Cells; and into the year 8 module on Microbes[www.exploringscience.co.uk]. The next page is an annotated index to the class sheetsincluded in this package.These class sheets contain a brief description of animal and plant cells and includesomething about fungi and about bacteria. They are designed to be used as supplementsto GCSE textbooks, and/or teaching websites (like www.cellsalive.com). Pupils can alsobe encouraged to research the Internet – try Ask Jeeves for Kids atClassroom materials may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use © British Mycological Society 2005.3

TG02: Fungal Cellshttp://www.ajkids.com or Yahoo for kids at http://www.yahooligans.com by typing in‘Cell structure’ or a cell organelle such as ‘nucleus’ or ‘cell wall’.FC01FC02FC03Fungal CellsAnnotated index to Class sheetsGeneral description, concentrating on fungi, sointended as a supplement to the ‘standard’ NationalCurriculum inadequate comparison betweenanimals and plant cells. Provided in two formats:PDF file (for easy printing) and as a Word.doc foryou to edit and modify as you wish. Deals with thesame information as FC02+FC03 and intended asan alternative to those.Concentrates on the ‘standard’ NationalCurriculum inadequate comparison betweenanimals and plant cells (intended to be combinedwith FC03 which mostly deals with fungi). Thereare two sheets here; the first is more appropriate forKS3, the second for KS4. Provided in two formats:PDF file and as a PowerPoint PPT file (for editing).Quick revision of the animal/plant cell comparisonthen concentrating on fungi (intended to becombined with FC02). Provided in two formats:PDF file and as a PowerPoint PPT file. The sheetsare designed to be printed on A4 and then folded tomake a little A5 leaflet.FC04A single sheet revising the four-way comparison ofbacterial, animal, plant and fungal cells. Providedin two formats: PDF file and as a PowerPoint PPTfile.Remember: class sheets may be copied freely for education purposesClassroom materials may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use © British Mycological Society 2005.4

TG03: World of FungiA Teacher’s Guide toThe World of FungiThe British Mycological Society’s series of ready-made KS4 lessons andclassroom activities about fungiKingdom FungiAlthough Kingdom Fungi affects many aspects of people’s lives all over the world,there is a severe lack of knowledge and appreciation of the importance of suchorganisms. This deficiency is apparent in the specifications provided to secondaryschools, as the National Curriculum does not require pupils to have a broad knowledgeof Kingdom Fungi. This package provides five learning resources which cover acomplete range of fungal topics, from structure and function to fungal diseases of plantsand humans. These resources aim to increase knowledge and interest in Kingdom Fungiand increase interest in biology.The National Curriculum does not require pupils to have much knowledge of fungalbiology. This fact is particularly acute in ‘double award’ specifications that the majorityof pupils follow at GCSE level. Although the production of penicillin, bread and beermay be included, these are ‘historical stories’ – bread and beer represent prehistorictechnology, and the industrialisation of penicillin took place in the 1940s. No attempt ismade in any curriculum specification to use present day examples, despite the fact thatthere are many of these. Representations to the Qualifications and Curriculum Authoritybrought a statement from a Science Advisor for QCA to the effect that “There areopportunities to teach about fungi within this framework” and going on to explain thatthe probable reason for the lack of fungi in the current syllabus is most likely due to alack of awareness by teachers and examiners!We have identified the problems and it is the purpose of this package to deliver a setof appropriate learning resources, which could be used in schools nationwide, toincrease knowledge and awareness of fungi, with the subsidiary aim of maintaininginterest in science by demonstrating how much pupils depend on fungi in their everydaylife.The learning resources described here are in the form of five class sheets thattogether provide a complete mini-course about fungi. The material could be delivered ina series of five lessons – minimising the amount of time needed to compensate for thedeficiencies of the National Curriculum – but they can also be used as the basis forwider and more extensive classroom activities. Although designed to complement themicrobiology content of the AQA GCSE Applied Science (Double Award)Specification (AQA, 2006) the class sheets can be used in a wide variety of ways forother specifications as the resources provide topics for pupil investigations, classdebates and discussions, and self-directed activities.Classroom materials may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use © British Mycological Society 2005.1

TG03: World of FungiRemember, also, that you can usefully combine these class sheets with those in theother packages; some of the possibilities are noted after the brief descriptions below.WF01WF02WF03World of FungiAnnotated index to Class sheetsWelcome to the World of Fungi introduces KingdomFungi to the pupil. A brief overview describes how longfungi have existed and how many species may exist, thisindicates the sheer size and persistence in time of KingdomFungi. The rest of the package focuses on the structure,growth mechanism, feeding methods and introduces thenumerous places fungi are found. Includes a ‘matching’ taskfor the pupils. Provided in two formats: PDF file (for easyprinting) and as a Word.doc for you to edit and modify asyou wish. NOTE also the FF16: What are Fungi?PowerPoint Presentation - 14 slides giving a generaloverview of fungi, and offered as a PowerPoint PPT file andas a set of PDF sheets that you can copy onto OHPtransparencies.Reproduction and Conservation briefly reviews what wascovered in the previous lesson to remind the pupil. Thereproductive cycle is described in detail. Both sexual andasexual reproduction are revised using short statements, andreproductive cycles are provided for pupils to exercise theirvisual memory. Methods of spore dispersal are describedusing colourful pictures of particular fungal species asexamples to allow the pupil to visualise dispersal methods.Provided in two formats: PDF file and as a Word.doc youcan edit.My Favourite or Nastiest Fungus was designed for a twohourlesson. The first session requires the pupils to work ingroups of two to four and research a particular fungus in theschool’s IT department on the Internet. Some websiteaddresses are provided. Each team has to meet stated criteriato produce a poster in the second session explaining why thefungus was their ‘favourite’ or ‘nastiest’. Offering the bestposter a prize and/or award certificate will give the pupils anincentive to work hard and made the research process a funand enjoyable activity. This package incorporated teamwork,IT, enquiry, information processing and creative thinkingskills. Provided in two formats: PDF file and Word.doc.Classroom materials may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use © British Mycological Society 2005.2

TG03: World of FungiWF04Fungi and Industry summarises some production methodsthat depend on fungi, and uses the British MycologicalSociety’s ‘Supermarket Challenge’ to make the topicrelevant to the pupils by showing the wide range of everydayproducts that depend on fungi. An introduction to thetypes of fungi that benefit human health is also given. Theresource provides many opportunities for classroom debatesover topics as diverse as transplant ethics, nutrition and the‘need’ for food supplements, and the effects of long-termtreatment for chronic ailments. This package incorporatescommunication, application of number and thinking skills.Provided in two formats: PDF file and Word.doc.WF05Fungi and Disease can be usefully started with a briefverbal summary to revise the nature of microorganisms andpathogens. A description of plant and human fungalpathogens is provided in the class sheet, and the pupils aregiven brief descriptions next to pictures of several humanand plant fungal diseases (you could remove these to leaveblank space in which pupils are required to write notes). Abrief case study describing the effects of the pathogenPhytophthora infestans in the Irish Potato Famine isprovided that could be the basis for a class projectcombining biology, history, geography and communitystudies. Provided in two formats: PDF file and Word.doc.Remember: class sheets may be copied freely for education purposes.The resources included in the package entitled What’s Your Favourite Fungus?could be incorporated to enhance these lessons. The collection of fungus ‘stories’includes a wide variety of information, which could contribute in many different waysto the above. For example, stories about chytrids, mycorrhizas, timber decay and thelargest organism could contribute to WF02; those about bread, cheese, Quorn, citricacid and Marmite to WF04; and stories about statins and cyclosporin, as well as riceblast and powdery mildew to WF05. Any of the FF-stories could be the basis ofalternative topics for the Internet research and poster making in WF03.General References for Further Information:M. J. Carlile, S. C. Watkinson, and G. W. Gooday (2001). The Fungi, 2nd ed. Academic Press; ISBN0127384464.Liz Holden & Kath Hamper (2003) The Fungi Name Trail, a Key to Commoner Fungi. Field StudiesCouncil/ British Mycological Society; ISBN 1851538917 [www.field-studies-council.org].B. Kendrick (2000). The Fifth Kingdom, 3rd ed. Focus Publishing; ISBN 1585100226.T. Laessøe and A. Del Conte (1996). The Mushroom Book, Dorling Kindersley, ISBN 0789410737.D. Moore (2001). Slayers, Saviours, Servants, and Sex, an Exposé of Kingdom Fungi, Springer-VerlagNew York Inc.; ISBN 0387950982.D. Pegler (1999). The Easy Edible Mushroom Guide, Aurum Press; ISBN 1854106317.Roy Watling (2003). Fungi, Natural History Museum; ISBN 0565091824.Classroom materials may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use © British Mycological Society 2005.3

TG03: World of FungiAdditional guidance for specific Class sheetsWF01 is relevant to Unit 1 Developing Scientific SkillsWorking safely in scienceStudents must be aware that some fungalspecies are poisonous. Use shop-boughtmushrooms to make sure that the samplesused in the classroom are edible and safeto handle.Investigating living organismsStudents will learn about the fiveKingdom classification system, thestructure and composition of themushroom, how growth occurs and thethree methods fungal species use to feed.WF01 is relevant to Unit 2 Science for the Needs of SocietyLiving organismsStudents will be able to describe thedifferences between animal cells, plantcells and the fungal hypha and should beable to name three structural componentsof a fungal hypha.WF01 Class sheet page 3: Students should draw labelled diagrams as shown below:Classroom materials may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use © British Mycological Society 2005.4

TG03: World of FungiWF01 Class sheet page 4: Students should draw labelled diagrams as shown below:WF01 Class sheet page 5: Students should draw labelled diagrams as shown below:Classroom materials may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use © British Mycological Society 2005.5

TG03: World of FungiWF01 Class sheet page 7:►Question: How many uses of fungi can you think of?Hold a class discussion to introduce the uses of fungi. Topics include:► Mushrooms on pizza and in salads► Yeast in production of bread and beer► Making other food products – cheese, Quorn, soy sauce► Making antibiotics and other pharmaceuticals► Making citric acid for fizzy drinks► Enzymes for fabric conditioning & food processing► Composting waste materialsFor ideas, background and further information, check out the accompanying resourcepackage entitled What’s Your Favourite Fungus?WF02 Reproduction and Conservation► Be sure to check out the information on the Fungi Name Trail.► Make sure your pupils understand the processes (and the differences) ofsexual reproduction. You might add that in many fungi incompatibility reactionscan define numerous “mating types” so that there are many different sexes(rather than just two). It’s up to you to judge whether this is likely to be moreconfusing than enlightening!► Don’t forget that you can compare spore production and dispersal in fungiwith seed production and dispersal in plants. There are many parallels –including adaptations to wind dispersal, mechanical methods of discharge anddependence on insects (and adaptations to attract them).WF02 Reproduction and Conservation Class sheet page 8: provides space for thepupil to construct a food web. Food chains and food webs are described in most textbooks. Unfortunately, fungi are never included in them – and this is despite the fact thatmost soils are filled with fungal mycelium which is the staple diet of many‘microarthropods’ (= mites, springtails and small insects), and fungal fruit bodies(truffles, puffballs, mushrooms) are the main (sometimes only) source of nutrition formany small animals (mushroom fly larvae, snails and slugs, mice, voles, shrews) andimportant component of the diet for larger animals (squirrels and even deer). FoodChains show the transfer of food energy from one organism to the next…..so they showus who eats who! Fungi play essential roles in many food chains and not always in therole of decomposer. Two examples of food chains in which fungi are essential:Plant/Tree roots → Mycorrhizal Truffle → Vole → OwlOrganic matter → Saprotrophic fungi → Insect → MouseThe arrows in the food chain indicate the direction in which the food energy istransferred between organisms.Food Webs are made up of many food chains. They give a more complete picture ofhow organisms interact in nature. An example of a food web containing fungi is shownin the next diagram:Classroom materials may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use © British Mycological Society 2005.6

TG03: World of FungiWF03 My Favourite or Nastiest FungusDo check out the websites yourself before you let your pupils loose on them! The basicconcept here (namely: do some research on the Internet and then make a poster) is avery useful exercise and could be expanded further to stretch your pupils and toillustrate other important principles. Although our specific example aims pupils towardsparticular fungal species, you could aim them towards processes. For example:► Search the websites for decomposers of leaves and dead wood and discusstheir value in autumn, their contribution to nutrient recycling and nitrogen &carbon cycles.► Research symbiotic relationships and their importance in the survival ofplants (especially trees); why not discuss the proposition in the slogan ‘no fungi– no forest; no forest – no future!► Think about fungi and industry, and fungi and disease as topics for the poster;these topics can extend into other areas of the curriculum and develop interest inmany important and relevant topics.WF04 Fungi and Industry Class sheet page 1: Products that depend on fungi includebread, beer, wine, cheese, marmite, Quorn and even coffee and fizzy drinks. Mostcurriculum specifications deal only with bread and beer production as biotechnologicalfermentations but there are other potential examples and many of these are explained inthe package entitled What’s Your Favourite Fungus? (FF01 to FF15).WF04 Fungi and Industry Class sheet page 2: The exact values for entries in the tablewill depend on the source of information that is used, but typical values (as %age byweight) would be as follows:Protein Dietary Fibre FatMyco-protein 44% 18% 13%Beef steak 68% 0 (zero) 30%The exercise provides a departure point for discussion of food sources of protein, fibreand fats and why the body needs them:► Protein from meat, eggs, fish needed for building and repairing cellsClassroom materials may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use © British Mycological Society 2005.7

TG03: World of Fungi► Fibre from vegetables, fruit, cereals needed for proper intestinal function andregular egestion► Fat from butter, meat, cakes needed for energy and as insulating layer (butimportant to control intake)► Carbohydrate from bread, potatoes, cereals and needed as a primary energysource.WF04 Fungi and Industry Class sheet page 3: Details about the items in the table canbe found in the explanatory notes for the Supermarket Challenge poster (FF25).WF04 Fungi and Industry Class sheet page 5: Some of these topics are explained inthe package entitled What’s Your Favourite Fungus? (FF01 to FF15).WF05 Fungi and Disease: It is useful to stress that fungi can infect plants and animalsto cause disease (curriculum specifications seem to imply (wrongly) that only virusesand bacteria are infective agents). Take this a stage further to point out that differentdisease fungi may be specialised to infect different parts of the plant (e.g. leaf diseasesor root diseases) or animal (e.g. lung infections caused by inhaling spores, skin diseasescaused by contact with the infective agent).Additional discussion topics could be the use of pesticides to control infections(fungicides, insecticides, disinfectants); their impact on the ecosystem (e.g. on foodwebs), which can then be developed further towards the ways that human activitiesaffect nature.Classroom materials may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use © British Mycological Society 2005.8

TG04: Favourite FungusA Teacher’s Guide toWhat’s Your Favourite Fungus?The British Mycological Society’sintegrated collection of materials for the classroomThis resource package originated as an event for KS4 pupils in year 8 to year 11 duringNational Science Week 2005, with the content focused on fungi. It can be used in thisform for Science Fairs and similar special events, and its components can be usedseparately in various ways for curriculum enhancement.The core of the package is a series of class sheets telling 15 different stories aboutfungal biology that provide the basis for the ‘What’s your favourite fungus?’ theme ofthe activities. We suggest that pupils investigate the stories and extract important pointsfrom them. In addition the pack contains:• a PowerPoint presentation giving a general overview of fungi;• a ‘name-game’ starter exercise;• templates for producing a pack of playing cards are also included. The playingcards mirror the class sheets and can be used to play a variety of games - and allthe time the players are holding cards that each carry a different ‘fungal fact’.‘What’s your Favourite Fungus?’ storiesThis activity aims to concentrate on a wide range of fungi and their uses. The basicconcept is to provide enough information for pupils to consider (including discuss anddebate) which their ‘favourite’ is. The stories are short (one page) and very varied,dealing with an enormous range of fungal topics (FF01 to FF15 listed in the index tablebelow).They include examples where fungi are used by animals, plants and humans, their roleas degraders, largest organism on earth, pharmaceuticals from fungi, their value as afood source, and in producing other foods. The theme ‘What’s your Favourite Fungus?’aims to make pupils think about each story to see the varying importance of fungi todifferent people and organisms. Along the way they might see the relevance of fungi totheir own daily lives.An effective way of using the stories is to divide the class into groups of 4/5 pupils andgive each group a different story and then allow 15 minutes for each group to writedown six main points from their story. A spokesperson from each group can then reporttheir group’s findings to the rest of the class.There are enough stories in the set to allow you to extend this phase, even for a largeclass. Similarly, there are enough for you to choose to deal with the story topics atrandom, or to theme them in different sessions (e.g. health topics, environmental topics,biotechnology, etc.).Classroom materials may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use © British Mycological Society 2005.1

TG04: Favourite FungusFavourite FungusAnnotated index to story sheetsFF01: The one we slice onsalads (about cultivatedmushrooms)FF02: The one that makesplant roots work (aboutmycorrhizas)FF03: The one that digestsgrass for cows (aboutherbivore-chytrid symbiosis)FF04: The one that keepsgrandad alive (about statins)FF05: The one that makesyour daily bread (about bakingindustry)FF06: The one that producesagriculture’s leading fungicide(about strobilurins)FF07: The one that makescyclosporin to combatrejection in transplant patientsFF08: The one that makes thecheese (about cheese making& finishing)FF09: The one that’s used infizzy drinks (about citric acidindustry)Classroom materials may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use © British Mycological Society 2005.2

TG04: Favourite FungusFF10: The one the veggieslike to eat (about the Quornfungus)FF11: The one that makesMarmite (about yeast extract)FF12: The one that digests allthe old timber (about lignin &cellulose breakdown)FF13: The one that’s thelargest organism on Earth(about Armillaria)FF14: The one that can fly(about spore adaptations todispersal)FF15: The one that producesthe highest pressure known innature (about adaptations ofplant pathogens to infection)Remember: class sheets may be copied freely for education purposes.The stories are presented to you here in colour, but they copy well in black & white.You might also like to consider laminating the sheets.FF16: PowerPoint PresentationThis is a set of 14 slides giving a general overview of fungi, presented as though this isa new topic to the pupils. It is offered to you as a PowerPoint PPT file which you canuse as-is (NOTE: slide transitions proceed on a mouse-click) or modify as you wish, andas a set of PDF sheets that you can copy onto overhead transparencies for OHPpresentation. The slides deal with the following topics: what fungi are, how they areuseful to man, examples of mutualistic relationships, fungal infections of plants andhumans.FF17: Starter Activity - The Fungi Name GameThis starter activity is used to introduce the two ways of naming fungi (common namesand scientific names) in a game format. The paper versions provided here could beClassroom materials may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use © British Mycological Society 2005.3

TG04: Favourite Fungusphotocopied so that they can be handed out to the class or could be copied ontotransparencies for OHP use.Many fungi have English common names, with which pupils may be more at ease (ormay think of as less exotic) than scientific names. The Fungi Name Game deals withEnglish names – some genuine, some not. The idea is that pupils need to pick the realcommon names from the fake ones by shouting out guesses, with a tick or cross beingplaced over each name to make a path of correct choices from the top of the grid to thebottom. If you are using the OHP you could obscure the fake names as they arediscovered with counter tallies, draughtsmen, or some other opaque objects to make thepath more obvious. This structure is similar to several popular TV quiz games in thehope that this activity will be rapidly accepted by the pupils.The final page introduces a variety of Latin names of fungi. The purpose is to demystifythese names by showing that ‘scientific’ naming of organisms is not so differentfrom any other naming process. Our experience is that pupils readily cope with Latinbinomials if they are given a little help and encouragement. Anyone who follows sportsis used to dealing with exotic ‘foreign names’ of sports and media stars, and there’s noreason why that easy ‘I can cope’ attitude shouldn’t be extended to biology.FF18 – FF24: Favourite Fungus Card GameThis is a ‘Happy Families’ or ‘Rummy’ style game where the pupils need to collect 5cards of the same topic. Eight different stories chosen from the Favourite Fungus storysheets are each represented by a symbol common to the story (Clip Art icons) and thereare six cards for each fungus story, each bearing a different ‘bullet point’ fact takenfrom that specific story. In essence, therefore, the pack of cards consists of 8 suits, withsix cards in each suit. As the suits are distinguished by their symbolic picture a varietyof games based on the need to collect a hand of cards made up of a single symbol can beplayed. It’s proved popular with pupils of all ages and we think it’s a valid way oflearning as even though pupils are playing a game, the ‘fungal facts’ on the cards repeatwhat has been learned in the more formal parts of the session and that repetition shouldimprove long term retention of the information.The cards are presented in the form of Microsoft Word (and PDF equivalent) templatesfor Business Cards. They are intended to be used with the A4 sheets of ‘print-themyourself’business cards that are commercially-available. The templates are designed forindividual cards measuring 85 x 54 mm (= 10 cards per A4 sheet), and we have usedcards from the ‘DECAdry PC papers’ range (see www.decadry.com). We particularlylike ready-cut cards with smooth edges and rounded corners (OCC-3343 in white; OCC-3346 in parchment) as they produce a pack of cards that is easy to shuffle and deal.The ready-cut cards can only be printed on one side (because the cards are stabilised onan A4 backing sheet), and the backing should be peeled away from the finished cards.Don’t peel the cards away from the backing – you’ll bend the cards unnecessarily. Eightsuits of six cards = a pack of 48, so two jokers were added to bring the total number ofcards per pack to 50 (requiring five sheets of Business Cards). NOTICE that FF23 andFF24 differ only in the jokers, so printing one OR the other will complete your pack ofClassroom materials may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use © British Mycological Society 2005.4

TG04: Favourite Fungusplaying cards. FF18 is a brief instruction sheet for the card game that the players mayfind useful.FF25 Supermarket challenge display poster/leaflet (with explanatory text).FF26 Thank Fungus for That! Poster/leaflet (with explanatory text).Classroom materials may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use © British Mycological Society 2005.5

TG05: Discover moreFOUR STEPS TO DISCOVERMORE ABOUT FASCINATINGFUNGI1 Join your Local Fungus GroupOver 30 Local Fungus Recording Groups now exist, located in many parts of the country, helping to put mushroomson the map in the UK. Enthusiasts run them on a voluntary basis; they seek to share their knowledge of wild fungiand improve identification skills. The groups offer a friendly and welcoming environment that helps new membersthoroughly enjoy the world of fungi. If you are interested in joining a group please check the address list overleafand send a stamped, self-addressed envelope to the group nearest to you asking for details of membership, eventsand fungus forays. And don’t forget that many of the wardens in local nature reserves organize fungal walks2 Buy yourself a field guideThe most comprehensive photographic field guide for collecting mushrooms and other fungi is Roger Phillips’Mushrooms (2006; Macmillan, ISBN: 0330442376). This is a large book; a pocket-sized alternative that also hasexcellent photographs is Edmund Garnweidner’s Mushrooms and Toadstools of Britain and Europe in the CollinsNature Guides series (1994: HarperCollins, ISBN 0261674064). Also helpful and entertaining are: T. Laessøe andA. Del Conte, The Mushroom Book, (1996; Dorling Kindersley, ISBN: 0789410737); D. Pegler, The Easy EdibleMushroom Guide, (1999; Aurum Press, ISBN 1854106317); R. Gillmor, N. Hammond, P. Harding, T. Lyon, and G.Tomblin, Collins How to Identify Edible Mushrooms, (1999; Harper Collins, ISBN 000219984X); P. Jordan and S.Wheeler, The Practical Mushroom Encyclopedia: Identifying, Picking and Cooking with Mushrooms, (2000; AnnessPublishing, ISBN 1842152432).Books for the general reader about the world of fungi include: B. Spooner & P. Roberts, Fungi (2005, Collins NewNaturalist Series; ISBN: 0002201526); D. Moore, Slayers, Saviours, Servants, and Sex, an Exposé of KingdomFungi, (2001; Springer-Verlag New York Inc.; ISBN: 0387950982); Roy Watling, Fungi, (2003; Natural HistoryMuseum, ISBN 0565091824); N. P. Money, Mr. Bloomfield’s Orchard, (2002; OUP, ISBN 0195154576); G. A. Fine,Morel Tales: the Culture of Mushrooming, (1998; Harvard UP, ISBN 0674089359); G. W. Hudler, MagicalMushrooms, Mischievous Molds, (1998; Princeton UP, ISBN 0691028737).3 Subscribe to Field MycologyThis excellent, best-selling magazine about wild fungi contains a wealth of information including user-friendlyidentification keys, helpful, readable articles on all aspects of fungi, and beautiful colour photographs. Subscriptions(£20.00 for 4 issues) are available from: Customer Service Department, Elsevier, P.O. Box 211, 1000 AE,Amsterdam, The Netherlands [visit http://www.elsevier.com/locate/fldmyc to order on-line].4 Visit the BMS websitesPoint your browser to these URLs for the most extensive information resources on fungal biology on the Internet: and

BRITISH MYCOLOGICAL SOCIETY RECORDING NETWORKNetwork Co-ordinator ~ Liz HoldenAllanaquoich, Mar Lodge, Braemar, Ballater, Aberdeenshire, Scotland. AB35 5YJTG05: Discover moreBUCKINGHAMSHIRE FUNGUS GROUPDerek Schafer, 8 Hawleys Lane, Oving Rd, Whitchurch,Bucks.HP22 4LBCOTSWOLD FUNGUS GROUPDave Shorten, 45 Sevenfields, Highworth, Swindon, Wilts.SN6 7NFDEAN FUNGUS GROUPValerie Davies, Treveth, Wintles Hill, Westbury on Severn, Glos.GL14 1QB.DEVON FUNGUS GROUPDavid Farley, School of Biological Sciences, WashingtonSinger Labs, Perry Rd. University of Exeter, Devon. EX4 4QG.DORSET FUNGUS GROUPKen Roberts, 6 Woodlinken Close, Verwood, Dorset BH31 6BSDUBLIN FUNGUS WORKING GROUPHoward Fox, National Botanic Gardens, Glasnevin, Dublin 9ESSEX FUNGUS GROUPTony Boniface, 40 Pentland Ave, Chelmsford, Essex. CM1 4AZFIFE FUNGUS INTEREST GROUPKeith Cohen, 79 Cash Feus, Strathmiglo, Cupar, Fife KY14 7QPFUNGUS GROUP OF S.E. SCOTLANDElizabeth Farquharson, 6 Chamberlain Rd, Edinburgh, EH104DNFUNGUS SURVEY OF OXFORDSHIREWendy MacEachrane, 14, Crecy Walk, Woodstock,Oxfordfordshire, OX20 1USGLAMORGAN FUNGUS GROUPMervyn Howells, 63 Ashleigh Road, Sketty, Swansea, Glam,Wales. SA2 8EEGRAMPIAN FUNGUS GROUPLiz Holden, Allanaquoich, Mar Lodge Estate, Braemar,Ballater, Aberdeenshire, Scotland. AB35 5YJGWENT FUNGUS GROUPSheila Spence, ‘Porcini’, 12 Golding Way, Ledbury, Hereford.HRB 2PNHAMPSHIRE FUNGUS RECORDING GROUPStuart Skeates, 55, Cherville St., Romsey, Hampshire SO51 8 FBHEREFORDSHIRE FUNGUS SURVEY GROUPSheila Spence, 'Porcini', 12 Golding Way, Ledbury, Hereford.HR8 2PNHERTFORDSHIRE FUNGUS GROUPAlan Outen, 14 Fairfax Close, Clifton, Shefford, Beds. SG175RHHUNTINGDON FUNGUS GROUPSheila Wells, 94 High St, Upwood, Huntingdon Cambs. PE262QELEICESTERSHIRE FUNGI STUDY GROUPRichard Iliffe, 17 Island Close, Hinckley, Leics. LE10 1LNLINCOLNSHIRE NATURALISTS UNION - MYCOLOGY Sect.Ken Rowland, 2 Dene Close, Skellingthorpe, Lincoln. LN6 5SULONDON RECORDING GROUPAndy Overall, ‘Fungi To Be With’, Flat 2, 39 Northend Road,Golders Green, London NW11 7RJMID YORKSHIRE FUNGUS GROUPAnn Bowers, 6 Ashwood Tce., Leeds LS6 2EHMELBOURN MUSHROOM CLUB - Cambridge areaHelene Davies, Culver Cottage, 139, Hillcrest, Bar Hill,Cambridge CB3 8THMYCOLOGY SECTION SOCIETE JERSIAISENick Armstrong, 2 Hillside, La Ruelle, Vacluse, St Helier, JerseyNORFOLK FUNGUS STUDY GROUPTony Leech, 3 Eccles Rd, Holt, Norfolk. NR25 6HJNORTH WEST FUNGUS GROUPDr. Irene Ridge, Smalley’s Farm, Billington, Clitheroe BB7 9JFNORTHERN IRELAND FUNGUS GROUPGerald Shannon, 41A Newal Road, Ballymoney, Co. Antrim N.Ireland. BT53 6HBNOTTINGHAMSHIRE FUNGUS GROUPMary Hawkins, 16 Gertrude Rd., West Bridgford, Nottingham,NG2 5BYPEMBROKESHIRE FUNGUS RECORDING NETWORKDavid Harries www.pembsfungi.org.ukSALISBURY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY: MYCOLOGY SECTIONEdward Gange, ‘Belvedere’, Southampton Road, Whaddon,Salisbury, Wilts. SP5 3DZSHROPSHIRE FUNGUS GROUPRoy Mantle, 37, Ludlow Rd., Bridgnorth, Shropshire WV16 5ASSTAFFORDSHIRE FUNGUS GROUPCamilla Lovatt, Dunwood Hall, Longdon, Nr Leek, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffs. ST9 9ARTHAMES VALLEY FUNGUS GROUPGordon Crutchfield, 5, Highdown Hill Rd., Emmer Green,Reading RG4 8QRWARWICKSHIRE FUNGUS SURVEYDavid Antrobus, 55 Gower Road, Halesowen, West Mids. B629BXWEST WEALD FUNGUS RECORDING GROUPBarry Hughes Woodbury Knoll, 5, Hambledon Park,Hambledon, Godalming, Surrey GU8 4ERWORCESTERSHIRE FUNGUS GROUPDiana and Tim Bateman, Baytree Cottage, Uphampton,Ombersley, Worcs. WR9 0JSBRITISH MYCOLOGICAL SOCIETY The Wolfson Wing, Jodrell Laboratory, Royal Botanic Gardens,Kew, Surrey TW9 3ABSeptember 2006 © British Mycological Society 2006

TG05: Discover more3Recommended books listThis is a list of books that we recommend as authoritative, reliable and valuable. The standardreference work for terminology and definitions is P. M. Kirk, P. F. Cannon, J. C. David, and J. A.Stalpers, Dictionary of the Fungi, 9 th ed. (2001; CABI Publishing, ISBN 085199377X). M. Ulloa andR. T. Hanlin, Illustrated Dictionary of Mycology, (2000; APS Press, ISBN 0890542570), is also anexcellent dictionary of mycological terms.Books for the general reader about the world of fungi include: B. Spooner & P. Roberts, Fungi(2005, Collins New Naturalist Series; ISBN: 0002201526); D. Moore, Slayers, Saviours, Servants, andSex, an Exposé of Kingdom Fungi, (2001; Springer-Verlag New York Inc.; ISBN: 0387950982); RoyWatling, Fungi, (2003; Natural History Museum, ISBN 0565091824); N. P. Money, Mr. Bloomfield’sOrchard, (2002; OUP, ISBN 0195154576); G. A. Fine, Morel Tales: the Culture of Mushrooming,(1998; Harvard UP, ISBN 0674089359); G. W. Hudler, Magical Mushrooms, Mischievous Molds,(1998; Princeton UP, ISBN 0691028737); E. Schaechter, In the Company of Mushrooms: a Biologist’sTale, (1997; Harvard UP, ISBN 0674445546).Information at college-level may be found in B. Kendrick, The Fifth Kingdom, 3rd ed. (2000; FocusPublishing; ISBN: 1585100226); C. J. Alexopoulos, C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell, IntroductoryMycology, 4th ed. (1996; John Wiley and Sons (WIE); ISBN: 0471522295); M. J. Carlile, S. C.Watkinson, and G. W. Gooday, The Fungi, 2nd ed. (2001; Academic Press, ISBN 0127384464); E.Moore-Landecker, Fundamentals of the Fungi, 4th ed. (1996; Prentice Hall International, ISBN:0133768643); N. A. R. Gow and G. M. Gadd, G. M, The Growing Fungus, (1995; Kluwer AcademicPublishers; ISBN: 0412466007). Another useful text is: R. P. Oliver and M. Schweizer, MolecularFungal Biology, (1999; Cambridge University Press; ISBN: 052156784X).The most comprehensive modern treatise on fungi, which has been in production by Springer-Verlagsince 1994, is The Mycota, which has K. Esser and P. A. Lemke listed as general editors, but differentvolume editors for each of the 13 volumes published to the time of writing. The topics covered in thosevolumes include Growth, Differentiation and Sexuality (vol. 1), Genetics and Biotechnology (vol 2),Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (vol. 3), Environmental and Microbial Relationships (vol. 4),Plant Relationships (vols 5A and 5B), Human and Animal Relationships (vol. 6), Systematics andEvolution (vols 7A and 7B), Biology of the Fungal Cell (vol. 8), Fungal Associations (vol. 9),Industrial Applications (vol. 10) and Agricultural Applications (vol. 11, published 2002). Details aboutvolume contents and availability are obtainable from the Springer website at this URL:http://www.springeronline.com/sgw/cda/frontpage/0,10735,5-10027-69-1189086-0,00.html.Practical guidance about modern laboratory techniques is provided by N. J. Talbot, Molecular andCellular Biology of Filamentous Fungi, (2001; OUP, ISBN 0199638373), and although they are longout of print, two books that still contain useful guidance about laboratory procedures are: D. L.Hawksworth, Mycologist’s Handbook, (1974; Commonwealth Agric. Bureaux, ISBN 0851983065);and R. B. Stevens, Mycology Guidebook, (1981; Univ. Washington Press, ISBN 0295958413).The most comprehensive photographic field guide for collecting mushrooms and other fungi is RogerPhillips’ Mushrooms (2006; Macmillan, ISBN: 0330442376). Roger Phillips has an extensive websiteyou might like to visit at http://www.rogersmushrooms.com. Phillips’ book is a large-format book; apocket-sized alternative which also has excellent photographs is Edmund Garnweidner’s Mushroomsand Toadstools of Britain and Europe in the Collins Nature Guides series (1994: HarperCollins, ISBN0261674064). Collins produce a second pocket-sized guide called Mushrooms and Toadstools ofBritain and Europe by Brian Spooner; it’s in the Collins Wild Guide series and has the cover titleCollins Wild Guide Mushrooms and Toadstools (ISBN 0002200074).Also helpful and entertaining are: T. Laessøe and A. Del Conte, The Mushroom Book, (1996; DorlingKindersley, ISBN: 0789410737); D. Pegler, The Easy Edible Mushroom Guide, (1999; Aurum Press,

TG05: Discover more4ISBN 1854106317); R. Gillmor, N. Hammond, P. Harding, T. Lyon, and G. Tomblin, Collins How toIdentify Edible Mushrooms, (1999; Harper Collins, ISBN 000219984X); P. Jordan and S. Wheeler, ThePractical Mushroom Encyclopedia: Identifying, Picking and Cooking with Mushrooms, (2000; AnnessPublishing, ISBN 1842152432). Fungal Conservation: Issues and Solutions (Moore, D., Nauta, M.M.,Evans, S.E. & Rotheroe, M.; 2001; Cambridge University Press, ISBN 1521803632) is a more formalscientific treatment of the issues surrounding conservation of fungi.Fungal genetics is dealt with in D. Moore and L. Novak Frazer, Essential Fungal Genetics (2002;Springer-Verlag New York Inc.; ISBN: 0387953671); C. J. Bos, Fungal Genetics: Principles andPractice, (1996; Marcel Dekker; ISBN: 082479544X); and C. G. Elliott, Reproduction in Fungi:General and Physiological Aspects, (1994; Kluwer Academic Publishers; ISBN: 0412496402). Theonly treatment of fungal population biology is the highly recommendable book by J. H. Burnett,Fungal Populations and Species, (2003; OUP, ISBN 0198515537). Similarly, the only comprehensiveaccount of fungal physiology is D. H. Jennings, The Physiology of Fungal Nutrition, (1995; CUP,ISBN 0521355249).Fungal developmental biology is dealt with by D. Moore, Fungal Morphogenesis, (1998; CambridgeUniversity Press; ISBN: 0521528577); H. Clémençon, Anatomie der Hymenomyceten, (1997; Flück-Wirth, Teufen/Université de Lausanne, ISBN 3715000406); N. A. R. Gow, G. D. Robson, and G. M.Gadd, The Fungal Colony, (1999; CUP, ISBN 0521621178); and H. D. Osiewacz, Molecular Biologyof Fungal Development, (2002; Marcel Dekker, ISBN 0824707443).Tropical fungi are covered in R. Watling, J. C. Frankland, A. M. Ainsworth, S. Isaac, and C. H.Robinson, Tropical Mycology: Volume I Macromycetes and Volume 2 Micromycetes, (2002 and 2001,respectively; CABI Publishing, ISBN 085199542X & 0851995438). Lichen biology and identificationare dealt with in: T. H. Nash, Lichen Biology, (1996; Cambridge University Press; ISBN: 0521453682)and J. N. Corbridge and W. A. Weber, Rocky Mountain Lichen Primer, (1998; Colorado UniversityPress; ISBN: 0870814907); and a classic account of yeasts is J. A. Barnett, R. W. Payne, D. Yarrow,and Linda Barnett, Yeasts: Characteristics and Identification, (2000; CUP, ISBN 0521573963). Thebook by A. Varma and B. Hock, Mycorrhiza: Structure, Function, Molecular Biology andBiotechnology, (1998) covers the biology of mycorrhizas, and practical aspects are considered in A.Varma, Mycorrhiza Manual, (1998).Different aspects of fungal biotechnology are dealt with in: P. Stamets and J. S. Chilton, TheMushroom Cultivator, (1983; Richmond Publishing Company; ISBN: 0961079800); P. Stamets,Growing Gourmet and Edible Mushrooms, (1993: Ten Speed Press, ISBN: 1580081754); S. B.Pointing and K. D. Hyde, Bio-Exploitation of Filamentous Fungi, (2001; Fungal Biodiversity Press,ISBN 9628567721); J. Singh and K. R. Aneja, From Ethnomycology to Fungal Biotechnology:Exploiting Fungi from Natural Resources for Natural Products, (1999; Kluwer Academic/PlenumPublishers; ISBN: 0306460599); P. F. Stanbury and A. Whitaker, Principles of FermentationTechnology, (1998); and G. M. Gadd, Fungi in Bioremediation, (2001; CUP, ISBN 0521781191).

5Recommended Internet LinksWe offer here a selection of useful Internet sites under the 5 general headings (a) sites for general information; (b) medicaland health matters; (c) the natural environment, biodiversity and identification; (d) Societies and institutions (some not inEnglish – so try your language skills); (e) shops and publishers. All hyperlinks verified 28 September 2005.Sites for General InformationVirtual Library of Mycologyhttp://mycology.cornell.edu/findex.htmlThis is the index page to the WWW Virtual Library of Mycology, maintained by Kathie T. Hodge, an Assistant Professor ofMycology in the Department of Plant Pathology at Cornell University. Kathie is also director of Cornell's Plant PathologyHerbarium. There are more links on this site than I know what to do with. If you can’t find what you’re looking for here,you probably shouldn’t be looking for it!Microbiology for schoolshttp://www.microbiologyonline.org.uk/Microbiology-online offers microbiology for schools and colleges. Supported by the Society for General Microbiology andMISAC (Microbiology in Schools Advisory Committee) working together to support microbiology education for all KeyStages and post-16.Microbiology Information Portalhttp://www.microbes.infoMicrobes.info at http://www.microbes.info/ is an internet web portal designed to bring useful and interesting microbiologyinformational resources to all who are interested. Microbes.info is a firm starting point for finding information concerningmicrobiology. The site offers a wide range of useful and interesting information although fungal content is limited. But thenmaybe more mycologists should offer material for inclusion.MushWorld.comhttp://www.mushworld.com/MushWorld promises “total mushroom information”. I’m not sure it’s quite achieved that yet, but it is a wonderful site forinformation and images mainly about the numerous fungal fruit bodies (not just mushrooms) that are valued in Asia. Thesite is operated by a non-profit organization located in Seoul, Korea, which started publication of a monthly magazine‘Mushroom Farming & Life’ in October 1998. This printed version was replaced with the MushWorld web magazine inNovember 2000. General science, collecting, and cultivation are all covered. You have to register (it’s free) as a “member”of the site’s community and then you can enjoy a range of services, including the Webzine MushWorld, access to theMushroom Community, Article Collection, Library, Images, etc. A well-designed and well maintained site; definitely wortha visit.Cornell Center for Fungal Biologyhttp://ccfb.cornell.edu/CCFB, The Cornell Center for Fungal Biology, promotes the study and teaching of fungi, lichens etc. This site wasestablished to showcase the "Fungi of the Lindsay-Parsons Biodiversity Preserve Project". In this site you will find links tospecimens, as well as other useful information about fungi. Nicely designed site, but infrequently updated.Taylor Lockwood’s “Treasures from the Kingdom of Fungi”http://www.fungiphoto.comPhotographs to delight. Taylor F. Lockwood states that the essence of his work is the appreciation of the beauty and varietyof mushrooms and other fungi. His stunning photographs certainly manage that.Biosciences Federationhttp://www.bsf.ac.uk/default.htmThe Biosciences Federation aims to promote liaison, dialogue and interactions within the diverse community of bioscientistson common issues that relate to research and teaching in the UK.Institute of Biology (IoB)http://www.iob.org/The Institute of Biology is the Voice of British Biology – supporting the bioscience community, informing debate, shapingthe future.National Federation for Biological Recordinghttp://www.nfbr.org.ukTG05: Discover more

TG05: Discover more6The National Federation for Biological Recording is the premier UK organisation for practitioners involved in biologicalrecording. NFBR brings together suppliers, managers, and users of information about species, habitats and wildlife sites;promotes a forum for discussion and sharing of knowledge and experience; promotes the importance of biologicalinformation in nature conservation, planning, research and public participation; represents the biological recordingcommunity. Membership includes individual naturalists, national organisations and recording societies, local records centresand their staff.The UK Life Sciences Speakers Databasehttp://www.biology4all.comThis database has been developed by the UK Life Sciences Committee to provide a central resource for schools looking forspeakers from HE establishments.Statisticshttp://www.Statpages.netStatpages is a website that collects together interactive pages that perform statistical calculations. There are also links tobooks, tutorials, software and other resources related to statistical analyses.Looking for something scientific? Try Scirushttp://www.scirus.com/Scirus is the most comprehensive science-specific search engine available on the Internet. Driven by the latest search enginetechnology, it enables scientists, students and anyone searching for scientific information to chart and pinpoint data, locateuniversity sites and find reports and articles quickly and easily. It was launched by Elsevier Science, the leadinginternational publisher of scientific information.Medical and Health MattersAdvice about Poisoning - Roy Watling’s essential medical guide to fungal poisoning in childrenhttp://www.britmycolsoc.org.uk/files/RBG(E)PubOrder_form.pdfThe full title of this little book is: ‘Children and Toxic Fungi: The essential medical guide to fungal poisoning in children’by Roy Watling (1995). ISBN 1 872291 16 3, softback, 56pp. This is an authoritative yet easy-to-use guide to theidentification of fungi - both toxic and harmless - likely to be encountered by young children. It enables a quick assessmentof the fungus involved, so treatment can be undertaken and a decision made as to whether an expert should be consulted. Itis based on Roy’s 40 years experience of the combination of children and fungi in Edinburgh! The book costs £10.00 plus£1.00 p+p and is available by mail order from the Publications Department of the Royal Botanic Garden in Edinburgh –CLICK ON THE HYPERLINK IN THE TITLE OF THIS PARAGRAPH TO DOWNLOAD AN ORDER FORM. If youare in the vicinity, you will also find the book for sale in the Botanics Shops at Edinburgh, Benmore, Logan and Dawyck.Doctor Fungushttp://www.doctorfungus.orgDoctor Fungus, claims to be your on-line reference to all things mycological! Gives information about fungal infections andmycology in general. This web site “is dedicated to timely dissemination of information about fungal infections via theworld-wide web” and is supported by Merck and Pfizer.Toxins of fungihttp://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/intro.htmlThe Bad Bug Book (more formally the “Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook”) producedby the Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition of the U.S. Food & Drug Administration.Toxinshttp://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/TOXNET is a website giving access to a cluster of databases on toxicology, hazardous chemicals, and related topics thatprovide factual information on toxicity and other hazards of chemicals.Toxins and Carcinogenshttp://ehis.niehs.nih.gov/roc/Authoritative information about numerous toxins, carcinogens and mutagens can be found in the Report on Carcinogens,which is produced regularly by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services in the Public Health Service NationalToxicology Program. The current report can be accessed and downloaded from this link.Poisonous fungihttp://www.rbgkew.org.uk/publications/Poisonous Plants and Fungi in Britain and Ireland (2nd Edition) is a CD-ROM available from the Royal Botanic Gardens atKew. Written by E.A. Dauncey, T.G.J. Rayner and D.A. Shah-Smith with Toxicity Monographs by N.S. Bates and othersfrom the National Poisons Information Service (London) and the Medical Toxicology Unit of Guy’s & St Thomas’ Hospital

TG05: Discover more7Trust. This fully interactive CD-ROM will aids identification, and helps to distinguish between edible and poisonous nativeand introduced fungi. For each plant and fungus there are photographic images, step-by-step keys to quick identification anddetailed toxicity information. It is an invaluable resource for medical professionals treating cases of suspected poisoning, aswell as people concerned with preventing poisonings occurring such as parents, local authority workers, nurserymen, gardenmanagers, growers and gardeners. Order direct from RBG (Kew). ISBN 1 900347 92 X. Priced at £39.95 (in 2002).Candidiasishttp://www.projinf.org/fs/candida.htmlInformation about oral candidiasis issued by Project Inform of San Francisco, CA.Aspergillus Web Sitehttp://www.aspergillus.man.ac.ukThis site offers a wide range of information about pathogenic Aspergilli and the diseases they cause. It is designed toprovide information for clinicians, scientists and patients. There is a section devoted to the needs of patients suffering fromthe effects of Aspergillus. The site includes laboratory protocols, treatment information, DNA sequence data, acomprehensive bibliographic database, image library and discussion groups. You are required to register (free of charge) togain access to the information contained in the rest of the site.Aspergillus for patients websitehttp://www.aspergillus.man.ac.uk/patients/Specifically intended for people (and their relatives and friends) who suffer from, or who think they may suffer from thefungus called Aspergillus. The fungus may be causing an infection, an allergic response or simply causing a nuisance insome other way.Medicinal mushroomshttp://sci.cancerresearchuk.org/labs/med_mush/med_mush.html“Medicinal mushrooms: their therapeutic properties and current medicalusage with special emphasis on cancer treatments”. A major review by Prof. John E. Smith, Neil J. Rowan and RichardSullivan. The monograph is a comprehensive overview of the subject from the technology of cultivation, extraction andchemistry of medicinal mushroom bioactive compounds, to the clinical evidence that suggests an important therapeutic rolein cancer, and other major diseases. Cancer Research UK commissioned the review. You can download the entiremonograph from this site (about 250 pages), or request a CD copy.Moulds in the environmenthttp://www.cdc.gov/mold/default.htmAuthoritative information about common indoor moulds, including Stachybotrys, on the website of the Air Pollution andRespiratory Health Branch of the United States’ National Center for Environmental Health.Mold, Moisture, and Your Homehttp://www.epa.gov/iaq/molds/moldguide.htmlThis Guide (full title “A Brief Guide to Mold, Moisture, and Your Home”) provides information and guidance forhomeowners and renters on how to clean up residential mold problems and how to prevent mold growth. It was produced bythe United States Environmental Protection Agency. The related EPA publication, "Mold Remediation in Schools andCommercial Buildings", is also available at this website.The Natural Environment, Biodiversity andIdentificationSpecies2000 - Indexing the world's known specieshttp://www.sp2000.org/Species 2000 has the objective of enumerating all known species of plants, animals, fungi and microbes on Earth as thebaseline dataset for studies of global biodiversity. It will also provide a simple access point enabling users to link from hereto other data systems for all groups of organisms, using direct species-links. Users worldwide will be able to verify thescientific name, status and classification of any known species through species checklist data drawn from an array ofparticipating databases.Global Biodiversity Information Facilityhttp://www.gbif.org/This website provides first hand information about the current state of the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF),an international initiative to produce a network of biodiversity databases and information technology tools.Fungal databaseshttp://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/index.cfm

TG05: Discover more8Databases developed at the U.S. National Fungus Collections provide access to information about fungi, primarily thoseassociated with plants or otherwise of agricultural importance. These databases are maintained and expanded by members ofthe Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory (SBML), U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service.MycoKeyhttp://www.mycokey.comMycoKey is a synoptic key for determination of fungal genera. This version includes 282 genera and about 1150 illustratedspecies. It covers the genera of basidiomycota with stem and cap (Agarics, Boletes etc.), polypores and club fungi fromNorthern Europe (i.e. Europe north of the Alps). Site maintained by Jens H. Petersen and Thomas Læssøe.MykoWebhttp://www.mykoweb.comThe biggest attraction at MykoWeb (compiled by Michael Wood) is The Fungi of California, an expanded version of theformer "Fungi of the San Francisco Bay Area". which contains descriptions of over 350 species of fungi found in California,illustrated with over 1500 photographs. Also included is a Glossary of mycological terms and a Bibliography of usefulmycological references.Truffleshttp://www.truffle.orgThe truffle.org web site is aimed to promote research on truffle and ectomycorrhizae. At present the main emphasis of thisproject is to provide methods for the identification of truffles both at the morphological and molecular level. Here you canfind keys, images and much more. The main part of the data organized in this site have been produced by the project"Tuber: biotecnologie della micorrizazione" jointly sponsored by 10 Regioni and the National Research Council (CNR) ofItaly.Coprinus site: all about Inkcapshttp://www.homepages.hetnet.nl/~idakees/index.htmlCoprinus “Monograph” style site, including the computer id-program DetPro.Exe, lots of photographs and otherinformation. Maintained by Kees Uljé who lives in Alphen aan den Rijn, The Netherlands.Phallus - A Mycological Voice From The Pasthttp://www.collectivesource.com/hadrianusThe oldest writing on a specific species of fungus was published in 1564 by a Dutch botanist called Aadrian DeJonghe(latinized to Hadrianus Junius).Freshwater Ascomyceteshttp://www.life.uiuc.edu/plantbio/fungi/Database compiled and maintained by Carol Shearer.Mycology.Nethttp://www.mycology.net/index.htmlThe Mycology.Net aims to provide online data on the biodiversity of fungi, mycological institutions, journals, databases(link sections) and persons engaged in mycology. At the moment content is limited and the site is distant and unfriendly.Wood Decayhttp://www.forestpathology.org/One of the topics in the online textbook “Forest & Shade Tree Pathology” by James J. Worrall, a Plant Pathologist with theUSDA Forest Service.Phycomyceshttp://www.es.embnet.org/~genus/phycomyces.htmlThe Phycomyces website provides information for the general public with interest in the biology of Phycomyces and anelectronic forum for the rapid exchange of ideas and new experimental results for the scientists involved in Phycomycesresearch.Tom Volk's Fungihttp://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/You should be able to find everything you wanted to know about fungi by clicking on the on the links on the images or onthe text links. Tom promises to leave his pages at this site for a long time, and points out that you can always find them bytyping (no spaces) into your browser.

TG05: Discover more9Societies and InstitutionsThe United Kingdom National Culture Collection (UKNCC)http://www.ukncc.co.ukThe United Kingdom National Culture Collection (UKNCC) co-ordinates the activities, marketing and research of the UKnational service collections of microbial organisms. Information on UKNCC services and on other collection activities maybe found through this website.CABI Bioscience - UK Centre, Eghamhttp://www.ukncc.co.uk/html/members/cabi/cabi_info.htmFormerly the International Mycological Institute (IMI), CABI BIOSCIENCE UK is part of an intergovernmentalorganisation established by treaty dedicated to improving human welfare through the application of scientific knowledge insupport of sustainable development world-wide, with emphasis on agriculture, forestry, human health and conservation ofnatural resources, and with particular attention to the needs of developing countries. The CABI Genetic ResourcesCollection (GRC) is tasked with the collection of organisms to provide a resource for the scientific programmes of CABI.The GRC accesses filamentous fungi and yeasts, plant pathogenic bacteria, nematodes and biocontrol agents belonging tothese groups. As well as live material the GRC is backed by over 370 000 dried specimens, including the NationalCollection of Wood Rotting Fungi.Kew Mycologyhttp://www.rbgkew.org.uk/scihort/mycolexp.htmlFor more than a century mycologists at Kew have helped to increase our knowledge of the fungal kingdom by identifyingand describing new families, new genera, new species, in Britain and overseas. Each year over 4,000 specimens arereceived at Kew from more than 30 countries around the world for expert determination. Kew mycologists have pioneeredresearch into tropical and equatorial fungi from the Amazon to Australia, working in collaboration with overseas researchinstitutes and universities. Following our move to more spacious premises, we can also offer improved research facilities formycological visitors from abroad.Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburghhttp://www.rbge.org.ukThe Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh was founded in the 17th century on an area the size of a tennis court. It now extendsto 31 hectares (at Inverleith in Edinburgh), incorporates Specialist Gardens at three very different locations in Scotland (theYounger, Logan and Dawyck Gardens; respectively 50ha, 12ha and 25ha), and is one of the world's finest botanic gardens.Plantlifehttp://www.plantlife.org.uk/Plantlife works with other organisations to promote plant conservation both in the UK and abroad. In particular, Plantlifeconvenes and administers the Fungus Conservation Forum, which promotes and coordinates the conservation of fungi in theUK.Fungal Genetics Stock Centerhttp://www.fgsc.netThe Fungal Genetics Stock Center (FGSC) was founded in 1960 to serve as a culture collection for Neurospora strains.Today, FGSC includes many thousands of Neurospora and Aspergillus cultures, and representatives of other fungi,including Magnaporthe grisea. Additionally, the FGSC stores and supplies cloned genes, gene libraries, and EST librariesfor Neurospora, Aspergillus, and Magnaporthe, and molecular tools for working with them.Mushroom Bureauhttp://www.mushroom-uk.com/The Mushroom Bureau is responsible for the generic publicity of all fresh cultivated mushrooms sold in Britain. It is fundedvoluntarily by mushroom growers and allied trades from the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland and Holland. TheMushroom Bureau is responsible for the publicity for cultivated mushrooms. The Bureau works closely with the food andcookery writers on women’s magazines, national and regional newspapers, television and radio, and the trade press. TheBureau has an excellent photographic library of cultivated mushrooms and mushroom recipes and a number of free recipeleaflets.Mushroom Growers’ Associationhttp://www.mushroomgrowers.org/Mushroom Growers’ Association for Great Britain and Northern Ireland was established in 1945 as an autonomousspecialist branch of the National Farmers’ Union. The MGA is the central reference point for all matters concerned with thecommercial production of cultivated mushrooms in Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Mushrooms are the most valuablehorticultural crop sold in this country. The white Agaricus bisporus mushroom accounts for 95% of the total market. Theremaining 5% is shared between the cultivated brown/chestnut/portabello mushroom and the cultivated blewit, enoki, horse,hon-shimeji, oyster, and shiitake mushrooms.

TG05: Discover more10Society for General Microbiology web sitehttp://www.sgm.ac.uk/The SGM has been established for over 50 years, promoting and supporting the art, science and significance ofmicrobiology and associated subjects worldwide. Here you will find information about all the Society's activities, and aboutthe importance of microbiology in today's world.British Society for Medical Mycologyhttp://www.bsmm.org/main.htmThe purpose of the British Society for Medical Mycology is to advance education and promote research in all branches ofmedical and veterinary mycology, and to disseminate the results of such research for the public benefit. The Societysponsors symposia, meetings, training courses and working parties on topical problems.British Society for Plant Pathologyhttp://www.bspp.org.ukThe British Society for Plant Pathology (BSPP) was founded in 1981 for the study and advancement of plant pathology. TheBSPP welcomes members from all over the world and from all branches of plant pathology and supports the professionalinterests of plant pathologists worldwide and provide information and communicate with our members via a newsletter,website and annual meeting.Mycological Society of Americahttp://www.msafungi.org/The Mycological Society of America is a scientific society dedicated to advancing the science of mycology - the study offungi of all kinds including mushrooms, molds, truffles, yeasts, lichens, plant pathogens, and medically important fungi.North American Mycological Associationhttp://namyco.org/NAMA aims “to promote, pursue, and advance the science of mycology”. The North American Mycological Association isan organization of individuals, families and local clubs dedicated to the study and enjoyment of mushrooms. NAMA'spublications include The Mycophile, bimonthly newsletter; an annual journal, McIlvainea; and an annual directory. Recentincidents of mushroom poisoning have inspired the publication and distribution of a warning poster.Federation of European Microbiological Societieshttp://www.fems-microbiology.org/The Federation of European Microbiological Societies is devoted to the promotion of microbiology in Europe. FEMS iscurrently linking 42 microbiological societies, encouraging joint activities, facilitating communication amongmicrobiologists, supporting meetings and laboratory courses, providing fellowships, and publishing journals and books.French Société Mycologique de Francehttp://www.mycofrance.org/Fondée en 1884, notre association a pour but l'étude des champignons sous tous ses aspects. Nos prestations intéressent lesscientifiques dont nous publions les écrits, ainsi que les amateurs que nous conduisons sur le terrain pour y herboriser etramasser des champignons en toute quiétude. Nous proposons à nos membres tout un éventail d'activités.France: Société Mycologique du Nord de la France (SMNF)http://www2.ac-lille.fr/myconordCréée en 1967, la Société Mycologique du Nord de la France (SMNF) est une association scientifique régionale (Nord etPas-de-Calais), à but non lucratif, qui regroupe plus de 300 personnes s'intéressant aux champignons pour les reconnaîtredans la nature, se familiariser avec leurs propriétés, leur classification, leur rôle, leur protection et leur éventuellecomestibilité.Netherlands Mycological Societyhttp://www-mlf.sci.kun.nl/mlf/nmv/main_e.htmThe Netherlands' Mycological Society (NMV) was founded in 1908 with the purpose to promote mycology. The Societycurrently has about 650 members, who occupy themselves with mycology on different levels -- novice or advanced, amateuror professional. The Society publishes Coolia.The Netherlands: Mushroom Experimental Station at Horsthttp://www.ppo.dlo.nl/ppo/Sectoren/Paddestoelen.htmHet team Paddestoelen van Praktijkonderzoek Plant & Omgeving (PPO) ondersteunt bedrijven met praktijkgerichtonderzoek, in de hele productieketen van paddestoelen. Hierbij houden wij rekening met maatschappelijke ontwikkelingenop het gebied van duurzame productie en voedselveiligheid. Het onderzoeksteam beschikt over faciliteiten zoals laboratoria,tunnels voor substraatbehandeling en een proefkwekerij.

TG05: Discover more11Spanish Associació Micològica Joaquim Codina (Universitat de Girona)http://www.grn.es/amjcLa Associació Micològica Joaquim Codina, fue fundada en 1995, pero sus miembros ya formaban parte de la Sección deGirona de la Societat Catalana de Micologia desde el año 1987. In Spanish and Catalan.Italian Società Italiana di Patologia Vegetalehttp://www.agr.unipi.it/sipavLa Società Italiana di Patologia Vegetale (S.I.Pa.V.) è stata fondata nel 1992 a seguito dello scioglimento della SocietàItaliana di Fitoiatria (S.I.F.) e della Associazione Fitopatologica Italiana (A.F.I.).Spain: Micoloxía do Oriente Ouresanhttp://www.valdeorras.com/micologiaImages and information about Spanish fungi.Belgian Cercle de Mycologie de Monshttp://users.skynet.be/deneyer.mycologyThe Circle of Mycology organizes various activities, mainly in Wallonia, such as: guided excursions for members and forschools, and weekends of forays and meetings on mycology. The Circle organizes a display of fresh mushrooms from thearea of Mons in October. The website’s home page is a nice audiovisual experience. Although, if your computer outfit is asdozy as mine, you’ll have to click the “refresh” button to get things started.Shops and PublishersFifth Kingdomhttp://www.mycolog.com/Mycologue Publications sells Mycological books, CD-ROMs and databases all about fungi. This is the home of BryceKendrick’s The Fifth Kingdom – the CD is the world's first comprehensive CD-ROM about fungi, and the textbook is, inmy opinion, the best available to students at the moment. Buy the book AND the CD and you’ll be really well informed.The Fifth Kingdom CD-ROM includes the full text of the book and is lavishly illustrated with over 3000 pictures and videosof fungi. Explore the website and find over 800 images of fungi online illustrating mushrooms, mycorrhizas, medicalmycology, yeasts, lichens, food spoilage, fermented foods, plant diseases, symbioses with animals, and edible, poisonous,and hallucinogenic fungi. A mycological feast!Mycologuehttp://www.mycologue.co.ukLocated in London, Mycologue styles itself as the internet mushroom shop, offering a unique selection of products that willdelight everyone interested in collecting, eating, cultivating or just appreciating mushrooms. You'll also find usefulinformation and great links (including the BMS!).MycoMiscellany: a website for mushroom fanshttp://www.mycomiscellany.co.ukMycoMiscellany promotes good quality, practical, and fun items for mycophiles. Items in stock include baskets, knives &outdoor clothing; hand lenses; illustrated mushroom playing cards; stencils; keyrings & lightpulls; ornamental mushrooms;books, cards and stationery; household items and gift setsGuide to Fungi on CDhttp://www.first-nature.com/fungi/index.htmThe “First Nature” Multimedia Guide to Fungi features over 1000 pictures with details of hundreds of beautiful andfascinating mushrooms and toadstools on an interactive CD-ROM for PCs with Internet Explorer. Well worth buying. Thewebsite is well worth visiting for the numerous pictures of fungi as well as many other groups of organisms – insects, fish,amphibians, reptiles, birds, bats, land mammals, wild flowers and trees.Fungi Perfectihttp://www.fungi.com/Could this be the ultimate mushroom shop? “Fungi Perfecti® is a family-owned, environmentally friendly companyspecializing in using gourmet and medicinal mushrooms to improve the health of the planet and its people. We are leadersin a new wave of technologies harnessing the inherent power of mushrooms and fungal mycelia worldwide.

FC01CELLSCells are tiny building blocks that make up all living things. Cellsare so small that you need a microscope to see them.ANIMAL CELLPLANT CELLNucleusNucleusThis is the control centre of thecell. It contains chromosomes withDNA instructions for all the cell’sactivities, including instructions tomake new cells.CytoplasmThis is a jelly like substance, inwhich many of the cell’s activities,e.g. respiration and protein synthesisoccur.Cell membraneThis is a thin skin around the cell. Itis selectivelt permeable, controllingwhat goes in and out of the cell.ChloroplastsThese are green discs, which allowthe plant to make food byphotosynthesis. They contain achemical called chlorophyll.VacuoleThis is a large storage area filledwith a liquid called “cell sap”. Theplant cell can store food and wasteproducts here.Cell wallThis covers the cell membrane. It ispermeable, supports the cell and ismade from a substance calledcellulose.This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Ruth Townley 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.1

FC01Fungal cellsFungal cells are the compartments along the length of thefilamentous hypha, which are separated-off by the septa (crosswalls).Hyphal Tip – this is the characteristic growing point of the fungalhypha (in the circle below). It secretes enzymes into itssurroundings and then absorbs nutrients those enzymes release.Vacuoles(largeandsmall)MitochondrionNucleiCellMembraneCell Wall(chitin)EndoplasmicreticulumSecretoryvesiclesThis document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Ruth Townley 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.2

FC01Fungi have cells, tooLiving things are generally classified into five Kingdoms. Plants,animals and fungi are the three Kingdoms of ‘higher organisms’and the other two Kingdoms are the Prokaryota (bacteria) andProtoctista (algae and protozoa). Many people confuse fungi withplants but there are several key differences between the twocell types.How are they different from plants?One of the main ways in which they differ is in their mode ofnutrition. Plants are primary producers. They are able to maketheir own food in a process called photosynthesis which utilisessunlight and a chemical present in plant cells called chlorophyll toturn light energy into chemical energy.Fungi, like animals, are heterotrophs. They cannot producetheir own food as their cells do not contain chlorophyll. But,unlike animals, they do not ingest their food, instead they growon their food source and secrete enzymes into it to digest it.They then absorb the digested food into the cell.What are fungi?It is estimated that there are about 1.5 million species of fungi.They exist in many different forms including; puffballs, moulds,yeasts, rusts, mildews and your everyday mushroom! Some fungiexist as single-celled organisms, like yeast, whereas most existas multi-cellular organisms, e.g. mushrooms. Multi-cellular fungihave a body structure which allows maximum absorption ofnutrients from the food source. Underneath the fruit body ofthe fungus exists a large network of tiny filaments calledhyphae.Fungal hyphae form a large interwoven mass called amycelium, the structure of which maximizes the surface area tovolume ratio of the fungus ensuring maximum absorption. MostThis document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Ruth Townley 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.3

FC01energy obtained from nutrients is used to grow the hyphal tipsinto new substrates to absorb more food.How do fungi affect us?Our every day life is affected by fungi. They have a large impacton our environment as they act as decomposers (of dead treebranches and all the leaves that fall in autumn, for example),playing an essential role in both the carbon and nitrogen cycles.Some fungi live in mutual associations with other species, whereboth species benefit from the presence of the other. Anexample is that the roots of most plants contain a fungus thatsupplies the plant with minerals and water. Forest trees couldnot survive without them.Many fungi have great medical value. They produce statins- used to lower blood cholesterol level, and antibiotics - used totreat infection. The first antibiotic discovered was penicillin andthis is produced from a mould fungus (similar to the green mouldthat grows on rotting oranges).Other uses of fungi are:• producing the citric acid for fizzy drinks• flavouring cheeses like Stilton and Danish Blue• the yeast for brewing alcohol and making bread• truffles dug from the ground used to flavour foodOther fungal species are parasites causing disease in bothanimals and plants. Diseases such as ringworm and athletes footaffect humans, and other fungi cause large damage toagricultural crops such as cereals and fruit, in fact, 10-50% ofthe world’s fruit harvest is lost each year to fungal attack.This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Ruth Townley 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.4

Animal and Plant CellsFC02ANIMAL CELLNucleusThis is the control centre ofthe cell. It containschromosomes with DNAinstructions for all the cell’sactivities, and to make newcellsPLANT CELLChloroplastsThese are green discs whichallow the plant to make food byphotosynthesis. They contain achemical called chlorophyll.VacuoleCytoplasmThis is a jelly like substancein which many of the cell’s,e.g. respiration and proteinsynthesis, occur.This is a large storage area filledwith a liquid called “cell sap”. Theplant cell can store food andwaste products here.Cell wallCell membraneThis is a thin skin around thecell. It is selectivelypermeable, controlling whatgoes in and out of the cell.This covers the cell membrane.It supports the cell, ispermeable, and is made from asubstance called cellulose.Cells are tiny building blocks which make up all living things. Cells are so small thatyou need to use a microscope to see them.This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Ruth Townley 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.

Animal and Plant CellsFC02CellmembraneANIMAL CELLGolgi ApparatusNucleusPLANT CELLCell membraneEndoplasmic ReticulumGolgiApparatusCytoplasmVacuoleMitochondriaChloroplastsNucleusLysosomesCell wallCell wall – Provides the cell with support. Contains a substancecalled Cellulose.Chloroplasts – Green discs which allow the plant to photosynthesise.They contain a chemical called Chlorophyll.Cytoplasm – Aqueous solution in which metabolic reactions occur.Endoplasmic Reticulum – This acts as a transport system, sendingproteins to the golgi.DefinitionsGolgi Apparatus – Sorts and processes proteins and lipids which arethen transported around the cell.Lysosomes – These contain enzymes needed to destroy unwanted materialin the cell.Mitochondria – These are the power stations of the cells as they providethe cell with all the energy it needs through respiration.Vacuole – This is a large storage place filled with a substance called “cellsap”.This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Ruth Townley 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.

How do fungi affect us?Our every day life is affected by fungi. They have a large impacton our environment as they act as decomposers playing anessential role in both the carbon and nitrogen cycles. Some fungilive in mutual associations with other species, where both speciesbenefit from the presence of the other. An example is that theroots of most plants contain a fungus that supplies the plant withminerals and water.Many fungi have great medical value. They produce statins, usedto lower blood cholesterol level, and antibiotics used to treatinfections. The first antibiotic discovered was penicillin and thisis produced from a mould fungus.Other uses of fungi are:• making the citric acid for fizzy drinks• flavouring cheeses like stilton and Danish blue• the yeast for brewing alcohol and making bread• truffles dug from the ground to flavour food.Other fungi are parasites causing disease in both animals andplants. Diseases such as ringworm and athletes foot affecthumans, and other fungi cause large damage to agricultural cropssuch as cereals and fruit, in fact, 10-50% of the world’s fruitharvest is lost each year to fungal attack.EndoplasmicReticulumGolgiApparatusCELLSYou have probably studied cells from an early stage inyour school career but do you know all there is toknow about them? Do you, for example, know anythingabout fungi? If the answer is no, then read on.Quick revision about animals and plantsLysosomesANIMALVacuoleCellmembraneNucleusMitochondriaGolgiApparatusFC03PLANTCell wall(cellulose)ChloroplastsThis document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Ruth Townley 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.

FC03FUNGILiving things are classified into 5 Kingdoms. Plants, animals andfungi make up the 3 Kingdoms of higher organisms (the otherKingdoms are Prokaryota (bacteria) and Protoctista (algae andprotozoa). Many people confuse fungi with plants but there areseveral key differences between the two cell types.How are they different to plants?One of the main ways in which they differ is in their mode ofnutrition. Plants are primary producers. They are able to maketheir own food in a process called photosynthesis which utilisessunlight and a chemical present in plant cells called chlorophyll toturn light energy into chemical energy. Fungi, like animals, cannotproduce their own food as their cells do not contain chlorophyll.But, unlike animals, they do not ingest their food, instead theygrow on their food source and secrete enzymes into it to digestit. They then absorb the digested food into the cell.What are fungi?It is estimated that there are about 1.5 million species of fungi.They exist in many different forms including; puffballs, moulds,yeasts, rusts, mildews and your everyday mushroom! Some fungiexist as single-celled organisms, like yeast, whereas most exist asmulti-cellular organisms, e.g. mushrooms. Multi-cellular fungi havea body structure which allows maximum absorption of nutrientsfrom the food source. Underneath the fruit body of the fungusexists a large network of tiny filaments called hyphae. Fungalhyphae form a large interwoven mass called a mycelium, thestructure of which maximizes the surface area to volume ratio ofthe fungus ensuring maximum absorption. Most energy obtainedfrom nutrients is used to grow the hyphal tips into newsubstrates to absorb more food.This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Ruth Townley 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.VacuoleCytoplasmCellMembraneHyphal Tip – absorbs nutrients from thesurroundings.MitochondriaCell Wall(chitin)NucleiEndoplasmicReticulumSecretoryvesicles

WF01Welcome to the World of FungiIn the beginning‘Can you believe that fungi have been around on earth longer thanhumans?’► Earth is approximately 4.6 billion years old.► Humans have been on earth for about 200,000 years.► Fungi have been on earth for about 500 million years.Fungi are so tough and well adapted to their environment that theyoutlived the dinosaurs. The scientists that study fungi (mycologists)have so far identified more than 100,000 species, but estimate thatthere could be 1.5 million species all over the world.►Question: Why do you think not all species have been found?There are so many living organisms on earth that scientists haveclassified them into 5 kingdoms:1. Animals2. Plants3. Bacteria4. Protists5. Fungi[Note: all those names are plural. If you have one mushroom, it is afungus; if you have two they are fungi.]This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.1

WF01Let’s focus on fungiWhat do you think of when you read the word.........fungi?........................... mushrooms and toadstools?These answers are correct, but they aren’t the only answers.Bacteria are called prokaryotes whilst fungi are eukaryotes andmay be single celled (yeast) or filamentous and multicellular (with100s or 1000s of cells.)Filamentous multicellular fungi include:mushrooms and toadstoolsmouldscup fungibracket fungi…and lots of othersThey all have different:sizesshapescolourssmellstexturesFrom Fungus Fred Goes Foraying by Margaret HadleyThis document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.2

WF01What are Fungi Made of?If you pull a shop-bought mushroom apart with your fingers you’llsee that the body of the mushroom is made up of a network ofthreads or fibres – these are called hyphae. A hypha ischaracteristic of fungi. It is a long, growing tube.Draw and label diagrams of an animal cell and a hypha in this box.Animal CellHyphaThe large network of hyphae is called the mycelium. It isresponsible for finding food sources for the fungus.From The Fungi Name Trail by Liz Holden & Kath HamperThis document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.3

WF01Growth of a mushroom occurs in different stages. The myceliumgrows under the soil, searching for food.This searching and branching outwards develops the mycelial network.Only when conditions are correct, does the mycelia grow upwardsout of the soil to produce a mycelial knot that eventually grows intothe visible mushroom.►Experiment: How the Mushroom got its Spots. Try theexperiment in the booklet for yourself to learn a bit more aboutmushroom growth.Fungi can be:1. Single celledOR2. SeptateOR3. AseptateUse this box to draw and label diagrams of a single celled fungus (yeast), a septatefungal hypha, and an aseptate fungal hypha.This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.4

WF01Why aren’t Fungi Plants?Draw and label diagrams of a plant cell and a hypha in this box. Label them to remind yourselfhow they compare with one another.Plant CellCellulose cell wallChloroplastsFungal hyphaCell wall made of chitinNo chloroplastsKEY DIFFERENCE:Feeding.► Plants make their own food, converting light energy gained fromthe sun into chemical energy, using their chloroplasts. This iscalled photosynthesis.► Animals engulf their food (even individual animal cells do this).► Fungi secrete enzymes into their food to digest it externally; theythen absorb the small molecules produced by the digestion astheir nutrients.This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.5

WF01Fungi differ in the way they feed. They can be:1. Saprotrophic (obtaining their nutrients by decomposing[and therefore recycling] dead organic materials)2. Symbiotic (in a close, mutually-beneficial relationship withanother organism)3. Parasitic (living on or in another organism (the ‘host’) andtaking their nutrients from the host; this may injure and may killthe host).From The Fungi Name Trail by Liz Holden & Kath HamperThis document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.6

WF01Hyphal growth is characteristic of fungiHyphae grow at their tips; they search for areas in the soil whichcontain plenty of food. They don’t engulf their food like animals, sohow does the food enter the hyphae?The answer is enzymes digest the food outside thehyphae. Special enzymes are released (secreted) from the hyphaltips and can break down large complex food into smaller solublefood that the hyphae can then absorb.Where are Fungi Found?FieldsForest floorOn treesBack gardenOn shipsWindow framesCheese and bread (food)Between your toesIn your mouthOn your skinObvious?Not so obvious?►Question: How many uses for fungi can you think of?SAFETYSome fungi are edible, but some are POISONOUSIf you find a fungus growing wildDON’T EAT ITDON’T TOUCH ITThis document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.7

WF01Find the correct explanation to complete thestatement.Draw a line linking the start of the sentence in the left-hand column with the end ofthe sentence in the right-hand column.1. Fungi are… …special enzymes that break downcomplex food into smaller solublefood.2. Fungal parasites... …500 million years ago.3. Fungal decomposers... …feed off living trees and plantsand can sometimes kill them.4. Fungal symbionts… …break down dead wood, plant andanimal material.5. Fungi can be found... …eukaryotes.6. Fungi feed via... …make physical links with anotherorganism. Both benefit from therelationship.7. Fungi first appeared onearth...…(a) in woodland areas, (b)between our toes, (c) on ships.This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.8

WF02Reproduction and ConservationRewind . . . . . . . . .During last lesson we discussed how and where fungi grow.Let’s go one step further on and focus on how fungi reproduce.As this simplified diagram shows, the fruiting body produces spores(process called sporulation); these then germinate after they arrivein their ideal environment (which might be soil, or a leaf surface, orsome rotting leaves, etc.) and begin to produce hyphae and then themycelial network. Further growth produces the hyphal knot andeventually the fruiting body. Spores are released and the wholeprocess starts all over again.Do you remember that plant reproduction can be sexual orasexual? Well, it’s just the same for fungi too.► Most fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually► Some reproduce only sexually► And the rest reproduce only asexuallyThis document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.1

WF02Recap . . . . . . . . .Sexual Reproduction:Asexual Reproduction:Involves the mixing andrecombination of genetic material fromtwo parents of opposite sexes.Produces genetically differentoffspring.Process includes : cell fusion, nuclearfusion, recombination, meiosis andmitosis.Involves copies of only a single parentbeing made.Produces genetically identicaloffspring.Process includes : NO cell fusion, NOnuclear fusion, and ONLY mitosis.Cell cycles in Summary:This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.2

WF02Where are Spores Produced?Answer: from the hymenium ►The tissue layer of the fruitingbody that contains spore-makingcells.Let’s look at the mushroom as an example...........From The Fungi Name Trail by Liz Holden & Kath HamperThese three structures (named in the picture above) are all coveredwith the hymenium tissue layer that contains and releases spores.This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.3

WF02What about other fungal structures?From The Fungi Name Trail From The Fungi Name TrailBirch PolyporePiptoporus betulinusYellow StagshornCalocera viscosaThis bracket fungusreleases spores from poresunderneath its capWhile this coral fungus canrelease spores from poresall over its bodyThis document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.4

WF02How are Spores Dispersed?To ensure survival of the species, a fungus must produce andrelease spores as quickly as possible. These spores must bedispersed over large areas to avoid competition. There are manyways in which dispersal can occur:► Wind► Rain► Insects► Mechanical ProcessesWind ► Amanita muscaria is an example of the type of mushroomthat releases spores from gills (vertical plates of tissue underneaththe cap). The spores fall from the gills under the cap and are thencarried away by air currents. They can be spread over largedistances by the wind.© Charlotte Quinn 2005This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.5

WF02Rain ► The cup fungus Crucibulum vulgare or Bird’s Nest Fungushas its spores dispersed by rain fall. Raindrops fall into the fungusfruit body and the rain splash forces the spores out and away fromthe fruit body.© Charlotte Quinn 2005Insects ► The spores of the Stinkhorn fungus, Phallus impudicus,are formed in a slimy secretion on the bell-shaped tip of the fruitingbody. The fungus generates a foul smell – like rotting meat. Flies areattracted to the strong smell and the spores are transferred ontotheir legs and body and deposited where the fly next lands.© Charlotte Quinn 2005This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.6

WF02Mechanical Processes ► When the ball shaped fruit body of apuffball or earth star (like Geastrum) is disturbed (by an animal or bytwigs, leaves or rain drops falling on it) the impact increases the airpressure inside and millions of spores are forced out on a jet of airthat emerges through the pore on top.© Charlotte Quinn 2005Conservation and ManagementAll fungal species are extremely important for the maintenance ofour planet. We have already discussed the role of fungi asdecomposers - removing dead organic matter by breaking it downusing enzymes.►Question for class discussion : What would happen if fungididn’t exist?You know quite a bit about what fungi do in nature, so think about itand imagine: what would happen if all fungi were killed offtomorrow?This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.7

WF02Food webs show the many different types of plants, fungi andanimals of a particular ecosystem. From them, we can understandthe feeding patterns and energy flow within this system.Use this box to draw an example of a food web (including fungi):This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.8

WF02The Decline of Kingdom Fungi?Reports from all over Europe suggest that in recent years there havebeen serious declines in the numbers of mushrooms and other fungifound in the forests. The question is: WHY?There are several reasons; including:► Increased large-scale picking of wild mushrooms for commercial sale• Air pollution• Acid rain► Pollution is a major• Water contamination from fertilizer ‘run-off’factor because of:• Desertification (e.g. around theMediterranean Sea)► Clearing of woodland areas► Lack of understanding of the roles of fungi in natureSave your fungi!The problems have been identified, so let’s focus on the solutions:► Obey the law:► Respect and caution:► Conservation areas:► Management:• The Theft Act (1968)• The Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981)both protect wildlife to some extent, and otherlegislation may apply to prevent pickingRespect the natural habitat – avoidunnecessary damage and disturbanceSome countries have vast areas protected byconservation controlsGovernment guidelines for fertilizer usage inagriculture. On a larger scale, the KyotoAgreement – carbon emission controlTo save your fungi you might have to savethe forest!This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.9

WF03My Favourite or Nastiest FungusRewind . . . . . . . . . . .So far we have discussed the basics of fungi; what they are,their many sizes and shapes, growth, reproduction and conservationissues. Now it’s over to you!►Task:To work in a group of 2 to 5 people and produce aposter which illustrates your favourite or nastiestfungus.Where do we start?► The best poster wins a prize ◄• The first part of your task involves looking for information onthe Internet. Six fungal names are provided on the next pagealong with website addresses you can access from yourschool computer room.• The second part involves making the poster. You can presentit any way you like (remember the best one gets a prize.)►Get creative◄Your poster MUST provide the following information:► Common and scientific name of your chosen fungus► A drawing with the structures labelled► Where and when it is found► How it feeds - is it a decomposer, saprotroph or parasite?► Why it is your group’s favourite or nastiest fungusThis document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.1

WF03Fungal namesWe suggest you look for the following (but that doesn’t stopyou looking for others…)1. Amanita muscariaThe Fly Agaric2. Marasmius oreadesFairy Ring Champignon or Fairy Ring Fungus3. Phallus impudicusStinkhorn fungus4. Piptoporus betulinusBracket Fungus5. Amanita pantherinaThe Panther6. Aleuria aurantiaOrange PeelWebsiteswww.MushroomExpert.comClick on ‘Site Index.’www.agarics.orgClick on ‘Database.’www.herbarium.usu.eduClick on ‘Fun Facts about Fungi.’www.mykoweb.comClick on ‘California Fungi’ and then click on ‘Species Index.’This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.2

WF03www.first-nature.com/fungiClick on ‘Identity Parade’For Aleuria aurantia select Ascomycetes.For Phallus impudicus select Gasteromycetes.For Amanita muscaria select Amanitaceae.For Amanita pantherina select Amanitaceae.For Piptoporus betulinus select Poriales.Table showing our fungus names and where information about them canbe found.Name Mykoweb Mush.Expert Agarics First-NatureA. muscaria + + + +M. oreades + + +Ph. impudicus + + +P. betulinus + +A. pantherina + + +Al. aurantia + + +This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.3

WF04Fungi and IndustryWe have already discussed one major importance of KingdomFungi: they are decomposers and help remove dead organic matterfrom our ecosystems. We will now go one step further and discusshow fungi and fungal products help us directly.What is Biotechnology?Biotechnology: industries use microbes, like bacteria and fungithat produce extremely useful substances. Some of these productsare beneficial to our health and wellbeing.►Question:Can you think of any products that depend onthe use of fungi at any stage duringmanufacture?Use the box below to make a table listing those you can think of:This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.1

WF04Fermentation and Yeast► Yeast is a single-celled fungus► with oxygen (called aerobic respiration)► Yeast can respire: ► without oxygen (called anaerobicrespiration)► During anaerobic conditions, yeast ferments sugar to producealcohol, carbon dioxide and water in the process of fermentation.► Equation: Yeast + Glucose Alcohol + Carbon dioxide + Water[NOTE: that the same chemistry is used in brewing and baking fermentations, butbrewing uses the alcohol, and baking uses the carbon dioxide.]Brewing Industry ►Baking Industry ►Myco-protein ►Brewer’s yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)ferments sugars in cereal grains to producealcohol, in addition to various other products,producing beers and lagers.Baker’s yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)ferments sugars in the flour, but this time carbondioxide is the useful product of fermentation.When the yeast in bread dough releases carbondioxide it makes bubbles in the dough andcauses the dough to ‘rise’ (increase in volume).The alcohol produced evaporates during baking.The product called Quorn is myco-protein. It isNOT a yeast or a mushroom, but a filamentousfungus called Fusarium venenatum. Mycoproteinis used as an alternative to meat inhealth- and vegetarian products.Find out more about the benefits of Myco-protein (Quorn) anddiscuss them. Find the information that will enable you to completethe table below with the amounts of each ingredient:Myco-proteinBeef steakProtein Dietary Fibre FatThis document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.2

WF04Supermarket ChallengeEarlier we asked you to list some products that depend on the use offungi in their manufacture. The table below includes a few you maynot have thought of. Find out HOW they depend on fungi and writesome notes in the last column of the table.Marmite ►Fizzy Drinks ►Soy Sauce ►Chocolate andCoffee ►This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.3

WF04Local IndustryThere are probably companies close to you and your schoolthat use fungi or fungal products in their manufacturingprocesses. You could use local business directories to find outabout them and then look at their websites to get moreinformation.Here’s an unusual example:The British Textile Technology Group (BTTG) is based in Didsburyin Manchester and works with the Welsh School of Pharmacy inCardiff. Together they have designed and produced a range offilamentous fungal materials that help with the healing of wounds.When you cut your finger you’ll probably use a plaster to coverit up until it’s healed. Even if you had a deep cut and had to go tohospital, the nurses would place a sterile pad over the wound andbandage it up. What these companies have produced incorporatesfilamentous fungi (the mycelial network) to produce a plaster with adifference:► The secret’s in the chitin (which maintains the rigidity andstructure of fungal cell walls).► Many experiments have been conducted which suggestthat chitin can speed up the healing of wounds.► It is thought that chitin actually encourages the growth offibroblasts into the wound. Fibroblasts help build new tissue.► The process has the potential to treat chronic ulcers andbed sores in hospital patients.► If a patient’s wounds heal faster then hospital and nursingresources will be saved.► Discuss: Can you think of any other uses for this product?This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.4

WF04How Can Fungi Benefit Our Health?None of the products we have discussed so far are really essentialfor survival. Believe it or not, we can survive without chocolate andour favourite fizzy drinks! These products are manufactured for ourenjoyment and to improve the quality of life.However, for some people fungal products are really needed to treatinfections, prevent serious diseases, or to improve poor diet. Someof these essential products are in the form of:► Antibiotics► Statins► Immunosuppressives► VitaminsUse the information in the tables below as class discussion points.Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial andfungal infections. You probably know aboutpenicillin -produced by the mouldPenicillium notatum and discovered byAlexander Fleming in 1928. Other examplesof antibiotics derived from fungi are:Antibiotics ► Cephalosporin from Cephalosporium sp.and Griseofulvin from Penicilliumgriseofulvum and Penicillium patulum.Today, most antibiotics used in medicine arederived from bacteria. Antibiotics producedby bacteria include streptomycin andterramycin.► Discuss the effect of ‘wonder drugs’ on society (imagine the effect ifantibiotics were not available). Discuss the effect of resistance to the drugin the disease-causing organism (e.g. newspaper stories about MRSA).How might you combat that? What’s involved in finding new antibiotics?This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.5

WF04Statins are products of metabolic reactionsin fungi. Lovastatin comes from Aspergillusterreus strains; mevastatin from Penicilliumcitrinum. Statins inhibit an enzyme involvedin the synthesis of cholesterol and they’veStatins ►become very important for control ofcholesterol levels in patients. Cholesterol ismade in the liver, but we also get it from ourfood. Diets high in fat result in a build up ofcholesterol in the arteries and this can leadto heart attacks or strokes.► Discuss the influence of food on health and the use of medicines tocontrol metabolism. Can you think of other examples?Immunosuppressives►Immune suppressants are essential fororgan transplant patients. The T cells of thehuman immune system recognise the neworgan as ‘foreign’ and begin to destroy theorgan. The filamentous fungus calledTolypocladium inflatum was found toproduce Cyclosporin A. This drug preventsorgan rejection by inhibiting T cell activation.► Discuss the ethics of organ donation and transplantation. What’sinvolved in giving permission for a deceased loved-one’s organs to beused for transplantation? Discuss the impact (on people and theirfamilies) of life-long, life-preserving medication.All fungi are a good source of vitamins.Brewer’s yeast synthesises B groupvitamins; so yeast extract and yeast tabletsVitamins ►are popular vitamin supplements. In industrythe fungi Nematospora gossypii andEremothecium ashbyi are now used toproduce B vitamins.► Discuss the general use of food supplements. Compare fresh andprocessed foods, and children and adults – are supplements needed? Areany safety issues raised?This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.6

WF05Recap. . . . . . .Fungi and DiseaseBacteria, fungi and viruses are all micro organisms. Welearnt last lesson that some fungal species are beneficial to humansin the food industry and in medicine production.However, some fungal species can cause disease along withbacteria and viruses. Micro organisms that cause disease are calledpathogens.Let’s Focus on FungiCertain fungi have the ability to cause diseases in humans,plants and animals.When looking at plant pathogens it’s important to rememberthat some parts of the plant are above ground – stems and leavesand other parts are below ground – roots. So, it makes sense thatairborne pathogenic fungi infect the stems and leaves and soil bornepathogenic fungi infect plant roots.Plant diseases have some very strange names! They aregiven names like:► Blights► Rusts► Smuts► MildewsMost of these names come from old descriptions of the effecton the crop and were given to the disease long before its cause wasknown. Mildew is a cottony covering on the leaf (on which dew formsreadily). A crop that looks sick and dying might be described asbeing ‘blighted’; plants covered in red masses (actually fungalspores) as being ‘rusted’; or if covered in black deposits (sporesagain) like soot, then it’s a ‘smut’ or a ‘tarspot’.This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.1

WF05Some Examples of Plant DiseasesThis is a tarspot disease ofsycamore leaves. Caused by afungus called Rhytisma acerinumwhich is very common andwidely distributed. You can seethis on sycamore leavesthroughout the year.© Paul DyerThis is the rust disease of wildand cultivated daisies caused byPuccinia distincta. An epidemicof this disease started in the mid-1990s and spread from Australia,through Europe, and into NorthAmerica. In many places,ornamental daisies can no longerbe grown unless they areprotected by fungicide sprays.© David MooreThis is ‘eyespot’ disease onwheat stems, caused by afungus with the wonderful nameof Pseudocercosporellaherpotrichoides. It’s a seriousdisease of cereals because itsurvives from year to year onstubble debris, and can evensurvive being ploughed underand ploughed up again thefollowing season.© Roland WeberThis document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.2

WF05Human diseases caused by fungi are called mycoses. Thediseases are divided into three groups depending on where theyoccur on our body. These groups are:Superficial ►Subcutaneous ►Systemic ►These infect the skin, nails and hair.These infect the deep layers of the skin.These are the most severe fungal diseases.An unsuspecting person may inhale thepathogenic fungal spores. Some spores stayin the lungs and grow while others enter thebloodstream, travel around the body andinfect other organs.Most fungal infections are due to opportunistic pathogens;these affect people who are already ill or have a suppressedimmune system (e.g. in patients who have been given an organtransplant, or in AIDS patients). In a perfectly healthy person thefungus would not normally cause disease. True pathogens cancause disease in even the healthiest person.Like bacteria, fungi can produce toxins. Fungal toxins arecalled mycotoxins and the diseases they cause are calledmycotoxicoses. Several food items are particularly susceptible tofungal disease including bread, dried pasta, peanuts and storedgrains and cereals. All of these are dry foods which should be storedin dry conditions. When stored in the wrong conditions of hightemperature and high humidity, mycotoxins can be found as a resultof fungal (‘mould’) growth in the stored material.The most widespread and dangerous of these are theaflatoxins produced by the mould called Aspergillus flavus. Theseare carcinogenic, which means they can cause cancer. Aflatoxinspose a serious threat to both humans and domestic animalsbecause the mould grows on poorly-stored grain and animal feed.When eaten, the toxin is stored in the liver where it can eventuallycause hepatitis and liver cancer.This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.3

WF05Some Examples of Human DiseasesRingworm is not a worm, but acommon fungus infection of the skin.The fungus (often one calledMicrosporum) does not invade livingtissue but the fungus and itsmetabolic products causeinflammation. This 5-week old babycaught the disease from contact withthe family’s pet cats. Image courtesy of www.doctorfungus.org © 2005Epidermophyton floccosumcauses athlete’s foot in humans –usually in the web area betweentoes – and is common in shoewearingpeople because it’sfavoured by warm, humidconditions. It can also affect thehand and other areas of the body,Image courtesy of www.doctorfungus.org © 2005 and here is attacking toe-nails.This is a Madurella mycetoma on a patient’slimb. This disease occurs all over the world, butis most common in tropical and sub-tropicalregions. It is caused by a number of fungiincluding Madurella, Acremonium, Curvularia,Fusarium and Aspergillus.Image courtesy ofwww.doctorfungus.org © 2005Image courtesy of www.doctorfungus.org © 2005These are skin ulcers of apatient suffering fromblastomycosis (caused byBlastomyces dermatidis). Thedisease starts in the lungswhen spores are inhaled, andthen spreads to other organs.This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.4

WF05History Lesson!An important example that demonstrates just how devastatingpathogens of our crops can be is the Irish Potato Famine of 1845 -46.The organism responsible was a relative of the fungi calledpotato blight or Phytophthora infestans – even the scientific namemeans ‘infesting plant destroyer’! The whole of Europe was affectedwith the disease (which was introduced on plants imported from theAmericas) but Ireland suffered more because the poorest peoplelived entirely on a diet of potatoes. English labourers were lessaffected because they had cereal foods in their diet and cereal cropswere not affected by the disease. For the majority of the Irish,though, if there were no potatoes they starved. Sadly, from 1845 to1860 a staggering 1 million people died as a direct consequence ofthe famine, and over 2 million emigrated (many to the USA).So what can we learn from this tragic incident?►►►►Grow more than one crop. Growing a single crop plant overvast areas (called monoculture) encourages disease to spreadrapidly. Also, populations should not be entirely dependent ona single source of food.Use of fungicides will prevent or at least control disease. Ofcourse, in the mid-nineteenth century the cause of ‘potatoblight’ was not known because the ‘germ theory’ of disease(that is, the idea that diseases are caused by infections) hadnot even been suggested in 1845.Store in the correct conditions: this means proper control ofhumidity, oxygen and temperature. It doesn’t have to meanhigh technology – what’s required is good aeration and carefulprotection from rain and ground water.Weather conditions play in important part in the spread of cropdisease.This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Charlotte Quinn 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.5

FF01What’s your favourite fungus?The One We Slice On SaladsMushrooms are cultivated all around the world for human consumption.Global production is about 8 million metric tonnes per year, so mushroomsare big business!The button mushroom (scientific name Agaricus) is the mostextensively cultivated mushroom in the world accounting for about 30% ofthe total crop. For large scale production it is grown on composted strawand animal manure indoors where the temperature, humidity and carbondioxide levels are tightly controlled. This allows large quantities of themushrooms to be grown all year round. It is widely grown in Europe,America, China and Australasia.The mushroom is the fruit body, which is formed from the mycelium.The mycelium is made up of long, thin whitish threads that grow buried inthe compost. The beginning of a mushroom is called a pinhead; it is roundand has a smooth surface. The mushroom then grows out of the compostand continues to mature above the surface where it can be harvested.Mushrooms are incredibly good for you as they contain a high amountof protein and vitamins, have no cholesterol and few calories. Mushroomscan be included in your diet very easily because they can be added tosalads, pies, omelettes, soups and pizzas.As mushrooms have become increasingly popular, demand for moreexotic species has meant that there is a good choice of different types insupermarkets and greengrocers. Other species available in mostsupermarkets include the Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus) and the Shiitakemushroom (Lentinula). You may also find the Paddy straw mushroom(Volvariella) and a whole range of others.One you will not find in many English supermarkets is the Lingzhimushroom (scientific name Ganoderma), which is unique in being cultivatedfor its medicinal value. In China it is used as an ingredient of medicines andis thought to be able to help treat a wide range of clinical conditionsincluding bronchitis, heart disease and cancer.This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Stephanie Roberts 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.

FF02What’s your favourite fungus?The One That Makes Plant Roots WorkPlants gain their nutrients by absorbing minerals and water from the soil usingtheir roots. But they do get quite a lot of help from certain species of fungi.The relationship appears to have started because the plant roots alone are notable to supply the plant with all the nutrients it needs. The fungi associatedwith plant roots are called MYCORRHIZAS, which increase nutrient availability tothe plant. The numerous hyphae of the fungi greatly increase the surface areaavailable for absorbing minerals. The hyphae can also go looking for food;because they can grow to areas of fresh nutrients when local supplies becomedepleted. The relationship between the plant and fungus is mutualistic. Thatmeans that both sides gain something from having the other present. Theplant pays for the privilege of using this fungus to bring it nutrients bysharing up to twenty-five percent of the products of its own photosynthesiswith the fungus. The fungus benefits by taking readily available sugars fromthe plant. Despite this ‘tax’ on its activities, the plant grows much better thanit could without the mycorrhiza.Some mycorrhizal fungi form a mat of fungal tissue around the root;the fungal cells grow between the cells of the plant root, but never actuallycross the plant cell walls. These are called ‘ECTOMYCORRHIZAS’. In anothermycorrhizal partnership (called ENDOMYCORRHIZAS) the fungal cells enter theplants cells. Inside the plant cells they make structures that absorb materialsfrom the plant cytoplasm.By greatly increasing the absorbing surface of a host plant’s rootsystem, mycorrhizas improve the plant’s ability to tolerate drought and otherextremes, like high and low temperatures and acidity.It is thought that has many as 95% of all plants have mycorrhizalassociations, showing just how important these types of fungi are for thegrowth of so many plants, including all the crop plants we need to feed thehuman population, and all the trees in all the forests.This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Stephanie Roberts 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.

FF03What’s your favourite fungus?The One That Digests Grass for CowsMany animals including cows, sheep, goats, deer, and even giraffes, areknown as ruminants. This is because they have a specialised fourchamberedstomach needed for the digestion of their exclusivelyvegetarian diet. The first chamber the food enters is called the rumen,hence the name ruminant. The ruminant discussed here is the cow. Cowsspend most of their time eating mainly grass and hay.Plant cells walls contain cellulose, which is an excellent source offibre in the diet of most animals. Fibre is important as it provides roughagewhich keeps the egestion of waste products regular. However cowsthemselves do not produce enzymes capable of digesting cellulose. The cowovercomes this problem by having special fungi in the rumen called chytrids;or more generally called rumen fungi. These fungi are anaerobic, meaningthey are able to survive without oxygen. Even without oxygen, chytrids areable to digest plant cell walls by making specific enzymes called cellulases.The rumen acts like a large fermenter because the grass is stored therewhilst the fungal enzymes from the chytrids break down the cellulose.After the plant material is processed in the rumen, it is broughtback up into the mouth of the cow. This material is now called ‘cud’ and thecow chews it up again to break it down further. When it is swallowed forthe second time it passes through the next three chambers of thestomach. The chytrids are thought to pass from one animal to the next bybeing transferred in saliva, but they also occur in large number in cow dung.From the dung the fungi get attached onto surrounding grass. Whenanother cow comes along and eats the grass, the fungi carry on their workin the new host.The relationship between chytrids and ruminants is said to besymbiotic. This means that both the fungi and the cow benefit from havingthe other present. In this case the cow benefits because plant material theanimal can’t degrade is digested and turned into nutrients the cow canabsorb. In return, the fungi live off some of the nutrients obtained fromthe cow’s food, and live out their lives in the cow’s rumen.This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Stephanie Roberts 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.

FF04What’s your favourite fungus?The One That Keeps Grandad AliveCholesterol is a type of fat that comes from animal products such as red meatand eggs. But humans can also make cholesterol – in addition to that obtainedfrom the diet, the liver is also able to produce cholesterol. There are twoforms of cholesterol. Cholesterol is needed for cell membranes and for theproduction of steroid hormones, but if we have too much it is stored in ourblood vessels. Low density lipoprotein or LDL is the dangerous type; and highdensity lipoprotein (HDL) is the good type.If we have too much cholesterol the body is not able to use up theexcess. In such circumstances the excess cholesterol sticks to the inside wallsof blood vessels. This build up makes the diameter of the blood vesselsnarrower and this restricts blood flow. If blood vessels that supply blood tothe heart become clogged up like this it can cause a heart attack, because theheart muscle does not receive enough oxygen to function properly. This canlead to the death of a small section of the heart muscle, but in severe casesthe heart attack can cause the person to die. So to control heart disease it isimportant that humans regulate their cholesterol level.The most effective cholesterol lowering-agents are called Statins, andthese are produced by fungi. The two fungi used to produce statins are calledAspergillus terreus and Penicillium citrinum.Statins work by inhibiting the enzyme called ‘HMG-CoA reductase’which is needed for the production of cholesterol. Statins block HMG-CoAreductase activity as they compete for the active site of the enzyme. If theactivity of this enzyme is blocked the production of cholesterol is sloweddown, and this in turn will significantly decrease the patient’s cholesterol level.Statins also increase LDL-receptor production in the liver, which help clearthe bad cholesterol from the blood stream.Statins from fungi are of great importance as many people rely on themdaily to help keep their cholesterol level normal, therefore reducing the riskof blocked blood vessels. There are three statin ‘drugs’ in the top five mostwidely prescribed pharmaceuticals – with annual sales in excess of £3thousand million!This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Stephanie Roberts 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.

FF05What’s your favourite fungus?The One That Makes Your Daily BreadEveryone knows that yeast is added to bread in order to make it ‘rise’, butdo you know what is actually happening in this process?Yeast is a type of fungus that is unicellular. So the organism is justa single cell that is more-or-less round in shape. It is used in baking andalso in brewing beers and ales and making wine because in anaerobicconditions (that is, when there is very little or no oxygen available) yeastferments sugar to produce alcohol, carbon dioxide and water in the processcalled fermentation.Equation: Yeast + Glucose → Alcohol + Carbon dioxide + WaterBrewer’s yeast (scientific name Saccharomyces cerevisiae) fermentssugars in cereal grains to produce alcohol, in addition to various otherproducts that affect the flavour. Baker’s yeast (which is alsoSaccharomyces cerevisiae, but a special strain that tolerates highertemperatures) ferments sugars in the flour, but this time it is the carbondioxide that’s the useful product of the fermentation.In bread making the yeast is added to the dough mixture(ingredients of which are flour and sugar) and the mixture is left for about2 hours before baking. This is when the yeast action can be seen. Yeastcells produce the enzymes that use the sugar to generate carbon dioxideand alcohol. The carbon dioxide forms lots of bubbles in the dough. The gascannot escape from the dough because it gets trapped by gluten, which is areally sticky protein found in wheat flour. As the yeast cells carry onfermenting, more and more carbon dioxide is produced, making more andmore bubbles and causing the dough mixture to ‘rise’, or increase in volumevery obviously. When the baker judges that the dough has risen enough,the bread is baked. During baking the alcohol evaporates in the heat of theoven, and the bubbly structure of the dough is turned into the open,spongy, structure of bread. Clearly, yeast plays a crucial role in theproduction of a food that is part of most people’s daily diet. There are over200 varieties of bread!This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Stephanie Roberts 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.

FF06What’s your favourite fungus?The One That Produces Agriculture’s LeadingFungicideFungicides are chemical substances that kill or inhibit the growth of fungi.They are applied to crops such as cereals, rice, potatoes and tomatoes.Farmers need to protect their crops from pathogenic fungi because they areharmful to the plant they infect. Fungi are not able to produce their own foodlike plants do; this means that the pathogenic fungus steals nutrients from theplant it lives on. Crop plants are especially susceptible to disease because theplants are grown very close together so the disease can spread from one tothe next easily.The most devastating effect caused by a fungal infection was the IrishFamine of 1845. A disease called the potato late blight caused the failure ofthe whole potato crop in Europe. The Irish peasants were most seriouslyaffected because they relied heavily on potatoes as their main food source.Loss of the crop led to the deaths of one million people in Ireland due tostarvation. Another two million were forced to emigrate (many to NorthAmerica) to escape the devastation at home. The organism that caused suchgreat damage is called Phytophthora infestans, and it is still a serious diseaseof potatoes.It is important that plants are protected from infections to stop suchevents occurring again. Fungicides can be applied to plants to give protection.The most widely used fungicides in the world today are a class of chemicalscalled the strobilurins, which were first discovered in 1977. Azoxystrobin isthe most popular one, and is said to be a broad-spectrum fungicide. This meansthat it is effective against a wide range of fungal species. Strobilurin A wasisolated from the pine cone fungus. It was seen that the substance was able tokill other fungal species. Today Strobilurins are produced synthetically.Strobilurins work by inhibiting mitochondrial respiration, by blocking electrontransport. This means that the fungus cannot produce energy so can no longergrow and eventually dies.Because Strobilurins are derived from a natural product, they areconsidered to be environmentally safe because they are rapidly degraded.This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Stephanie Roberts 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.

FF07What’s your favourite fungus?The One That Makes Cyclosporin toCombat Rejection in Transplant PatientsTransplant of livers, kidneys, hearts and lungs has been made possible bythe discovery of Cyclosporin in 1976, a compound produced by the fungusTolypocladium inflatum. The fungus was isolated from a soil sample andscreened to test if any compounds produced by the fungus could be ofmedical use. The results were very positive as the compound Cyclosporinwas found to have strong activity at suppressing the immune system (calledimmunosuppressive).When a patient receives an organ transplant, the body recognizesthe organ as a foreign object, just like it would a pathogen. Our bodies areprogrammed to eliminate such foreign things, because the object may beharmful to the body. This means that the body will naturally reject atransplant; and part of that rejection is that the organ is damaged so thatit stops functioning. The detection and elimination of foreign bodies iscarried out by the immune system, which is made up of several cell typesthat act to protect our bodies from potentially harmful organisms. Cells ofthe immunes system are equivalent to white blood cells and a particularsort, called lymphocytes, are the cells that are able to detect foreignobjects. They attach themselves to pathogens identifying them as things tobe destroyed by other white blood cells.In transplant operations the donor’s organ must be accepted by therecipient’s body so that it can function properly and save the life of thepatient. So in transplant patients the transplanted organ needs to beprotected from the patient’s own immune system.This is where Cyclosporin is used. This compound helps stop the bodyrejecting a transplant by stopping the production of lymphocytes. Iflymphocytes are not able to increase in number there is a greater chancethat the transplant will not be detected by the body, and will continue tofunction normally. Cyclosporin has been used in transplant operations since1983, and is currently the most effective and widely usedimmunosuppressive drug.This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Stephanie Roberts 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.

FF08What’s your favourite fungus?The One That Makes the CheeseCheese is produced as the result of milk changing from liquid to a semisolidconsistency; this change is known as coagulation. The resultantproduct is called a ‘curd’. In order to cause milk to become more solid,special enzymes are used to coagulate the proteins in the milk.Traditional cheese making used enzymes from animals. Theseenzymes called chymosin or rennet are obtained from the stomachmembranes of ruminants such as cows. As the cheese industry expanded,people started looking for enzymes from other sources. Today around 80%of cheese-making uses coagulation enzymes from fungi, not animals. Twowidely used fungi are the moulds Aspergillus and Mucor. The enzymes fromthe fungi make the proteins stick together into milk curds, which are thentreated further to produce the final cheese.Mould ripening is something different. This is a method that is usedto add flavour to cheese, and has been in use for at least 2,000 years. Asthe name suggests fungi are also involved in this process. Blue cheeses suchas Roquefort, Gorgonzola, Stilton, Danish Blue and Blue Cheshire, all gettheir strong flavour and odour from Penicillium roquefortii. The fungus isadded to the cheese, which is then placed in storage at a controlledtemperature and humidity. Adding the fungus to the cheese is usually doneby coating metal rods or wires with fungal spores and sticking them intothe immature cheese (you can often see the holes and the tracks of thewires through the cheese when you buy it). The fungus then grows throughthe cheese producing flavour and odour compounds.Fungi are also used to change the texture of cheese. This is whathappens in the case of Camembert and Brie cheeses. The two cheeses areripened by the mould Penicillium camembertii, which is cultivated on theoutside of the newly made solid cheese. As the fungus grows it releasesenzymes into the cheese that digest the cheese proteins to make a softer(eventually creamy) consistency.In the days before refrigeration the only way to store milk for anylength of time was to make it into cheese; which is why cheese making is atraditional industry all over the world.This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Stephanie Roberts 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.

FF09What’s your favourite fungus?The One That’s Used in Fizzy DrinksFizzy soft drinks contain many chemicals. One of these is citric acid - a weakacid that is naturally found in citrus fruits such as oranges, lemons and limes.It is added to soft drinks to give a slightly sour taste, to stabilise the ‘fizz’and also to serve as a preservative. The process of carbonation puts the ‘fizz’in drinks. This is achieved by dissolving carbon dioxide in water to producecarbonic acid. The addition of citric acid creates a buffer that stabilizes thecarbonic acid, so that the fizz remains in the drink after the bottle is opened.Initially, citric acid was obtained from lemons, but since 1923 allcommercial citric acid (600,000 tons every year) has been obtained fromfermentation by Aspergillus niger, a filamentous fungus. Citric acid is the firstproduct to be made from a cycle of conversions known as the citric acid, orKrebs cycle. This cycle occurs in the mitochondria of all living cells that useoxygen for respiration. The cycle is important, as it is part of the metabolicpathway that breaks down carbohydrates, fats and proteins into carbondioxide and water to generate energy for the cell.Aspergillus niger accumulates large amounts of citric acid. This isachieved by reducing the level of iron in the growth medium because theenzymes that convert citric acid into the next product of the cycle need iron.Keeping the iron content low stops the Krebs cycle before the citric acid canbe converted, so the acid can be harvested and used commercially.Large quantities of Aspergillus niger are grown on a medium containingsugar as its carbon source. The fungus grows at the surface of the mediumand the citric acid product is released into the liquid below. The mould is thenfiltered out and the remaining citric acid collected. When citric acid is addedto a solution it forms citrate ions. Citrates are excellent buffers for keepingthe pH of acids steady. In the case of soft drinks, the citrate ions ensurethat the carbonic acid remains stable, keeping the ‘fizz’ in your drink.This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Stephanie Roberts 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.

FF10What’s your favourite fungus?The One That Veggies Like To EatIn the 1960s there was concern over the future supply of protein from thetraditional sources of cattle, pigs, poultry and fish. It was thought that thesupply of these foods would not be able to match the world demand, andprotein would have to be obtained from a new source. Projects were started toproduce protein from microorganisms.In 1964 it was decided to try to produce protein from filamentousfungi. Ideally, the fungus used should have good nutritional value, be easy tocultivate and inexpensive to produce. Three thousand species of fungi werecollected and tested to see if they were suitable, the one finally chosen wascalled Fusarium venenatum.This fungus is grown continuaously in a large fermenter at the optimumtemperature of 30°C. Constant production and collection of the fungal biomassoccurs. The product is then heated to 64°C so that the RNA is destroyed tomake it safe for people to eat.It’s then filtered to remove the liquid medium, leaving behind what looksmuch like a sheet of raw pastry, which is then flavoured and shaped ready tobe transported to the shops. This product is called ‘Quorn’ and has been onsale since 1980. It is available in a wide range of forms, such as burgers,sausages, mince and chunks. Quorn has been very successful, with annual salesof more than £15 million per year, and is popular with vegetarians who canobtain many nutrients from it that others get from eating meat.Apart from the high protein content it is low in calories and saturatedfats, contains no cholesterol and is rich in zinc, B-vitamins, and fibre. It isideal for people who are watching their diet but who still want to enjoy thetaste and texture of meat. This is because Fusarium venenatum is afilamentous fungus with a stringy consistency which is comparable to thetexture of meat. The fungus also absorbs flavours well so can be altered easilyduring cooking to suit individual tastes.This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Stephanie Roberts 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.

FF11What’s your favourite fungus?The One That Makes MarmiteMarmite is made from brewer’s yeast (scientific name Saccharomycescerevisiae); which, after the beer has been made, is a major waste productof the brewing industry. The brewer’s yeast is composed of lots of smallfungal cells. In the nineteenth century, a German scientist called Leibigdiscovered that these yeast cells could be concentrated and turned into anutritious food. To make Marmite the brewer’s yeast is broken down torelease soluble vitamins and amino acids. This soluble material is thenconcentrated and filtered, and more vitamins and flavourings are added tofinally produce Marmite.The original Marmite Company was set up in Burton-upon-Trent in 1902 andvery soon after that Marmite first went on sale.Marmite has very good nutritional value because there is a high level ofvitamin B in the final product. Vitamin B helps prevent anaemia, helpsregulate the liver, kidneys and nervous system and also increases energylevels. So having marmite on your toast for breakfast is a nutritious way tostart the day. Bovril, too. Bovril used to be made from beef extract, but inNovember 2004 the manufacturers announced that the composition ofBovril was being changed from Beef extract to yeast extract. IT’S ALLGOOD FUNGUS!Either way it’s good for you...This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Stephanie Roberts 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.

FF12What’s your favourite fungus?The One That Digests All the Old TimberEver wondered what happens to all the leaves that fall from the trees, or thebranches that fall to the ground in storms, or when a tree dies? Somehowthere’s never a build up of all this organic matter, but what happens to it?Where does it go?Many organisms like bacteria, insects, worms and many fungi are involvedin the break down the plant material. Humus is the term used to describematerial once it has been broken down; it is nutrient rich and can be used byplants for their growth.Plant tissues are very strong. The components that provide the strengthare cellulose and lignin. Fungi are very important for the decay of wood becausethey are the only organisms capable of breaking down BOTH cellulose and lignin.Cellulose is a polymer of glucose that forms fibres which are incrediblystrong. Brown rot fungi are responsible for the breakdown of cellulose. Brownrot fungi are so called because the lignin remains intact so the wood keeps itsbrown colour. The enzymes released by brown rot fungi break the cellulosechains into single molecules of glucose that can be re-used by the fungus.Lignin is the other strong polymer. It is the second most abundantnatural polymer on earth after cellulose. The fungi that break down lignin arecalled white rot fungi; this is because as the content of lignin is decreased, thewood becomes lighter in colour. White rot fungi degrade lignin by producingoxidising enzymes that are released from their hyphae – they ‘burn’ the wood inan enzyme-controlled way. Lignin contains phenols and the white rot fungi arethe only organisms that can deal with them.These two types of fungi have important roles in the recycling ofnutrients. Without them, old plant material would not decay and the soilnutrients would be locked into an accumulating mass of undegradable biomass.This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Stephanie Roberts 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.

FF13What’s your favourite fungus?The One That’s the Largest Organism onEarthIf you ask people what the world’s biggest organism is, most will guess theBlue whale. They can grow up to 33 metres long and are the largestanimals alive today. Whales are pretty big, but there’s an even biggerorganism that claims the title ‘largest organism on earth’.This living thing is estimated to be between 1900 and 8500 years old, itspans an area of 2,200 acres (that’s about the same as 1,220 footballpitches) and weighs at least 150 metric tons. This makes it among theheaviest, but certainly the largest and oldest living thing on this planet.You must have guessed it by now; it’s a fungus!The common name of the fungus is the ‘honey mushroom’ as duringAutumn it produces golden-coloured mushrooms. Its scientific name isArmillaria ostoyae. This gigantic fungus was found in the Blue Mountainsof eastern Oregon in America, and is a pathogen of the roots of trees.Being a pathogen means that the fungus is harmful to the tree on whoseroots it lives. The fungus takes water and carbohydrates from the treeand so interferes with its growth.The tree eventually dies owing to lack of nutrients. The fungus is hidden,because it grows underground extending its hyphae from tree to tree inspecial structures called rhizomorphs. It cannot be tracked easily on thesurface, but because the fungus slowly kills trees it has infected, itmakes the leaves turn yellow as they become starved of nutrients.By looking for trees with yellow leaves the mycologists were able to mapthe presence of the fungus. Because it grew over such a large area, ahelicopter was used to obtain an aerial view of the forest showing all thetrees that had been infected.This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Stephanie Roberts 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.

FF14What’s your favourite fungus?The One That Can Fly!!A pathogenic fungus called Phyllactinia guttata infects trees such as hazel,birch and alder. The infection is commonly called powdery mildew becausethe fungus produces a large number of spores that cover the underside ofleaves rather like a covering of felt.For the fungus to be able to infect other trees the spores must becarried by the wind to other destinations. This fungus produces spores thatare adapted to have an ideal shape for dispersal by wind.The spores have two types of modifications for this. One is a set ofthin, arm-like appendages that stick out from the spore. The other is aconstruction that produces a slime droplet that faces downwards awayfrom the underside of the leaf. These two developments ensure that thespores will spread to infect other trees.In autumn the arm-like appendages dry out and as they do so theybend upwards to push against the leaf, detaching the spore from the leafsurface. Once the spore is free, the arms give it a shape similar to ashuttle-cock so it can be carried by the wind with the slime droplet hangingdown. The slime droplet makes sure that the spore sticks on properly whenit lands on a leaf or stem of another tree, so that it can infect that tree inthe following year.© Roland WeberThis document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Stephanie Roberts 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.

FF15What’s your favourite fungus?The One That Produces the HighestPressure Known in NatureMagnaporthe grisea, commonly known as the ‘rice-blast fungus’, is apathogen that causes a major disease of rice. This important diseasedestroys rice crops that could feed 60 million people each year, making itthe most devastating agricultural disease in the world. Because this diseasecan be economically devastating, everything about the fungus becomes veryinteresting to scientists as they try to find ways to combat the pathogen.This story about the method the fungus uses to infect a rice plant comesout of this research.When a fungal spore lands on the leaf of a rice plant it produces atube which swells at the tip. The tip swells due to stored glycogen andlipids being converted into sugars and glycerol. The sugars produce aconcentration gradient (an ‘osmotic potential’) that causes water to movefrom the rice plant into the tip of the tube. The resultant swollen tip is nowcalled an ‘appressorium’.The appressorium has a thick wall all around it; the only opening iswhere it touches the leaf forming a small pore. The purpose of anappressorium is to build up enough pressure to be able to force a hyphalstrand through that pore and into the leaf. It is the intake of water thatdoes this, causing a hydrostatic pressure of up to 80 atmospheres to buildup within the appressorium. The appressorium produces adhesives thatfirmly fix it to the leaf surface so that all the pressure is focused on theone spot where the hypha is forced into the leaf.Once inside the plant the fungus grows between the plant cells andsteals the plant’s nutrients. The fungus eventually grows so much that therice plant dies because it does not have enough nutrients to survive.The enormous pressure produced by the appressorium is the highestpressure recorded in any living organism to date!This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Stephanie Roberts 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.

WHAT ARE FUNGI?• Fungi are not classed as animals or plants, they have aKingdom of their own to which they belong.• They range from being just a single cell, like the yeasts, toothers that cover hundreds of acres of land.• Most fungi are said to be filamentous. This is because themain body of the fungus is made up of thin, thread-likefilaments that are called hyphae, which form the mycelium.• Fungi are divided into four groups depending on theircharacteristics• Chytridiomycota• Zygomycota• Ascomycota• BasidiomycotaFF16 All rights reserved for commercial use © Stephanie Roberts & British Mycological Society 2005

WHAT ARE FUNGI?Hyphae of the Oyster mushroomFF16 All rights reserved for commercial use © Stephanie Roberts & British Mycological Society 2005

KINGDOM FUNGITo date, 100,000 species offungi have been discovered.It is thought that there are overone million species still to befound.The fungi that most people arefamiliar with are those that formfruit bodies or mushrooms.Fungi can live in many habitatsincluding the arctic, tropicalrainforest, fresh and salt water.However, most fungi live in soil.• People that study fungi are calledMycologists.• Fungi are not able to produce theirown food as plants do.• Fungi are said to beSAPROTROPHS, because theylive on dead organic matter suchas leaves and wood.• To obtain nutrients fungi secretespecial digestive enzymes whichdegrade organic material outsidethe mycelium. The degradedcompounds can then be ingested.FF16 All rights reserved for commercial use © Stephanie Roberts & British Mycological Society 2005

ReproductionFungi are able to reproduce both sexually and non-sexually.Individuals can be produced that are genetically identical to one anotherby the fungal cells breaking up.Fungi are not classed as males or females. Fungi have thousands ofdifferent sexes, which are determined by genes which make up their matetype.The products of reproduction are spores. These are small compartmentswhich house the genetic information of the fungus.Spores are usually dispersed from fruit bodies such as mushrooms,truffles and puffballs. Once dispersed the spore can germinate producinga new fungal colony.FF16 All rights reserved for commercial use © Stephanie Roberts & British Mycological Society 2005

From The Fungi Name Trail by Liz Holden & Kath HamperFF16 All rights reserved for commercial use © Stephanie Roberts & British Mycological Society 2005

Fungi and Us• Many useful products havebeen isolated from fungi whichhave been of great benefit tohumans.• Certain activities of fungi arealso used to produce food anddrink.• Some examples are shownopposite.• Derived from fungi• Antibiotics• Agents to lower cholesterol• Immune systemsuppressants• Used in the manufacture of• Beer• Chocolate• Cheese• Bread• Fizzy drinks• Enzymes for washingpowdersFF16 All rights reserved for commercial use © Stephanie Roberts & British Mycological Society 2005

Fungi and Termites• Fungi can be useful to some sorts of insects.• A type of termite in Africa lives on plant material. However, becauseplants have tough cell walls they are quite difficult to break down.So even after digestion, lots of the nutrients are still present in thefaeces.• These types of termites have developed a clever strategy to obtainmore nutrients.• They cultivate a type of fungus by using their faeces as compost.The fungus is able to use the left over nutrients in the faeces togrow.• The fungus then provides the termites and their larvae with a richfood source.FF16 All rights reserved for commercial use © Stephanie Roberts & British Mycological Society 2005

Fungi and Ambrosia BeetlesAnother relationship where fungi are used by insects isthe use of ambrosia fungi by the ambrosia beetle.This type of beetle lives inside tree trunks, and thefemales bore passages in which to lay their eggs.The mother uses the ambrosia fungus is to feed thenewly hatched baby beetles.This is achieved by the mother infecting the wood withthe fungus by carrying some from a previous nest.By the time the eggs hatch the fungus has grown on thewalls of the tree trunk, providing an easily accessiblefood source for the larvae.FF16 All rights reserved for commercial use © Stephanie Roberts & British Mycological Society 2005

Fungal Infections• Fungi can infect plants and animals; includinghumans.• Masses of spores cause discolouration of theleaves so infections of plants are called smuts,rusts, spots and other names describing thesymptoms.Tarspot of sycamoreEyespot of wheatLeaf rust of daisyFF16 All rights reserved for commercial use © Stephanie Roberts & British Mycological Society 2005

Fungal Infections• Plants that are infected are weakened becausethe fungus absorbs nutrients from the plant onwhich is it living. Because of this weakened stateplants are more likely to be affected by otherforms of parasite and other stresses (likeshortage of water), and the yield of crop plants isgreatly reduced.FF16 All rights reserved for commercial use © Stephanie Roberts & British Mycological Society 2005

Humans as hosts• Human fungal infections are divided into threegroups.• The first of which are superficial infections.• These are infections of the outer layers of theskin, the hair and nails. Infections of the skinare specifically known as dermatomycoses.• Examples are athlete’s foot and ringworm (yes,it’s a fungus, not a worm!).FF16 All rights reserved for commercial use © Stephanie Roberts & British Mycological Society 2005

Subcutaneous fungal infections• The second group are the subcutaneousfungal infections. This is when the deeperlayers of the skin are infected, andsometimes even bone.• The organisms usually cross the protectivebarrier of the skin at the site of a cut. Mostof these organisms live in soil.• Deep skin infections include Mycetomaand Chromoblastomycosis.FF16 All rights reserved for commercial use © Stephanie Roberts & British Mycological Society 2005

Systemic Mycoses• Fungal infections that enter into the body and invadeinternal organs are called systemic mycoses. Infectioncan arise from inhalation of fungal spores, although suchcases are not usually life threatening.• Most people that suffer from a systemic fungal infectionare usually sick already. The fungus is said to be‘opportunistic’ because if the person was healthy thefungus would not usually cause any serious harm.• If someone is sick the body is less able to defend itselfagainst pathogenic organisms, they therefore have anincreased risk of susceptibility to infectious fungi.FF16 All rights reserved for commercial use © Stephanie Roberts & British Mycological Society 2005

References• Hadley, M. (2002) Fungus Fred goes Foraying. BritishMycological Society, UK.• Moore, D. (2001) Slayers, Saviors, Servants and Sex:An Expose of Kingdom Fungi. Springer-Verlag, NewYork.• Assinder, S. & Rutter, G. (2001) How the Mushroom Gotits Spots. Published jointly by the British MycologicalSociety and BBSRC.• http://microbiologyonline.org.uk/• http://www.doctorfungus.org/educatio/index.htm• http://www.mushworld.comFF16 All rights reserved for commercial use © Stephanie Roberts & British Mycological Society 2005

FF17The Fungi Name GameInstructionsThe object of this activity is to pick the true names from the fake fungalnames. Students are encouraged to shout out names to find the real names,which form a path of touching squares from the top of the grid to the bottom(shown as the white squares in the solution on page 3 below).Copy and distribute paper copies of the grid, or copy onto an OHPtransparency; then cross-out (or obscure if using an OHP) the fake names toshow the progress of the path (see page 3).REAL NAMESBlueleg BrownieDingy TwigletDrumstick Truffle-clubEarpick FungusFrosty FunnelLawyer’s WigLemon DiscoMousepee PinkgillPlums and CustardSilky PiggybackTurkey TailWitches’ ButterFAKE NAMESBooty MouldBubble PuffChalk and CheeseCherry BonnetCoffee HumpDeadly SpiderDouble JewelFlutter DevilHairy StinkweedMottled FairyPeacock OysterRabbits TailSlimy DonkeySmooth TalonSquare PoreTurtle TruffleWasp CrabtreeWaxy SheepThis document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Stephanie Roberts 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.1

FF17The Fungi Name GameCOFFEEHUMPEARPICKFUNGUSDINGYTWIGLETBUBBLEPUFFHAIRYSTINKWEEDWASPCRABTREETURTLETRUFFLEPLUMSANDCUSTARDSQUAREPOREWAXYSHEEPDEADLYSPIDERSILKYPIGGYBACKTURKEYTAILWITCHES’BUTTERSMOOTHTALONDOUBLEJEWELLEMONDISCOFLUTTERDEVILSLIMYDONKEYBOOTYMOULDMOTTLEDFAIRYFROSTYFUNNELLAWYER’SWIGDRUMSTICKTRUFFLECLUBBLUELEGBROWNIEPEACOCKOYSTERCHALKANDCHEESERABBITSTAILMOUSEPEEPINKGILLCHERRYBONNETThis document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Stephanie Roberts 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.2

FF17The Fungi Name GameHere’s the grid with the fake names greyed-outCOFFEEHUMPEARPICKFUNGUSDINGYTWIGLETBUBBLEPUFFHAIRYSTINKWEEDWASPCRABTREETURTLETRUFFLEPLUMSANDCUSTARDSQUAREPOREWAXYSHEEPDEADLYSPIDERSILKYPIGGYBACKTURKEYTAILWITCHES’BUTTERSMOOTHTALONDOUBLEJEWELLEMONDISCOFLUTTERDEVILSLIMYDONKEYBOOTYMOULDMOTTLEDFAIRYFROSTYFUNNELLAWYER’SWIGDRUMSTICKTRUFFLECLUBBLUELEGBROWNIEPEACOCKOYSTERCHALKANDCHEESERABBITSTAILMOUSEPEEPINKGILLCHERRYBONNETThis document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Stephanie Roberts 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.3

FF17Scientific namesAs you can see, the common names are descriptive and memorable (what do you thinkMousepee Pinkgill describes? [Think: smell; think: colour]), and the same approach isused for scientific names.The main difference is that scientific names are part of a standard worldwideclassification system of all living things. So there are internationally-agreed rules toproducing scientific names. Also, scientific names are generally in Latin (a few are basedon the Greek language), which means that whatever the native language of the scientists,they always use the same name for the same organism. Scientific names consist of twowords: the name of the GENUS followed by a name for the SPECIES; this is called thebinomial nomenclature. The genus name is rather like your family name and the speciesname is rather like your first name.The genus name (which is always capitalized) and the species name are usuallyprinted in italics, like this: Homo sapiens. When handwritten they should be underlined.When used with a common name, the scientific name usually follows inparentheses, for example, “…the house sparrow (Passer domesticus) is an endangeredspecies…” The scientific name should generally be written in full when it is first used orwhen several species from the same genus are being listed or discussed in the samereport. After that, it may be abbreviated by just using an initial (and full stop) to stand forthe genus. For example the bacterium Escherichia coli is often referred to as E. coli, andTyrannosaurus rex as T. rex. The abbreviation “sp.” is used when the actual specificname is not known: for example Homo sp. denotes “a species of the genus Homo.”Similarly, the abbreviation “spp.” (which is plural) indicates “several nameless species”(you may not want to name them, maybe because the point you are making applies to allspecies in that genus, or you may not know the names but want to make a general pointabout organisms of that sort).Genus names are nouns that can come from anywhere. For example, oak isalways Quercus, the beech tree is always Fagus, the pine tree is always Pinus, and thesenames are used because they are the classical Latin names that were used in ancientRome. Other names are made up to be descriptive of the organism (like Helianthus,which literally means sun-flower and is a combination of two Greek words – Helios wasthe ancient Greek god of the sun and anth(us) means flower), or to commemorate somefamous person (like Eugenia which was named for Prince Eugene of Savoy, who was apatron of botany and horticulture), while other names come from other languages (likeNarcissus (daffodil) and Anemone (anemone) that come from ancient Greek).Species names are often descriptive (like deliciosa for delicious, foetida for foulsmelling, squamosa for having scales, sapiens for intelligent, annuus for annual, and soon).This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Stephanie Roberts 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.4

FF17Now what does that fungus name mean...?Latin names can often be a stumbling block for beginners in all aspects of biologyincluding mycology, they seem so daunting, so... so long! But once you understand thatthe name (derived from Latin or Greek) contains information about the fungus - oftendescribing a key physical feature or commemorating a person’s name - then it can befascinating to find out the origin (etymology) of the name.So here are the meanings of some fungal names:Amanita inopinata: Amanita - probably from Mt Amanus in Cilicia; inopinata =unexpected.Sarcodon imbricatus, S. squamosus: Sarcodon - Sarco = flesh, don = tooth; imbricatus =covered with tiles; squamosus = scaly.Lentaria delicata: Lentaria - Lentus = pliant; delicata = tender, delicate.Cytidia salicina: Cytidia - from the Greek for a hollow vessel; salicina - pertaining to awillow.Boletus fragrans: Boletus - from the Greek for a clod (the shape?); fragrans = scented.Cystoderma fallax, C. terrei: Cystoderma - Cysto = cell, derma = skin; fallax = deceptive;terrei = in honour of Mr Michael Terrey.Tephrocybe ellisii: Tephrocybe - Tephro = ash-coloured, - cybe - from the Greek forhead; ellisii – in honour of Ted Ellis, the distinguished Norfolk naturalist.Hebeloma crustuliniforme, H. helodes, H. sinapizans, H. incarnatulum: Hebeloma -Greek for youth and fringe, presumably because some species are veiled orfringed at the cap margin; crustuliniforme - crustulum = a small cake, forma =shape; helodes - from the Greek for a marsh; sinapizans - from the Greek formustard; incarnatulum = small and flesh coloured.[By Geoffrey Kibby, originally published in 2000 in the magazine Field Mycologyvolume 1, p. 48.]Useful references onlinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_classificationhttp://botanicallatin.org/http://atshq.org/articles/beechwp1.htmlhttp://atshq.org/articles/beechwp2.htmlThis document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Stephanie Roberts 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.5

FF18What’s your Favourite Fungus?Card GameThere are 8 suits of cards.Each suit tells one fungus storyEach card gives one of 6 different facts about the fungus story concerned.There are also a couple of jokers!So now you know enough to play the Favourite Fungus card game.The cards are shuffled and 5 dealt to each of 4/5 players. Surplus cards placed in thecentre, face down. Object of the game is to collect five facts relating to one story (thatis, one cartoon logo).Player to left of dealer starts by taking top card from the central deck, decideswhether to keep or discard, and then discards one card, FACE UP, to start a discard pilealongside the main deck.Players after that choose in turn whether to take top card from discard pile orundisclosed card from main deck, and again maintain their own hand of cards at 5 cards bydiscarding the picked-up card or another card from his/her hand.As soon as a player has collected all five cards in a story (which may include one ofthe jokers), he or she WINS by declaring “My Favourite Fungus! ” and putting their cardson the table for all to see.This document may be copied freely for educational purposes only.All rights reserved for commercial use. Text © Stephanie Roberts 2005; design and production © David Moore 2005.

FF19Wood-rotting fungi digestthe timberBrown rot fungi break downcellulose.Wood-rotting fungi digestthe timberWhite rot fungi break downlignin.Wood-rotting fungi digestthe timberBacteria, worms, insects andsome fungi break down deadplant material so that thenutrients can be recycled.Mycorrhiza - the fungusthat makes plant roots workThe plant shares up to 25% ofits photosynthetic productswith the fungus.Mycorrhiza - the fungusthat makes plant rootsworkThere are ectomycorrhizasand endomycorrhizas.All rights reserved for commercial use. © Stephanie Roberts & David Moore 2005Wood-rotting fungi digestthe timberMycorrhiza - the fungusthat makes plant roots workMycorrhiza - the fungusthat makes plant roots workPlant cell walls containcellulose and lignin thatmake them strong.Mycorrhizas improve theplant’s ability to withstandenvironmental extremes.It is thought that has many as95% of all plants havemycorrhizal associations.Mycorrhiza - the fungusthat makes plant roots workMycorrhizas increase nutrientavailability to plants, as theyincrease the absorptive surfacearea.Mycorrhiza - the fungusthat makes plant roots workThe mycorrhizal relationship ismutualistic because both plantand fungus gain from havingthe other present.

FF20Fungal products combatrejection of organtransplantsThe immune systemusually kills anythingforeign that enters thebody, this causestransplant rejection.Fungal products combatrejection of organtransplantsCyclosporin is animmunosuppressant.A fungus is needed for ourfizzy drinksCitric acid is a product ofthe Krebs cycle inmetabolism.A fungus is needed for ourfizzy drinksCitric acid is produced bythe fungus Aspergillus niger.A fungus is needed for ourfizzy drinksSoft drinks contain citricacid.All rights reserved for commercial use. © Stephanie Roberts & David Moore 2005A fungus is needed for ourfizzy drinksA fungus is needed for ourfizzy drinksA fungus is needed for ourfizzy drinksCitric acid keeps thecarbonic acid stable, so thedrink stays fizzy.The fungus is grown in afermenter on a medium ofsugar.Citric acid gives a sour taste,but is also a preservative.Wood-rotting fungi digestthe timberBrown and white rot fungiproduce digestive enzymes todegrade wood.Wood-rotting fungi digestthe timberFungi are the only organismsknown to be able to breakdown both cellulose andlignin.

FF21Fungi digest grassfor cowsChytrids pass from onecow to another by beingtransferred in cow dung.Fungi digest grassfor cowsThe chytrids live offsome of the nutrients in thecow’s food.Fungi digest grassfor cowsCows have fungi calledchytrids living in theirstomachs.Fungi digest grassfor cowsCows are ruminants.Fungal products combatrejection of organtransplantsCyclosporin preventsrejection of an organtransplant.All rights reserved for commercial use. © Stephanie Roberts & David Moore 2005Fungi digest grassfor cowsThe chytrids producecellulase enzymes to breakdown the celluloseFungi digest grassfor cowsCows can not digest thecellulose in plant cell walls.Fungal products combatrejection of organtransplantsCyclosporin has beenused since 1983.Fungal products combatrejection of organtransplantsCyclosporin isproduced naturally bythe fungusTolypocladium inflatum.Fungal products combatrejection of organtransplantsProliferation oflymphocytes is inhibited bycyclosporin.

FF22A fungus is the largestorganism on EarthThe giant fungus weighsabout 150 tons and covers2,200 acres.A fungus is the largestorganism on EarthIt lives in theBlue Mountains of easternOregon in the USA.A fungus is the largestorganism on EarthA fungus could bekeeping Grandad aliveA fungus could bekeeping Grandad aliveA fungus called Armillariaostoyae is the biggestorganism in the world.Aspergillus niger andPenicillium citrinum are thefungi that produce thestatin drugsLow density lipoprotein isthe dangerous type ofcholesterol.All rights reserved for commercial use. © Stephanie Roberts & David Moore 2005A fungus is the largestorganism on EarthA fungus could bekeeping Grandad aliveA fungus could bekeeping Grandad aliveThe common name forthe fungus is ‘honeymushroom’.Statins block the enzymeneeded for the productionof cholesterol.Statins arecholesterol-loweringdrugs.A fungus could bekeeping Grandad aliveCholesterol is a type of fat.A fungus could bekeeping Grandad aliveExcess cholesterol mayblock blood vessels causingheart attack.

FF23JOKERWhat do you call someonewho parties every night?A FUN GUY!JOKERWhat did the bus driver tellthe last passenger?THERE’S NOTMUSHROOM INSIDE!Veggies like to eat QuornfungusQuorn has the texture ofmeat, and can be modifiedto taste like meat.Veggies like to eat QuornfungusQuorn fungus isfilamentous, and is growncontinuously in two largefermenters.Veggies like to eat QuornfungusQuorn is a product made offungus.All rights reserved for commercial use. © Stephanie Roberts & David Moore 2005Veggies like to eat QuornfungusVeggies like to eat QuornfungusVeggies like to eat QuornfungusQuorn is available asburgers, sausages, minceand chunks.Quorn is low in fat, high inprotein and zinc, andcontains B vitamins.The Quorn fungus is calledFusarium venenatum.A fungus is the largestorganism on EarthThe fungus is a pathogenof tree roots.A fungus is the largestorganism on EarthThe fungus causes theleaves of the trees onwhich it lives to turn yellow;eventually the tree will die.

FF24JOKERWhat did the zoospore sayas it was leaving thezoosporangium?“After you, I encyst!"JOKERA fungus went into abar and saw somealgae at a table.They took a lichen toeach other!Veggies like to eat QuornfungusQuorn has the texture ofmeat, and can be modifiedto taste like meat.Veggies like to eat QuornfungusQuorn fungus isfilamentous, and is growncontinually in two largefermenters.Veggies like to eat QuornfungusQuorn is a product made offungus.All rights reserved for commercial use. © Stephanie Roberts & David Moore 2005Veggies like to eat QuornfungusVeggies like to eat QuornfungusVeggies like to eat QuornfungusQuorn is available asburgers, sausages, minceand chunks.Quorn is low in fat, high inprotein and zinc, andcontains B vitamins.The Quorn fungus is calledFusarium venenatum.A fungus is the largestorganism on EarthThe fungus is a pathogenof tree roots.A fungus is the largestorganism on EarthThe fungus causes theleaves of the trees onwhich it lives to turn yellow;eventually the tree will die.