Extrinsic Motivators and Incentives: Challenge and Controversy.

DOCUMENT RESUMEED 448 127 SP 039 639AUTHOR Ingram, Michael A.TITLEExtrinsic Motivators and Incentives: Challenge andControversy.PUB DATE 2000-00-00NOTE 23p.PUB TYPE Information Analyses (070)EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORSMF01/PC01 Plus Postage.Academic Achievement; Dropout Prevention; ElementarySecondary Education; *Incentives; Public Education;*Rewards; Self Motivation; *Student MotivationABSTRACTThis article reviews the literature and provides examples ofextrinsic motivators and incentives being used in public schools to decreasedropout rates, increase attendance, and increase academic achievement. Theuse of incentives has grown in favor as a way to increase studentachievement, intrinsic motivation, self-worth, and retention. Certaincharacteristics must be present in incentives to ensure success in motivatingstudents. These include establishing definite patterns of change in behavior,melding with students' interests, and having consistent standards ofimplementation. Students will respond favorably to rewards if they feel thereis a reasonable chance of success, they are convinced that the personal risksare not -overwhelmingi and they believe that the product or reward is-worththe effort needed to succeed. Educators do not universally support incentivesin education. Many believe that the use of extrinsic motivators underminesindividuals' intrinsic motivation. Evidence clearly shows that extrinsicrewards can either enhance or reduce interest in an activity, depending onhow they are used. Despite continued controversy, incentive programs canserve a valuable function in schools, providing an additional source ofmotivation and support for students. (Contains 45 references.) (SM)Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.

Alcohol Policy in EuropeChapter 3. Does alcohol policy make any difference?This chapter covers how the scales were structured, filled in and put into use. Some of thebuilt-in weaknesses of the methodology are discussed, and the correlation between alcoholconsumption and the strictness of policies is analyzed.What we didThe AMPHORA scale consists of a four-page questionnaire on formal alcohol policies. There areover 50 questions - most of them are answered by ticking boxes, but open answers are alsoincluded. The questionnaire is divided into seven subcategories, dealing with different aspectsof alcohol policies. The subcategories have been given weights, and questions within eachsubcategory generate points. All questions do not receive points, as some are used forcollecting contextual information on the alcohol situation.In the scale constructed in the Bridging the Gap project, a panel of experts were asked to givetheir verdict on the effectiveness of different alcohol policy measures included in the scale. Inthe AMPHORA scale, however, the weights were adjusted and validated by referring to state ofthe art research on evidence-based practice (WHO Regional Office for Europe 2009; Babor etal. 2010). As physical and economic availability are the most powerful tools in controllingalcohol consumption, each of them contributes 25% of the total maximum scores. Age limits,drink driving and alcohol advertising controls are each rewarded with a share of 15% of themaximum score, while public policy’s share of the total score is a mere 5%. The firstsubcategory in the scale, i.e. “Starting points” is a general, descriptive category, which givesthe possibility to specify how alcoholic beverages are defined in the country in question, andoffers the opportunity to give a brief description on how alcohol is regulated by law in thecountry. One can, for instance, state that there is a specific Alcohol Act in force, or indicatethat alcohol is regulated mainly through other, non-alcohol specific, legislations. Subcategoryone is mainly for information gathering purposes, and it does not generate any numeric score,unlike the other subcategories in the scale.The 33 forms were filled in using data collected by the WHO-EURO in the European Survey onAlcohol and Health, corresponding to the year 2010. In addition, we contacted experts in thecountries in order to get more contextual information.Table 1. Subcategories of alcohol policy measuresSubcategory of alcohol policy measures %I Starting points 0 0MaxpointsII Control of production, retail sale and distribution of alcoholic beverages 25 40III Age limits and personal control 15 24IV Control of drunk driving 15 24V Control of advertising, marketing and sponsorship of alcoholic beverages 15 24VI Public policy 5 8VII Alcohol taxation and price 25 40Total 100 160

Extrinsic Motivators 2As teachers look for new and interesting ways to keeptheir students' attention,they have increasingly resortedto the use of extrinsic motivators and incentives. Yet, theutilization of these methods are quite controversial. Thisarticle is designed to review the literature and provideexamples of extrinsic motivators and incentives being usedin public schools to decrease dropout rates, increaseattendance and raise academic achievement scores.3

other people" (p. 950).Extrinsic Motivators 4As stated earlier, educationaltheorists primarily concern themselves with the intrinsicmotivation construct, perhapsrationalizing that internalmotivation is what causes a person to behave and perform ina certain way (Calder & Staw, 1975; Gottfried, 1985;Husman& Lens, 1999) Jordan, 1986;Pittman, 1998; Reeve,Cole & Olson, 1986; Weiner & Mander, 1978).Bower (1994) stated that behavioral and cognitiveresearchers are divided on issue of whether externalrewards affect motivation and creativity.Behavioral researchers argue that external rewards,such as cash incentives,can increase performance at workand school; cognitive researchers contend the opposite,noting that extrinsic rewardslead to a dependence onacceptance, reinforcement and approval from others (Bower,1994, p. 405).The divergent views held about intrinsic and extrinsicmotivation (Kohn, 1996;Lepper, 1981; Nelson, 1996; Reid,Bailey-Dempsey, Cain, Cook & Burchard, 1594; Schaps &Lewis, 1991) led Cameron and Pierce (1994) to examine theeffects of reinforcement/rewards on intrinsic motivation.The main meta-analysis incIuded"96 eXperimental studiesusing between-groups designs: in which rewarded subjectst46fe compared with nonrewarded controls on four measures ofintrinsic motivation.The researchers found that rewardssuch as verbal praise do not decrease intrinsic motivation,

Extrinsic Motivators 5but that expectations for automatic tangible rewards forcompleting a task do. The researchers concluded that whena reward is removed after the end of a measured task,theremoval had a minimal negative effect on intrinsicmotivation.Five studies using within-subject designs werealso conducted to evaluate the effects of the reinforcementon intrinsic motivation.The results of this secondanalysis revealed that reinforcement does not derailindividuals' intrinsic motivation.Although theconclusions drawn by Cameron and Pierce's meta-analysisproved controversial and were the subject of much debate(Cameron & Pierce, 1996; Lepper, Reavney & Drake, 1996;Ryan & Deci, 1996), the investigation did provide evidencethat intrinsic motivation is not negatively effected byexternal rewards.The researchers also considered the theoreticalandpractical implications of the meta-analysis. The resultsof the meta-analysis examination suggested the need tochange the current ideasabout the ways in which motivationcan be used. In other words, we need to abandon old notionsabout the negative effedts of external rewardreinforcements and adopt new views that embrace the ideathat intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors can worktogether.Tie meta-analysis also hinted that intrinsicinterest is enhanced and stimulated by such reinforcementsas, verbal praise and positive feedback.Further, if

Extrinsic Motivators 6rewards are used as reinforcements/incentives and arecontingent upon performance, such extrinsic incentivesystems can be implemented effectively in the classroomdespite teacher reservations.INCENTIVESThe use of incentives in public schools has grown infavor as a way to increase student achievement, intrinsicmotivation, self-worth and retention rates (Chance, 1993;Covington, 1984; Haslinger, Kelly & O'Lare, 1996; Kusky,1994; Lubell, 1991; Martin, 1991; Purvis, Garvey &Purvis;19 Shroder, 1994). Incentives are defined as. . something that incites or is likely to incitedetermination or action (Marriam Webster Dictionary, 1994,p. 375). Seone and Smink (1991) reported that manyelementary school teachers use incentives as an integralpart of their classroom management strategy.Candy,parties, special favors and privileges are some of the mostcommonly used classroom management incentives.Incentivescan also be used successfully in high schools to encourageacademic achievement.Such things as monetary rewards,special recognition, gift certificates, scholarshipcompetition, extra field trips, and discount tickets arecommonly used to promote academic achievement andattendance within high schools (p. 3).While the use of external rewards to spur intrinsicmotivation and productivity in classrooms is well

Extrinsic Motivators 7documented in the literature (Bates, 1979; Bracey, 1994;Roney & Morgan, 1991),educators have become increasinginterested using monetary incentives to motivate studentsto attend school or improve their performance,Reid andDempsey (1995) stated that ". . . the use of monetary orother tangible incentivesto induce children to "be goodstudents . .. probably originated shortly after the firstattempt was made to educate a child. ..Within the pastdecade, various drop-out prevention programs have used theequivalent of financial incentives in the form of . ..college scholarshipsas means to motivate students tograduate from high school (p.331). Two prominent programshave these monetary incentives 'Lang'sI Have A DreamProgram and the D-FY-It program in Texas. In the "I Have aDream Program,in New York," Lang donated money to schoolswith the intention of paying for students collegeeducations if they completed high school. His commitmentwas expensive, but effective; the graduation rate at thoseschools stood at and in the D-FY-IT (DRUG FREE YOUTH INTEXAS) program in Dallas, Texas incentives were used tohelp curb drug abuse in local schools.Students whocompleted voluntary drug tests received discounts fromlocal businesses, as well as the possibility of financialassistance with college. The program sponsors believedthose students drawn by merchandise discounts and help withcollege, might persuade others to stayaway from drugs.

Extrinsic Motivators 8Further, the threat of testing might help students fend offpeer pressure to use drugs (Gest, 1996, p. 62). The SayYes to Education Program, offered the promise of fully paidcollege tuition for college education or vocationaltraining to 112 sixthgrade students from low incomefamilies in the School District of Philadelphia.Theprogram's aim was to change . . . the . . . odds thatdefeat inner-city students (Newburg & Sims, 1996, p. 149).While the uses of incentives vary, they have one commongoal: to motivate, excite and drive people to action.Their success in other areas has prompted educatorsto ask,"How can incentives be utilized most effectively within thethe school setting?"(Seone and Smink, 1991, p. 2)Early studies of token systems were conducted toascertain the effectiveness of external incentives orrewards in the classroom setting (Ayllon & Azrin, 1968;Ford & Foster, 1976; Levine & Fasnacht, 1974; Ristner,Hammer, Wolfe, Rothblum & Drabman, 1982).Razdin (1977) noted that tokens such as tickets, stars,points on a tally sheet, and currency or coins were used ascontingencies to modify,reinforce or change behavior (p.47). While the research suggested that students were oftenmotivated toward better academic and behavioralperformances with the introduction of tokens into theclassroom environment (Bedell & Archer, 1980) grades werestill the most common motivators in most schools.In fact,

Extrinsic Motivators 9Deutsch, (1979,) described grades as being " . . . thebasic currency of our educational system."(p. 393).Teachers assign grades, and commented on students'quizzes, tests, and major assignments.They also givespecial recognition or awards to students who do well orimprove their performance.Although feedback, evaluationand recognition practices are supposed to motivate studentsto attain better grades, these measures are largelyineffective, as measured by the number of students who arenot performing up to potential (MacIver & Reuman,1993;1994, p. 24).Traditional feedback, grading, and recognitionpractices in schools are based on evaluation systems whichcompare one student's performance to other students, or todesirable standards of achievement.The implicit goal isfor students to attain higher grades, and recognition, suchas honor roll membership that accompany such grades(MacIver, 1992, p.8).Academically disadvantaged studentsat the middle school level who lag significantly behindmore advantaged classmates in academic skills may find itimpossible to attain this implicit goal even with hardwork.Neither will dramatic progress guarantee asuccessful outcome.Disadvantaged students may still staynear the bottom of their class, far from the absolutelevels of performance that are rewarded and recognized intheir schools.When students realize that there best10

Extrinsic Motivators 10efforts will go unrecognized and un-rewarded, they becomefrustrated, and disengaged from school (Natriello, 1982).As a consequence, levels of effort and rates of progressdrop precipitously.Bishop (1989) and Chance(1993) both suggested adopting the stance that externalreinforcers such as; monetary incentives enhance academicachievement and motivation.They argued that externalmotivators such as incentives assist students in learningthe value of supply-side economics.Bishop (1989) notedthat ". . .only with an effective system of rewards withinthe schools . . . can we hope to overcome the pervasiveapathy in American high schools and achieve excellence(p.42).Seone and Smink(1991) conducted an analysis of thedifferent types of incentives offered to students, andgrouped them into four categories: Education completion,academic achievement, attendance and personal improvement.1) Education Completion Incentives - These types ofincentives encourage students to complete school inorder to pursue higher education or join the workforce.The following incentivea are commonly used.A) Businesses promise to pay the expenses ofcollege and becoTe involved with studentswhile they are in school.B) Schools establish Buddy systemC) Businesses offer employment for graduating11

Extrinsic Motivators 112) Academic Achievement Incentives - Academicachievement incentives motivate students to improveor maintain academic performance.A) Schools award goal cards straight A'performanceHolders of goal cards receive reducedprices on items from local businesses.B) Students earn a certain amount of moneyfor each high grade (this money is placedin a college fund).3) Attendance Incentives - Incentives aimed atimproving attendance are important because excessiveabsences can adversely affect students' achievementlevels, and their motivation to stay in school.A) Students earn prizes based on the number ofdays they are in school. (i.e., food, t-shirts, hats, mugs, etc),B) If students miss no more than one day, theycan earnT.V sets, cash and walkmans.4) Personal ImpttiveMent Incentives - Personalfactors, such as teenage pregnancies and unstablehome environments, also impact academic achievementand attendance.Some schools are incorporatingimproved and extended support services to deal withnonschool related factors affecting students'motivation and performance.12

Extrinsic Motivators 12A) Students acquire points when they use theservices of local agencies, such ashealth centers.As the pointsaccumulate, students can win prizes(fast-food gift certificates )B) Schools provide cash awards ormerchandise for attendance and positivebehavior.C) Businesses guarantee of summer employmentCHARACTERISTICS OF INCENTIVESIn analyzing the incentives presently used to motivatestudents to complete their education, one notices thatcertain characteristics must be present to ensure success.Deustch (1979) noted that incentivescan be effective if;1) They establish definite patterns of changes inbehavior,2) They meld with the interests of the students,3) They can be attained by most students.4) They have consistent standards of implementation.5-) Students understand what to do to attain6) Recognition is given only to those receivingawards, and7) Varying levels and types of incentives are offeredfor different levels of achievement (p. 393).13

Extrinsic Motivators 13Further, in line with the expectancy theory,a studentwill respond favorably to a reward under the followingcircumstances:a. The pupil feels that there is a reasonable chanceof success.b. The pupil is convinced that the personal risks arenot overwhelming(presiding in front of a largegroup, for example, may be numbing).c. The pupil believes that the product or reward isworth the effort needed to succeed (enormouspersonal efforts followed by meager rewardshave little appeal) (Barnes, 1988, p.12).The characteristics of incentives suggest that it isimportant to provide students with avenues for success andrecognition.These reinforcers along with verbalreinforcers, such as praise and encouragement willincreaseopportunities for students to achieve academically.CONTROVERSYEducators do not universally support incentivesacademic settings.Many educational theorists believe thatthe use of extrinsic motivators, in particular, underminesinindividuals' intrinsic motivation (Bernstein, 1980;Covington, 2000; Deci, Nezlek & Sheinman, 1981;Erez,Gopher & Arzi, 1990; Lepper & Hodell, 1989; Kohn, 1993;Morgan, 1984; Ryan & Deci, 2000).Lepper and Hodell(1989) argued that when rewards are14

Extrinsic Motivators 15Rewards reduce motivation when given without regard toperformance, or when the performance standard is so highthat students cannot reach it.When students show a highrate of success that is rewarded, the rewards do not havenegative effects.The evidence, clearly shows thatextrinsic rewards can go both ways: they can either enhanceor reduce interest in an activity, depending on how theyare used (p. 43).The three types of rewards he studiedfollow:1) Task-contingent rewards - available for merelyparticipating, without regard to any standard ofperformance.There is usually a decline ininterest when activity is rewarded.2) Performance-contingent rewards - available onlywhen students achieve a certain standard.Sometimes these produce negative results.3) Success-contingent rewards - are given for goodperformance and reflect either success in a goal orprogress toward one.These rewards do not havenegative effects; in fact, they typically increaseinterest in the rewarded activity.Shanker (1980) stated that he believed that incentivesget people started and that our economic system operateswith a variety of incentives. He stated that ". . . mostadults go to work regularly and on time because of anelaborate system of incentives that are as external to16

Extrinsic Motivators 16their work as cokes and hamburgers are to schoolattendance" (p.E7).Finally, Morgan (1997) in a review of Kohn's (1993)book, "Punished by Rewards: The Trouble with Gold Stars,Incentive Plans and, A's,Praise and other Bribes" arguedthat reinforcers are frequently situation and personspecific.By situation specific, Morgan means that awards orreinforcers are givenas a result of an event task.Person-specific, on the other hand, means that awards aregiven to chosen individualsfor events or completed tasks.Therefore, his central point is that intrinsic motivationdoes not decrease, because reinforcers are not given acrossthe board.Despite the continued controversy, incentive programscan serve a valuable function in schools.They provide anadditional source of motivation and support for students.School personnel, and in particular, school counselorsacknowledge that incentive programs provide a means ofdeveloping students' academic emotional and social growth.This perspective is deemed crucial in today's ever changingand highly diverse society.17

Extrinsic Motivators 17ReferencesAmabile, T.M., Hill, K. G., Hennessey,B.A., & Tighe,E.M. (1995). The work preference inventory: Assessingintrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations.Journalof Personality and Social Psychology,66 (50), 950-967.Ayllon, T., & Azrin, N. (1968). The token economy: Amotivational system for therapy and rehabilitation.York:Appleton-Century Crofts.NewBarnes, D.L. (1988). The use of incentives and rewardsin elementary classrooms. The Teacher Educator, 23, 11-16.Bishop, J.H. (1989). Motivating students to study:Expectation, rewards, achievement. NASSP Bulletin, 123,27-38.Bower, B. (1994). Rewards surface as creativityenhancers. Science News, 145 (26), 405.Bracey, G. (1994). Reward and punishment. Phi DeltaKappan, 75 (6), 494-495.Brennan, T.P., & Glover, J.A. (1980). An examinationof the effects of extrinsic reinforcers on intrinsicallymotivated behavior: experimental and theoretical.Behavior and Personality, 8, 27-32.SocialBrophy, J. (1987). Synthesis of research onstrategies for motivating students to learn.Leadership, 45(2), 40-48.Educational18

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Extrinsic Motivators 19Hawkins, D. (1995). Johnny can read for cash andfreebies. U.S. News & World Report, 119 (17), 73.Hodgkinson, H. (1985). All one system: Demographicsof education, kindergarten through graduate school.Washington, D.C.:Institute for Educational Leadership.Holt, M. (1987). Excellence is intrinsic.The Clearing House, 60 (9), 418-419.Husman,J., & Lens, W. (1999). The role of the futurein student motivation. Educational Psychologist. 34(2),113-125.Kazdin, A.E. (1977). The token economy. New York:Plenum Press.Kohn, A. (1993). Punished by rewards. Boston:Houghton Miflin.Kohn, A. (1996). By all available means: Cameron andPierce's defense of extrinsic motivators.Review ofEducational Research, 66, 1-4.Knell, S. E. (1999). Assessing a second-gradestudent's motivation to read: Examining extrinsic andintrinsic motivators, teacher, parents, and studentattitudes, the classroom environment, and the role oftechnology in reading motivation.Dissertation AbstractsInternational, 60(6-A).20

Extrinsic Motivators 20Kusky,Jr., C.S. (1994). Catch them doing somethinggood. Phi Delta Kappan, 75 (6), 502.Lepper, M. R., & Hodell, M. (1989). Intrinsicmotivation in the classroom.In C. Ames and R. Ames(Eds.), Research on motivation and education, Goals andCognitions. San Diego, CA: Academic.Lepper, M.R., Keavney, M., & Drake, M. (1996).Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic rewards:A commentaryon Cameron's and Pierce's meta-analysis.Review ofEducational Research, 66(1), 5-32.Martin, L. (1991). Improving student attendance withrecognition, rewards. NASSP Bulletin, 75 , 111-112.Maclver, D.J., & Reuman, D. (1993/1994). Giving theirbest. American Educator, 24-31.Martin, L. (1991). Improving student attendance withrecognition, rewards.NASSP Bulletin111-112.Morgan, D.L. (1997). Rewards and punishments, ends andmeans. Journal of Teacher Education, 48 (2), 150-154.Morgan, M. (1984). Reward-induced decrements andincrements in intrinsic motivation.Review of EducationalResearch, 54 (1), 5-30.Natriello, G. (1982). Organizational evaluationsystems and student disengagement in secondary schools.Final report to the National Institute of Education.St.Louis, MO: Washington University.

Extrinsic Motivators 21Nelson, B. (1996). Dump the cash, load on the praise.Personnel Journal, 75 (7), 65-70.Newburg, N. A., & Sims, R. (1996). Context thatpromotes success for inner city students.Urban Education,31 (2), 149-176.Pittman, T.S. (1998). Motivation. In Gilbert, D. T.,& Fiske, S.T. (Eds). The handbook of social psychology,Vol. 1 (4th ed.). (pp. 549-590). Boston, MA, US: Mcgraw-Hill. xx, 865 pp.Reid, W.J., & Bailey-Dempsey, (1995). The effects ofmonetary incentives on school performance.The Journal ofContemporary Human Services, 76 (6), 331-340.Ryan, M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic andextrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and newdirections. Contemporary Educational Psychology. 25(1),54-67.Ryan, R.M. & Deci, E.L. (1996). When paradigms clash:Comments on Cameron and Pierce's claim that rewards do notundermine intrinsic motivation.Review of EducationalResearch, 66, 33-38.Schaps. E., & Lewis, C. (1991). EducationalLeadership, 48(7), 81-83.22

Extrinsic Motivators 22Seone, M., & Smink, J. (1991). Incentives andeducation: A series of solution and Strategies .Number 4, NationalDropout Prevention Center: Clemson.Shanker, A. (1990, April 8). Incentives forattendance. The New York Times, p. E7Weintraub, A. (1994, August 1). Newmaker Q & A: NewTaft principal aims to improve attendance.Enquirer, p. A6.The CincinnatiWeirsma, U. (1992). The effects of extrinsic rewardson intrinsic motivation: A meta-analysis. Journal ofOccupational and Organizational Psychology,65, 101-114.Wirth, A. G. ( 1993). Education and work: Thechoices we face. Phi Delta Kappan, 74 (5), 361-366.

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