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PSYCHOLOGYOF SEXA MANUAL FOR STUDENTSBYHAVELOCK ELLISEMERSON BOOKS, INC*NEW YORK1960

Copyright, 1Q3.3, ^SS, byHAVELOCK ELLISAll rights reservedTHIRTEENTH PRINTINGSECOND EDITIONPRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

FOREWORD TO NEW PRINTINGSo SHORT a period has elapsed since this manual was writtenthat there are yet no serious changes to make. Wecould not indeed expect that on the psychological aspectof sex any such rapid progress is possible as on the biochemicaland genetic aspects. So that I need only here expressmy satisfaction at the cordial reception of my bookalike in England and the United States, on the medicalside and on the lay side.In view of the widely divergent approach to the problemof sex among the psycho-analytic schools, the almost unqualifiedapproval they have shown cannot but be gratifying.My own attitude to the various schools has been oneof readiness to accept from each any contribution of valueit seemed to offer. Such an attitude cannot be altogetheragreeable to mutually hostile schools of thought. It is themore notable that they have warmly welcomed this book.Thus on the one hand the late lamented Dr. Eder in ahighly eulogistic review in the chief Freudian organ, theInternational Journal of Psycho-Analysis, only faintlyOnqualifies his complete agreement on essential points.the other hand, the International Journal of IndividualPsychology, the chief organ of the Adlerian school, isscarcely less favorable in its recognition of scientific objectivitycombined with sympathetic insight, even though thecritic finds a "fundamental error" in my incidental quotationof the ancient saying, "A man is what his sex is,"when I should have said, my critic holds> "A man's sex iswhat he is/* But I am quite willing so to it.put The real

FOREWORD TO NEW PRINTINGpoint of the saying, whichever way one puts it, is merely toaffirm that a man's sexual temperamentis too intimateand essential a part of him to be viewed with indifference.When even the hostile comments of my criticsare soharmless I feel that I may continue to put forward withconfidence a manual which I sought to make an introductoryguide to the study of a supremely important side oflife.HAVELOCK ELLIS

PREFACEI HAVE frequently been told by readers of the seven volumes ofmy Studies in the Psychology of Sex that there is need for asmall book to serve as a concise introduction to Sex Psychology.Ordinary medical practitioners and students,, it issaid, are far too overburdened already to be able to masterextensive treatises on an additional subject which is notobligatory. The subject of sex in itspsychic and social bearingsis so central, and of an importance now so widely recognized,if not indeed exaggerated, among the general public,that the medical man of today cannot fail to have itbroughtbefore him. He cannot, like his predecessors, conventionallyignore its existence, or feel that its recognition would be resentedas impertinent or indecorous. Moreover, a knowledgeconfined to general anatomy, physiology, and pathologyis nowaltogether inadequate.My own opinionis in accord with these views. I have indeedfelt that medical education displays at this point avacuum which is altogether lamentable. In my own medicaltraining, which began half a century ago, the psychologicalaspects of sex had no existence whatever. For my gynaecologicalteachers the processesof sex in health and disease were purelyphysical; the only consideration they introduced which couldin any way be regarded as psychological in its bearing andit stands out in memory because so isolated was '.an' unqualifiedwarning against what would now be called contraception.It might be supposed that great progress has been made sincethose remote days. Here and there, no doubt, there has. ButI have no evidence that the progress in isany country widespreador pronounced. It is less than twenty-five years sinceFraenkel stated that "most gynaecologists know practically verylittle about sexuality," and Van de Velde remarks that thatis still true for the great majority though there are now somehonorable exceptions. I hear from medical students of todaythat they receive absolutely no instruction in the psycho-[vii]

PREFACEphysical processes of sex, their liability to disturbance, ortheir hygiene. Ancient superstitions still prevailin our medicalschools, and the medical students of today are for themost partstill treated with almost the same misplaced reverenceas the school children of a century ago,whom it wassometimes considered indecent to instruct in so sexual a subjectas botany.After long hesitation I have decided to prepare the littlemanual here presented to the reader. There is scarcely needto say that it makes no claim to supplant, or even to summarize,my larger work. It has sometimes been stated thatthose larger volumes deal chiefly with the pathological sideof sex. That is an error. I might even claim that my Studiesdiffered from all previous work on the subject by a mainconcern with the normal phenomena of sex. The same mainconcern is preserved in the present book. While my experienceis partly derived from the abnormal persons who havecome to me from widely varied quarters,it is chiefly foundedon my knowledge of normal men and women and their problemsin ordinarylife. At the same time I have always soughtto show that no sharp boundary-line exists between normaland abnormal. All normal persons are a little abnormal inone direction or another, and abnormal persons are stillguided by fundamental impulses similar to those felt bynormal persons."The goal of scientific inquiry," it has been truly said, "isthe representation of experimentally demonstrable data withthe aid of mathematical symbolism," We are far from thegoal here. In this field we are only in the first phase but it isa necessary and helpful phase of regarding sex psychologyas a department of natural history.I make no apology, therefore, for the fact that this littlebook is simple and concise. It may thus indeed the betterreach the medical readers and students for whom it is primarilyintended. There are certain essentials with which allshould be familiar. I furnish the dues to those who desireto go further and to master problems which still lie ahead,and cannot in any case be adequately dealt with in an elementarymanual.Those problems stretch afar. Sexual sciencesexology, as[viii]

PREFACEsome would call it differs, as an eminent German gynaecologist,Max Hirsch, has lately pointed out, from most otherbranches of the healing art by having no definitely circumscribedfrontiers. From its center radiate beams not only intoall the other departments of medicine but also into manyneighboring regions, some of these with no obvious connectionwith medicine. It is even concerned with the whole of humanculture. It leads us to tradition and custom. It isaffected bymorals and religion. We may recall the remark of Sir JohnRose Bradford that what in the wide sense we today call thescience of medicine might be summed upas "the naturalhistory of man."So it is that, to enter this field effectively, a complex experienceisnecessary, a special training, a personal disposition. Itis today a field into which many put their foot whose explorationsdo not always, if often, bear examination. One may wellbe doubtful as to one's ability to bring back from that fieldanything likely to be of help to one's fellows. If I have myselfwaited long before presenting, with much hesitation, a manualwhich seems to offer itself as a guide, I do not feel that I havewaited too long.There are many, I might add, who before accepting me as aguide will desire to know what my attitude is towards psychoanalysis,the doctrine which until recently, if not indeed still,has aroused so much dispute where questions of sexual psychologyarise. I may, therefore, say here at once that as willbe clear in due course my attitude has from the first beensympathetic though never that of a partisan. A book of mine(Studies, Vol. 1) was in 1898 the first in English to set forththe earliest results reached by Freud, and my attitude to subsequentresults has remained the same, always friendly butoften critical. I would like to commend to all readers of thepresent book Freud's Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysisas not only the most authoritative but probably the best bookfor those who would confine their firsthand knowledge ofpsycho-analytic literature to a single volume; even those whoare opposed to the general doctrine cannot fail to find here theoutcome of much wisdom and experience. If a still brieferstatement is desired itmay be found set forth with the highestcompetence in Ernest Jones's little book on Psycho-Analysis.[ix]

PREFACEA more elaborate but lucid and impartial expositionis Structureand Meaning of Psycho-Analysis by Healy, Bronner, andBowers. While Freud must be recognized as the master in thepsycho-analytic field there is no occasion to reject altogetherthose who have separatedthemselves from him to follow theirown paths. They all have hold of some aspect of the manysidedhuman psyche, and, while avoiding a too indiscriminatewhatever sound element each haseclecticism, we may acceptto give.The selected bibliographical data furnished at the end ofeach section, it will be remarked, are all English, so as to bewithin reach of the largest number of readers. Many importantworks are only to be found in other languages, especiallyGerman. The reader who is acquainted with those languageswill have no difficulty in finding, through the data herefurnished, such wider literature as he may require.I have to add that in the preparation of this manual I havemade some use of a chapter on "Sexual Problems, Their Nervousand Mental Relations," which I wrote some years ago forthe treatise on The Modern Treatment of Nervous and MentalDisease, edited by Dr. William A. White and Dr. SmithEly Jelliffe, and published by Lea & Febiger. I am obligedto the editors and publishers for permission thus to use thischapter. I have also made use of my contribution on thepsychology of the normal sexual impulse to Dr. Albert Moll'sHandbuch der Sexualwissenschaften, and that on psychopathicsexuality to Dr. A. Marie's Traite International dePsychologie Patkologique. It is only necessary to remark inconclusion that Sexual Psychology as here understood meansthe psychology of the sexual impulse and not the differentialpsychology of the two sexes, which is dealt with fully in mybook, Man and Woman.HAVELOCK ELLIS

CONTENTSI. INTRODUCTION iII. THE BIOLOGY OF SEX STHE PHYSICAL BASIS OF SEX THE NATURE OFTHE SEXUAL IMPULSE EROGENIC ZONES THEBIOLOGY OF COURTSHIP PREFERENTIAL MAT-ING! THE FACTORS OF SEXUAL SELECTION(l) TOUCH (?) SMELL (g) HEARING (4)VISION.III. THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTH 88THE FIRST APPEARANCE OF THE SEXUAL IM-PULSE AUTO-EROTISM EROTIC DAY-DREAM-ING EROTIC DREAMS IN SLEEP MASTURBA-TION NARCISSISM EDUCATION IN SEX.IV.SEXUAL DEVIATION AND THE EROTICSYMBOLISMS 147SEXUAL DEVIATION SEXUAL DEVIATION INCHILDHOOD UROLAGNIA AND COPROLAGNIAEROTIC FETICHISM STUFF FETICHISMS ANDEROTIC ZOOPHILIA KLEPTOLAGNIA EXHIBI-TIONISM ALGOLAGNIA (SADISM AND MASO-CHISM) SEXUAL SENILITY THE SOCIAL AT-TITUDE TOWARDS SEXUAL DEVIATIONS.V. HOMOSEXUALITY 218SEXUAL INVERSION THE DIAGNOSIS OF SEX-UAL INVERSION EONISM (TRANSVESTISM ORSEXO-^ESTHETIC INVERSION) THE QUESTIONOF TREATMENT.

CONTENTSVI. MARRIAGE 256INTRODUCTORY (THE PROBLEM OF SEXUALABSTINENCE) THE ADVISABILITY OF MAR-RIAGE SATISFACTION IN MARRIAGE THEMONOGAMIC STANDARD THE CONTROL OFPROCREATION THE PROBLEM OF CHILDLESSMARRIAGE IMPOTENCE AND FRIGIDITY (SEX-UAL HYPOJESTHESIA AND SEXUAL HYPER-^ESTHESIA) CHASTITY THE MENOPAUSE.VII. THE ART OF LOVE323THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN RELATION TO LOVEWHY LOVE IS AN ART.VIII. CONCLUSION353THE DYNAMIC NATURE OF THE SEXUAL IM-PULSE SUBLIMATION.GLOSSARYINDEX367"xiil

PSYCHOLOGYOF SEX

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXCHAPTER IINTRODUCTIONSEXUAL Psychology, normal and abnormal, as well asSexual Hygiene, nowadays attracts a general interest andattention which before the present century was undreamedof. The young man of todayis sometimes remarkablywell informed in relation to the literature ofsex, and the young woman of today often approachesthese subjects in an inquiring spirit and with an absenceof prudery which would have seemed to her grandmotherabsolutely impious. Until recent years any scientific occupationwith sex was usually held to indicate, if not avicious taste, at all events an unwholesome tendency. Atthe present time it isamong the upholders of personaland public morality that the workers in sexual psychologyand the advocates of sexual hygiene find the warmestsupport.It can scarcely be said that until lately the medicalprofession has taken an active partin the extension ofthis movement. The pioneers, indeed at first, nearly acentury ago, in Germany and Austria, and later in othercountries have been physicians, but they were oftenlooked at askance by their colleagues. Sexual psychologyand sexual hygiene have formed no part of the physician'straining. Indeed scarcely more can be said of sexualphysiology and it is little over twenty years ago that thefirst really scientific and comprehensive manual of sexual

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXphysiology (F. H. A. Marshall's) was issued from thepress.Just as the ordinary college manuals have ignored theanatomy and physiology of sex as completely as thoughthis function formed no part whatever of animal life, somedical manuals have completely ignored the psychologyof sex. It thus comes about that in the scientific knowledgeof these matters, which for the comprehension ofsome cases is vitally important, the isphysician often lesswell informed than his patient,and not seldom is thevictim of false traditions and antiquated prejudices. Religionand morality have been invoked in behalf of silenceon such subjects by those who might have rememberedthat, even from his own standpoint, a great Father of theChurch had declared that we should not be ashamed tospeak of what God was not ashamed to create.This ignorance may be even more serious when we areconcerned with what was often referred to with horror as"perversion." Again and again, where psychic sexualanomalies are concerned, we find patients complainingthat their physician has shown no comprehension of theirspecial difficulties, either brushing aside the condition asof no consequence, or else treating them as vicious,wicked, It isperhaps disgusting persons.doubtless thepatient's consciousness of this attitude in his doctor whichleads many physicians, even of great experience,to declarethat psychosexual anomalies are very rare and thatthey scarcely ever meet with them.It may no doubt be maintained that in vaguely holdingforth an ideal of robust normality, and refusing even tohear of any deviation from that ideal, the physicianisstimulating and inspiring his patients to pursue the rightcourse. But it must be pointed out that in this respectpsychic health is not different from physical health. An

INTRODUCTIONexact and intelligent knowledge of the patient's abnormalcondition isnecessary in order to restore the normal condition.We cannot bring him to the position where wedesire him to be unless we know where he at present is.Moreover, in psychic health, to an even greater extentthan in physical health, the range of what may be considerednormal variation is very wide. And further, inorder to ascertain what preciselyis the norm for any givenindividual in this matter, we must know exactly what is hisinnate psychosexual constitution, for otherwise we maybe putting him on a path which, though normal forothers, is really abnormal for him.It is on these grounds that much facile and conventionaladvice given to psychosexual patients is misplacedand even mischievous. This holds good, for instance, ofthe advice so often given to sexually abnormal persons tomarry. Certainly in some cases such advice may be excellent.But it cannot be safely given except with fullnessof knowledge and with precise reference to the conditionsof the individual case. This warning holds good, indeed,of all advice in the psychosexual sphere. Sex penetratesthe whole person; a man's sexual constitution is a part ofhis general constitution. There is considerable truth inthe dictum: 'A man is what his sex is/ No useful advicecan be given concerning the guidanceand control of thesexual life unless this is borne in mind. A man may,indeed, be mistaken concerning his own sexual nature. Hemay be merely passing through a youthful and temporaryabnormal stage, to reach eventually a more normal andpermanent condition. Or he may, by some undue reaction,have mistaken a subordinate impulse of his naturefor the predominant impulse, since we are all made up ofvarious impulses, and the sexually normal man is often aman who holds in control some abnormal impulse. Yet in[3]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXthe main a man's sexual constitution isall-pervading,deep-rooted, permanent, in large measure congenital.At the same time we must be cautious in fixing thebarrier between the constitutional and the acquired.Wehave to recognize, on the one hand, that the acquiredmay go much farther back than was once believed, and, onthe other hand, that the constitutional is often so subtleand so obscure that it remains undetected. For the mostboth sets of factors com-part, as is too often forgotten,bine: the germ proves active because the soil happens tobe favorable. Here, as elsewhere, the result is not due toseed alone or soil alone, but to their association.Even inchildren of the same family the results of Mendelian inheritancemay bring different seeds into action, and theDirector of the London Child Guidance Clinic has latelypointed out how the same stress may make one child stealand another abnormally shy.This consideration serves to control the advice whichthe physician may reasonably give in psychosexual cases,and even to restrict the influence of any guidance he mayoffer. There is another reason why the sexual impulse isincomparably less amenable to therapeutical influencethan the other impulse with which it may be compared,the nutritive impulse. Certainly the sexual impulse may,within limits, be guided and controlled at will to a muchgreater extent than some are willing to admit. But thesexual impulse is, to an incomparably greater degree thanthe nutritive impulse, held in certain paths and shut outof other paths, by traditional influences of religion, morality,social convention. There are a few physicians and whohold that these influences should be ignored. The physicianhas nothing to do with morals or with conventions,they argue; he must consider what is for his patient's goodand advise him accordingly, without any regard to moral[4]

INTRODUCTIONand conventional dictates. That, however, is a shortsightedcourse of action which leads to many awkwardpositions, to all kinds of inconsistencies, not seldom to agreater evil than the evil it is sought to cure. For it is thespecial characteristic of the sexual impulse, as distinctfrom the nutritive impulse, that its normal gratificationinvolves another person. It leads directly into the socialsphere, into the sphereof morals. No one isentitled toseek his own good, or can be advised to seek his good, inany line of action which involves evil to other persons.Nor, indeed, can the patient's own good, in any comprehensiveand rational sense, be found in a line of actioninvolving injury to those nearest to him, or a violation ofhis own conscience and convictions. The wise physiciancannot afford to neglect these considerations, even thoughhe may be fully resolved that his advice shall not be basedon mere conventions. They are real and vital considerations,interwoven with the traditional social edifice inwhich we all live, and in innumerable cases they render itimpossible for the physician to follow purely biologicallines in framing his psychosexual therapeutics. He mustoften feel himself helpless because the condition beforehim is largely the result of factors over which he has nocontrol, just as he must feel himself helpless with patientswhose condition ismainly the result of overwork and underfeedingwhich the conditions of their lives have renderedinevitable.It may be desirable, at the same time, to point out that,while the patient's moral situation cannot be ignored,itwould be a mistake to regard the moral situation as absolutelyrigid and unchangeable. Morals are in perpetualtransition. Much that isregarded as moral today, or at allevents as permitted, was fifty years ago regarded as immoral,and was not openly permitted. In harmony with[5 ]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXthe change in the moral situation, distinguished physicians,with a full sense of responsibility, today openlypublish advice in matters of sex which not so very longago they could not have ventured to give even in private.The physician,alive to the large and splendid part he isentitled to play in working for the welfare of the community,and as medical adviser in the education of thewhole people,takes partin this transformation of morals.But he has always to consider the specialsituation of theindividual patient.Thus it would be a serious mistake to conclude thator re-psychosexual cases must be viewed pessimistically,garded as belonging to a field with which it is not worthwhile for the physician to concern himself. On the contrary,psychosexual cases, precisely because they are in thepsychic sphere, can be affected by indirect influenceswhich have little effect on the more physical factors odisease, like overwork and underfeeding, which are likewiseoften beyond the physician'sdirect reach. It is attimes astonishing to the physician to find in such cases,even when he has seemed to himself most helpless, howgenuinely grateful the patient is for the benefit received.This is not always the result of suggestion, but rather ofthe opposite and equally natural process on which Freudhad at the outset based his method of psycho-analysisthecathartic process of yielding up and bringing to the surfacesuppressed elements of consciousness and so relievingthe tension caused by the suppression. In this very processof self-confession, in which the physician, even by the intelligenceand sympathy he brings to the task, is reallytaking an active part, an abnormal condition is removed,and while this may not suffice to render the sexual impulsenormal, it certainly renders it less injurious, and at thesame time restores the whole psychic life to some degree[6]

INTRODUCTIONof harmonious equilibrium. The religious process, so completelydeveloped in Catholicism, of confession and absolution,rests psychologically on this same basis, and tends,without doubt, to produce the same beneficial results. Itis noteworthy that many persons, suspecting that they willfind little intelligent sympathy from their doctor, spontaneouslytake their sexual anomalies to their minister,of whatever denomination, for the sake of the relief ofself-confession to one whose function it is to restore andconsole. There is an important field of such psychictherapeutics, apart from religious operation and evenapart from hypnotic and other forms of suggestion, whichlegitimately belongs to the physician, and will be foundpeculiarly helpful in the psychosexual sphere. It is amongFreud's special merits whatever we may think of thedevelopments of which his doctrine proved susceptible inhis own hands or the hands of others that he early recognizedthis special province of psycho-therapeutics, andrealizedin the simile he adopted from the arts of paintingand sculpture that psycho-therapeutics may operatenot only per via di porre, by putting in, but also per via,di levare, by taking out, by removing unnecessary inhibitionsand suppressions and thus restoring the normalrelationships of the psychic organism.BIBLIOGRAPHYF. H. A. MARSHALL, The Physiology of Reproduction.S. FREUD, Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis.[7 ]

CHAPTER IITHE BIOLOGY OF SEXThe Physical Basis of SexREPRODUCTION is so primitive and fundamental a functionof vital organisms that the mechanism by which it isassured ishighly complex and not yet clearly understood.It is not necessarily connected with sex, nor issex necessarilyconnected with reproduction. Yet the full developmentof the sexual apparatus with the related secondarysexual characters, as of the body generally, depends on theintegrity of the gametes or reproductive cells the ovaprovided by the female and the spermatozoa by the maleduring the whole of their course in giving origin to thezygote or fertilized egg, and later on the course of thezygote's development. The best authorities hesitate todefine exactly what "sex" is, but at all events it is at theoutset conditioned by the chromosome constitution of theat first relatively undifferentiated gonad cell. During theprocess of cell-division, the contained chromatin of itsnucleus resolves itself into a certain number of filament?of definite rod-like shape these being the chromosomes-which fall into order and are constant in number for thespecies to which the cell belongs. Theyare alike in allraces of man, whether in the male or the female, thoughit is the male that is digametic, or, as it is termed, XY,and distinguishable by its smaller size. In mammals generally,indeed (it is the reverse in birds), the maleelaborates two kinds of gametes, X-bearing, and non X-[8]

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXbearing, or Y-bearing, while the female elaborates butone. An X-bearing egg can be fertilized either by anX-bearing sperm, to become XX and female, or a Y-bearingsperm to become XY and male. Therewith we havethe starting-point of the whole process (made clear by theextended and comprehensive investigations of Evans andSwezy) which there is no occasion to follow in detail herein its variations along, as is now held, Mendelian lines.The Mendelian processes of heredity are much morevaried and complicated in man than in those lower organismsin which they were first studied.We have to conclude that sex isnormally determined atconception, and to put aside all the various devices fordetermining sex during pregnancy. It is certainly necessaryto postulate, in Crew's words, that "in every zygote,be it XX or XY in sex chromosome constitution, thereare the physical bases of developmental impulses whichstrive to impose upon the developing individual a maletype and a female type of differentiation respectively."It is necessary to refer to the recent developments ofknowledge in this field recent as belonging to thepresent century because they happen to be of peculiarlyclose relationship to the psychology of sex.At the outset we assume as accepted that when a complexof glands to which the testes is central predominatesin the organism we have an individual of male sex; whena complex of glands to which the ovary is central predominateswe have a female. Thus are secured normallythe primary sexual characters. Associated with them is thedevelopment of the respective sexual organs. Finallysexual maturity is established with the full acquisition ofthe manifest secondary characters, with which are associated,as tertiary sexual characters, many differenceswhich are not obvious. All these processesare liable to[ 9]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXone way or another physically, psychically,much variation. The sex glands and the secondary sexualcharacters may shift towards an inter-sexual type,which inor bothmayapproximate to the opposite sex.The syndromes thus observed are, as we now believe, inthe majority of cases traceable either to the stimulatinginfluence, or to the defect of such influence, of the internalsecretions the hormones or chemical messengers enteringthe blood from the various ductless glands of the body.By over-secretion, under-secretion, or disordered secretion,the physical conformation of the body, and the psychicaldisposition and aptitudes, may be modified, and even thesex virtually changed. Any dysfunction of one isapt tounsettle the balance of the others. We are concerned withthe harmonious adjustment of many ductless glands.the interpretation of the intricate relations thus resultingcountries. Newmuch studyis now being directed in manyfacts and new viewpoints are constantly appearing, andgreat importance now attaches to the activating influenceof the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland and also to theadrenals, for it isTopossible, as Blair Bell has long held, toregard ovaries, or testes, as "one link in the chain oforgans such as the pituitary and thyroid which form a1The results are at many points stillgametal system.'uncertain. But it is essential to the study of the psychologyof sex to have some acquaintance with the physiologicaland bio-chemical researches carried on along these lines,*i though it would be out of place to deal with them here.They are developing day by day and the progress ofknowledge is recorded in the current medical journalsand in bio-chemical literature.It suffices here to take a surveying glimpse from aboveand to see that the general change effected has been thatwhile previously we regarded the nervous system as[10]the

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXactive agent in these processes, we now regard the chemicalendocrine system as even more active, sometimesunder the influence of the nervous system, and frequentlyapart from nervous action, the nerves and nerve centersbeing themselves sometimes subject to chemical regulation.If we follow Langdon Brown, we may say that theendocrines are an elaboration of those chemical mechanismsto which animals responded before the nervous systemwas developed. It is an interesting proof of theprimitive nature of endocrine regulation of the organismthat all the hormonic messengers proceed from very ancientand even vestigial structures in the body,like thepituitary and the pineal. At the same time we may alsobear in mind, as Bolk emphasized some years ago, thatthe stimulation or retardation due to hormonic influencesis peculiarly influential in developing the specific humanqualities, and even, as Keith has more recently pointedout, the various racial human characteristics. When thenervous system began to take shape and even to acquiredominance, it entered into alliance with the preexistingchemical mechanisms, especially throughitslowest level,the visceral nervous system, subdivisible into the sympatheticsystem and the para-sympathetic (or extendedvagus)as tending to be katabolic and active, is associated withsystem. The sympathetic, which may be regardedthe pituitary, thyroid, and adrenals. The para-sympathetic,which may be regarded as largely anabolic and passive, isassociated with the pancreas and, indirectly, the parathyroids.These katabolic and anabolic systems are antagonistic,the rhythm of life, it has been said, dependingupon their balance. The gonads interact especially withthe sympathetic-endocrine group. The pineal and thymus,though not true endocrine glands (since they have no

known secretions),PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXaffect the endocrine system chiefly bya retarding influence on sexual maturity, and a favoringinfluence on somatic growth.The ispituitarynow seen to be what has been termed"the leader of the endocrine orchestra." Ancient anatomists,viewing this small body joined by a stalk to thebrain above, regarded it as a miniature brain and today thenotion is seen to be not altogether absurd. "Here, in thiswell-concealed spot," says Harvey Gushing, "lies the verymainspring of primitive existence, vegetative, emotional,and reproductive,on which, with more or less success,Man, chiefly, has come to superimposea cortex of inhibitions."Evans and Simpson have worked out the relationof certain of its cells to growth and to sexualdevelopment.The thyroid, again, which has been termed "the glandof creation/' is also essential to reproduction, if, indeed,it is not, as has been claimed, essential to all kinds ofcreative activity,artistic and intellectual. Its extract,thyroxine (which can be synthetically prepared) also hasa slow and gradual influence on general nutrition.Adrenaline (which may also be prepared synthetically)from the suprarenalshas a more rapid influence on theheart, vessels, liver, salivary glands, intestines, pupils, andspleen. While adrenaline has this wide influence, its secretionitself, as Tournade has shown, isintimately dependentupon the nervous system.The endocrine organs may influence each other. Removingthe thyroid may lead to pituitary enlargement,though to remove the pituitary at a youthful stage in ananimal may arrest the thyroid. The thyroid stimulates thesuprarenals which stimulate the hepatic cells to dischargeglycogen into the blood, and this stimulates the pancreasto increased secretion of insulin. The anterior part of the

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXpituitary, again, appears to yield three hormones, onewhich promotes growth, one which stimulates the ovaries,causing maturation of the Graafian follicles, which produceoestrin, which initiates changes in the uterus toreceive the fertilized ovum; while a third hormone leadsto further uterine changes for the fixation of the ovum.The second is of special practical importance as its presencein the urine is the basis of the Zondek-Aschheim testof pregnancy.There is a close resemblance between the action ofinternal secretions and drugs. Sharpey-Schafer would restrictthe use of the term "hormone to those having1 *anexciting influence, and would term those with an opposinginhibitory influence "chalones." He would call both together"autacoids," to signify that they are drug-likeprinciples produced by the body itself.It will be seen that we now have to define physiologicalphenomenain terms of chemical as well as of nervousregulation. We see also that both sets of terms, and thechemical perhaps even more than the nervous, lie on theother side of psychic phenomena. We have to realize theexistence of a large number of substances in the body,very minute but very potent hormones and vitamins aswell as the derivative serums and vaccines which mayproperly be termed bio-chemical drugs. Their significanceseems greater the more our rapidly growing knowledge ofthem extends. But we are not therefore justified in importingbio-chemical phraseology into psychology. It haslong been clearly understood that it was a mistake toattempt to introduce histological terminology intopsychology. It would be equally a mistake to introducebio-chemical terminology. An emotion remains an emotion,alike whether a hormone or a chalone has on thephysical side taken part in its production.

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXBIBLIOGRAPHYF. A, E. CREW, The Genetics of Sexuality in Animals,'also Article "Sex" in Rose's Outline of Modern Knoiuledge.A. LIPSHUTZ, The Internal Secretions ofthe Sex Glands.JOSEPH NEEDHAM, Chemical Embriology, 3 Vols.F. H. A. MARSHALL, The Physiology of Reproduction.H. M. EVANS AND OLIVE SWEZY, "The Chromosomes inMan," Memoirs of the University of California, Vol.IX, 1929.W. BLAIR BELL, "Conservative Gynaecological Surgery,"British Medical Journal, i8th April, 1931.LANGDON BROWN, "Endocrines and Associated Psychoneuroses,"British Medical Journal, 6th Feb., 1932.H. J. BURN, Recent Advances in Materia Medica (the biochemicaldrugs) 1931.SIR E. SHARPEY-SCHAFER, "Endocrine Physiology," BritishMedical Journal, 22nd Aug., 1931.The Nature of the Sexual ImpulseTurning from the strictly physiological aspects o theorganic activities that work together to effect sexual development,it is necessary to obtain a comprehensive viewof the biological process of sex as expressed in the psychicphenomena with which we are here immediately concerned.There is, indeed, no universally accepted theory of theprocess on its psychic side. In the old popular belief thesexual impulse is simply the expression of a need ofevacuation, comparable to that experienced periodicallyin the bowels and bladder. That was an inaccurate andmisleading view; the male semen is not a waste productfor excretion and the female scarcely presents even thesemblance of a sexual desire for excretion. A more re-[H]

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXspectable theory sometimes put forward defined the sexualimpulse as an "instinct of reproduction." There is, however,strictly speaking, no such instinct, nor is it neededin bisexual organisms. All that is needed is the motorimpulse to bring male and female together in such a wayas to insure fertilization; that once produced, the futureof the offspringis ensured by the stimulus furnished tothe parental impulses; no instinct of reproductionis calledfor.In what has perhaps been the most popular manual ofits subject, Professor W. McDougall's Introduction toSocial Psychology, no treatment of sex was to be found atall (beyond a reference to the "instinct of reproduction")until the eighth edition appeared in 1914 with a supplementarychapter on "the sex instinct." It is here definedas a complex, innately organized, psycho-physical disposition,consisting of three parts, each subserving one of thethree phases that we distinguish in every complete mentalor psycho-physical process, namely the cognitive, theaffective, and the conative; three parts which, from thepoint of view of nervous function and structure, we maycall the afferent or sensory, the central, and the efferentor motor. He points out that on the cognitive side thereis involved an innate disposition to perceive or perceptuallydiscriminate those things towards which such reactionsare demanded by the welfare of the species; that isto say, an ability to discriminate the opposite sex, with,in the higher species,a chain of reactions to ensure completeadaptation in the sexual act.McDougall's definition is, as he himself remarks, thatwhich he would give for all instincts, and he defines instinctsas "certain innate specific tendencies of the mindthat are common to all members of any one species." It is,in fact, a generalized statement which scarcely helps us toF'5]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXgrasp what takes place in the process of bisexual approximationand union.There is, indeed, a tendency, which I have long followed,to discard in this connection, so far as possible,the use of the word "instinct/' though Piron and manyothers would still preserve it. It may even be undesirableto use the word "instinct" at all. The word has, as Bohnremarks, a compromising history, nor is there any completeagreement as to the sense in which it should beused, though, for ordinary purposes, "instinct" may beregarded as, according to the definition of HerbertSpencer, "compound reflex action/' the question as towhether it isaccompanied by consciousness being regardedas non-essential.It may even be said that biological psychologists generally,and not only those who have been subjected to theinfluence of Loeb, are inclined to return to the position ofCondillac and to drop the use of the word "instinct." It isour business, these investigators hold, to analyze the automaticpsychic processes we meet with, and we are notcalled upon to increase the difficulties of doing so byapplying to them a word with so many varied and unfortunateassociations. We may, therefore, put aside thediscussion of sex as an "instinct," and certainly as "aninstinct of reproduction," which is but a crude euphemism,for an impulseis not analyzed by merely stating theend which itmay We indirectly effect. are solely concernedwith the sexual impulse and its analysis.The question of the analysis of the sexual impulse wasplaced upon higher ground when, in 1897, Moll set forthhis theory of the constitution of this impulse. As Mollunderstood it, there are two components in the sexualimpulse: one which urges to a local genital function,which in man is the expulsion of semen, and is thus a

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXprocess of evacuation comparable to the emptying of thebladder, and the other which urges each partner to physicaland psychic contact with the other partner. The firstcomponent Moll terms the impulse of detumescence, thesecond the impulse of contrectation, Both these componentsmay be traced back to the sexual glands, the firstbeing primary and the second secondary, but they aredistinct and each may exist separately. Their union constitutesthe complete normal sexual impulse.Moll's analysis had much to commend it, as a scientificand comprehensive statement, and it has in consequencebeen widely accepted. It presents, however, certain difficulties:it is, for instance, less satisfactory when appliedto women than to men, and it has the disadvantage,pointed out by Robert Miiller, Saint-Paul, and others,that it divides the sexual process. In order to avoid thisand other difficulties, the theory of Moll was by me somewhatmodified with the aid of the least contested part ofthe Darwinian doctrine of sexual selection. If we look intothe sexual process as it exists among animals generally,and among men in the savage state, we soon realize that wecannot start with detumescence. Before detumescence cantake place, tumescence must be achieved. In domesticatedanimals and in civilized man that is often an easy process.It is not usually so in the natural state. There it is achievedthrough much activity and display on the part of themale, and long contemplation and consideration on thepart of the female, the part taken by each in this processserving to increase tumescence alike in both. "Contrectation,"whether physical or psychic, has at its end theheightening of tumescence and may be regarded as partof the process.It isduring the slow process of tumescence that sexualselection is decided, the crystallizations of love (as

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXStendhal called diem) elaborated, and the individualerotic symbols, normal or abnormal, determined. Yetdetumescence is the end and climax of the whole drama;it is an anatomic-physiological process, certainly, but onethat inevitably touches psychology at every point. It. is,indeed, the very key to the process of tumescence, andunless we understand and realize very preciselywhat it isthat happens during detumescence, our psychologicalanalysisof the sexual impulse must remain vague andinadequate,Detumescence is normally linked closely to tumescence.Tumescence is the piling on of the fuel; detumescence isthe leaping out of the devouring flame whence islightedthe torch of life to be handed on from generation togeneration. The whole process is double and yet single;is exactly analogous to that by which a is pile driven intothe earth by the raising and then the letting go of aheavy weight which falls on to the head of the pile. Intumescence the organism is slowly wound up and forceaccumulated; in the act of detumescence the accumulatedforce is let go, and by its liberation the sperm-bearinginstrument is driven home. Courtship, as we commonlyterm the process of tumescence which takes place when awoman is first sexually approached by a man, is usuallya highly prolonged process. But it isalways necessary toremember that every repetition of the act of coitus, to benormally and effectively carried out on both sides, demandsa similar double process; detumescence must bepreceded by an abbreviated courtship.This abbreviated courtship, by which tumescence issecured or heightened in the repetition of acts of coituswhich have become familiar, ismainly tactile. Astumescence, under the influence of sensory stimulation,proceeds toward the climax when it gives placeitto de-

centrallyTHE BIOLOGY OF SEXtumescence, the physical phenomena become more andmore acutely localized in the sexual organs. The processwhich was at firstpredominantly nervous and psychic nowbecomes more prominently vascular. The ancient sexualrelationship of the skin asserts itself; there is a markedsurface congestion showing itself in various ways. Theface tends to become red, and exactly the same phenomenonistaking place in the genital organs; "an erection,"it has been said, "is a blushing of the penis/' The differenceis that in the genital organs this heightened vascularityhas a definite and specific function to accomplishthe erection of the male organ which fits it to enter thefemale parts and that consequently there has been developedin the penis that special kind of vascular mechanism,consisting of veins in connective tissue with unstripedmuscular fibers, termed erectile tissue. This process, whichmay be set in action either or ,peripherally, isprobably controlled by the sympathetic plexuses in thepelvis.It is not only the male who is supplied with erectiletissue which in the process of tumescence becomes congestedand swollen. The female also in the correspondingexternal genital regionis likewise supplied with erectiletissue now also charged with blood, and exhibits the samechanges as have taken place in her partner, though theyare not conspicuously visible. In the anthropoid apes, asthe gorilla, the large clitoris and nymphae become prominentin sexual excitement, but the lessdevelopment ofthe clitoris in women, together with the specificallyhuman evolution of the mons veneris and larger lips,renders this sexual turgescence practically invisible,though it is perceptible to touch in an increased degreeof spongy and elastic tension. The whole feminine genitalcanal, including the uterus, indeed, is richly supplied with

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXblood-vessels, and iscapable during sexual excitement ota high degree of turgescence, a kind of erection.The process of erection in woman isaccompanied bythe pouring out of fluid which copiously bathes all partsof the vulva around the entrance to the vagina. This isa bland, more or lessodorless mucus which, under ordinarycircumstances, slowly and imperceptibly suffuses theparts. There is, however, a real ejaculation of fluid which,as usually described, comes largely from glands, situatednear the mouth of the vagina, which are already able tosecrete at birth. The fluid poured out in this mannerwhenever a high degree of tumescence is attained, andbefore the onset of detumescence, performs an importantfunction in lubricating the entrance to the genital canaland so facilitating the entrance of the male organ. Asimilar process takes place during parturition when thesame parts are being stretched for the protrusion of thefoetal head. The occurrence of the mucous flow in tumescencealways indicates that that process is actively affectingthe central sexual organs, and that voluptuous emotionsare present. Hence it is of high significance in the art oflove.When erection iscomplete in both the man and thewoman the conditions for conjugation have at last beenfulfilled.At this point, when the woman is a virgin, the problemof the hymen is encountered. In ancient days,this littleflap of tissue the maidenhead as it was suggestivelytermed was frequently regarded as of immense significancein determining the status of a woman. Its presencewas held to decide the moral character of an unmarriedwoman. There are reasons now why it cannot retain thatposition, even apart from the fact that the virtue of awoman is not now so commonly supposed to rest on a[*>]

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXmerely anatomical foundation. There are many naturalvariations in the shape and size of the hymen; variousaccidents (as well as virginal masturbation) may cause itsdisappearance; while it may occasionally persist after intercourse,even in prostitutes.Its rupture on the first act of intercourse isapt to causepain and discomfort. Occasionally its toughness causesthen bedifficulty in penetration. A slight incision maynecessary. Graduated pressure, as with the finger, whichmay be practiced by the woman herself, has also beenrecommended. Among some peoples the insertion of thefinger is practiced by mothers on their girl children froman early age, sometimes for hygienic reasons and sometimesto facilitate intercourse in future years. There maybe something to be said for this practice.In all animals, even those most nearly allied to Man,coitus iseffected by the male approaching the female posteriorly.In man, the normal method of male approachisanteriorly face to face the position of so-called Venusobversa. While, however, the Venus obversa may be regardedas the specifically human method of coitus, thereare modifications of it, and other more animal-like methodswhich have been adopted by various peoples asnationalcustoms, and which, therefore, come within thenormal range of variation. It is a mistake to regard themas vicious perversions.Now a new element comes in: muscular action. Withthe onset of muscular action, which is largely involuntary,even when it affects the voluntary muscles, detumescenceproper begins to take place. Hence full purposeful actionis, except by an effort, virtually abolished. We approachthe decisive moment when, under the influence of thestimulus applied to the penis by friction with the vagina,the tension of the seminal fluid poured into the urethra[21]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXarouses the ejaculatorycenters located in the lower partof the spinal cord and also, itappears, in die pelvicplexuses, and the bulbo-cavernosus muscle surroundingthe urethra responsivelycontracts in rhythmic spasms.Then it is that ejaculationoccurs.The phenomenaof coitus may all be directly or indirectlyreduced to two groups: the first circulatory andrespiratory, the second motor, thoughit must be borne inmind that these are not really separable. The respirationbecomes shallow, rapid, and to some extent arrested. Thisarrest of respiration tends to render the blood venous, andthus aids in stimulating the vasomotor centers, raising theblood-pressure in the body generally, and especially in theerectile tissues. High blood-pressureis one of the mostmarked features of the state of detumescence; accordingto Poussep there are in animals during coitus rapid alternationsof vaso-constriction and vaso-dilatation, both inthe brain and the vascular system generally. The heartbeatsare stronger and quicker, the surface arteries aremore visible, the conjunctive become more red. At thesame time we find a general tendency to glandular activ^ity. Various secretions are formed abundantly. Perspirationis copious, with a general activity of the skin and itsodoriferous secretions; salivation also occurs. In men,corresponding to the more copious secretion in women,there is, during the latter stages of tumescence, a secretionof mucus which appears in drops at the urethralorifice and comes from the small glands of Littre andCowper which open into the urethra. This phenomenonwas called distillatio by the old theologians, who realizedits significance,as distinct from semen but an indicationthat the mind was dwelling on voluptuous images; itwasalso known in classic times; more recently it has oftenbeen confused with semen and has thus sometimes caused

THEEBIOLOGY OF SEXneedless anxiety to nervous persons. There is also anincreasedsecretion by the kidneys and probably by theglands throughout the body generally.Detumescence culminates in motor activity. This activityis of the essence of the impulse of detumescence, becausewithout it the sperrn-cells could not be effectivelybrought Into the neighborhood of the germ-cell and bepropelled into the womb. This activity is general as wellas specifically sexual. There is a tendency to more or lessinvoluntary movement, without any increase of voluntarymuscular po^wer, \vhich is, indeed, decreased. The tendencyto diffused activity of involuntary muscle is illustratedby the contraction of the bladder associated withdetumescence. "While this occurs in both sexes, in menerection usually produces a mechanical impediment toany evacuation of the bladder. In women there may benot onlya desire to urinate but, occasionally, actualurination. The tendency to trembling, constriction of thethroat, sneezing, emission of internal gas, and the othersimilar phenomena occasionally associated with detumescence,are like\vise due to diffusion of the motor disturbance.More important, and more purposive though involuntary,are the specifically sexual muscular movements.From the very "beginning of detumescence, this muscularactivity makes itself felt. In the male these movements arefairly obvious and fairly simple. It is required that thesemen should be expressed from the vesiculae seminales,propelled along the urethra, in combination with theprostatic fluid which is equally essential, and finallyejected with a certain amount o force from the urethralorifice. Normally tinder the influence of the stimulationfurnished by the contact and friction of the vagina, thisprocess is effectively carried out, mainly by the rhythmic

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXcontractions of the bulbo-cavernosus muscle, and thesemen is emitted in a jet.The specificallysexual muscular processis less visiblein the woman, more obscure, more complex and uncertain.Before detumescence actually begins there are atintervals involuntary rhythmic contractions of the wallsof the vagina, seeming to have the object of at once stimulatingand harmonizing with those that are about tobegin in the male organ. It would appear that theserhythmic contractions are the exaggeration of a phenomenonwhich is fairly constant, just as slight contraction isnormal and constant in the bladder. This vaginal contraction,which may become well marked just beforedetumescence, and is due mainly to the action of thesphincter cunni (analogous to the bulbo-cavernosus in theismale) only a part of the localized muscular process.,The active participation of the sexual organs in woman,to the end of directing the semen into the womb at themoment of detumescence, is an ancient belief, and harmonizeswith the Greek view of the womb as an animal inthe body endowed with activity,but precise observation inmodern times has offered but little confirmation of thereality of this participation. Such observations as havebeen made have usually been the accidental result ofsexual excitement and orgasm occurring during a gynaecologicalexamination. So far as the evidence goes, it wouldseem that in women, as in mares, bitches, and other animals,the uterus becomes shorter, broader, and softerduring^the orgasm, at the same time descending lower intothe pelvis, with its mouth open intermittently.It would seem probable that in this erection, contraction,and descent of the uterus, and its simultaneousexpulsion of mucus, we have the decisive moment in thecompletion of detumescence in woman, and that the thick[24]

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXmucus, unlike the earlier more limpid secretion, whichwomen are sometimes aware of after orgasm, is emittedfrom the womb at this time. Some authorities regarddetumescence in women as accomplished in the pouringout of secretions, others in the rhythmic genital contractions,especially at the cervix of the womb. The sexualparts may, however, be copiously bathed in mucus for anindefinitely long period before the final stage of detumescenceis achieved, and the rhythmic contractions arealso taking place at a somewhat early period; in neitherrespect is there necessarily any obvious increase at thefinal moment of orgasm. In women this would seem to bemore conspicuously a nervous manifestation than in men.On the subjective side it ispronounced, with its feelingof relieved tension and agreeable repose, but on the objectiveside the culminating moment is often less easy todefine, and is not invariably, as it tends to be in men, ageneral motor convulsion.The active part played by the womb in detumescencecan no longer be questioned, but it must not be tooassumed that the belief in the active movements ofmust therefore be denied. If it is correct,hastily the spermatozoaas some authorities believe, that the spermatozoa may retaintheir full activity in the female organs even for a weekor more (though this is disputed) they have ample time toexert their energies. It must be added, however, that evenif the semen is effused merely at the mouth of the vagina,without actual penetration, the spermatozoa are still notentirely without any resource save their own motility inthe task of reaching the ovum. Since it is not only theuterus which takes an active part in detumescence butthe vagina also is in active movement, it seems probablethat, at all events in some women and under some circumstances,such movement, favoring aspiration toward the[25]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXwomb, may be communicated to the external mouth ofthe vagina. It is also believed by some that, especially inwomen of races of more primitive type, the vagina maybe capableof obeying the same impulse to expel thesemen as to expel the child during parturition, and thatthis may be utilized for contraceptive ends. Owing to thecombined activities of the semen and vagina duringsexual excitement, it is possiblefor the semen to reach theuterus even when it has only been effused at the entranceof the vagina, and even when the hymenis intact. Thusextra-vaginal effusion of semen is not an adequate contraceptivemethod, and consequently, even when a husbandis convinced that he has had no actual coitus with hiswife, this is not an adequate proof, should pregnancyfollow, that there has been adultery.Even though the specifically sexual muscular process ofdetumescence in women as distinguished from the generalmuscular phenomena of sexual excitement whichmay be fairly obvious is thus seen to be complex andobscure, detumescence is, in both sexes, a convulsionwhich dischargesa slowly accumulated store of nervousforce. In women, as in men, the motor dischargeis directedto a specificend the intromission of the semenin the one sex, its reception in the other. In both sexesthe sexual orgasm and the pleasure and satisfaction associatedwith it involve, as their most essential element, themotor activity of the sexual sphere.Although the facial expression, when tumescence iscompleted, may be marked by a high degree of energy inmen and of loveliness in women, at the beginning of detumescencethe features are frequently more discomposed.The dilatation of the pupils, the expansion of the nostrils,the tendency to salivation and to movements of thetongue, all go to make up a picture which indicates an

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXapproaching gratification of sensory desires; it is significantthat in some animals there is at this moment erectionof the ears. There is sometimes a tendency to utter brokenor meaningless words. The dilatation of the pupils producesphotophobia, and in the course of detumescencethe eyes are frequently closed from this cause. At the beginningof sexual excitement, tonicity of the eye-musclesseems to increase; the elevators of the upper lids contract,so that the eyes look larger and their mobility and brightnessare heightened; with the increase of muscular tonicitystrabismus may occur.So profound isprocessthe organic convulsion involved by theof detumescence that serious effects have sometimesfollowed coitus. Even in animals this has been noted.In the human species, especially in men probably becausewomen are protected by the greater slowness withwhich detumescence occurs in them not only death itself,but numerous disorders and accidents have beenknown to follow immediately after coitus, these resultsbeing mainly due to the vascular and muscular excitementinvolved by the process of detumescence. Fainting, vomiting,involuntary urination and defaecation, have beennoted as occurring in young men after a first coitus.Epilepsy has been not infrequently recorded. Lesions ofvarious organs, even rupture of the spleen, have sometimestaken place. In men of mature age the arteries haveat times been unable to resist the high blood-pressure, andcerebral hemorrhage with paralysis has occurred. Inelderly men the excitement of intercourse with youngwives or with prostitutes has sometimes caused death.Such results are, however, exceptional. They tend tooccur in persons who are abnormally sensitive, or whohave imprudently transgressed the obvious rules of sexualhygiene. Detumescence is so profoundly natural a process,

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXit is so deeply and intimately a function of the organism,that it isfrequently harmless even when the bodily conditionis unsound. Its usual results, under favorable circumstances,are entirely beneficial. In men there normallysupervenes, together with the relief from the prolongedtension of tumescence, with the muscular repose and fallingblood-pressure, a sense of profound satisfaction, a glowof diffused well-being, an agreeable lassitude, often a senseof mental liberation from an over-mastering obsession.Under reasonably happy circumstances there is no pain,or exhaustion, or sadness, or emotional revulsion. Inwomen the results of detumescence are the same, exceptthat the tendency to lassitude is not marked unless the acthas been several times repeated; there is a sensation ofrepose and self-assurance, often an accession of free andjoyous energy. After satisfactory detumescence women mayexperience a feeling as of intoxication, lasting for severalhours, that is followed by no evil reaction.Thus we see that tumescence and detumescence are nottwo distinct processes but one process with two phases.That process represents Nature's method of highly chargingthe organism in order to dischargeit in the act oforgasm which, by liberating the generative cells and effectingtheir union, achieves the supreme end of reproduction,and when that end is inhibited, still effects changesthroughout the organism which are physically and psychicallybeneficial.BIBLIOGRAPHYA. MOLL, Sexual Life of the Child.HAVELOCK. ELLIS, "Analysis of the Sexual Impulse," Vol.Ill, and "The Mechanism of Detumescence," Vol. V, ofStudies in the Psychology of Sex.TH. VAN DE VELDE, Ideal Marriage; Fertility and Sterilityin Marriage.[28]

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXErogenic Zonesso in allThis is the name now given to regions of the bodywhich in the process of tumescence are found to be sexuallyhyper-esthetic. Some regions are normallyhealthy persons; other regions of the body, indeed almostor quite any region of the body surface, may be sexuallysensitive in special cases, the degree of such sensitivenessbeing liable to vary at different times and being naturallygreater when there is a state of emotional predisposition.The genital region, the mouth, and in woman the nipplesmay be said to be normal erogenic zones. The ears, thenape of the neck, the nipples in men, the armpits, thefingers, the anus, the thighs are all not uncommon erogeniczones.The conception of erogenic zones maybe said to bedeveloped out of the ancient view of "sympathy." It wasfirst definitely formulated in medicine in the sphere ofpathology, as the hysterogenic zones of Charcot, certainregions being found at first ovarian and later morewidely dispersed which were connected, on pressure,with the causation or the arrest of spasmodic attacks; butCharcot did not associate them with sexual emotion. In1881, however, Chambard of Paris showed that, in thenormal condition and especially in women, there are onthe surface of the skin a certain number of regions comparableto the epileptogenic centers, to which the nameof erogenic centers may be applied, light and rapid excitationshere practiced under certain conditions not onlycausing voluptuous emotions but preparing, determining,or accompanying the orgasm. Fer later came on this observation,and noting the analogyof the centers to Charcot'shysterogenic zones, which Chambard had apparentlythe nameoverlooked, he termed them "erogenic zones,"[29]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXthey have ever since borne. It is now widelyheld thatauto-erotic stageerogenic zones in a normal subject are what in a pathologicalsubject become hysterogenic zones, so that there ismore than analogy between them. They have been penetratinglystudied by Freud who has described the first orof libido as that in which the sex impulseshave no object,so that their aim isarrested in theerogenic zones themselves, while after puberty more trulysexual ends emerge, so that the fore-pleasure, alone gainedin early life, now becomes a step to a further pleasure.Thus viewed, it will be seen, the erogenic zones constitutea legitimate and important part of the normalsexual life. They cannot but play their part in any educationfor the full gratification of love. Every woman hasher own system of manifest or latent erogenic zones, andit is the lover's part in courtship to discover these zonesand to develop them in order to achieve that tumescencewhich is naturally and properly the first stage in theprocess of sexual union.The organic constitution varies, even though the generalpattern may be the same for all. It is because of thesevariations that the factors of sexual selection differ foreach. On the tactile foundation the varying erogenic zonesmay most easily be demonstrated.BIBLIOGRAPHYHAVELOCK ELLIS, "Erogenic Zones" in Studies in thePsychology of Sex, Vol. VII.FREUD, Three Contributions to Sexual Theory.The Biology of CourtshipCourtship, properly understood, is a biological processwhich may be found throughout the bisexual animal30.1

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXworld. It represents the psychic aspect of the slow attainmentof tumescence, the method of securing contrectation.Even among the hermaphroditic slugs an elaboratecourtship is found; each partner slowly follows the other'smovements; they crawl round one another; one rests itsmouth on the caudal end of the other; they emit largequantities of mucus; finally the organs of generation areprotruded, to twist and curve around each other, assumingbeautiful shapes and taking on iridescent colors untiltumescence is completed. That is the manifestation of aprocess which we may trace throughout Nature, even, inits psychic aspects, in the highest stages of civilization.The phenomena of courtship are most conspicuous, andhave been most carefully studied, among various speciesof birds in widely different parts of the world. The beautifulplumage of birds, their song, their self -display, theirparades, their dances, are all(as most authorities nowagree) primarily a part of courtship, a method of attainingin the male himself, and exciting in the female hedesires for his partner, an adequate stimulation of thepairing impulse. The same influence survives in civilization.A Dutchman at the Hague told Hirschfeld thatduring the Great War, when English troops were frequentlythere, several hundred Dutch girlshad becomemothers through the fascinating walk of the Englishsoldiers; referring to their special swift and light step.In civilization, indeed, owing to the idleness, luxury,and over-nutrition which make sexual erethism comparativelyeasy, and tumescence sometimes almost constant,the phenomena of courtship become less important. Yetthey still prevail, though in more varied, delicate, andoften mainly psychic forms.The phenomena of courtship are biologically connectedwith the fact that in animals, in savage man, to some ex-[31]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXtent perhapsin civilized man, and especiallyin women,sexuality is periodic, and not constant, in its manifestations.If the sexual apparatus were at every moment, inboth sexes, quick to respond to stimulation at once, courtshipwould be reduced to a minimum and the attainmentof tumescence would present no difficulties. But for longperiods the sexual impulse is quiescent, and courtshipmay be regarded as the psychic aspect of the effort bywhich it re-awakens.Most of the higher animals have a breeding season onceor sometimes twice a year,in spring or in autumn or both.Savage man also sometimes has similar breeding seasons,and in widely separated parts of the world erotic festivalsare held in spring or at harvest, or both, sexual uniontaking place on these occasions and marriages formed.The periodicityof the conception-rate in all civilizedcountries, with a tendency to a heighteningof the curvein spring and sometimes in autumn, seems to be a vestigeof this primitive breeding season, due tothe same cause,whatever that cause may be. As to the exact nature of thecause, there is no agreement. Some (with Durkheim)argue that this and all similar periodicities (as of criminalityand suicide) are mainly due to social causes; others(like Gaedeken) assert that the chemical rays of the sun,most powerful in spring, are the true cause; others (asHaycraft) put the phenomenon down to the heat; others,perhaps more plausibly, regard them as largely due to thestimulation of the early heat of spring and to the correspondingstimulation of the early cold in winter.Of recent years traces of sexual periodicity have beenfound among civilized men, quite apart from their relationshipsto women. Seminal emissions during sleep inpersons leading a continent life have furnished the dataon which interesting conclusions have been formed. Julius

Nelson inTHE BIOLOGY OF SEX1888 brought forward the earliest evidence infavor of a monthly sexual cycle in men of a twenty-eightday length. Perry-Coste, on the strength of a more prolongedand elaborate investigation, also found some reasonto accept a menstrual rhythm of a strictly lunar character(291/2 days) though the conclusions he drew from his,data have been disputed. Von Romer found ground forbringing the evidence from involuntary emissions intoline with that from voluntary emissions in coitus, byshowingthat the acts of coitus of an unmarried man fallinto a monthly cycle, with two maxima somewhat approximatingto Perry-Coste's; he noted, moreover, that thechief maximum occurs at the time of the full moon, andthe secondary maximum at the time of the new moon.This would indicate that heightened sexual activity tendsto coincidebe offered)(whatever explanation of the coincidence maywith the times when, among primitive peoplesin many parts of the world, erotic festivals are held. Itmust, however, be added, that these conclusions are onlytentative, and the data have been questioned by MunroFox and others.A weekly cycle of involuntary sexual activity, with amaximum at or near Sunday,is often marked. This isprobably due to social causes. The same cannot be said,however, of the annual cycle of involuntary sexual activitywhich I first showed in 1898 and which I have sincebeen able to confirm by additional evidence. This evidenceshows clearly that there are two periods in the yearof increased spontaneous sexual activity; one in earlyspring and the other in autumn; it is often found that theautumn maximum is the highest.There is no detailed and extensive evidence at presentconcerning the existence of any yearly cycle of involuntarysexual activity in women. It is, however, in women,[331

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXas the existence of menstruation shows, that sexual periodicityis most normal and pronounced. In this respectwomen are more profoundly primitive than men. Theorigin of menstruation has been much discussed. It usedto be thought that lowly organisms living within theinfluence of the tides would show a lunar periodicity.This, however, is seldom found. Shell fish are not usuallyaffected by the moon. In the gulf of Suez, however, seaurchins do obey the moon. They increase as she increasesand decline as she declines. Their size is due to the roeand they spawnat full moon. So zoologically remote aninfluence could not extend to quadrupeds, and amongmammals a menstrual rhythm does not even begin toallied toappear until we reach some of the anthropoidsMan. The suggestion of Arrhenius (accepted by MunroFox who has specially studied this subject) is that thesource of menstrual periodicityis electrical. He has shownthat atmospheric electricity varies in a rhythmical manner,with a maximum every 27% days which is the timetaken by the moon to revolve round the earth. He alsofound a slight menstrual rhythm in the curve of births.In the monkeys among whom menstruation begins toappear, it co-exists with the more primitive seasonal influence,so that the monkeys which menstruate at approximatelymonthly intervals still only procreate at certainperiods of the year. A vestige of this tendency remains inthe human species. It isduring the oestrus, or "heat,"only that female animals generally allow intercourse. Inwomen, the period of maximum sexual desire tends tooccur around menstruation, but, especially in civilization,sexual desire is more diffused. The majority of the earlierauthorities admitted a heightening of sexual emotionbefore or after the menstrual crisis, e.g., Krafft-Ebing, whoplaced it at the post-menstrual period. Otto Adler stated[34]

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXthat sexual feeling isincreased before, during,and aftermenstruation. Kossmann advised intercourse just aftermenstruation, or even during the latter days of the flow,as the period when it is most needed. Guyot said that theeight days after menstruation are the period of sexualdesire in women. Harry Campbell, who investigated theperiodicity of sexual desire in healthy women of the workingclasses by inquiries made of their husbands who werepatients at a London Hospital, found that in two-thirdsof the wives, desire was increased before, during or afterthe flow, or at all three times.We now possess the results of inquiries on a more definitelystatistical basis. Thus Dr. Katharine Davis, in herstudy of the sex life of over two thousand women, foundthat maximum sexual desire nearly always fell within theperiod from two days before to a week after menstruation,although, unlike most investigators, she found that it wasmore often before than after the menstrual flow (69 to.38 cases) Dr. G. V. Hamilton in his examination of 100married women of educated class a small number, butcarefully studied found that 25 had sex desire just aftermenstruation only, 14 just before only, 21 just before andjust after, 11 during menstruation and just before andjust after, 19 had no periodicity at all, while the remaining10 gave no information.The modesty of women, which, in its most primitiveform among animals, is based on sexual periodicity, is,with that periodicity, an essential condition of courtship.At the outset modesty may be said to be the gesture ofsexual refusal by a female animal who is not yet at theperiod of oestrus. Modesty, however, tends to overlap thatperiod, as we should expect with an impulse which isactive during the greater part of the year, and combineswith the sexual impulse, constituting coquetry; then thef SS 1

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXfemale alternately approaches and runs away from themile, or runs away from him in a circle. While modestyisprimarily the gesture of sexual refusal it speedily combineswith other impulses and may finally in man be saidto combine the following constituents: (i) the primitiveanimal gestureof sexual refusal on the part of the female,when she is not at that moment of her generativelife atwhich she desires die male's advances; (2) the fear ofarousing disgust, a fear primarily due to the close proximityof the sexual center to the points of exit of thoseexcretions which are useless and unpleasant, even in manycases to animals; (3) the fear of the magic influence ofsexual phenomena,and the ceremonial and ritual practicesprimarily based on this fear, and ultimately passinginto simple rules of decorum which are signsand guardiansof modesty; (4) the development of ornament andclothing, concomitantly fostering alike the modesty whichwhich seeks*represses male sexual desire and the coquetryto allure it; (5) the conception of women as property,imparting a new and powerful sanction to an emotionalready based on more natural and primitive facts.Thus constituted, modesty is a very powerful motiveeven amongst the lowest savages although the forms itassumes vary widely and it remains powerful also inbarbarism. At no stage of culture does modesty necessarilyinvolve the use of garments. Some savages, who arehabitually almost or completely naked, stillexhibit modesty,while in modern life new customs of completenakedness "nudism/* sun-bathing, the popular GermanNackt-Kultur, etc. leave modesty intact. In civilization,however, itspotency is attenuated. It persists, in part as aritual and in part as a grace, but it no longer has theirresistible force which it usually possesses among thelower races. Still,in any case, modesty remains from first[36]

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXto last an essential condition of courtship. Without thereticences and delays of modesty, tumescence could not beadequately aroused in either sex, nor would the femalehave time and opportunity to test the qualities of thecandidates for her favors, and to select the most fittingmate.BIBLIOGRAPHYHAVELOCK ELLIS, "Analysis of the Sexual Impulse," inVol. Ill The Evolution of Modesty; "The Evolution ofModesty" and "The Phenomena of Sexual Periodicity/'in Vol. I Studies in the Psychology of Sex, and "TheMenstrual Curve of Sexual Impulse" in Vol. VII.WALLASCHEK, Primitive Music.COLIN SCOTT, "Sex and Art," American Journal of Psychology*Vol. VII, No. 2.HEAPE, "The Sexual Season of Mammals," QuarterlyJournal of Microscopical Science, 1900, and "The Proportionof the Sexes," Philosophical Transactions of theRoyal Society, Series B, Vol. 200, 1909.WESTERMARCK, The History of Human Marriage, Vol. I.J. R. BAKER, Sex in Man and Animals.ZUCKERMAN, The Social Life of Monkeys and Apes.MUNRO Fox, Selene.MAURICE PARMELEE, Nudism in Modern Life.Preferential Mating: The Factors of Sexual SelectionThe process of tumescence is achieved, directly or indirectly,by the stimulating influence of impressions receivedthrough the various senses. Contrectation, as Mollterms it, is indeed simply the sum of the physical andpsychic impressions so received, normally from a personof the opposite sex. Sexual selection is the choice of theperson who most adequately imparts these impressions.seem toIn using the term "sexual selection" we mayassume a theory in the Darwinian doctrine of evolution[37]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXwhich, in its original form, is not always accepted. Wenot to bemust especiallyremember that such selection isreckoned as primarily esthetic. It is not beauty but greatervigor, or greater conspicuousness, that counts. The precisedegree of validity which Darwinian sexual selection(even apart from its misinterpretation by Wallace) possessesamong animals generallyis still doubtful even tomany careful students of animal life. It is doubtful, inother words, how far such instinctive choice in mating asis so far demonstrable can lead to a biological selectionof some characters and the rejection of other characters, soaffecting inheritance. The increasing knowledge in recentyears of the Mendelian factors of inheritance still furtherobscures the question of sexual selection. What we arecertainly concerned with is Preferential Mating, whichleaves open the question of sexual selection in relation toracial inheritance. It is not clear that the less preferredare usually shut out from mating, and those who are excludedaltogether, whether among the lower animals orthe lower human races, seem generally an almost negligiblenumber. Courtship among birds is often a serious,prolonged, and highly arduous affair. Yet it is still notDarwinian "selection" has beenalways clear that anyachieved. Eliot Howard, a very thorough student of birdlife, while not absolutely rejecting such "selection," in hiswith muchgreat work on British Warblers, yet speakshesitation concerning its extent and significance. Variousother authorities on bird life are equally cautious.For Man in the far past preferential mating may reallyhave rendered it difficult for the less preferred to mate andso pass on their less preferred characters. Among theBabylonian women whose dutyit was once in life toprostitute themselves at the shrine of Mylitta (though weare not here concerned with a very primitive phase of[38]

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXculture) Herodotus mentions that those who were lesscharming might have to wait three or four years beforethey were chosen by a man. The same influence has nodoubt largely operated for marriage also in the past.Butnearly all women in lower stages of culture seem sooneror later to become pregnant (some observers have notedsothis of even the least attractive women among savages)that, while the delay in selection may diminish the opportunitiesof passing on the less preferred characters, anyracial selection must be limited.The possibilities of sexual "selection" in the Darwiniansense seem indeed to be capable of greater and more rapiddevelopment in the future. Even in our present phase ofcivilization a large number of women and men remainunmated, many of them because they have failed to evokethe pairing impulse in the opposite sex. If civilization inthe future tends to free mating from the influence of thoseextraneous considerations which today enable the unattractiveand the unfit to pair, and ideals of desirabilitybecome a more stringent motive in pairing, the process ofselection which leaves a large number altogether unpairedwould obviously be a strongly directive force in humanevolution. "If men wished women to be taller or less emotionalthan they are," remarks Heymans, "there are manytall women and unemotional women whom they couldselect to marry. But it will be long/' he adds, "beforesuch tendencies have free play."It is not possible therefore, at present, to regard Darwiniansexual "selection" as the chisel in the hands ofNature to mold the living being of the future into perpetuallynew forms while the refuse isbeing constantlyflung away. Within certain limits, as Heymans truly says,the feminine type must have a tendency to adaptitself tothe ideals of men, and the masculine type to the ideals of[39]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXwomen. But the limits seem uncertain and narrow; wecannot at present regard either sex as the absolute creation,through "selection/' of the oppositesex.It is necessary to make clear this elementary preliminaryconsideration when approachingthe fundamental factsof sexual psychology. Even when the term "sexual selection"is used, what we are really concerned with is preferentialmating as mediated by the varying attractions of thesensory stimuli which evoke courtship.Courtship, we cannot make too clear, by no meansnecessarily involves, as some still believe, a struggle or achoice between rival candidates for a sexual partner. It isjust as pronounced and just as necessary, even though onlyin an abbreviated form, when rivalry is excluded, andthroughout the sexual life. The act of union is not accomplishedin an effective and happy manner except as theclimax of an ever fresh courtship. Even investigators likeEliot Howard who are most in doubt as to the significanceof sexual ''selection" among animals are emphatic in theirinsistence on those elaborate and prolonged phases ofexcitement in which courtship consists. For courtshipisinvolved in that whole process of tumescence and detumescencewhich isthe foundation of the sexual life.The senses concerned are touch, smell, hearing, andvision. There seems no good reason to include taste evenin abnormal individuals, when we have eliminated fromwhat are usually considered taste-sensations the large partreally furnished by olfaction through the posterior nares,There isprobably indeed good reason why taste propershould not have any share in this matter, for taste is theslave of the other great primary organic need, the need ofnutrition, and if taste had also become associated with theprimary need of reproduction, instinct might be confusedand the lover might seek to devour his partner rather than[40]

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXto have sexual union with her. There are very few animalsthat eat their partners and then it is usually the femalewho does so, and not until after impregnation has takenplace.(i)TouchTouch isthe primary and most primitive form of contrectation.The sexual act itself is essentially an act ofcontrectation, in which touch issupreme. Among children,hugging, kissing, and embracing are the main signsof affection in general and of sexual affection in particular.They equally express the elementary desire of theadult lover.In this primary impulse, indeed, there isnothing specializedor specific. The skin is the foundation on whichall forms of sensory perception have grown up, and assexual sensibility isamong the most ancient of all formsof sensibility, it is necessarily, in the main, a modifiedform of general touch sensibility. This primitive characterof the great region of tactile sensation, its vagueness anddiffusion, serve to heighten the emotional intensity ofskin sensations. So that, of all the great sensory fields,thefield of touch is at once the least intellectual and themost massively emotional. These qualities,as well as itsintimate and primitive association \\ith the apparatus oftumescence and detumescence, make touch the readiestand most powerful channel by which the sexual spheremay be reached.As we might expect, touch is frequently predominant inthe courtship of the lower animals. Touch determinesmating among Crabs and Crayfish and is usually the chiefsexual sense for Spiders. In Cattle, Deer, Horses, Dogs,etc., licking is an important part of courtship. Neumann,who watched Elephants love-making, observed that the

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXmale fondled the female with his trunk, and then, standingside by side, they crossed trunks, putting the tips ineach other's mouths. Human beings are impelled toanalogous acts. For many people, especiallywomen whohave not become habituated to complete intercourse, closetactile contacts furnish in themselves adequate sexualpleasure and satisfaction.The tactile element is indeed specially prominent inthe emotional life, and notably the sexual life, of women.Lillian Martin, investigating the esthetic sentiment inwoman students, observed the prominence of emotions oftactile foundation. Pearce Clark described the case of anepileptic girl of nine who only cared for people whosetouch she liked, and classified her acquaintances by herreaction to their handshakes or kiss. The sexual awakeningof girls at puberty shows itself in a desire for kissesand caresses rather than for intercourse. Sadger remarksthat "the halo of chastity surrounding so many younggirls rests on the absence of the genital impulse combinedwith strong eroticism in the skin, the mucus membranes,and the muscular system." This trait is frequently pronouncedin women not only at the beginning of thesexual life but throughout, and even to the climax ofdetumescence. "With all her straining, her wrestling, andstriving to break from the clasp of his arms/' we read inan erotic novel of the eighteenth century, "it was visibleshe aimed at nothing more than multiplying points oftouch with him." It was a woman poet, Rene Vivien,who wrote that "the strange and complex art of touchequals the dream of perfumesand the miracle of sound."The instinctive recognition by women of the importanceof touch in love is additional evidence of the fact thattouch is really the primary and primitiveerotic sense.The morbid hyper-esthetic anomalies on a tactile[4*]

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXfoundation occur in both men and women, such as thestuff-fetishisms (contacts with fur, velvet, silk, etc.)andmay have consequences of social importance, such as kleptolagnia;this is found chiefly in women. The specialas it is termed, on the other hand,perversion of frottage,isonly found in a pronounced degreein men and consistsin a desire to bring the clothed body, and usuallythough not exclusively the genital region, into close contactwith the clothed body of a woman, and in seekingto gratify this passion in places of publicresort withwomen who are complete strangers. Many women have atsome time, when standing in a crowd (as at the back ofa theater gallery or sometimes even in church), becomeunpleasantly aware of a deliberate contact of this kind.This morbid deviation is of medico-legal interest, and itsvictims may be otherwise fairly normal men of good socialposition and superior intelligence.Ticklishness may here be noted as a kind of by-productof tactile sensation, founded on reflexes developing evenbefore birth, which is closely related to sexual phenomena.It is, as it were, a play of tumescence, on which laughtercomes as a play of detumescence, to disperse undesiredsexual emotions often (as among bashful sex-consciousgirls) Ticklishness leads on to the more serious phenomenaof tumescence, and it tends to die out .afteradolescence, atthe period during which sexual relationshipsnormally begin.Such a view of ticklishness, as a kind of modesty of theskin, existing only to be destroyed,is indeed but one ofits aspects. Ticklishness certainly arose from a non-sexualstarting-point, and may well have protective uses, for, asLouis Robinson pointed out, in young animals the mostticklish regions are the most vulnerable and those mostneeding protection. Tickling, however, within the sexual[43]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXsphere, and in those more remote erogenous zones whichare sometimes apt for sexual sensation, acts differently,and this by virtue o what Herrick calls its power of summatingsuccessive stimuli, an avalanche-like process bywhich through the excitation of cellsperipherala vastnumber of cortical cells may be slowly charged with eneigy.It is a process of tumescence culminating in an actof detumescence; which, while outside the sexual sphereit may take the form of a muscular reaction or an outburstof laughter, within the sexual sphereits reactions aresexual. All forms of amorous contrectation, and especiallythe sexual embrace, have an intimate connection with thephenomena of ticklishness. That, indeed, is the basis ofSpinoza's famous definition of love: Amor est titillatioquaedam concomitante idea causes externa, for, as Gowerssaid, the sexual act is primarily a skin reflex.It may be worth while to remark that, although tickling(even if practised by young girls as a source of probablesexual pleasure) has become unimportant in the eroticlife of civilization, it has more significance among somesavage peoples, as formerly indeed even in Europe. Totickle among some peoples has been to make love, andsometimes, as among the Fuegians, the same word is appliedto the sexual embrace as to tickling. The Germanword for the clitoris, "Kitzler" or tickler, indicates a similarconnection of ideas. The word pruritus was used bythe Romans as a synonym of lasciviousness, and it is significantthat localized pruritus occurs in zones that arein early life auto-erotic and tends to appear at the menopause.In Russia, in the eighteenth century, the Czarina,B. Stein states, retained at Court official foot-ticklerswhose dutyit was to give the Empress pleasure by ticklingher feet and at the same time telling wanton stories andsinging obscene songs; they also possessed the special privi-[44]

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXlege of refreshing the Czarina, when exhausted from excesses,by smacking the Imperial buttocks. This office wasof course reserved for ladies of aristocratic birth. Thephysiological ground of the proceeding lies in the factthat, as Fer6 has demonstrated, tickling is in moderationa stimulant increasing energy, though in excess it is adepressant.The relationship between ticklishness and sexual feelingis indicated by the experience of a lady who statesthat if she is touched in the sexual region when not inclinedfor sexual relationships, ticklishness isaroused, butthat when sexual desire arises ticklishness disappears. Itis, we see, a vicarious sexual feeling, or we may say thatsexual feeling is a transmuted form of ticklishness. In itsoriginal aspect a sentinel to repel contact, it becomesunder another aspect a minister to attraction.The intimate connection between the skin and thesexual sphereis indicated, not only by the phenomena oftickling, but by the behavior of the sebaceous glands,which are the vestiges of former hair glands, and survivefrom a period when hair covered the body. The attemptsof these glands at puberty, or when the sexual system isdisturbed, to produce hairs frequently lead to pimples,and actual hairs often appear in women after the menopause.Thus the hair itself and itsdisturbances are associatedwith the sexual system. Partial baldness or alopecia areata,about theas Sabouraud pointed out, tends to occur with specialfrequencyin women towards puberty and againage of 50, though in men there is no corresponding frequencycurve. It may also occur after suppression of themenses, as after ovariotomy, and sometimes even in pregnancy.While the sexual embrace itself is,[45]in large measure, a

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXspecialized kind of skin reflex, between the generalizedskin sensations and the great primary sexual center ofsensation there are certain secondary sexual centers whichhave already been brought forward in their general aspectas to be included among erogenic zones.These secondary centers have in common the fact thatthey involve the entrances and the exits of the body re-that is, where skin merges into mucous membrane,gions,and where, in the course of evolution, tactile sensibilityhas become highly refined. It may, indeed, be said generallyof these frontier regions of the body that their contactwith the same or a similar frontier region in anotherperson of opposite sex, under conditions otherwise favorableto tumescence, will tend to produce a minimum andeven sometimes a maximum degree of sexual excitation.Contact of these regions with each other or with thesexual region itself so closely simulates the central sexualreflex that channels are set up for the same nervous energyand secondary sexual centers are constituted.It isimportant to remember that these phenomena areessentially normal. Many of them are commonly spokenof as "perversions." In so far, however, as they are aidsto tumescence, they must be regarded as coming withinbe consideredthe range of normal variation. They mayunesthetic, but that is another matter. It has, moreover,to be remembered that esthetic values are changed underthe influence of sexual emotion; from the lover's point ofview, many thingsare beautiful which are unbeautifulfrom the point of view of him who is not a lover, and, thegreater the degree to which the lover is swayed by hispassion, the greateresthetic standard isthe extent to which his normalliable to be modified. From the nonsexualstandpoint, indeed, the whole process of sex may[46]

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXbe considered unesthetic, except the earlier stages otumescence.That the utilization of the sexual excitation obtainablethrough the channels of the erogeniczones must be consideredwithin the normal range of variation, we may observe,indeed, among many animals. It isonly when theyare used to procure not merely tumescence, but detumescence,that such excitations can be termed in any sense,"perversions," and then they are so only in the sameambiguous sense as are the methods of intercourse whichinvolve the use of checks to prevent fecundation.The kiss is the typical example of this group of phenomena.We have in the lips a highly sensitive frontierregion between skin and mucous membrane, in many respectsanalogous to the vulvo-vaginal orifice, and reinforcible,moreover, by the active movements of the stillmore highly sensitive tongue. Close and prolonged contactof these regions, therefore, under conditions favorableto tumescence setsup a powerful current of nervous stimulation.After those contacts in which the sexual regionsthemselves take a direct part, there is no such channelfor directing nervous force into the sexual sphere as thekiss. This is specially marked for the so-called columbinekiss, widely practised by lovers in classic as well as inmodern times. A form of it called maraichinage is generallypractised in a part of France, though some theologianswould regardit as a mortal sin. Manifestations resemblingthe kiss are found among various animals lowerthan man, as in the palpations of the antennae by snailsand insects, the caresses of birds by their bills, the lickingand gentle biting of dogs, and of various animals incoitus. In man, the kiss has two elements, one tactile andthe other olfactory, but the tactile element is at oncethe most ancient and in Europe the most predominant[47]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXpart of the kiss; the olfactory kiss, however, or smell-kiss,has a much wider distribution over the world than theEuropean (or Mediterranean) tactile kiss; it reaches itsmost complete development among peoples of Mongolianrace.While the kiss may be regarded as the typical andnormal erogenic method of contrectation for the end ofattaining tumescence, there are others only less important.Any orificial contact between persons of opposite sexis sometimes almost equally as effective as the kiss instimulating tumescence; all such contacts, indeed, belongto the group of which the kiss is the type. Cunnilinctus(often incorrectly termed cunnilingus) and fellatio cannotbe regarded as unnatural for they have their prototypicforms among animals, and they are found amongvarious savage races. As forms of contrectation and aidsto "tumescence they are thus natural and are sometimesregarded by both sexes as quintessential forms of sexualpleasure, though they may not be considered esthetic.They become deviations, however, and thus liable to betermed "perversions," when they replace the desire forcoitus.The nipples constitute yet another orificial frontierregion which is a highly important tactile sexual focus.The breasts have a special significance among the sexualcenters since they primarily exist, not for the lover, butfor the child. This is doubtless, indeed, a fundamentalfact on which other erogenic contacts have grown up.The sexual sensitivity of lovers to the lips has been developedfrom the sensitivity of the infant's lips to contactwith his mother's nipple.As the secreting organs of milk, it is essential that theconnection between the sexual organs and the breastsshould be intimate, so that the breasts may be in a con-[48]

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXdition to respond adequately to the demand of the child'sat the earliest moment after birth. Suction ofsucking lipsthe nipple causes objectively a reflex contraction of thewomb. On the subjective side no one seems to havelecorded that the act of suckling tends to produce inwomen voluptuous sexual emotions until Cabanis, in theearly nineteenth century, noted that several sucklingwomen had told him that the child in suckling producedsuch 1feelings. It is easy to see why this normal associationof sexual emotion with suckling should have come about,It is essential for the preservation of the lives of youngmammals that the mothers should have an adequate motivein pleasurable sensation for enduringthe trouble ofsuckling. The most obvious method for obtaining thenecessary degree of pleasurable sensation, beyond the reliefof the tension caused by the secretion, lay in utilizing thereservoir of sexual emotion, with which channels of communicationmight already be said to be open, through theaction of the sexual organs on the breastsduring pregnancy.It must be added that while the connection betweenthe nipple and the sexual apparatus thus appears to be sointimate it isprobably not specific.Kurdinovski found byexperiments on rabbits that the stimulation of other orifices,as the ear, will also produce strong contractions ofthe womb. Perhaps any stimulus anywhere applied to theevoke a uterine contraction.periphery may by reflex pathsThis suppositionis in relation with the general sexual1 1 should like to point out, however, that, before Cabanis, C. Bonnetin 1764 (in his Contemplation de la Nature), had remarked on "thesweet commotion accompanied by a feeling of pleasure," as supportingthe natural affection of the mother for the child, "if it is not one of theprincipal causes," while for creatures below the mammals, he added,"we have also to consider the agreeable reciprocal warmth of motherand offspring."[49]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXsensitiveness of the skin, and the existence of erogeniczones.The importanceof the erotic interest in the breasts isindicated bythe amount of attention which has beengiven to the subject by Catholic theologians. A great controversyarose over xnammillary contacts in the eighteenthcentury. Eminent Jesuit theologians, but in opposition tothe Inquisition and the Church generally, maintained thatto handle the breasts even of nuns was venial, providedthere was no depraved intention. In one Jesuit Penitentiaryit was even asserted that to deny the intrinsic innocenceof such acts was dangerously near to an error infaith,and only committed by Jansenists.(2)SmellOlfactory sensibility was not at first clearly differentiatedfrom general tactile sensibility. The sense of smellwas gradually specialized, and, when taste also began todevelop, a kind of chemical sense was constituted. Amongvertebrates smell became the most highly developed ofthe senses; it gives the first information of remote objectsthat concern them, it gives the most precise informationconcerning the near objects that concern them; it is thesense in terms of which most of their mental operationsmust be conducted and their emotional impulses reachconsciousness. For reptiles and later for mammals notonly are all sexual associations mainly olfactory, but theimpressions received by this sense suffice to dominate allothers. An animal not only receives adequate sexual excitementfrom olfactory stimuli, but those stimuli oftensuffice to counterbalance all the evidence o the othersenses. This is not surprising when we remember howextensive is the place of the olfactory region in the brain.The cerebral cortex itself, indeed, as Edinger and Elliot[50]

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXSmith show, was originally little more than die receptivecenter for impressions of smell and the instrument forenabling that sense to influence the animal's behavior;and these olfactory impulses reached the cortex directlyand not by passing through the thalamus. So that, psychologically,smell occupies a unique position. It represents"the germ of all the higher psychical powers," or at allevents the cement that binds them together. In the primitivevertebrates living in the water, smell (whichis thenmore akin to taste than in Man and also more affectivethan any other sense) dominates the whole behavior andisof immense biological significance."When we reach the higher apes and Man, all this hasof an indiffer-been changed. The sense of smell, indeed, still persistsuniversally and it is also exceedingly delicate, thoughoften neglected. It is, moreover, a useful auxiliary. Savagesare often accused, more or less justly,ence to bad odors. They are often, however, keenly aliveto the significance of smells and their varieties, thoughit does not appear that the sense of smell isnotably moredeveloped in savage than in civilized peoples. Odors alsocontinue to play a part in the emotional life of man, moreespecially in hot countries.Nevertheless both in practical life and in emotionallife, in science and in art, smell is, at the best, undernormal conditions, merely an auxiliary, and itsstudy fellinto some discredit until Zwaardemaker of Utrecht restoredit to its proper position by the invention of hisolfactometer in 1888 and by the subsequent publicationof his work on the physiology of smell. A few years laterHeyninx of Brussels still further developed the subjectof olfaction, and seeking to put it on a rigid physicalbasis, he setup a spectrum, as it were, for smell, with aclassification dependent on variations of wave length.

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXIt would thus be by a moleculo-vibratory, rather than bya chemical, energy that smells activate the affective paths.Other authorities, however, like G. H. Parker, are contentto regard smell as the chief of the "chemical" senses, afterwe have separatedthe "mechanical" senses (stimulated bypressure, or sound, or light); the chemical senses datefrom primitive aquatic life and, while dominated bysmell, would also include taste, the function of the organof Jacobson (opening into the nose) , and a commonchemical sense. Even yet, however, it can scarcely be saidthat any large body of assured conclusions has beenreached.The sense of smell stillremains close to touch in thevagueness of its messages though its associations are oftenhighly emotional. It is the existence of these characteristicsat once so vague and so specific,so useless and sointimate which has led various writers to describe thesense of smell as, above all others, the sense of imagination.No sense has so strong a power of suggestion, thepower of calling up ancient memories with a wide anddeep emotional reverberation, while at the same time nosense furnishes impressions which so easily change emotionalcolor and tone, in harmony with the recipient'sgeneral attitude. Odors are thus specially apt both tocontrol the emotional life and to become its slaves. Underthe conditions of civilization the primitive emotionalassociations of odor tend to be dispersed, but, on the otherhand, the imaginative side of the olfactory sense becomesaccentuated, and personal idiosyncrasies tend to manifestthemselves in this sphere.Odors are powerful stimulants to the whole nervoussystem, causing, like other stimulants, an increase of energywhich, if excessive or prolonged, leads to nervousexhaustion. Thus, it is well recognized that the aromatics[52]

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXcontaining volatile oils are antispasmodics and anaesthetics,and that they stimulate digestion, circulation, and thenervous system, in large doses producing depression.Fare's experiments with the dynamometer and the ergographgreatly contributed to define the stimulating effectsof odors.We approach the specifically sexual aspect of odor inthe human species when we note that all men and womenare odorous. This is variously marked amongall races.It is a significant fact, both as regards the ancestral sexualconnections of the body odors and their actual sexualassociations today, that, as Hippocrates long ago noted,it is not until puberty that they assume their adult characteristics.The infant, the adult, the aged person, each hashis own kind of smell, and, as Monin remarks, itmightbe possible, within certain limits, to discover the age of aperson byhis odor. Inboth sexes, puberty, adolescence,early manhood and womanhood are marked by a gradualdevelopment of the adult odor of skin and excreta, ingeneral harmony with the secondary sexual developmentsof hair and pigment. Venturi, indeed, described the odorof the body as a secondary sexual character.As the sole factor in human sexual selection olfactionmust be rare, not so much because the impressions of thissense are inoperative, but because agreeable personalodors are not sufficiently powerful, and the olfactory organistoo obtuse, to enable smell to take precedence of sight.Nevertheless, in many people, certain odors, especiallythose that are correlated with a healthy and sexually desirableperson, tend to be agreeable; they are fortified bytheir association with the loved person, sometimes to anirresistible degree; and their potencyis doubtless increasedby the fact that many odors, including some bodilyodors, are nervous stimulants.[53]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXThere seems to be little doubt that an intimate relationexists, both in men and women, between the olfactorymucous membrane of the nose and the whole genitalapparatus, that they frequently show a sympathetic action,that influences acting on the genital sphere will affect thenose occasionally, influences acting on the nose reflexlyaffect the genital sphere.In a few exceptional, but still quite normal, peoplesmell would appear to possess an emotional predominancewhich it cannot be said to possessin the average person.These exceptional people are what Binet in his study ofsexual fetishism called olfactive type; such persons forma group which, though of smaller size and less importance,is fairly comparable to the well-known groups of visualtype, of auditory type, and of psycho-motor type. Suchpeople would be more attentive to odors, more moved byolfactory sympathies and antipathies, than are otherpeople. The term "ozolagny" was devised by Kiernan forsexual gratification derived from the sense of smell. Manywomen who may be considered normal are sexually excitable(occasionally even to the point of orgasm) byspecial odors, as of the general body odor of a belovedman (sometimes when blended with that of tobacco) orand are some-of leather (which is ultimately a skin odor)times overcome by a sudden almost hallucinatory recollectionof the body odor of a lover.Even in ordinary normal persons, personal odor tendsto play a not inconsiderable part in sexual attractions andsexual repulsions. This is sometimes termed "olfactionism."The comparative bluntness of the sense of smellin Man, however, makes it difficult for olfactory influencesto be felt, as a rule, until the preliminaries of courtshipare already over; so that smell cannot normally possessthe same significance in sexual attraction in Man that it[54]

THE BIOLOGY OF SEX/possesses in the lower animals. With that reservation therecan be no doubt that odor has a certain favorable or unfavorableinfluence in sexual relationships in all humanraces from the lowest to the highest. The fact that itmayand that for most people such odors cannot be abe so,matter of indifference in the most intimate of all relationships,is usually only to be learned casually and incidentally.There can be no doubt, however, that, as Kiernanpointsout, the extent to which olfaction influences thesexual sphere in civilized man has been much underestimated,though we need not run to the opposite extreme,with Gustav Jager, and regard the sexual instincteven in Man as mainly or altogether an olfactory matter.In Man, not onlyis the sexual significance of odor altogethermuch less than in lower animals, but the focus ofolfactory attraction has been displacedfrom the sexualIn thisregions themselves to the upper part of the body.respect the sexual olfactory allurement in man resembleswhat we find in the sphere of vision, for neither the sexualorgans of man nor of woman are usuallybeautiful inthe eyes of the opposite sex, and their exhibition is nowhereregarded as a preliminary stage in courtship. Thecareful concealment of the sexual region has doubtlessfavored this transfer. It has thus happened that when personalodor acts as a sexual allurement it is the armpit,in any case normally the chief focus of odor in the body,which chiefly comes into play, together with the skin andthe hair. We have further to recognize the significant factthat even those personal odors which are chiefly liableunder normal circumstances to come occasionally withinthe conscious sexual sphere, and indeed purely personalodors of all kinds, may fail to exert any attraction, butrather tend to cause antipathy,unless some degree of[55]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXtumescence has already been attained, and even then mayprove repulsive,and so be liable to constitute what maybe an even serious trouble in sexual relations. That is tosay, our olfactory experiences of the human body approximaterather to our tactile experiences of it than to ourvisual experiences.Smell with us has ceased to be a leadingchannel of intellectual curiosity. Personal odors makean appealthat is mainly of an intimate, emotional imaginativecharacter. They are thus liable to arouse whatJames called the anti-sexual instinct.Among animals, it seems probable, both sexes are alikeinfluenced by odors, for, while it is usually the male whosesexual regions are furnished with special scent glands,when such occur, the peculiar odor of the female duringthe sexual season is certainly not less efficacious as an allurementtothe male. If we compare the general susceptibilityof men and women to agreeable odors, apart fromthe question of sexual allurement, there can be littledoubt that it is most marked among women. Groospointed out that even among children little girls are moreinterested in scents than boys, and the investigations ofvarious workers, especially Garbini, have shown that thereis actually a greater power of discriminating odors amonggirls than among boys. In America Alice Thayer showedthat girls are considerably more influenced by odor intheir likes and dislikes than are boys. Marro went further,and in an extended series of observations on girls beforeand after the establishment of puberty, he found reasontobelieve that girls acquire an increased susceptibility toodors when sexual life begins, although they show nosuch increased powers as regards the other senses. It maybe added that some women acquire a special olfactoryhyper-aesthesia during pregnancy. Even in old age, as Vaschide'sexperiments showed, women preserve their olfac-[56]

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXtory superiority over men. On the whole, it would appearthat, as Van de Velde and various other gynecologists nowagree, women are more affected, and more frequentlyaffected, than are men by olfactory impressions.Since there are chemical resemblances and identitieseven of odors from widely remote sources, perfumes mayhave the same sexual effects as are more primitively possessedby the body odors. It seems probable that, as hasbeen emphasized by Iwan Bloch, perfumes were primitivelyused by women, not as is sometimes the case incivilization, with the idea of disguising any possible naturalodor, but with the object of heightening and fortifyingthe natural odor. If the primitive man was inclinedto disparage a woman whose odor was slight or imperceptibleturning away from her with contempt, as thePolynesian turned away from the ladies of Sydney: "Theyhave no smell!" women would inevitably seek to supplementany natural defects in this respect, and to accentuatetheir odorous qualities, in the same way as, even in civilization,they have sought to accentuate the sexual prominencesof their bodies. In this way, we may, as Bloch suggests,explain the fact that until recent times the favoriteodors selected by women have not been the most delicatebut the strongest, the most animal, the most sexual: musk,castoreum, civet, and ambergris. The type among these iscertainly musk, which, with ambergris,is the chief memberof Linnaeus's group of Odores ambrosiaceZ; which insexual significance, Zwaardemaker remarks, ranks besidethe capryl group, and musk is that odor which is mostfrequentlyfound to resemble the odor of the humanbody.The special peculiarity of the olfactory group of sensationsin Man is that they manifest the decadence of asense which in Man's remote ancestors was a chief avenue[57]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXof sexual allurement. In Man, and even tosome degreein the apes,this sense has given place to the predominanceof vision. Yet it still bathes us in a more or less constantatmosphere of odors which perpetuallymove us to sympathyor to antipathy; and in their finer manifestationswe still do not neglect, but even cultivate them.(3) HearingThe chief physiologicalfunctions are periodic,and it isnot surprising that rhythm is deeply impressed on ourorganism. The result is that, whatever lends itself to theneuro-muscular rhythmical tendency of the organism,whatever tends still further to heighten and develop thatrhythmical tendency, exerts upon us a decidedly stimulatingand exciting influence. It is not possible to acceptthe view of Bucher and Wundt that human song has itschief or exclusive origin in rhythmical vocal accompanimentsto systematized work, yet rhythm, whether in itssimple form or its more developed form as music, is apowerful stimulant to muscular action. There is considerableground for the view of the Swedish philologist Sperberthat sexuality was the main source from which speechgenerally was developed. He argues that there are twosituations in which an instinctive cry would arise andevoke response:when the hungry infant cries and is fedby the mother; and when the sexually excited male uttersa call to which the female responds. The second situationis most likely to have been developed first, and thereforesexuality is probably the first source of speech. This musthave occurred, indeed, early in vertebrate development.Even a single musical note is effective as a physiologicalstimulus, apart from rhythm, as was well shown by F

effortsTHE BIOLOGY OF SEXwith the dynamometer and prolonged work withthe ergograph have alike been found to reveal a stimulatinginfluence. With the ergograph Tarchanoff foundthat lively music, in nervously sensitive persons, will temporarilycause the disappearance of fatigue, though slowmusic in a minor key had the opposite effect. F6r foundthat discords were depressing; most, but not all major keyswere stimulating; and most, but not all, minor keys depressing.In states of fatigue, however, the minor keyswere more stimulating than the major, an interestingresult in harmony with that stimulating influence of variouspainful emotions in states of organic fatigue whichwe encounter when investigating sadism. Both the higherand the lower muscular processes, the voluntary and theinvoluntary, are stimulated by music.Together with this stimulation of the neuro-muscularnot be direct there is a con-system which may or maycomitant influence on the circulation and respiration.have been made on man and animalsMany experimentsbearing on the effects of music on the heart and lungs,since the Russian physiologist Dogiel found in 1880 thatin animals the force and rapidity of the heart were thusincreased. Subsequent investigations have shown clearlythe influence of music on the circulatory and respiratorysystems in man as well as in animals. That music has anapparently direct influence on the circulation of the brainis shown by the observations of Patrizi on a youth who hadreceived a severe wound of the head which had removeda large portion of the skull wall. The stimulus of melodyproduced an immediate increase in the afflux of blood tothe brain.It is not surprising that music should also, indirectly,influence various viscera and their functions. It affectsthe skin, increasing the perspiration; it may produce a[59]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXtendency to tears; it sometimes causes a desire to urinate,or even actual urination. In dogsit has been shown thatauditory stimulation increases the consumption of oxygenand the elimination of carbonic acid. Among many animalsof various classes, more especiallyinsects and birds,there can be little doubt that the attraction of music isstill supported and developed on the basis of sexual attraction,the musical notes of one sex serving as a sexuallure to the other sex. The evidence on this point wasinvestigated by Darwin on a wide basis. It has been questioned,some writers preferring,like Hudson, to adopt theview of Herbert Spencer that the singing of birds is dueto "overflow of energy," the relation between courtshipand singing being merely "a relation of concomitance."This view is no longer tenable; whatever the preciseorigin of the musical notes of animals may be, there cannow be little doubt that musical sounds, and, amongbirds, singing, play a large part in courtship. Usually,it would appear,it is the performance of the male thatattracts the female; it isonly among simple and primitivemusicians, like some insects, that the female thus attractsthe male. Even the fact that it isnearly always one sexonly that is thus musically gifted alone indicates thesexual solution of this problem.The males of many species of mammals use their vocalpowers chiefly, and sometimes exclusively, during thebreeding season. Among the higher apes indeed the voiceis the chief instrument in courting, as well as being ageneral method of giving vent to excitement. Darwinpointed this out, and from a different standpoint, F6r,in studying the pathology of the human sexual instinct,stated that he knew of no detailed observations showingthe existence of any morbid sexual perversions based onthe sense of hearing.f6o]

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXSince not only in the animals nearly related to Man,but in man himself, the larynx and the voice undergo amarked sexual differentiation at puberty, it is easy to believethat the change has an influence on sexual selectionand sexual psychology. At puberty there israpid developmentalike of the larynx itself and the vocal cords, whichbecome larger and thicker, while the voice deepens. Allthese changes are slight in girls, but pronounced in boys,whose voices are said to "break" and then become lowerby at least an octave. The feminine larynx at puberty onlyincreases in the proportion of five to seven, but the masculinelarynx in the proportionof five to ten. The directdependence of this change on the general sexual developmentis shown not merely byits occurrence at puberty,but by the fact that in eunuchs in whom the testicles havebeen removed before puberty the voice retains its childlikequalities.Bearing this in mind we may attach considerable importanceto the voice and to music generally as a method ofsexual appeal. On this point we may agree with Moll,"that sexual stimulation throughthe ears isgreaterthanis usually believed," though I consider that it is greateron women than on men, as we should expect, the causebeing that, as Robert Miiller remarks, a woman's voiceretains child-like qualities,and is therefore less specificallyfeminine than a man's voice isspecifically masculine.Men are, indeed, often able to associate many of theirearliest ideas of love in boyhood with women singing orplaying; but in these cases it will be found that the fascinationwas romantic and sentimental, and not specificallyerotic, while in adult life the music which oftenseems to us to be most definitely sexual in its appeal reallyproduces this effect in part from association with thestory, and in part from the intellectual realization of the[61]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXcomposer's effort to translate passioninto esthetic terms;the actual effect of the music is not sexual, and it can wellbe believed that the results of experiments as regards thesexual influence of the Tristan music on men under theinfluence of hypnotism have been, as reported, negative.The music of less important composers, however, especiallyMassenet, has been found to have a definite sexualeffect. Helmholtz went too far in stating that the expressionof sexual longing in music is identical with that ofreligious longing.Ferd mentions the case of a young man in hospital withacute arthritis who complained of painful erections wheneverhe heard through the door the very agreeable voiceof the young woman (invisible to him) who superintendedthe linen. But such phenomena do not appear tobe common, or, at all events, very pronounced.So far asmy own inquiries go, only a small proportion of menwould appear to experience definite sexual feelings onlistening to music.The reasons which make itimprobable that men shouldbe sexually attracted through hearing render itprobablethat women should be so attracted. The change in thevoice at puberty renders the deeper masculine voice acharacteristic secondary sexual attribute of man, while thethe male that isfact that, among mammals generally, it ismost vocal and that chiefly, or even sometimes exclusively,at the rutting seasonrenders it antecedently likelythat among mammals generally, including the humanspecies,there is inthe female an actual or latent susceptibilityto the sexual significance of the male voice, a susceptibilitywhich, under the conditions of human civilization,may be transferred to music generally. Music is forwomen, as the Goncourts have expressed it, "la messe de6*

THE BIOLOGY OF SEX1'amour." It isnoteworthy that in novels written bywomen there is a frequent attentiveness to the qualities ofthe hero's voice and to its emotional effects on theheroine, while in real life women often fall in love with aman's voice, sometimes even before they have seen him.Vaschide and Vurpas have pointed out that,absence of specific localized sexual effects,even in thethe physiologicaleffects of music on women closely resemble those ofsexual excitement. Most normal educated women areliable to experience some degree of definite sexual excitementfrom music, though not always from the same kindof music. In neuropathic subjects the influence may occasionallybe more pronounced, and in some morbid subjects(Vaschide and Vurpas remark) sexual relations cannottake place unless aided by music.It is significant that the evolution of puberty tends tobe accompanied by a marked interest in musical and otherkinds of art. The majority of young people of educatedclass, and especially girls, feel an impulse to art about theperiod of puberty, lasting a few months, or at most a yearor two. According to one series of observations, nearly 5in 6 showed an increased and passionate love for music,the curve culminating at the age of 15 and falling rapidlyafter 16.(4) VisionTo a large extent vision has slowly superseded the othersenses and become the main channel by which we receiveour impressions. Its range is practically infinite; it isaptfor either abstract or intimate uses. It furnishes the basison which a number of arts make their appeal, while it isalso the sense on which we chiefly rely in exercising theanimal function of nutrition. It is not surprising thatfrom the viewpoint of sexual selection vision should be[63]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXthe supreme sense. The love-thoughts of men have alwaysbeen a perpetualmeditation on beauty.The origin of our ideas o beauty is a question whichbelongs to esthetics, not to sexual psychology,and it is aquestion on which estheticians are not altogether in agreement.We need not here be concerned to make any def-whether our ideals ofinite assertion on the questionsexual beauty have developed under the influence ofmore general and fundamental laws, or whether sexualideals themselves underlie our more general conceptionsof beauty. Practically, so far as man and his immediateancestors are concerned, the sexual and the extra-sexualfactors of beauty have been interwoven from the first.The sexually beautiful object must have appealed to fundamentalphysiological aptitudes of reaction; the generallybeautiful object must have shared in the thrill whichthe specifically sexual object imparted. There has been aninevitable action and reaction throughout. Just as we findthat the sexual and non-sexual influences of agreeableodors throughout nature are inextricably mingled, so itis with the motives that make an object beautiful to oureyes. In elaborate descriptions of beautiful individuals itis the visible elements that are in most cases emphasized.The richly laden word beautyis a synthesis of compleximpressions obtained through a single sense.If we survey broadly the ideal of feminine beauty setdown by the peoples of comparatively uncivilized lands,it is interesting to note that they all contain many featureswhich appeal to our civilized esthetic taste,and many ofthem, indeed, contain no features which obviously clasheven be said that thewith our canons of taste. It mayideals of some savages affect us more sympathetically thansome of the ideals of our own medieval ancestors. Thisfact, that the modern European, whose culture may be

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXsensitive to estheticsupposed to have made him especiallybeauty, is yet able to find beauty among even the womenof savage races, indicates that, whatever modifying influencesmay have to be admitted, beauty is to a largeextent an objective matter. This is confirmed by the factthat the men of the lower races sometimes admire Europeanwomen more than women of their own race.It isprobably a significant fact, indeed, that we mayfind a similar element throughout the whole animatedworld. The things that to man are most beautiful throughoutNature are those that are intimately associated with,or dependent upon, the sexual processand the sexual instinct.This is the case in the plant world. It is so throughoutmost of the animal world, and, as Poulton, in referringto this often unexplained and indeed unnoticed fact,remarks, "the song or plume which excites the matingimpulse in the hen is also in a high proportion of casesmost pleasing to man himself."In the constitution of our ideals of masculine and femininebeauty it was inevitable that the sexual charactersshould from an early period in the history of Man forman important element. From a primitive point of viewa sexually desirable and attractive woman is one whosesexual characters are either naturally prominent or artificiallyrendered so; that is to say, she is the womanobviously best fitted to bear children and to suckle them.Similarly, masculine beauty for a woman embodies thequalities best fitted for an effective mate and protector.To a certain extent the primary sexual characters are thusobjects of admiration among savage peoples. In the primitivedances of many peoples, often of sexual significance,the display of the sexual organs on the part of both menand women is sometimes a prominent feature. Even downto medieval times in Europe the garments of men some-[65]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXtimes emphasized the sexual organs. In some parts of theworld, also, the artificial enlargement of the female sexualorgans (labia majora and minora and clitoris) is practiced,and thus enlarged they are considered an importantattraction.Any insistence on the naked sexual organs as objects ofattraction is, however, usually confined to peoples in a lowstate of culture, though it may be noted that in Japaneseerotic pictures the sexual organs of both sexes are oftenexaggerated. Much more widespread is the attempt tobeautify and to disguise the sexual organs by tattooing,by adornment, and by striking peculiarities of clothing.The tendency for beauty of clothing to be accepted as asubstitute for beauty of body appears early in the historyof mankind, and, as we know, tends to be absolutely acceptedin civilization. Hence our realities and our traditionalideals are sometimes hopelessly at variance. Ourartists are themselves equally ignorant and confused, and,asallStratz repeatedly showed, they constantly reproduce ininnocence the deformations and pathological charactersof defective models.One of the main primitive purposes of adornment andclothing among savages, however, is not to conceal thebut to draw attention to it and to render it morebody,attractive. With this we have to recognize the magicalinfluence of both adornment and mutilation as a methodo guarding and insulating dangerous bodily functions.The two motives are largely woven together. The sexualorgans begin to become sacred, indeed, and the sexualfunctions to take on a religious character, at an earlyperiodin culture. Generation,the reproductiveforce inNature, was realized by primitive man to be a conceptionof the firstmagnitude, and among its chief symbols heexalted the sexual organs which thus attained to a solem-[66]

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXnity scarcely favorable to purposes of sexual allurement.Phallus-worship may almost be said to be a universalphenomenon; it is found even among races of high culture,among the Romans of the Empire and the Japanesetoday.Apart from the religious and magical properties sowidely accorded to the primary sexual characters, there areother reasons why they should not often have gained orlong retained any great importance as objects of sexualallurement. They are unnecessary and inconvenient forthis purpose. Even among animals, ithappens with extremerarity that the primary sexual characters are renderedattractive to the eye of the opposite sex, thoughthey often are to the sense of smell. The sexual regionsconstitute a peculiarly vulnerable spot, even specially soin Man, and the need for their protection conflicts withthe prominent display required for sexual allurement.This end is more effectively attained by concentratingthe chief signs of sexual attractiveness on the upper andmore conspicuous parts of the body. It is a method alreadywell-nigh universal even among the lower animals.At the same time, even if not esthetically beautiful, it isfundamentally necessary that the intromittent organ ofthe male and the receptive canal of the female should retaintheir primitive characteristics. They cannot, therefore,be greatly modified by sexual or natural selection,and the primitive character they are thus compelled toretain, however sexually desirable and attractive they maybecome to the opposite sex under the influence of emotion,cannot easily be regarded as beautiful from the pointof view of esthetic contemplation. Under the influence ofart there is a tendency for the sexual organs to be diminishedin size, and under civilization the artist neverchooses to give an erect organ to his representations of[67]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXideal masculine beauty. It is mainly because the anestheticcharacter of a woman's sexual region is almost imperceptiblein any ordinary and normal positionof the nudebody that the feminine form is generally considered amore esthetically beautiful object of contemplation thanthe masculine. Apart from this character we are bound,from a strictly esthetic point of view, to regard the maleform as at least equally beautiful. The female form, moreover,often over-passes swiftly the climax of its beauty.With the growth of culture the very methods whichhad been adopted to call attention to the sexual organswere retained by a further development for the purposeof concealing them. Even from the first the secondarysexual characters have been a far more widespread methodof sexual allurement than the primary sexual characters,and in the most civilized countries today theystill constitutethe most attractive of such methods to the majorityof the population.It is the main secondary sexual characterswhich usually present themselves as beautiful inwell-developed persons.Among these secondarysexual characters most of theindigenous peoples of Europe, Asia, and Africa regardthe large hips and buttocks of women as an importantfeature of beauty. This character represents the most decidedstructural deviation of the feminine type from themasculine, a deviation demanded by the reproductivefunction of women, and in the admiration it arousessexual selection is thus working in a line with naturalselection, though, except in a moderate degree, it has notusually been regarded as at the same time in a linewith the claims of purely esthetic beauty. But apart fromthese high claims, nearly everywhere large hips and buttocksare regarded as a mark of beauty, and the averageman is of this opinion even in the most esthetic countries.[68]

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXThe contrast of this exuberance with the more closel)knit male form, the force of association, and the unquestionablefact that such development is the conditionneeded for healthy motherhood, has served as a basis foran ideal of sexual attractiveness, while broad hips, whichinvolve a large pelvis, are necessarily a characteristic ofthe highest human races, because the races with the largestheads must be endowed also with the largest pelves.It can scarcely be an accidental coincidence that it isprecisely among people of black race, those with the smallestpelvis, that we find a simulation of the large pelvis ofthe higher races admired and cultivated in the form ofsteatopygia. This is an enormously exaggerated developmentof the subcutaneous layer of fat which normallycovers the buttocks and upper parts of the thighs inwoman, and in this extreme form constitutes a kind ofnatural fatty tumor. True steatopygia only exists amongBushman and Hottentot women, and among the peopleswho are by blood connected with them. An unusual developmentof the buttocks is,other African peoples. Sometimes admiration for thischaracteristic is associated with admiration for markedobesity generally, and itmay be noted that a somewhatgreater degree of fatness may also be regarded as a femininesecondary sexual character. This admiration is speciallymarked among several of the black peoples of Africa.An occasional extension of the idea of sexual beauty asassociated with developed hipsis found in the tendencyhowever, found among many(which existed at one time in medieval Europe) to regardthe pregnant woman as the physically most beautiful type.Only second to the attraction of the feminine pelvis,and in civilization usually higher, we must place thebreasts. Among Europeans, indeed, the importanceregion isof thisso highly esteemed that even when the genera][69]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXrule against the exposure of the body was most stringent,a European lady in full dress was still allowed more orless to uncover the breasts. Savages, on the contrary, donot usually show any great admiration for this part ofthe body. Various savage peoples even regard the developmentof the breasts as ugly and adopt devices for flatteningthem. The feeling that prompts this ispractice notunknown in modern Europe, while in medieval Europe,indeed, the generalideal of feminine slenderness was opposedto developed breasts, and the garments tended tocompress them. But in a high degree of civilization thisfeeling is unknown, as, indeed, it is unknown to mostbarbarians. The admiration accorded to developed breastsand pelvis is evidenced by the practice of tightening thewaist girth,embodied in the ancient corset. This practicehas sometimes been almost universalamong peoples ofnot unknown among other races.white race and isAnother prominent secondary sexual character, belongingto man, and, unlike the breasts and hips, not obviouslyan index of functional sexual activity, is the beard.This may be regarded as a purely sexual ornament comparableto the somewhat similar growths on the heads ofmale animals. The cultivation of the beard variesmanyat different periods of culture, and belongs peculiarly tobarbarous peoples who sometimes regardit as sacred. Incivilization, it tends to lose this significance, and its valueas a sexual ornament is diminished or lost altogether.This was so even in ancient civilizations. Thus in earlyRome beards and long hair were worn, but not in laterRome, when epilation of the pubes also became commonfor women, while beards, considered as indications ofgravity and wisdom, were usually reserved for philosophers.In Greek statues the pubes of women is usuallyhairless but this does not indicate a general custom in real[70]

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXlife, and the vase paintings frequently show pubic haireven for women who were hetairae, while Helen of Troy,regarded as a type of beauty, is also so represented. Thecustoms of different peoples, and of the same people atdifferent periods, with reference to the estimation of hair(which has been discussed at length by Stoll) differswidely. Sometimes it has been held in the highest honorfor men, and as a mark of supreme beauty in women, atother times so far as possible suppressed, and cut, shaved,or epilated.A main reason for thishas been the close associationof the hairy system with sex, combined with the realizationthat, unlike the pelvis and the breasts, the hair nolonger has definite biological value. It is thus a field inwhich likes and dislikes have free play to create theirfashions. The ascetic religious elements have notably beenan influence unfavorable to hair, even in ancient Egypt,for, as Remy de Gourmont has remarked, "the immoralityof the living form resides especially in the pilous system."It was thus inevitable that the influence of Christianityshould have been against hair, especially in old daysagainst beards which were denounced by monkish writers,and later against the pudendal hair which in Victoriantimes it was considered "disgusting" to represent in pictures.Thus religion fostered what were considered therefinements of civilization, and we see at present a widespreadtendencywomen toto remove the beard in men and inepilate the armpits and sometimes the pubes,as well as to minimize the hair generally.On the whole, however, there isgood reason for assuminga certain fundamental tendency whereby the mostvarious peoples of the world, at all events through theirmost intelligent members, recognize and accept a commonideal of beauty, so that to a certain extent beauty may

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXbe said to have an objectivelyesthetic basis. This esthetichuman ideal is variously modified in different countries,and even in the same country at different periods, by atendency, prompted by a sexual impulse which is notnecessarily in harmony with esthetic canons, to emphasizeor to repress one or other of the prominent secondarysexual characters.Another tendency which is apt to an even greater extentto limit the cultivation o the purely esthetic ideal ofbeauty is the influence of national or racial type.To therace the woman who most com-the mostaverage man of everypletely embodies the type of his race is usuallybeautiful, and even mutilations and deformations oftenhave their origin in the effort to accentuate the racialand con-type. Eastern women possess by nature largespicuous eyes, and this characteristic they seek still furtherto heighten byart. The Ainu are the hairiest of races,and there is nothing which they consider so beautiful ashair.It is difficult to be sexually attracted to persons whoare fundamentally unlike ourselves in racial constitution.Thus it frequently happens that this admiration for ourown racial characteristics leads to the idealization of featureswhich are far removed from esthetic beauty. Thefirm and rounded breast is certainly a feature of beauty,but among many of the black peoples of Africa the breastsfall at an early age, and here we sometimes find that thehanging breast is admired as beautiful.To make the analysis of sexual beauty fairly completemust be added at least one other factor: the influence ofindividual taste. Every individual, at all events in civilization,within certain narrow limits builds up a feminineideal of his own, in part on the basis of his special organizationand its demands, in part on the actual accidental

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXattractions he has experienced. It isunnecessary to emphasizethe existence of this factor, which has always to betaken into account in every consideration of sexual selectionin civilized man. But its variations are numerous, andin impassioned lovers it may even lead to the idealizationof features which are in reality the reverse of beautiful.We here approach the field of morbid sexual deviations.It is thus that we have to recognize another factor inthe constitution of the ideal of beauty, one perhaps exclu*sively found under civilized conditions: the love of theunusual, the remote, the exotic. It iscommonly statedthat rarity is admired in beauty. This isnot strictly true,except as regards combinations and characters which varyonly in a slight degree from the generally admired type."Jucundum nihil estquod non reficit variatas" accordingto an ancient saying. The greater nervous restlessness andsensitivity of civilization heightens this tendency, which isnot infrequently found also among men of artistic genius.In every great center of civilization the national idealof beauty tends to be somewhat modified in exotic directions,and foreign ideals, as well as foreign fashions, becomepreferred to those that are native.Beauty, if thus the chief, is not the sole, element in thesexual appeal of vision. In all parts of the world this hasbeen well understood, and in courtship, in the effort toarouse tumescence, the appeals to vision have been multipliedand at the same time aided by other secondaryappeals.Thus we have scoptophilia (mixoscopia) or the sexualexcitement aroused by the sight of sexual scenes, or evensimply of the sexual organs of the opposite sex. To someextent this is entirely normal, its shamefaced manifestationsbeing simply due to the rigid conventional secrecyin which the naked body is held. Many estimable men[73]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXhave in youth sought secret opportunities of watchingestimable womenwomen in their bedrooms and manylooked through the keyholes of men's bedrooms, thoughthey would not like to acknowledgethis. It is indeed acommon habit for landladies and servant-girls to fix theireyes at the keyholes of rooms where are couples whomwho cultivate thisthey suspect may be lovers. The personsmixoscopia recklessly are commonly termed "peepers."These manifestations have sometimes attracted the attentionof the police, notably in Paris, and women I knowhave detected men watching them through the skylightat the back of public conveniences in the TuileriesGardens.In another form we have the sexual attraction of pictures,not necessarily lascivious in character, of eroticscenes, and the sexual attraction of statues. This is on theone hand the psychologicalsource of what is commonlycalled pornography (incorrectly since it has no specialconnection with brothels) and on the other hand of thesexual deviation known as Pygmalionism from the classicstory of Pygmalion falling in love with the statue he hadhimself made. While the interest in erotic scenes and inerotic picturesis natural and normal, when it does notbecome an absorbing passion, Pygmalionismis morbidbecause the adored objectis an end in itself. Pygmalionismhas chiefly been observed in men, but Hirschfeldmentions a lady, moving in the best social circles, who wasobserved in a museum lifting the fig-leaffrom classicstatues, and covering the place beneath with kisses. Theerotic attraction of picturesis now mainly manifested, andon the widest scale, through the cinema, the influencebeing the more powerful because of the moving and lifelikenature of the pictures presented. Very many people,especially young women, go evening after evening to the[74]

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXcinema to gaze in a state of sexual excitement at an adoredhero,perhaps living thousands of miles away, whom inreal life they will never see.An important secondary appeal to vision associated withmovement is that which takes the form of dancing. Herewe have what Sadger has called muscle erotism, and Healydescribes as muscle and joint pleasure combined with"skin erotism." In dancing there is spectacle combinedwith muscular action, each becoming under some conditionsa sexual stimulus, and the spectacle sometimes moreso than the exercise. Among many savage races dancing isoften a highly important method of sexual selection, theskilful and athletic dancers rightly warranting femininechoice. The question of the wholesome or unwholesomeinfluence of dancing in civilization has sometimes beendebated. Some years ago, Brill investigated this point inNew York, among 342 men and women (friends, patients,and others whose answers could be relied on) enthusiasts,for the "new" dances, about two-thirds of them men andone-third women. He sent out these questions: (i)Dothe newyou ever become sexually excited when dancingdances? (2)Do you become excited when watchingthem? (3)Do you have the same experiences dancing orwatchingthe old dances?To the first question 14 men and 8 women repliedyes; to the second 16 men and 29 women; to the third 11men and 6 women. Those who said "yes" to the secondquestion included all who replied similarly to the firstand third. Relatively to the total number there is a veryslight excess of affirmative answers among the women;all of this group were known to Brill and regarded byhim as sexually hyperesthetic. The great majority assertthat they are merely conscious of a sense of exhilarationand well-being. The question whether the "new" dances[75]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXact as gross sexual incitors can be emphatically answeredin the negative.Brill justly concludes that both kinds ofdances are outlets for sexual tension, only differing indegree, and for nervous and hyperchondriacal womenoften of great benefit. Even when dancing becomes anepidemic not in itself desirable, it still deserves to bebetween thecultivated in so far as it acts as a compromisetwo opposing streams of desire and repression, and servesas a safety valve for repressed tension.It must be added finally, that while beauty is primarilya qualityof woman, being as such a perpetual meditationof men and even for women still a feminine qualitywhich they admire the normal woman experiences nocorresponding cult for the beauty of man. The perfectionof the body of man is not behind that of woman, butthe study of it only appeals to the artist or the esthetician;it arouses sexual enthusiasm almost exclusively in themale sexual invert. Whatever may be the case among animals,or even among savages, in civilization the man whois most successful with women is not usually the mosthandsome man, and may be the reverse of handsome."It is passion" Stendhal remarks, "which we demand;beauty only furnishes probabilities." Women admire aman's strength, physical or mental, rather than his beauty.The spectacle of force, while it remains within the fieldof vision, really brings to us, although unconsciously,impressions that are correlated with another sense thatof touch. We instinctively and unconsciously translatevisible energy into energy of pressure. In admiringstrength we are really admiring a tactile quality which hasbeen made visible. It may therefore be said that, whilethrough vision men are sexually affected mainly by themore purely visual quality of beauty, women are morestrongly affected by visual impressions which express qual-[76]

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXities belonging to the more fundamentally sexual sense oftouch.In a woman the craving for visual expression of pressureenergy is much more pronounced and predominant thanin a man. It is not difficult to see why this should be so,even without falling back on the usual explanation thatsexual selection implies that the female shall choose themale who will be the most likely father of strong childrenand the best protector of his family. The more energeticpart in physical love belongs to the man, the more passivepart to the woman; so that, while energy in a woman isno index to effectiveness in love, energy in a man furnishesa seeming index to the existence of the primaryquality of energy which a woman demands of a man inthe sexual embrace. It may be a fallacious index, for muscularstrengthis not necessarily correlated with sexualvigor and in its extreme degree appears to be more correlatedwith its absence. But it furnishes "the probability1of passion/ and in any case it still remains a symbol whichcannot be without itseffect. We must not, of course, supposethat these considerations are always or often presentto the consciousness of the maiden who "blushingly turnsfrom Adonis to Hercules/ 'but the emotional attitude isrooted in more or less unerring instincts. In this way ithappensthat even in the field of -visual attraction sexualselection influences women on the underlying basis ofthe more primitive sense of touch, the fundamentally sexualsense.The sexual enjoyment aroused by the spectacle of graceful,skilful, or athletic movement was by Fr6 termedex-ergophily, and in a pronounced degreeit is specially hibited by women, and is distinct from the more morbidpleasure occasionally aroused by scenes of horror andcase of extremecruelty. F6r brought forward a typical[77]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXergophily in a young married woman who was unableto respond to the affection of her husband though shehad no complaintto make of him. She was a delicate childand at the age of four was taken to see a traveling countrycircus company; she was so impressed and excited by thejuggling performance with balls of a little girl scarcelyolder than herself that she felt strange warm sensationsin the genital region followed by a kind of spasm andwetted herself. (When such a spasm occurs in early lifedetumescence may take the form of urination.) Afterthat the little juggler became a day-dream with her, andsometimes a sleeping dream, followed by the same sensationsand micturition. After puberty at 14 she saw at acircus an elegant and accomplished athlete who producedin her the same effects, and then the little juggler andthe athlete alternated in her dream. At 16 after a moun-and awoketain excursion and a rich meal she fell asleepwith the vision of the athlete and a powerful orgasm, but,to her satisfaction, no urination (detumescence havingceased to be vesical). She came to live in Paris, and soonall skilful or energetic masculine activities, in theaters,workshops, etc., proved sources of sexual pleasure. Marriagemade no difference, though later she came to anexplanation with her husband. In minor degree, ergophilymay be considered normal.To sum up,itmay be said that beauty is not, as somehave supposed, a mere matter of caprice.It rests in parton (i)an objective basis of esthetic nature which holdsall its variations together and leads to a remarkable approximationamong the ideals of feminine beauty cherishedby the most intelligent men of all races. But beyondthis general objective basis we find that (2) the specificcharacters of the race or nation tend to cause divergencein the ideals of beauty, since beauty is often held to con-

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXpreponderant element has to be recognized in the shapeof a regard for strength and vigor. This is not purely avisual character, but a tactile pressurecharacter translatedinto visual terms.To state the sexual ideal is not, however, by any meansto state the complete problem of human sexual selection.The ideal that is desired and sought is, in a large measure,not the outcome of experience; it is not even necessarilythe expression of the individual's temperament and idiosyncrasy.It may be largely the result of fortuitous circumstances,of slight chance attractions in childhood, of acceptedtraditions consecrated by romance. In the actualcontacts of life the individual may find that his sexualimpulse is stirred by sensory stimuli which are other thanthose of the ideal he had cherished and may even be thereverse of them.Beyond this also, we have reason for believing that factorsof a still more fundamentally biological character,to some extent deeper even than all these psychic elements,enter into the problem of sexual selection. Certainindividuals, apart altogether from the question of whetherthey are ideally or practicallythe most fit mates, displaya greater energy and achieve a greater success than othersin securing partners. These individuals possess a greaterconstitutional vigor, physical or mental, which conducesto their success in practical affairs generally, and probablyalso heightens their specifically philogamic activities.Thus, the problemof human sexual selection is inthe highest degree complicated. When we gather togethersuch scanty data of precise nature as are at present available,we realize that, while generally harmonizing withthe results which the evidence not of a quantitative naturewould lead us to accept, their precise significanceis notat present altogether clear. It would appear on the whole[80]

THE BIOLOGY OF SEXthat in choosing a mate we tend to seek parity of racialand anthropological characters together with disparity ofsecondary sexual characters and complementary psychiccharacters.It isa variation, but a slight variation, that we seek.BIBLIOGRAPHYDARWIN, Descent of Man.PYCRAFT, The Courtship of Animals.HAVELOCK ELLIS, Man and Woman; Studies in the Psychologyof Sex; Vol. IV, "Sexual Selection in Man/'WESTERMARCK, The History of Human Marriage, Vol. I.CRAWLEY, The Mystic Rose, edited by Besterman.ALEXANDER STONE, The Study of Phallicism.A. A. BRILL, "The Psychopathology of the New Dances,"New York Medical Journal, 25th April, 1914.

CHAPTER IIITHE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHThe First Appearance ofthe Sexual Impulsehad no existence at all. That belief was not so com-to main-IT used to be believed that in childhood the sex impulsemon as some have supposed. But if it is possibletain that the sex impulse has no normal existence in earlylife, then every manifestation of it at that period must be"perverse," and even Freud, who regards infantile sexualityas normal, also regards it as "perverse/ 7as he phrasesit, "polymorph-perverse." In any discussion of the matter,however brief, it is essential to clear upthis confusion.It must be said at the outset that what may fairly betermed manifestations of the sexual impulse even whenwe do not adopt a wide extension of the term "sexual"are undoubtedly much more frequent than was formerlyin theirsupposed. There is also a much greater rangeforce, their precocity,and their nature than has been commonlysuspected.Even in the primary and initial aptitude of the genitalorgans for sexual stimulation there is a fundamental rangeof variation. The aptitude of some infants at an early ageto manifest genital reactions, which were usually regardedas reflex signs of irritation, was long ago a familiar observation.Such manifestations do not persist in memory, sothat we have no direct evidence as to whether or not theyof both sexes can recallare pleasurable, but many personsagreeable sensations connected with the genital organs in[8*1

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHchildhood; they are not (as is sometimes imagined) repressed;what is repressed, and usually indeed not experienced,is the impulse to mention them to grown-up persons,and they are commonly not mentioned to any one.But they tend to persist in memory because they standout of relation to ordinary experience and in striking contrastto it.Definite sexual self-excitement has long been known tooccur at an early age. Early in the nineteenth centuryvarious authors in France and elsewhere Marc, Fonssagrives,Perez, etc. gave cases of children of both sexeswho masturbated from the age of three or four. Robiefound that in boys the first sex feelings occur between theages of 5 and 14, in girls between 8 and 19; in both boysand girls these first manifestations more frequently appearduring the later than the earlier years. Hamilton, in hismore carefully detailed inquiry, has found that 20 percent, males and 14 per cent, females find pleasure in theirsex organs before the age of six. Katharine Davis, comparinggroups of men and women, found that 20.9 per cent,boys began to masturbate up to and including the age of11, and 49.1 per cent, girls, though during the next threeyears the percentage of boys was much in excess of thegirls. It is a mistake to suppose that all children experience,or are capable of experiencing, genital excitementor pleasurable sexual sensations. Crucial cases occur inwhich the child, innocently led away by another childwho gives assurance that friction will favor the developmentof the penis in size, will in this innocence sedulouslytry to procure the supposed benefit but without attainingin any degree either genital reaction or sensory pleasure,although in due course at puberty, if not before, the organbecomes fully excitable. There is thus a wide range ofgenital and sexual aptitude in childhood. How far the[83]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXdifferences are due to definitely different hereditary antecedentsit is not always easy to say. On the whole it wouldappear, as we should expect, that the child of sound andexcitable in childhood, andsolid ancestry is less sexuallythe child of more unsound heredity or of hypersexualparents more precociously excitable. This is definitelysuggested by Dr. Hamilton's inquiries which indicate thatthe later sex life begins the more satisfactory marriageturns out.The subject becomes more complex when we go beyondlocalized genital phenomena of sex. And here we en*counter the libido of the psycho-analysts. In early daysthat met with violent opposition when applied to infancyand childhood, nor can it be said that the opposition hasbeen entirely overcome. It is now recognized, however,that much depends on the way in which we define theterm libido. Like many Freudian terms, it was not happilychosen, and it is not easy to dissociate it from the Englishterm 'libidinous/' Jung, the most distinguished psychoanalystoutside the Freudian school, dissociates libido, indeed,from any special connection with sex and takes itin a wide sense as "psychic energy** corresponding to the"elan vital" of Bergson, or, in English, "vital urge," whichis the term some people would like to use, for there isno doubt that we cannot dissociate the term "libido" fromdefinitely sex energy. Freud has wavered in his view oflibido and itsdevelopment. As he remarks in his illuminatingessay on the "Infantile Organization of theLibido" (1923), at one time he emphasized its early pregenitalorganization, though later he came to accept aclose approximation of the sexuality of childhood to adultsexuality. But the infantile genital organization, he goeson to say, really involves the primacy of the phallus, whichhe regards as the only genital organ recognized in child-[84]

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHhood. At the same time he speaks of a "pre-genital" phaseand asserts that "not until puberty does the polarity ofsexuality coincide with male and female/' Some have de-

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXFreud remarks) essentially an impulse of curiosity, whichsome mothers unfortunately repress and so drive in andunduly emphasize. Here are the most "curious" parts ofthe body, the parts (with fingers and toes) that for achild are most like playthings. This interest may lead onto pleasurable sensation, but for most children it wouldappear that what may be regarded as sexual sensation isoutside the genital sphere, being sexual sensation of thethreshold, that is to say sensation of a kind that wouldin an adult lie on the threshold of the sexual sphere andlead up to it (thus legitimately belonging to the art olove)The difference is that such sensations in the child,.while pleasurable, do not usually pass over the thresholdof the actual sexual sensation.Such phenomena are in the first place most usuallyin the oral region. This we should expect, as the mostacute pleasure of the infant could scarcely failto be derivedfrom the sensitive lips of the mouth in contact withthe milk-yielding nipple of the mother. Since the nioutliis an erogenic or sexually stimulating zone in adult lifewe cannot be surprised that it should be a pleasure-centeron the sexual threshold even in infancy. Thumb-suckingsometimes becomes a substitute for nipple-sucking whenit is unattainable or outgrown; it is held by some althoughthe opinion is disputed by numerous authoritiesthat in predisposed children this may be a kind of masturbationand later lead on to ordinary masturbation. It is apractice found among a considerable and varying proportionof young children of both sexes and may even beginimmediately after birth.Only second to the emergence of the oral center isprobablythe anal center. As long as the motions are passedautomatically and without restraint there is little opportunityfor the anal region to become a pleasure center.[86]

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHBut as soon as any restraint is imposed gratification inthe dischargesis certain to be felt and the pleasurable sensitivityof the anus is liable to become developed;it isoften in later years an erogenic zone, though not so oftenor so profoundly as the oral region in the adult. It is heldby some psycho-analysts that at an early age there is insome subjects a tendency to retain the feces with apleasure aim, and that such a tendency is significant forlater psychic development; this, however, has been deniedthe discharge itself,by others as not easy to prove. Much the same may besaid of the urinary discharge, though here the pleasure,alike in the infant and the adults, is more exclusively inand some observers note that the infantmay find pleasure in bestowing this discharge on aspecially preferred person, though it is quite likely thatthis is often a misinterpretation of the facts, and that thedischarge of urine in the infant under the influence ofpleasurable emotion may be no more intentional than itis in the adult woman in whom it occasionally occurs byreflex action, and to her great vexation, during the sexualorgasm. Hamilton remarks that 21 per cent, men and16 per cent, women admit being interested in urine orplaying with it in early life, and exactly the same percentageas regards feces.On the psychic side there is even less doubt of theliability of children to experience emotions which mayfairly be called sexual than there is on the physical side.Many years ago Sanford Bell showed, on a collective basis,the frequency of these manifestations, which al 1have hadoccasions to observe sometimes. His report mayread with profit.He had studied the question for fifteenyears, both in and out of schools, and personally observed800 cases, while he had obtained records of 1,700 otherstill becases (thus 2,500 in all)from 360 other observers of

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXwhom only five could recall no experienceof that kindfrom their own childhood, a fact which indicates thatit is a mistake to suppose that repression of such earlyexperiences is common; when repressionoccurs it is evidentlyabnormal and probably due to inborn peculiarities.Bell found that emotion of this kind may be witnessedas early as the middle of the third year, and that in thenature of its manifestations there tend to be several stagesof which the first usually continues to the age of eight,and the second to the age of fourteen. In the first stage theboy is usually more modest and less aggressive than thegirl. The emotion is detected by a number of little signswhich it is difficult to avoid assigning to sex origin. Atendency to hug and kiss common isbut does not alwaysoccur, and there isfrequentlya desire to conceal theemotion from its object and from any one else. While someform of touch contact isfrequently sought it is not generallyspecifically sexual, and when it is Bell was inclinedto regard the case as precocious. The erethism, as he wellremarks, is not usually (thoughitmay be)the sex organs, but it is distributed throughoutmanifested inthe entirebody, especially the vascular and nervous systems. Springis the period of the year when these manifestations aremost likely to occur.Students of childhood, psycho-analytic and others, havesince confirmed and elaborated these observations. Freudhas again and again dealt with the matter, and OskarPfister, in his extensive and discursive work on love inchildren and its defects of development, comes to theconclusion that there is an amazing and unsuspected multiplicityof manifestations in the love sentiments ofchildren.It is, as already indicated, characteristic of the sexual orpseudo-sexual interests of children that they should[88]

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHmainly fall outside the sphere which for the adult is thatof sex proper, partly because on the physical side thegenital centers are stillundeveloped and partly becauseon the psychic side the opposite sex has not yet usuallyacquired the definite significance which after pubertysooner or later it possesses.An interesting and often overlooked trait of childishsexuality is algolagnia, or a pleasurable interest in pain,this including pleasure in the witnessing of pain, the inflictingof pain, or the experiencing of it. Various adultto these manifestations suchnames are commonly appliedas "cruelty," "sadism," "masochism," etc., and this isprobablyinevitable because it is only so that adults can explainto themselves these manifestations of the childish psyche.But they are misleading and unfortunate for they are faraway from the aims of childhood. The child has not, forinstance, yet formulated the humanely adult notion of"cruelty," and when we remember that even for manyadults it has no clear existence we cannot be surprisedthat it is alien to the children who amiably and pleasantlywitness the sufferings of the lower animals and oftenthemselves increase or cause them. Children are at workor, if you wish, at play in the exercise-ground of inquisitivereason and as yet undifferentiated emotion: thefossilized rules of adult morality are here misplaced. It isthe function of education, in the proper sense of that term(for the fallacy that education means putting in and notto helpbringing out is still common among the ignorant) ,the child to educe in due course the activities of later life,and to make clear to him, as soon as his comprehensionpermits, that his own early unrestrained impulses do notwork in the adult world. The fact that we are here primarilyconcerned with exercises in the field of emotion,only incidently liable to reach the threshold of pain, is[89]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXshown in the child's equal or greater liking to suffer itsinfliction. Games of "punishment" with much reciprocalsmacking have always been privately popular among childrenof both sexes, perhaps especially girls, the hair-brushoften being used for this purpose. Self-flagellation is alsosometimes practised,and even after puberty,when thegenital centers are fully active, may be jit adopted byeither sex to heighten the solitary pleasure of the sexualimpulse in the absence of a person of the opposite sex.Day-drearnsof torture are a not uncommon source ofpleasure even among young children, and at a rather laterage one has heard of Foxe's Book of Martyrs proving asource of thrilling delight. Sometimes the child experiencesan irresistible impulse to inflict pain on himselfand often on his penis, which indicates that, even if nota source of sexual excitement in the adult sense, thepenis is already a center of emotional interest. Such factsrecall the castration-complex to which some psycho-analystsattach enormous importance. A string may bestrongly tied round the penis; or it may even be violentlystruck; and the case has lately been recorded of a girl ofnine who tied a thread round her clitoris and was unableto remove it,so that surgical interference became necessary.Sensation and emotion are still in a comparativelydiffused and as it were uncrystallized form. As the realizationof pain is so early necessary in life for self-preservationit is inevitable that painful emotions should be those inwhich the stillvague pleasure impulses tend to take shape.all beHamilton found that among his subjects, who maysaid to be of high character and culture, only 49 per cent,men and 68 per cent, women never experience pleasure ininflicting pain; while nearly 30 percent, of both menand women had had pleasure in experiencing pain.How far we are here from adult isdevelopments shown[901

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHby the now well recognized fact that neither similarity ofsex nor closeness of blood relationship provides any bar tothese manifestations. The adult who succeeds in discerningthe occurrence of such manifestations begins to talksolemnly and pedantically of "homosexuality" and "incest"and the "(Edipus complex," without realizing theabsurdity he isperpetrating. He would indeed be speakingquite rationally if he were dealing with the like phenomenain his own grown-up world. There can T)e nohomosexuality when there is yet no conception of sexuality,and no incest before the barriers of relationship areknown. As a distinguished psycho-analyst, Dr. Jelliffe hassaid of 'this manner of labeling the impulsive activity ofchildhood, "expressingit in terms of conscious adultactivity is nonsense." Even apart from sex, the best psychologistsof childhood (like Stern in his Psychology ofEarly Childhood) are trying to make clear that we mustnot measure children by our psychic powers, but learn tounderstand their different natures. Until we have realizedthis, until we have cleared away the elaborate structureof childhood sexuality erected on the adult pattern byadults who seem to have lost all memory of youth, we shallwander among vain shadows in this field. Here certainlyis a kingdom of knowledge into which only those canenter who become as little children.At this point it is necessary to refer to a psychologicaltrait to which psycho-analysts, above all Freud, who firstcalled attention to it, have in the past,and to some extentfor what we hereby mean psychologicallyissimplystill, attached supreme importance: the so-called CEdipuscomplex. It is not, on the surface, quite happily so called,an attractionof love (a "wish to marry") the parent of oppositesex, on the partof the young child, with a correspondingjealousy of the parent of the same sex. Whereas in

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXthe myth OEdipus experienced no such feelings,but wascompelled by the oracle and the gods to marry his motherand kill his father unwittingly, in spite of all his ownstruggles to avoid these crimes; but this opposition Freudexplains away by saying that oracle and gods were a glorifiedembodiment of the Unconscious. Freud's (Edipuscomplex, when he first put it forward some thirty yearsago certainly in an incautious way and with a misapplieduse of the word "incest" was, as he frequently stated,greeted with horror and execration. That attitude, to oneof his strong and combative temperament, merely arouseda more emphatic assertion of the doctrine. In some degree,in some form or another, even an inverted form, the CEdipuscomplex, Freud declared, "is a regular and very importantfactor in the mental life of the child." He went onto find that "it does not seem impossible" that the CEdipuscomplex is the source of all perversions and also "theactual nucleus of the neuroses." Rank, at the time closelyassociated with him, showed with the help of his wideliterary culture how frequently and variously this motivehad entered dramatic poetry. Finally in 1913, in Totemand Taboo, Freud developed a conception of the CEdipuscomplex as lying at the root of primitive morality, furnishingthat sense of guilt which to Freud seems "theultimate source of religion and morality," the earliestform of Kant's categorical imperative, and the first embodimentof the great cosmic figures, which, beginning asParents became God, Fate, Nature, what we will.But the psycho-analystswho have thus placed theCEdipus complex at the foundation of a large part ofhuman culture have failed to realize that that complexcan only be associated, if at all, with a particular familyconstitution, and that the family, far from having onlyone single form of constitution, has varied widely. A[9*]

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHpatriarchal family, such as we have had during historicaltimes in the parts of Europe best known to us, is essentialfor an CEdipus complex. But that is far from being a kindof family always and everywhere known. The substanceof the familyisbiological but its forms are sociallymolded. This is made clear by Malinowski (who startedwith a bias favorable to psycho-analysis) in his book Sexand Repression in Savage Society. The complexes whichare supposed to mold culture could only have arisenunder culture, and cultures are of various kinds. Nor canwe accept a "primeval horde equipped with all the bias,maladjustments and ill-tempers of a middle-class Europeanfamily and then let loose in a prehistoric jungle."Every type of civilization cannot but have a special typeof complex as itsnecessary by-product.The CEdipus complex, further, rests on the belief thatthere is a strong natural human tendency, appearing atthe earliest age, to sex love towards near relations whichcan only be overcome by stern laws and severe repressions.It isagreed by all authorities that the free exercise ofincestuous impulsesisincompatible with a family order,and that on such a basis no developed culture would belikely to arise. But authorities differ as to the naturalor unnatural character of incestuous impulses. Westermarckheld originally that there is a definite natural instinctaverse to incest; Freud holds that there is frominfancy a strong natural instinct to incest; Malinowskidoes not accept the aversion to incest as natural but asscheme of culturalintroduced by culture, "a complexreactions." The position I have long held largely harmonizesthese opposing views. There is a sexual attractiontowards persons with whom there is close contact, suchpersons being often relations, and the attraction beingtherefore termed "incestuous." But this is a weak attrac-[93]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXtion under normal circumstances (there are always exceptions)and is quickly overcome when a fascinating newobject of desire from outside his own circle strikes theyoung beholder. There is no anti-incestuous instinct, nonatural aversion, but a deep stirring of the sexual instinctneeds a strong excitement, and for this a new object isrequired, not one that has become commonplace by familiarity.This is a view to which Westermarck shows himselffavorable in the later edition o his great work on marriageand had previously been accepted by Crawley, aswell as by Heape. It is clear to any one who grasps thephysiology of the sexual process and the psychology ofcourtship. A typical illustration may be quoted fromRestif de la Bretonne's autobiography, Monsieur Nicolas,a precious document for erotic psychology. We here learnhow an extremely precocious child was from the age offour in some degree sexually excitable by his female companionsand playmates, though he received their caresseswith much shyness. It was not till the age of eleven thathe became highly aroused, even to the extent of attainingcoitus, and losing all his early shyness, and this was witha girl who was a stranger and belonging to another village.Many bad theories might have been avoided had thispsychological fact been clearly understood. There is no"aversion to incest," but under natural conditions a deepsexual attraction requires a powerful stimulus, and thiscannot normally arise out of familiarity.Various objections have been brought against my statementof the psychological basis of exogomy, but they aredue to misunderstandings and also a failure to allow formany highly relevant considerations. Some critics havebeen misled by too exclusively thinking of the conditionsamong civilized man and domesticated animals. Somehave failed to see that there is no question of absolute in-[94]

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHdifference to the sexual stimulus of familiar persons whichmay easily exist and sometimes indeed is peculiarly strong.Others have rightly insisted that incest isunlikely toproduce the best offspring or to result in domestic peace,and that exogomy is a highly important factor in socialevolution. These influences may very well be responsiblefor the incest-taboo and remained responsible for maintainingit. But they could hardly have arisen except uponthe foundation and by the support of the undoubtedpsychic tendency to which I have called attention. Socialinstitutions are never unnatural in origin; they can onlyarise on a natural basis. In primitive life, moreover, wefind, as Crawley points out, a naive desire to assist Nature,as it were, by adding to what is normal the categoricalimperative of custom and law.Today we may look back serenely on the CEdipus complexand the ferocious reactions it seems to have evoked.are viewed directly and simply, withoutWhen the factsany attempt to make them look either terrifying or grandiloquent,or to generalize them into universal doctrines, itis easy to discover the very natural fact that the youngboy is attracted to his mother (the corresponding phenomenonis the attachment of the young girl to herfather) and is jealous at first of what distracts his mother'sattention away from him. Jealousyis an entirely naturalprimitive emotion; every dog is inclined to growl at aseeming attempt to share his bone; any cat may be displeasedat the effort of a strange cat to share her plate.Many of us even the most normal and least neuroticcan recall, or have been told, that in early childhood wedisapproved at first of the appearance of a baby brotheror sister. But we can also recall that in a very short timewe were completely reconciled to the new phenomenonand were even proud to assist in lovingly tending it.[95]Any

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXfeeling of hostility to the father seldom, under normalconditions, entered at any The stage. reason is fairlyobvious. The babyis new and arouses new feelings; thefather has been there from the first; nothing occurs tochange the attitude towards him; he isaccepted as amatter of course.But, we see also, the situation is undoubtedly favorableto morbid and emotional developments in constitutionallyneurotic subjects, especially under the influence of injudiciousparental behavior, such as favoritism or carelessneglect. We may then have the whole chain of manifestationsdescribed by psycho-analysts. It is necessary to bealive to these possibilities,and prepared to unravel such acase fearlessly, for the path of psychology cannot be followedexcept with courage. But it is not necessary to generalizefrom a single case or even from many cases.Andit is fatal to all sound conclusions to set out with a predeterminedpattern and to attempt to fit every case onto it.All this is now becoming clearer and isbeginning to beadmitted even by psycho-analysts.Thus Rank, who wasso active in developing the conception of the (Edipuscomplex in its early stages, twenty years later, in his suggestivework on Modern Education remarks that "the(Edipus complex, as the attraction to the parent of theopposite sex and jealousy of the parentof the same sex,is not so clearly found in practiceas mythology representsit and as Freud at first believed," adding that it has notbeen easily possible even for psycho-analyststo maintainit. Elsewhere Rank observes that the famous "mothercomplex" is not so much a real fixation of the child onthe mother as merely a sign of the prevalence today of thebelief in the influence of the mother in the child's education.[963

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHThe castration-complexis associated by psycho-analystswith the (Edipus complex, Freud regarding it as primarilya reaction to intimidation in the field of sex, and any restrainton infantile activity being ultimately ascribed tothe father. It sometimes happens that mothers and nurses,seeing the young child handling his penis, playfullythreaten to cut it off, and the child may possibly take thethreat seriously, especially if he observes that his sisterhas no penis; while the little girl may feel it a deprivationto lack an organ her brother possesses. It is not easy toassert that those feelings count for much in ordinary children,though Freud has gone so far as to claim, not onlythat the castration-complex may play a large part in theformation of neuroses but even in the formation of characterin the healthy child. That the castration complex isinfluential in some neurotic persons there can be nodoubt. Some persons of keen intelligence but neuroticdisposition, when able to review their early development,have found much significance in the influence upon themof foolish nurses in arousing a castration complex.The definite manifestation that has always most prominentlyattracted attention in connection with this aspectof early life is that which from old time has been termed"masturbation." Here it is convenient and possibly legitimateto speak of sexuality, althoughit is not strictly correctfor we are concerned with an act which may, andoften does, begin in a merely generalized and instinctivesearch for pleasurable sensations. But since it is an actthat is not confined to early life but may occur at any age,often in connection with the most developed ideas of sex,it would be hypercritical to attempt to draw a line of distinction.The ancient and common name of the act indicates themeans of theexcitation of the sexual zone in either sex by[973

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXhand. But commonly and quite inevitably, the word isemployed to cover all methods by which friction can beemployed to produce pleasurable sensations in the genitalsphere.No doubt the hand is the most frequent instrumentand that which, in the absence of mental inhibitionsand physical impediments, is most naturally employed.But there are many other ways: in boys, games, sports,gymnastics, even the accidental pressure of the clothesmay suffice, especially under condition of general erethism,to produce erection and even orgasm, frequently to thesurprise, and sometimes the alarm or the horror, of thesubject to whom this experience comes; states of tensionand apprehension,and spectacles arousing emotions ofhorror or of pleasure, may produce the same results, aswell as actual experience of a similar kind, such as thepunishment of whipping, the classical example of this beingthe experience of young Rousseau at the hands of hisgoverness, which had, as he believed, a permanent influenceon his highly sensitive psychic disposition. In girls,the action of the hands, though as in boysit is the mostcommon method, is even less essential; a casual contact ofthe sexual parts may prove pleasurable even in the firstchildhood and be one of a girl's earliest memories; later,contact and friction with external objects may be instinctivelysought; small girls will, without concealment,rub themselves against the corner of a chair, or the handleof a chest of drawers; young women will develop and continuea similar habit and even be able to excite themselvesagainst the leg of a table at public restaurants. Withoutany extraneous help at all, it is sometimes possible for agirl to obtain excitement and orgasm by rubbing thethighs together,or, when in a favorable emotional state,by pressing them tightly together. And, as in boys, thesame results may occur almost or quite spontaneously,T98]

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHunder the influence of exciting spectacles or seductivethoughts. This, we see, ishardly distinguishable fromwhat may happen, in a normal manner, between twolovers.In boys who have had no earlier spontaneous impulsesof sexual activity and no initiation from companions, thefirst orgasm usually occurs at puberty during sleep, withor without dreams, sometimes causing the boy muchanxiety or shame, until in the course of years he learnsto accept it as the almost inevitable accompaniment ofadult life when it isbeing lived continently. In girls, however,it is not inevitable under similar conditions. It israre (asI have frequently pointed out though the statementhas not always been accepted) for girls to have theirfirst experience of sexual excitement (with or withoutorgasm) in sleep, and the supposition that they commonlydo isdue to ignorance. The boy awakes sexually in sleep,spontaneously. The girl must be actively awakened, byothers or herself, though after that, even if itmay notoccur until long after she has reached adult age, she willbe liable to experience the most vivid erotic dreams. Weprobably have here an interesting psychic sexual difference,the greater sexual activity of the male, the greatersexual quiescence of the female, which does not, however,mean superior sexuality of the male, or inferior sexualneeds of the female; itmay be indeed the reason why thegirl is more liable to hysterical and other nervous symptoms,if we regard these as manifestations of latent sexualenergy.Robie, in America, among a large number of personsof both sexes found few or none who had not had experienceof masturbation or other form of auto-erotic activityat some period of their lives and often before the age ofeight. His observations were not always very precise. Dr.[99]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXKatharine Davis, who gave specialattention to this point,found, among 1,000 American college women above theage of 22 that 60 per cent, gave definite histories of masturbation.She investigated the whole question, perhapswith more thoroughness and in greaterdetail than anyother worker. Among unmarried college women graduatesshe found that 43.6 per cent, began the practice fromthe 3rd to the loth years inclusive; 20.2 per cent, from11 to 15 inclusive; 13.9 per cent, from 16 to 22 inclusive;15.5 per cent, from 23 to 29 inclusive. Comparing herresults with those of other investigators dealing with menthe results are as follows:MenWomenUp to and including 11 yrs 20.9 49.1Up to and including 12-14 yrs 44.3 14.6Up to and including 15-17 yrs 30.3 6.2Up to 18 yrs. and over 4.5 30.1These results carry weight because the groups includeabout 500 men to about 900 women. They show, to anunexpected degree, that girls masturbate early more oftenthan boys, and that during adolescence it is the boys wholargely predominate, while after adult age is reached, aswe should anticipate, women are in a large majority.Dr. Hamilton, in his careful study of 100 married menand 100 married women of good social standing, foundthat 97 per cent, of the men and 74 per cent, of thewomen had at some period masturbated. These resultsare fairly in accordance with the more general conclusionof Moll, whose work on The Sexual Life of the Child(1908) was the earliest comprehensive study of the subjectand is stillamong the most judicious. Moll remarks, however,that masturbation is not as common as is sometimessupposed in Germany, and I may add that it seems not so[100]

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHcommon in Englandor even in France asthe Americanpercentage might lead us to anticipate.It will be seen that these manifestations extend far beyondthe classic conception of ' 'masturbation" in its literaland commonly accepted sense, which cannot really be saidto constitute a separate group for it blends with the largergroup without definite frontiers.of manifestations as aWhen we thus view this groupwhole it is seen why we cannot properly term them "perverse/'They are natural; they are the inevitable resultof the action of the sexual impulse when working in theabsence of the object of sexual desire, occurring, undersuch conditions, even in some of the lower animals; andthey are emphatically natural when they occur beforeadult age. It is natural also that they should occur inadult age when the sexual urge seems irresistible andwhen normal sexual approaches are undesired or undesirable,although, it must be added, it isequally naturalwhen, under such circumstances, they are inhibited or repressedby other considerations which may seem of asuperior order.It is instructive to explore the attitude towards prepubertaland youthful sexuality in different stages of cultureand different periods of history. When we are concernedwith an impulse so primitive and fundamental asthat of sex we cannot decide what is "natural" and whatis "perverse" merely by the standard set up in accordancewith shifting fashions of thought, the religious or socialcustoms of one particular age. Least of all can it be saidthat the age we are ourselves emerging from, with itspeculiar and highly colored views of sex, furnishes anyuniversal standard.Let us, for instance, turn to almost the only race of aculture outside our own traditions, which has yet been[101]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXstudied with scientific care, the Trobrianders of NewGuinea, as represented in Malinowski's Sexual Life ofSavages. Children in the Trobriand Islands possess afreedom and independencewhich extends to sexual matters.No special precautionsare taken, or would easilybe possible, to prevent children seeing their parents insexual intercourse or from hearing discussion of sexualmatters, though their elders think highly of children whodo not repeat what they may thus hear or see. On fishingexpeditions, when girls follow their fathers, it is usual forthe men to remove the pubic fig-leaf, so that the shapeof the male body is never a mystery for the girls. Bothboys and girls receive instruction in sexual matters fromslightly older companions, and from an early age playat sex games, which enable them to gain some knowledgeof these matters and to gratifynatural curiosity, evento obtain a certain amount o pleasure; the hand and themouth are commonly used for genital manipulations inthese games. Little girls usually begin to play at sex atfour or five years, and real sex life may begin from betweenthe age of six or eight, while for the boys it beginsbetween ten and twelve. The ordinary round gamesplayed by boys and girls in the center of the village haveat times a strong flavor of sex. The grown-ups regard allthese manifestations as natural, and see no reason to scoldor interfere. No harm comes of it, not even illegitimatechildren, though how this is prevented remains a mystery.The young Trobrianders palliate crude sexuality by thehelp of a poetic instinct, and show indeed, Malinowskiremarks, "a great sense of the singular and the romanticin their games.' 'There are, however, widely different attitudes towardssex even in the same part of the world and among peoplenot very widely separated in culture and race. Margaret[102]

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHMead, in Growing up in New Guinea, describes theManus people of the Admiralty Islands to the North ofNew Guinea as extremely puritanic. They regard sexwith aversion and excretions with disgust, repressing andthe maximumavoiding their manifestations and seekingof secrecy. The children, though carefully trained in physicalrespects, are otherwise treated with extreme indulgenceand left free;but sexual manifestations, includingmasturbation, are slight and infrequent, because there arefew opportunities for isolation. There seemed to be muchsexual frigidity, and the married women do not admitpleasure in married life and seek to avoid sexual intercourse,nor are there any signs of romantic affection.Another picture of youthful sex life outside our ownculture, though this time not untouched by our civilization,is presented by Margaret Mead in Coming of Age inSamoa. Here our civilization has had a considerable dissolvinginfluence on the old Samoan culture, so that whatmight seem a new and artificial culture has grown up andwith considerable rapidity. Yet it has grown up naturallyon what is evidently the foundation of the old Samoanculture, deprived of all but the minimum of its taboosand restrictions, and it seems to work beneficially. Smallboys and girls tend to avoid each other, not by externalcommand but by custom and instinct; yet from the earliestage, owing to the general absence of privacy, they beginto be familiar with the essential facts of life and death,including the details of sex and sexual intercourse. Theyalso have an individual sex life from childhood; nearlyevery little girl masturbates from the age of six or seven,more or less in secret, the boys also, but more usually ingroups, and casual homosexual practices are common; onthe part of growing girls or women working together suchcasual relationships are regarded as[ 10 3]"a pleasantand nat-

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXural diversion, just tinged with the salacious." Such "perversions"are neither banned nor cultivated into institutions;they are simply the sign of the recognition of a widerange of normality, and public opinion, while viewingattention to the details of sex as unseemly, does not regardthem as wrong. It is claimed by Margaret Mead that theSamoans by this system "legislate a whole field of neuroticpossibility out of existence"; there is no neurosis,no frigidity,no impotence. Facility of divorce makes unnecessaryan unhappy marriage(though adultery does notnecessarily destroy marriage) , and economic independ-,ence of the wife places her on the same level as thehusband.When we turn to the European tradition, and to thesources of our modern civilization, the earliest referencesto these manifestations show no clearly implied disapprovalor at the most an occasional touch of contempt, andthere is even in Greek literature an association of masturbationwith gods. In historical times we find that admiredphilosophers of the Cynic school boasted of the advantagesof satisfying sexual needs in a solitary manner. InRome there appears to have been a considerable amountof indifference to these matters, and even in the ChristianChurch, for over a thousand years, there were so manyextravagant sexual excesses to combat that the spontaneoussolitary manifestations of sex scarcely attractedattention. It was not till the Reformation and at firstmainly in Protestant countries, though the movementquickly spread to France and other Catholic countries,that moralists and physicians began to be much troubledabout masturbation. This was in the eighteenth century.At the same time opportunity was furnished to quacks tooffer more or less fanstastic remedies for the evils whichwere beginning to be attributed to "self-abuse." Even[104]

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHuntil the end of the last century serious physicians frequentlytook for granted that some grave result or othermight be induced by masturbation.It was during the second half of the nineteenth century,when a new biological conception, under the inspirationof Darwin was slowly permeating medicine, that the ideaof infantile and youthful "perversion" began to be undermined;on the one hand the new scientific study of sex,started by the pioneering work of Krafft-Ebing at the endof the third quarter of die century, showed how commonare such so-called "perversions" in early life while, on theother hand, the conception of evolution began to make itclear that we must not apply developed adult standards toundeveloped creatures, what is natural at one stage notnecessarily being natural at the previous stage.An early representative of these influences was theItalian psychiatrist Silvio Venturi, who belonged to thePositivist school which sought in Italy to fertilize medicinewith the new biological and social conceptions; he publishedin 1892 his elaborate study, Le Degenerazioni Psicosessuali,asexhibited in the individual and in social history,a work wherein various large and fruitful conceptionswere thrown out. Venturi regarded sexual developmentas a slow process, not properly to be termed "sexual"until puberty, yet made up of separate factors which beganat the beginning of life their separate development(infantile erections being such a factor and the later eroticsensibility of the lips being similarly developed in earlylife by non-erotic exercise) before they combine, afterpuberty, to constitute what may properly be termed sexuality,or, as Venturi, insisting on the psychic elementtermed it, amore. Masturbation (onanism, as Venturialways terms it)isregarded as "the germ of what laterwill be love." It appears in early youth, havingits rudi-

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXmentary roots in infancy, simply as a physical pleasure,without erotic imagery, as the satisfaction of an unknownand indeterminate organic need, certainly of sexual nature,but appearingto consciousness more like the actionof scratching a sensory surface that itches, though thepsychic condiment of forbidden fruit may be added to itsenjoyment.The act is gradually complicated by psychicelements and genuinely erotic stimuli which slowly approximateit to an act of coitus with an hallucinatorymate, and it thus passes almost insensibly into adult sexuallove, so disappearing, or else in a more retarded way whichvaries with the individual. Its elements, however, such asthose that are fetichistic, are retained, by arrest of development,as Venturi states (following Lombroso and inaccordance with the views of today), to constitute -whatin adult age, when carried so far as to replace the normalaim of sex, is described as a perversion. As Freud subsequentlyexpressed it: "Perverted sexuality is nothing butinfantile sexuality"; that is to say what is normal in thechild may become abnormal when it occurs in the adult.Masturbation, thus, Venturi concludes, far from beingthe vice combated by teachers and moralists, is "the naturalpassage by which is reached the warm and generouslove of youth and later the calm and positive matrimoniallove of maturity.1 'BIBLIOGRAPHYA. MOLL, The Sexual Life of the Child.SANFORD BELL, "The Emotion of Love between theSexes;" American Journal of Psychology, July, 1902.OSKAR PFISTER, Love in Children.KATHARINE B. DAVIS, Factors in the Sex Life of Twenty"two Hundred Women.G. V. HAMILTON, A Research in Marriage.MALINOWSKI, Sexual Life of Savages.[106]

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHMARGARET MEAD, Growing up in New Guinea.Coming of Age in Samoa.FREUD, Introductory Lectures on Psycho-analysis.ERNEST JONES, Papers on Psycho-analysis.Auto-erotismIn considering even the earliest phenomena of childhoodwe have already reached the manifestations coveredby the term auto-erotism. I devised this term, "autoerotism,"in 1898 for those spontaneous solitary sexualphenomena of which genital excitement during sleep maybe said to be the type. The term, is now generally used,though not always in the exact sense in which I defined it,but sometimes only to connote sexual activity directedtowards the self. That isunduly to narrow the term down,and it is not in accordance with the usual sense of theauto-group of terms; thus automatic action does not meanaction towards, but by, the self, without direct externalimpulse. If we narrow the term auto-erotic we have noterm left to indicate the whole group.By "auto-erotism," therefore, I mean the phenomenaof spontaneous sexual emotion generated in the absenceof an external stimulus proceeding directly or indirectlyfrom another person. In a wide sense, which cannot bewholly ignored here, auto-erotism may be said to includethose transformations of repressed sexual activity whichare a factor of some morbid conditions (as probably inhysteria)as well as of the normal manifestations of artand poetry, and, indeed, more or lesslife.color the whole ofAuto-erotism in the largest sense, says Dickinson, includesany self-love in any self-expression, not merely thevictims of sexual deviation, but the scientist, the explorer,the sportman, the mountain-climber.[107]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXSuch a definition excludes the normal sexual excitementaroused by the presence of a beloved person of theopposite sex; it also excludes the perverted or deviatedsexuality associated with an attraction to a person ofthe same sex; it further excludes the manifold forms oferotic fetichism, in which the normal focus of sexualattraction is displaced, and voluptuous emotions are onlyaroused by some object which to the ordinary lover isonly of subordinate importance. The auto-erotic fieldremains extensive; it more especially includes (i) eroticday-dreaming; (2) erotic dreams in sleep; (3) narcissism,' 1in which erotic emotion isgenerated by self-contemplation;and (4) masturbation, including not only self-excitementby the hand but by a great variety of methodsexerting a direct influence on the sexual organs and othererogenous centers, even methods which are initiated centrally.BIBLIOGRAPHYHAVELOCK ELLIS, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Vol. I,"Auto-erotism."Erotic Day-DreamingThis (whichis also termed phantasy)and important form of auto-erotism, besides being sometimesthe early stage of masturbation. The day-dream wasis a very commonlong since studied in its chief form, in the "continuedstory," by Mabel Learoyd, of Wellesley College. The continuedstory is an imagined narrative, more or less pecu-1 Some of Freud's followers (though not Freud himself) would confinethe use of the term "auto-erotism" to this particular form. I regardthis as illegitimate. In all forms of auto-erotism the subject finds satisfactionin his own self-excitement, without the presence of anotherperson being necessary, but his sexual impulse is by no means necessarilydirected towards himself.

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHliar to the individual, by whom itis cherished with fondness,and regarded as an especially sacred mental possession,to be shared only, if at all, with very sympathizingfriends. It is commoner among girls and young womenthan among boys and young men: among 352 persons ofboth sexes, 47 per cent, among the women and only 14per cent, among the men, had any continued story. Thestarting-point is an incident from a book, or, more usually,some actual experience, which the subject develops: thesubject is nearly always the hero or the heroine of thestory. The growth of the story is favored by solitude, andlying in bed before going to sleep is the time speciallysacred for its cultivation. G. E. Partridge well describedthe physical accompaniments of day-dreaming, especiallyin Normal School girls between sixteen and twenty-two.Pick recorded more or less morbid cases of day-dreaming,usually with an erotic basis, in apparently hysterical men.(more than two-thirdsAmong nearly 1,500 young peoplegirls and women) studied by Theodate Smith, continuedstories were found to be rare only one per cent. Healthyboys, before fifteen, had day-dreams in which sports, athletics,and adventure had a large part; girls put themselvesin the place of their favorite heroines in novels. Alterseventeen, and earlier in the case of girls, day-dreams oflove and marriage were found to be frequent. Thoughby no means easy to detect, these elaborate and more orless erotic day-dreams are everywhere not uncommon inyoung men and especially in young women. Each individualhas his own particular dream, which is alwaysvarying and developing, but, except in very imaginativepersons, to no great extent. Such a day-dream is oftenfounded on a basis of pleasurable personal experience,and develops on that basis.involve an element ofIt mayperversity, even though that element finds no expression[109]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXin real life. It is, of course, fostered by sexual abstinence.Most usually there is little attempt to realize it. It doesnot necessarily lead to masturbation, thoughit sometimescauses some sexual congestion or even spontaneous sexualorgasm.The day-dreamis a strictly private and intimate experience,not only from its very nature, but also becauseit occurs in images which the subject finds great difficultyin translating into language, even when willing to do so.In other cases it is elaborately dramatic or romantic incharacter, die hero or heroine passing through manyexperiences before attaining the erotic climax of the story.This climax tends to develop in harmony with the subject'sgrowing knowledge or experience; at first merely akiss, it may develop into any refinement of voluptuousThe gratification. day-dream may occur alike in normaland abnormal persons. Rousseau, in his Confessions, describessuch dreams, in his case combined with masochismand masturbation. Raffalovich refers to the process bywhich in sexual inverts the vision of a person of the samesex, perhaps seen in the street or the theater, is evoked insolitary reveries, producing a kind of "psychic onamsm,"whether or not it leads on to physical manifestations.Although day-dreaming of this kind has until recenttimes been little studied, since it loves secrecy and solitude,and has seldom been counted of sufficient interest forscientific it isinquisition, really a process ^ f considerableimportance, and occupies a large part of the auto-eroticfield. It is frequently cultivated by refined and imaginativeyoung men and women who lead a chaste life andwould often be repelled by masturbation. In such persons,under such .circumstances, it must be considered as strictlynormal, the inevitable outcome of the play of the sexualimpulse. No doubt itmay often become morbid, and is[no]

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHnever a healthy process when indulged in to excess, as it isliable to be by refined young people with artistic impulses,to whom it is in the highest degree seductive andinsidious. Though the day-dream is far from always coloredby sexual emotion, yetit is a significant indicationof its really sexual origin that, as I have been informedby persons of both sexes, even in these apparently nonsexualcases it frequently ceases on marriage.The importance of sex day-dreams is well brought outby Hamilton's careful inquiries. He found that 27 percent, men and 25 per cent, women were able to say positivelythat they had sexual day-dreams before knowinganything about sex matters; many others were uncertain,while 28 per cent, men and 25 per cent, women had sexday-dreams before puberty. Only i per cent, men and 2per cent, women had no sex day-dreams after puberty, and57 per cent, men and 51 per cent, women said that aftereighteen and before marriage sex day-dreams occupied themind a good deal; 26 per cent, men and 19 per cent,women (all married)still find sex day-dreams sufficientlyabsorbing to interfere with work.Day-dreaming often plays an important part in thelives and activities of persons constitutionally predisposedto become artists, and especially,as is easy to understand,novelists, so that while in ordinary persons too absorbeda concentration in phantasy carried on into adult-life isundoubtedly unwholesome, because it leads away fromreal life, in these personsit finds as it were a way backto reality in the creation of art forms. Freud has suggestedthat the artist may be constitutionally endowed with aspecially strong capacity for sublimation, and aptitude forrepression, so that he can bring his phantasy into so stronga stream of pleasure that, for a time at least, repressionsare outbalanced and dispelled.[111]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXBIBLIOGRAPHYG. E. PARTRIDGE, "Reverie," Pedagogical Seminary, April,1898.THEODATE SMITH, ''The Psychology of Day Dreams/*American Journal of Psychology, Oct., 1904.The World of Dreams.HAVELOCK ELLIS,S. FREUD, Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis.W. McDouGALL, Outline of Abnormal Psychology.J. VARENDONCK, The Psychology of Day Dreams.HAVELOCK ELLIS, Studies inVII, "The History of Florrie."the Psychology of Sex, Vol.Erotic Dreams inSleepThe psychological significance of dreams has alwaysbeen recognized, however variously it has been understoodand interpreted. In the early traditions of mankind wefind dreams treated seriously, as having a magical, religious,or prophetic bearing; theyretain this in civilizedfolklore, while among many savage races of today dreamingis regarded as highly significant. With the rise of modernscientific psychology dreaming speedily came underconsideration for more or less serious study and from1various viewpoints. In recent times this study has becomemore elaborate, and in psycho-analysis especially,as we know, the phenomena of dreaming are regarded ascarrying great weight.While the general prevalence of dreaming is accepted,there has not always, however, been complete agreementthat it is a normal and constant and therefore completelyhealthy and natural phenomenon, Freud even regarding1 Freud, who does not however claim a scholarly knowledge of theliterature, has under-rated the amount of psychological attention givento dreaming, and even speaks as though it had been a common beliefthat "dreaming is not a mental but a somatic phenomenon," a statementwhich is meaningless.[112]

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHit as at once both neurotic and healthy. It seems mostreasonable to regard it as entirely natural. Animals dream,and we may sometimes note that a sleeping dog imitatesthe movements of running; savage races dream, and whilethere are a great number of people who are not consciousof dreaming, they often find traces of dreams when theybegin to give attention to the matter; we may well believethat their mental activity during sleep is usually at so lowan ebb that it leaves no memory on awakening.There has been the same difference of opinion regardingerotic dreams, accompanied or not by orgasm, asregarding dreams generally. That under conditions ofsexual abstinence in healthy individuals there tend to besome auto-erotic manifestations during waking-life, boththeory and a careful study of the facts lead us to believe.There can be no doubt, however, that, under the sameconditions, the occurrence of the complete orgasm duringsleep with, in men, seminal emissions, is altogether normal.In many parts of the world, indeed, such manifestationsare attributed to the excitation of demons. TheCatholic Church has attributed serious importance to theimpurity of what it termed pollutio, while Luther alsoseems to have regarded erotic dreams as a kind of diseasedemanding at once the medicine of marriage. Even somedistinguished medical authorities (notably Moll andEulenburg) have put nocturnal seminal emissions on thesame level as the nocturnal emission of urine or as vomiting,and it cannot be denied that under primitively naturalconditions there is justification for this view.Since, however, some degree of sexual abstinence ismore or less inevitable under our social conditions, mostauthorities are inclined to regard the nocturnal phenomenawhich result from that abstinence as fairly normal;they are only concerned as to itsfrequency.Cs]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXdeclared that he had never known celibate menPagetwho had not such emissions from once or twice a weekto every three months, both extremes being within thelimits of good health, while Brunton regarded once afortnight or once a month as about the usual frequency,at these periodsthe emissions often following two nightsin succession, and Rohleder stated that they may normallyoccur for several nights in succession. Hammond consideredalso that they occur about once a fortnight. This wasalso found the most usual frequency among over two thousandMoscow students investigated by Tchlenoff. Ribbingregarded ten to fourteen days as the normal interval, andHamilton found from a week to a fortnight the most frequentinterval (19 per cent, cases) . Lowenfeld put thenormal frequency at about once a week; this seems nearthe truth as regards many fairly healthy young men andit corresponds with the exact records of several healthyyoung adults which I have obtained. It occasionally happens,however, that nocturnal emissions are entirely a"bsent(TchlenofFs investigations seem to show their absencein about ten per cent, but Hamilton in only 2 percent.) In other . fairly healthy young men they seldomoccur except at times of intellectual activity or of anxietyand worry.Nocturnal emissions are usually, though not invariably,accompanied by dreams of a voluptuous character inwhich the dreamer becomes conscious in a more or lessfantastic manner of the more or less intimate presence orcontact of a person of usually the opposite sex. It wouldseem, as a general rule, that the more vivid and voluptuousthe dream, the greateris the physical excitement andthe greater also the relief experienced on awakening.Sometimes the erotic dream occurs without any emission,and not infrequently the emission takes place after theC4]

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHdreamer has awakened. Occasionally the approachingorgasm is repressed in the half waking state; this is termedby Nacke pollutio interruptsA wide and comprehensive investigation of eroticdreams was carried out by Gualino, in northern Italy,based on inquiries among 100 normal men doctors,teachers, lawyers, etc. who had all had experience ofthe phenomena. Gualino shows that erotic dreams, withemissions (whether or not seminal) begin somewhatearlier than the period of physical development as ascertainedby Marro for youths of the same part of northernItaly. Gualino found that all his cases had had eroticdreams at the age of seventeen; Marro found 8 percent, of youths still sexually undeveloped at that age,and while sexual development began at thirteen years,erotic dreams began at twelve. Their appearance was preceded,in most cases for some months, by erections. In 37per cent, of the cases there had been no actual sexualexperiences (either masturbation or intercourse) ; in 23per cent, there had been masturbation; in the rest, someform of sexual contact. The dreams are mainly visual,tactual elements coming second, and the dramatis personais usually either an unknown woman (27 per cent, cases) ,or one only known by sight (56 per cent.), and in themajority is, at all events in the beginning, an ugly orfantastic figure, becoming more attractive later in life,but never identical with the woman loved during wakinglife. This, as Gualino, Lowenfeld, and others have pointedout, accords with the general tendency for the emotionsof the day to be latent in sleep.The emotional state in thepubertal stage, apart from pleasure, was anxiety (37 percent.) desire , (17 per cent.),fear (14 per cent.). In theadult stage, anxiety and fear receded to 7 per cent, and 6per cent, respectively. Thirty-three of die subjects, as a["5]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXresult of sexual or general disturbances, had had nocturnalemissions without dreams; these were always found exhausting.In more than 90 per cent, erotic dreams werethe most vivid of all dreams. In 34 per cent, of cases theytended to occur very soon after sexual intercourse. Innumerous cases they were peculiarly frequent (even threein one night) during courtship, when the young man wasin the habit of kissing and caressing his betrothed, butthey ceased after marriage. It was not noted that positionin bed or a full bladder exerted any marked influencein the occurrence of erotic dreams; repletion of the seminalvesicles isregardedas the main factor.It has been noted by many (Lowenfeld, etc.) thatpeople seldom dream erotically of the persons whom theyare in love with, even after falling asleep thinking of thebeloved. This has been attributed, no doubt rightly, tothe exhaustion and repose of the acute emotion duringsleep; it is well known, also, that we seldom dream of thegriefs of the day though veryoften of its trivial details.It has also been noted by many (Stanley Hall, etc.)thatin erotic dreams, not only individuals who are quite indifferentto the dreamer when awake, but very triflingpersonal details or imagined contacts, will suffice to produceorgasm.The diagnostic value of sexual dreams, as an indicationof the sexual nature of the subject when awake, has beenemphasized by various writers (Moll, Nacke, etc.). Sexualdreams tend to reproduce, and even to accentuate, thosecharacteristics which make the strongest sexual appeal tothe subject when awake. At the same time, thisgeneralstatement has to be qualified, more especially as regardsinverted dreams. In the first place, a young man, howevernormal, who is not familiar with the feminine body whenawake, is not likely to see it when asleep, even in dreams

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHof women; in the second place, the confusions and combinationsof dream imagery often tend to obliterate sexualdistinctions, however free from perversion the subjectmay be. It thus sometimes happens that people who areperfectly normal may have abnormal dreams, and in afew cases the erotic dreams of normal persons are habituallyabnormal without the existence of any ground forbelieving that this is due to a real or even latent deviation.It is sometimes important to bear this in mind.There seem to be, generally speaking, certain differencesin the manifestations of auto-erotism during sleepin men and women which are probably not without psychologicalsignificance. In men the phenomenon is fairlysimple; it usually appears about puberty, continues atintervals of varying duration during sexual life providedthe individual is living chastely; and is generally, thoughnot always, accompanied by erotic dreams which lead upto the climax, its occurrence being, to some extent, influencedby a variety of circumstances: physical, mental, oremotional excitement, alcohol taken before retiring, positionin bed (as lying on the back) , the state of thebladder, sometimes the mere fact of being in a strangebed, and to some extent apparently by the existence ofa fairlymonthly and yearly rhythms. On the whole, it isdefinite and regular phenomenon which usually leaveslittle conscious trace on awakening, beyond in some casesa headache. In women,a sense of fatigue and, occasionally,however, the phenomena of auto-erotism during sleepseem to be much more irregular, varied, and diffused. Itseems to be the exception for girls to experience definitelyerotic dreams about the period of puberty or adolescence.the rule in a chaste youth for the orgasm thusWhile it isto manifest itself (Hamilton found it to begin in 51 percent, between is and 15), it is the exception in a chaste

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXgirl.As pointed out when dealing with early manifestationsof sex, it is not until the orgasm has been definitelyproduced in the waking state under whatever conditionsit may have been produced that in women it begins tooccur during sleep, and even in a strongly sexual womanliving a repressed life it is often infrequent or absent (in60 per cent, according to Hamilton) . In women, who havebecome accustomed to sexual intercourse, erotic dreamsof fully developed character occur, with complete orgasmand accompanying relief as may occasionally be the casein women who are not acquainted with actual intercourse;some women, however, even when familiar withactual coitus, find that sexual dreams, though accom*panied by emissions, are only the symptom of desire anddo not producerelief.One of the most interesting and important charactersby which the erotic dreams of women and, indeed, theirdreams generally differ from those of men is in thetendency to evoke a repercussion on the waking life, atendency more rarely noted in men's erotic dreams, andthen only to a minor extent. This is common, even inhealthy and normal women, and isexaggerated in neuroticsubjects, by whom the dream may even be interpretedas a reality, and so declared on oath, a fact ofpractical importance, since it may lead to unfoundedaccusations of assault under anesthesia.The tendency of the auto-erotic phenomena of sleep tobe manifested with such energy as to flow over into thewaking life, and influence conscious emotion and action,is especially seen in hysterical women, in whom it has,therefore, chiefly been studied. Sante de Sanctis, Gilles dela Tourette, etc., have emphasized the influence of dreamson the waking life of the hysterical, and the special influenceof erotic dreams, to which, doubtless, we must refer

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHthose conceptions of incubi and succubi which played soimportant a part in the demonology of the Middle Ages.Such erotic dreams of the hysterical are by no meansalways, or even usually, of a pleasurable character. Insome cases the illusion of sexual intercourse even provokesacute pain. This was affirmed by the witches of oldand is also found today. Sometimes this is largely theresult of a conflict in consciousness with a merely physicalimpulse which isstrong enough to assert itself in spite ofthe emotional and intellectual abhorrence of the subject.It isthus but an extreme form of the disgust which allsexual physical manifestations tend to inspire in a personwho is not inclined to respond to them. Somewhat similarpsychic disgust and physical pain are produced in theattempts to stimulate the sexual emotions and organswhen these are exhausted by exercise. It is quite probable,however, that there is a physiological, as well as a psychic,factor in this phenomenon, and Sollier, in his elaboratestudy of the nature and genesis of hysteria, by insisting onthe capital importance of the disturbance of sensibility inhysteria, and the definite character of the phenomenabetween anesthesia and normalproduced in the passagesensation, helped to reveal the mechanism of this featureof auto-erotic excitement in the hysterical.No doubt there has been a tendency to exaggerate theunpleasant character of the auto-erotic phenomena ofhysteria. That tendency was an inevitable reaction againstan earlier view, according to which hysteria was littlemore than an unconscious expression of the sexual emotionsand as such was unscientifically dismissed withoutany careful investigation. We may agree with Freud thatthe sexual needs of the hysterical are just as individualand various as those of normal women, but that theysuffer from them more, largely through a moral struggle

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXwith their own instincts, and the attempt to put them intothe background of consciousness. In many hysterical andpsychically abnormal women, auto-erotic phenomena, andsexual phenomena generally, may be highly pleasurable,though such persons are often quite innocent of anyknowledge of the erotic character of the experience.BIBLIOGRAPHYHAVELOCK ELLIS, "Auto-erotism** and "The Phenomenaof Sexual Periodicity" in Studies in the Psychology ofSex, Vol. I, and "The Synthesis of Dreams" in Vol. VII;also The World of Dreams.STANLEY HALL, Adolescence.S. FREUD, The Interpretation of Dreams.MasturbationMasturbation, which has already been discussed in dealingwith the sexual phenomena of childhood, means, inthe strict sense, the use of the hand to procure sexualexcitement on the subject himself. In a wider sense, it isapplied to all forms of self-excitation adopted for thisend, and it is even possible to speak illogically of "psychicmasturbation" in which the excitation isbrought about bythought unaided by any physical act. The term "onanism"is sometimes applied in the same sense, but without justificationsince the device of Onan was not in any sensean act of masturbation but simply coitus interruptus.Hirschfeld has devised die term "ipsation," distinguishingit from "auto-erotism," as being gratification on theindividual's own body as a physical object, and not as apsychic object.Masturbation, in the wider sense, is an almost universalphenomenon among animals and man in all parts[120]of the

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHworld. It is so widespread that we cannot, strictly, speakof it as "abnormal." It is a phenomenon which lies on theborderland between the normal and the abnormal, and isliable to occur whenever any restraint is placed on thenatural exercise of the sexual function.Amonganimals in the domesticated and isolated stateand sometimes also in the wild state thoughthis is lesseasy to observe various forms of spontaneous solitaryexcitement occur, both in males and females, sometimesby flapping the penis against the abdominal walls, andfrequently (especially in females) by rubbingthe sexualamong the people of nearly every raceparts against external objects.In the human species, similar phenomena are by nomeans found in civilization alone. They have doubtlessbeen highly developed under the conditions of civilizationbut it isby no means true that (as Mantegazza thought)masturbation is one of the moral characteristics of Europeans.It is foundof which we have intimate knowledge, however naturalthe conditions they live under, and among some it is practicedwith frequency, and isby both sexes generally recognizedas a custom in early life.We may even find amongpeoples of a somewhat low state of culture the use by thewomen of artificial refinements for masturbation, notablythe artificial phallus, which is also used in Europe today,though not among the general population.On the other hand, the use, or rather abuse, of theordinary objects and implements of daily life in obtainingauto-erotic satisfaction, among the ordinary population incivilized modern lands, has reached an extent and varietywhich can only be feebly estimated by the occasionalresulting mischances which reach the surgeon's hands.Thus vegetables and fruits (especially the banana) arefrequently used by women but they are unlikely tolead

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXto any dangerous results and so their use remains undetected.A vast number of objects have, however, beenremoved from the vagina and urethra by surgical interference;among the commonest may speciallybe namedpencils, sealing wax, cotton reels, hair pins, glass stoppers,candles, corks, and tumblers. Nine-tenths of the foreignbodies found in the female vagina and urethra are due tomasturbation. The age at which they are found is chieflybetween seventeen and thirty. Hairpins have been foundin the female bladder with special frequency, because theuretha is normally a highly erogenous sexual center andtends to "swallow" what is introduced into it, while theshape of the hair-pin (which used to be the implementmost easily available to a woman in bed) specially lendsitself to disappearance in this way.Another class of objects used for masturbation does notcome under the surgeon's notice: the external objectswith which the sexual region may be brought in contact.The garments worn, chairs, tables, and other articles offurniture come under this head. Reference may also bemade to the sexual excitement which may occur, accidentallyor intentionally, in the gymnasium (as in climbingpoles) or when riding, or cycling, or using the' treadle,sewing-machine, or by the influence of tight-lacing. Noneof these sources of exercise or compression,it must beadded, is necessarily a cause of sexual excitement.This group of forms of auto-erotic excitement mergesinto the form of thigh-friction, by which the more or lessvoluntary pressure and friction of the thighs is brought tobear on the sexual region. This is sometimes practiced bymen and is fairly common among women. It is even foundin female infants. It is a widespread practice,and in somecountries (as Sweden)it is stated to be the commonestform of masturbation in women.

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHMasturbation may also be exercised by applying frictionor other stimulation to out-lying erogenous zones, asbyflagellation or urtication of the nates, or rubbing thebreasts and nipples. Almost every part of the body mayindeed, in exceptional cases, become erogenous and bemanipulated for the sake of the voluptuous sensationsaroused.There is yet another class of auto-erotic cases in whichsexual excitement occurs spontaneously when the thoughtsare turned to voluptuous subjects, or even non-voluptuoussubjects of an emotional nature, or when sexual excitementis deliberately aroused (Hammond's "psychiccoitus") by directing the imagination on the act of sexualintercourse with an attractive person of the opposite sex.These auto-erotic manifestations merge into the eroticday-dreaming which has already been considered. Dr.Davis found that reading books that suggest sexualthought isa most frequent cause of masturbation, spooningto a much smaller extent, and dancingstill less.If we proceed to investigate precisely the exact extent,degree, and significance of the auto-erotic phenomena o.fwhich masturbation is the type, we are met by manydifficultiesand considerable differences of opinion.With regard to their occurrence among males, the balanceof reliable opinion is in favor of masturbation havingbeen practiced at some time in life though in many casesvery rarely or for a very brief periodby over 90 percent, individuals. Thus in England, Dukes, the experiencedphysician to Rugby school, states that from 90to 95 per cent, of all boys at boarding-school masturbate.In Germany, Julian Marcuse, on the basis of hisexperience, concludes that ninety-two per cent, male individualshave masturbated in youth, and Rohleder putsthe proportion somewhat higher. In America Seerly found

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXthat among 125 academic students only about 6 per cent,assured him that they had never masturbated, and Brockman,even among theological students, found that 56per cent, stated, without being asked, that they practicedmasturbation. Tchlenoff among Moscow students foundthat 60 per cent, acknowledged, spontaneously, thatthey had masturbated. Such spontaneously offered informationnecessarily indicates a really much greater frequencysince many individuals are far too ashamed of thepractice to acknowledge it.As to whether masturbation is more common in one sexthan the other opinion formerlyvaried and the chiefauthorities were about equally divided, though among thegeneral public it was usuallyconsidered more common inThe question may now, however, beboys than in girls.considered in the light of definite statistics, to which referencehas already been made in discussing the first appearanceof the sexual impulse. The sexual distribution ofmasturbation has been somewhat obscured by the tendencyto concentrate attention on a particularset of autoeroticphenomena. We must group and divide our factsrationallyif we wish to command them. If we confine ourattention to very young children, the evidence shows thatthe practiceis more common in females, and such a resultis in harmony with the fact that precocious puberty ismost often found in female children, which is, in manycases, associated with precocityin sexual habits. In pubertyand adolescenceoccasional or frequent masturbation iscommon in both boys and girls, though, I believe, lesscommon than is sometimes supposed:it is difficult to saywhether it is more prevalent among boys or girls; one isinclined to conclude that it prevails more widely amongtraditions and their more activeboys. It is true that boys' life keep the tendency in abeyance, while in girls there is

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHmuch less frequently any restraining influence of correspondingcharacter; but, on the other hand, the sexualimpulse, and consequently the tendency to masturbation,tend to be aroused later, and less easily, in girlsthan inboys. After adolescence there can be little doubt thatmasturbation is more common in women than in men.Men have, by this time, mostly adopted some method ofsexual gratification with the opposite sex; women are to alarger extent shut out from such gratification; moreover,while in rare cases women are sexually precocious, it moreoften happens that their sexual impulses only gainstrength and self-consciousness after adolescence haspassed. In many cases masturbation is occasionally (especiallyabout the period of menstruation) practiced byactive, intelligent, and healthy women, who otherwise leada chaste life. This is specially the case as regards youngand healthy women who, after having normal sexual relationships,have been compelled for some reason or otherto break them off and lead a lonelylife. But we have toremember that there are some women, evidently with aconsiderable degree of congenital sexual hypo-esthesia (nodoubt, in some respect or another below the standard ofnormal health), in whom the sexual instinct has neverbeen aroused, and who not only do not masturbate, butdo not show any desire for normal gratification; while ina large proportion of other cases the impulse isgratifiedpassively in other ways. The auto-erotic phenomena whichtake place in this way, spontaneously, by yielding torevery, with little or no active interference, certainly occurmuch more frequently in women than in men.Until recent years there has been a wide difference otopinionas to the results of masturbation. While a fewauthorities considered that it had no special evil resultsbeyond such as might equallyfollow from excessive coitus,

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXthe great majorityattributed to masturbation; even whennot excessive, an enormous variety of serious morbid conditionsfrom insanity downwards. A more temperate viewnow It is prevails. generallybelieved that masturbationmay, in special cases, lead on to various undesirable results,but it is no longer held that, even when practiced toexcess, it can, in healthy and sane individuals (supposingthat such are likely to practiceit to excess),produce thehighly morbid states once supposedto be a common consequence.It appears to have been largely due to Griesinger, inthat we owe the first au-the middle of the last century,thoritative appearance of a saner, more discriminatingview regarding the results of masturbation. Although stillin histo some extent fettered by the traditions prevalentday, Griesinger saw that it was not so much masturbationitself as the feelings aroused in sensitive minds by thesocial attitude towards masturbation which producedevileffects, and a hidden strife between shame, repentance,good intentions, and the irritation which impels to theact. He added that there are no specific signs of masturbation,and concluded that it is oftener a symptom than acause. The general progressof educated opinions sincethatdate has confirmed and carried forward the resultscautiously stated by Griesinger. This distinguished alienistthought that, when practicedin childhood, masturbationmight lead to insanity. Berkhan, in his investigation ofthe psychoses of childhood, found that in no single casexvas masturbation a cause. Vogel, Uffelmann, Emminghaus,and Moll, in the course of similar studies, all cameto almost similar conclusions. It isonly on a congenitallymorbid nervous system, Emminghaus insisted, that masturbationcan produce any serious results. Kiernan statesthat the supposed results of masturbation are due to either[126]

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHhebephrenia or hysteria in which an effect is taken for thecause. Christian, during twenty years' experience in hospitals,asylums, and private practice in town and country,found no seriously evil effects from masturbation. Hethought, indeed, that itmay be a more serious evil inwomen than in men. But Yellowlees considers that inwomen "it is possibly less exhausting and injurious thanin the other sex," which was also the opinion o Hammond,as well as of Guttceit, though he found that womenpushed the practice much further than men, and Nacke,who gave special attention to this point, could not findthat masturbation is a definite cause of insanity in womenin a single case. Koch also reached a similar conclusion,as regards both sexes, though he admitted that masturbationmay cause some degree of psychopathic deterioration.Even in this respect, however, he pointed out that whenpracticed in moderation it is not injurious in the certainand exceptionless way in which it is believed to be inmany circles, while it is the people whose nervous systemsare already injured who masturbate most easily and practiceit more immoderately than others; the chief source ofthe evil is self-reproach and the struggle with the impulse.Maudsley, Marro, Spitzka, and Schule still recognized aspecific "masturbatory insanity," but Krafft-Ebing longsince rejectedit and Nacke decidedly opposedit. Kraepelinstated that excessive masturbation can only occur ina dangerous degree in predisposed subjects; so, also, Foreland Lowenfeld, as at an earlier period, Trousseau. Recentauthorities may, indeed, be said to be almost unanimousin rejecting masturbation as a cause of insanity.The testimony of expert witnesses with regard to theinfluence of masturbation in producing other forms ofpsychoses and neuroses is becoming equally decisive.Since West, many years ago, it isgenerally accepted that[127]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXamong children idiocy, convulsions, epilepsy, hysteria,etc., are not due to masturbation, as an efficient cause:though it has been believed by a few that hysteria andepilepsy might be thus induced. Leyden, among the causesof diseases of the spinal cord, included no form of sexualexcess."In moderation," Erb remarked, "masturbation isnot more dangerous to the spinal cord than natural coitus,and has no bad effects; it makes no difference whetherthe orgasm is effected normally or in solitude/' This isalso the opinion of Toulouse, of Furbringer, of Curschmann,and most other authorities.It is, however, perhaps going too far to assert that masturbationhas no more injuriouseffect that coitus. If thesexual orgasm were a purely physiological phenomenon,this position would be sound. But the sexual orgasm isnormally bound up with a mass of powerful emotionsaroused by a person of the opposite sex. It is in the joycaused by the play of these emotions, as well as in thedischarge of the sexual orgasm, that the satisfaction ofcoitus resides. In the absence of the desired partner theorgasm, whatever relief it may give, must be followed bya sense of dissatisfaction, perhaps of depression, even ofexhaustion, often of shame and remorse. Practically, also,there is more probabilityof excess in masturbation thanin coitus, though whether, as some have asserted, masturbationinvolves a greater nervous effort than coitus ismore doubtful. It thus seems somewhat misleading toassert that masturbation has no more injurious effect thancoitus. But in a moderate form it is,the same level as sexual excitement in sleep.Forel held, much onReviewing the general question of the supposed gravesymptoms and signs of masturbation, and its perniciousresults, we may reach the conclusion that in the case ofmoderate masturbation in healthy, well-born individuals,

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHno seriously pernicious results necessarily follow. Withregard to the general signs o masturbation, of which aconclude thatvast number have been alleged, we maythere are none which can be regarded as reliable.We may conclude finally that the opposing views on thesubject may be simply explained by the fact that thewriters on both sides have ignored or insufficiently recognizedthe influence of heredity and temperament. Theyhave done precisely what many unscientific writers oninebriety have continued to do unto the present day, whendescribing the terrible results of alcohol without pointingout that the chief factor in such cases has not been thealcohol, but the organization on which the alcohol acted.While we may thus dismiss the extravagant views widelyheld during the past century, concerning the awful resultsof masturbation, as due to ignorance and false tradition,aided by the efforts of quacks, it must be pointed out thateven in healthy or moderately healthy individuals, anyexcess in solitary self-excitement may still produce resultswhich, though slight, are yet harmful. The skin, digestion,and circulation may all be disordered; headache andneuralgia may occur; and, as in normal sexual excess orin undue frequency of sexual excitement during sleep,there is a certain general lowering of nervous tone. Probablythe most important of the comparatively frequentassociated conditions this also arising usually on a morbidsoilis "neurasthenia" with its manifold symptoms.In some cases it would seem that masturbation, whenpracticed in excess,especially if begun before the age ofpuberty, leads to inaptitude for coitus, as well as to indifferenceto it, and sometimes to undue sexual irritability,involving premature emission and practical impotence.Dickinson states that the most consistently "frigid" womenare the auto-erotic. This is, however, the exception,

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXespecially if the practice has not been begun until afterpuberty. In women an important occasional result ofmasturbation in early life is an aversion for normal coitusin later life. In such cases some peripheralirritation orabnormal mental stimulus trains the physical orgasm torespond to an appeal which has nothing whatever to dowith the fascination normally exerted by the opposite sex.At puberty, however, the claim of passion and the realcharm of sex begin to be felt, but, owing to the physicalsexual feelings having been trained into an abnormalchannel, these new and more normal sex associationsremain of a purely ideal and emotional character, withoutthe strong sensual impulses with which under healthyconditions they tend to be more and more associated aspuberty passeson into adolescence or mature adult life.In this way in some women, often highly intellectualwomen, a precociousexcess in masturbation has been amain cause, not necessarily the sole efficient cause, in producinga divorce in later life between the physicalsensuous impulses and the ideal emotions. When earlymasturbation is a factor in developing sexual inversion itusually operates in this manner, the repulsion for normalcoitus helping to furnish a soil on which the inverted impulsemay develop unimpeded.It isimportant to realizethat the possible evil results are exceptional. Dr. KatharineDavis in her extensive investigation,which is the mostof masturbation in womenelaborate and valuable studywe possess,found when comparing the group of happilymarried women with the group of the unhappily unmarried,that the number in each group of those who beforemarriage had engaged in masturbation or other similarsex play (not including sexual intercourse) was almostidentical.

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHOn the psychic sidethe most frequent and the mostcharacteristic result of persistent and excessive masturbationseems tobe a morbid heightening of self-consciousnesswithout any coordinated heightening of self-esteem.a desirable andThe man or woman who is kissed bydesired person of the opposite sex feels a satisfying senseof pride and elation, which must always be absent fromthe manifestations of auto-erotic activity. This must be so,even apart from the masturbator's consciousness of thegeneral social attitude toward his practices and his dreadof detection, for that may also exist as regards normalcoitus without any corresponding psychic effect. The masturbator,if his practice is habitual, is thus compelled tocultivate an artificial consciousness of self-esteem, and mayshow a tendency to mental arrogance. Self-righteousnessand religiosity constitute, as it were, a protection againstthe tendency to remorse. A morbid mental soil is, ofcourse, requiredfor the full developmentof these characteristics.The habitual male masturbator, it must beremembered, is often a shy and solitary person; individualsof this temperament are especially predisposed toexcesses in all the manifestations of auto-erotism, whilethe yielding to such tendencies increases the reserve andthe horror of society, at the same time producing a certainsuspicion of others. In some extreme cases there nois,doubt, as Kraepelin believed, some decrease of psychiccapacity, an inability to grasp and coordinate externalimpressions, weakness of memory, deadening of emotions,or else the general phenomena of increased irritability,leading on to neurasthenia.adolescence inIn either sex auto-erotic excesses duringwhatever absenceyoung men and women of intelligenceof gross injury there may be still often encourage a

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXcertain degree of psychic abnormality, and tend to fosterfalse and high-strungideals of life. Kraepelin referred tothe frequency of exalted enthusiasms in masturbation,and Anstie long ago remarked on the connection betweenmasturbation and prematurefalse work in literature andart. It may be added that excess in masturbation hassometimes occurred in men and women whose work inliterature and art cannot be described asfalse.premature andIt must always be remembered, however, that, while thepractice of masturbation may be harmful in its consequences,also, in the absence of normal sexual rela-it istionships, frequently not without goodresults. In themedical literature of the last hundred years a number ofcases have been incidentally recorded in which thepatients found masturbation beneficial, and such casesmight certainly have been enormously increased if therehad been any open-eyed desire to discover them. We mustrecognize that masturbation is, in the main, practiced forits sedative effect on the nervous system. In normal persons,well past the age of puberty, and otherwise leadinga chaste life masturbation would be little practiced exceptfor the physical and mental relief it brings.These considerations led the late Dr. Robie, on thestrength of considerable clinical -experience in the UnitedStates, to go beyond the simple recognition of the substantialharmlessness of active auto-erotic practices,andin. his Rational Sex Ethics (1916) and later books actuallyto recommend them, especiallyto women, as of therapeuticvalue in nervous conditions and salutary to health,much on the same level as normal sexual intercourse.This doctrine needs .much qualification. In its extremeform it is far too simple-minded a solution of the diffi-

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHculties involved. Such a recommendation may be just asundesirable as the old-fashioned recommendations ofprostitution or of continence. The self-gratification ofshut-in solitude may not be an improvement on the eagerand active desires of the unsatisfied. The physician's attitudeshould be one of sympathetic comprehension, butonly the individual himself can decide what course ofaction best suits his temperament and circumstances.More reasonable, therefore, than the attitude of Robieisthat of Wolbarst who, while holding that masturbationshould not be actually encouraged, considers that a pointmay be reached when the impulse should not be restrained,and quotes a Chinese proverb, that "It is betterto satisfy the body than to discolor the mind." We shouldavoid any harsh condemnation of the practice when it isadmitted, especially when there is self-condemnation. Atthe same time, he properly adds, it is not possible to commendthose "moralists" who approve of masturbation asa method of preserving an imaginary "virtue." There ismore real virtue in cherishing the natural impulse tosexual love and in adventurously facingthe natural desiresborn of that impulse.We have to recognize that we are concerned with amanifestation which belongs to a vast group of autoeroticphenomena, and that, in some form or another,such manifestations are inevitable. It is our wisest courseto recognize this inevitableness of sexual and transmutedsexual manifestations under the perpetual restraints ofcivilized life, and, while avoiding any attitude of excessiveindulgence or indifference, to avoid also any attitudeof horror, for our horror not only leads to the facts beingeffectually veiled from our sight, but itself serves to manufactureartificially evils that may be greater.

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXBIBLIOGRAPHYHAVELOCK ELLIS, "Auto-erotism" in Studies in the Psychologyof Sex, Vol. I.A. MOLL, The Sexual Life of the Child.STANLEY HALL, Adolescence.FREUD, Three Contributions to Sexual Theory.KATHARINE DAVIS, Factors in the Sex Life of Twenty TwoHundred Women.G. V. HAMILTON, A Research in Marriage.NORTHGOTE, Christianity and Sex Problems.WOLBARST, Children of Adam.NarcissismThis condition may best be regarded as a form of autoerotism,as indeed its extreme and most highly developedpsychic form. It is a conception which has assumed ratherdifferent shapes at the hands of different psychologists ofsex, so that a brief sketch of its history may be desirable.Forty years ago it had no definite existence for science,though long clearly traceable in fiction and poetry, whileits central situation was symbolized in classic Greek daysby the figure of Narcissus. Here and there, indeed, psychiatristsnoted such a condition as a symptom in individualcases, but in 1898, when first putting forward a sketch (inthe Alienist and Neurologist] of auto-erotism, I concludedby describing, with a case, as its extreme form, the Narcissus-liketendency sometimes found, more especiallyperhaps in women, for the sexual emotions to be absorbed,and often entirely lost, in self-admiration. Thispaper was at once summarized in Germany by Dr. Nackewho translated my "Narcissus-like tendency" as '^Narcismus,"expressing his agreement, and calling this "the mostclassical form" of what I termed auto-erotism, though, headded (which I had not done) , that there would be actual

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHsexual orgasm accompanying the Narcissism; this cannotbe accepted. Rohleder observed in men some pronouncedcases of this condition which he called "automonosexualism,"which isalso the term used by Hirschfeld. Then in1910 Freud adopted from Nacke the name and conceptionof Narcissism, regarding it, however, simply as a stage inthe development of masculine sexual inversion, the subjectbeing supposed to identifyhimself with a woman(usually his mother) and so to acquire self-love. In 1911Otto Rank, taking up the matter from my treatment of it,developed it on generally Freudian lines, tending also toshow, not merely that it was, as I had included it, withinthe normal range of variation, but a fairly ordinary stageof sexual development. Rank's study evidently impressedFreud who in 1914 accepted and emphasized Rank's view,stating positively that there is a primaryNarcissism inevery individual, the libidinal complement to the egoismof the instinct of self-preservation,and that itmay sometimesdominate object-choice, various alternatives thenarising, according as a person loves (a)what he is himself,(b) what he once was, (c) what he wanted to be, or(d) some one who was once part of himself. It is at thispoint that the conception of Narcissism remains mostsuitable for ordinary use.Freud himself has at some points modified his view andat others further extended it, while numerous psycho-analysts,both of the Freudian and other schools, have carriedit to an extreme point, considering religions and philosophiesas expressions of Narcissism, while finally it hasbeen suggested (by Ferenczi) that Nature herself in theprocess of evolution is guided by Narcissistic motives.Evidence for Narcissism has also been found (as by R6-heim) among savages and in folk-lore; the work of Sir

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXJames Frazer, as Rank firstpointed out, here furnishingmuch material for psychologicaluse.HAVELOCK ELLIS, Studies inI and VII.BIBLIOGRAPHYthe Psychology of Sex, Vols.S. FREUD, Three Contributions to Sexual Theory, andCollected Papers, Vol. IV.J. HARNIK, "The Developments of Narcissism in Manand Woman," Int. Jour. Psycho-analysis, Jan., 1924.Education inSexWhen we survey the manifestations of infancy andchildhood, we see that in relation to sex they may sometimesbe apparently non-existent, when present are usuallynot to be ex-vague, and when definite are frequentlyplained in the way they would be explained i occurringin an adult.The result has been, as we know, that putting asidethose persons, now growing few in number, who wereonce horrified at the suggestion of anything sexual in theinfantile psyche even good observers have varied in theirattitude and policy with regard to sex in early life. Thereare those who feel unable to recognize any genuine sexualmanifestations, at an early age, in healthy normal children;there are those who recognizeit allthe time, alikein sound and in neurotic children, though finding thatits manifestations vary and change; there are those, itmayperhaps be added, who even admitting the presence ofsexual signs, regard them as not normal for the stage ofchildhood. That, at all events, is the later opinion of Rankin his work on Modern Education. "Sexuality is not naturalto the child/' he observes; "it might rather be con-

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHceived of as the individual's natural enemy, against whichhe defends himself, from the beginning, with his wholepersonality." Such a view at all events harmonizes with acommon attitude in culture, even in primitive culture,whether or not we are entitled to pushit back to childhood.The proper attitude towards sexuality in the child is,therefore, one of watchful hygiene, which must always beunobtrusive. The childish erotic impulses are often unconscious,and nothingisgained by rendering them consciousor by concentrating attention on them. It isnecessary to guard against the child doing any manifestinjury to himself or others. It also seems desirable in somecases to warn the mother not only against too great ananxiety to punish a child exhibiting these manifestations,but also against any excess of physical tenderness whichmay unduly arouse the emotions of susceptible children.It is above all necessary to cultivate an understanding ofthe child's nature. Adults are prone to attribute their ownfeelings to children. Many acts of children, which toadults appear to reveal vicious sexual motives, often haveno sexual motive at all, but spring merely from the playimpulse or from the desire for knowledge. This fallacyhasdoubtless been favored in recent years by unguardedadherents of psycho-analytic doctrines.It is unfortunate that the students of childhood haveoften been people who have gained their knowledge fromthe study of neurotic subjects."All the general conclusionsderived from the study of the present day type ofneurotic," Otto Rank remarks in his Modern Education,"must be received with great caution, for under other conditionsMan reacts differently." He adds that the presentday child cannot be compared with primitive Man and

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXthat it may perhaps be best that education should not betoo definite.It is now held by the best authorities that the sexualguidance of children should begin, so far as its elementsare concerned, at a very early age, and that a wise andtender mother is the ideal person to perform this reallymaternal duty. It may, indeed, be added that only amother can perform it rightly, and the training of mothersis an essential condition for the wholesome developmentof children. There is danger, it is sometimes said, thatchildren's minds will be artificially concentrated on sexualsubjects, of which otherwise they might remain blissfullyunconscious. It isimportant, however, to remember thenatural operationsof a child's mind. A child's desire toknow where babies come from is not a symptom o sexualconsciousness, it is a natural desire to discover an importantscientific fact. Again, at a little later age, the desireto know and see how the bodies of persons of the oppositesex are made is equally innocent and natural. It is theforced and unreasoned suppression of these natural curiosities,and not their gratification,which favors anunhealthy sexual consciousness. The child secretly concentrateshimself on the solution of these mysteries onlybecause any open attempt to solve them is on every handrebuffed.There should be nothing formal or special about theknowledge of sex imparted by the mother to her child.When the relation between mother and child is naturaland intimate every function must from time to time comeup for consideration, and the sensible mother will dealwith each as it arises, though without carrying her informationfurther than the child's curiosity at the timedemands. Sex and excretion will be dealt with assimplyas anything else, and neither with the slightest sign of

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHrepulsion or of disgust.Servants and nurse-maids havefrequently been apt not only to treat sex with reprehensionbut excretion with disgust. The wholesome motherfeels no disgust for her child's excretions, and that attitudeisimportant, for as the organs of sex and of excretionare on the surface so closely adjoined any attitude ofdisgust towards one is likely to embrace the other. It issometimes said that the right attitude to inculcate is thatboth sets of organs alike are neither "disgusting" nor"sacred." But, in one way or another, it has soon to bemade clear that, while both sets of organs are natural andneither disgusting, there is an immense difference in theirultimate significance, and that what proceeds from sexmay be so tragic for the individual and so fateful for t5erace that, even if we reject the word "sacred" for sex, wemust find some other word of equal poignancy.The value of early sex instruction for after life is shownby Dr. Katharine Davis's extensive investigation amongmarried women. When divided into two groups, accordingas they regarded themselves as happily or unhappily married,it was found that 57 per cent, of the happy grouphad received some general sex instruction in early life, butonly 44 per cent, of the unhappy group. Dr. G. V. Hamil-which are based on much smaller data, doton's results,not entirely agree, but he found the significant fact thatthe best source of early sex instruction for girls was themother; 65 perinstruction were in the groupcent, of married women who received suchwhose sexual relations are"adequate," but less than 35 per cent, in the "inadequate"group; when the early information came from contemporariesor obscene talk, the percentage for the adequategroup fell to 54, and the married life of the small groupwho had received instruction from father or brother wasunsatisfactory.1*991

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXThe pointsto be attained are that the child's simpleand natural questionsshould be answered simply andnaturally when theyfirst begin to be asked, so that histhoughts may not be arrested, and emotion generated, bythe creation of a mystery. It is by waiting too late thatmischief is liable to be caused. As regards the naked body,similarly, much morbid curiosity may be aroused in thechild who isgrowing up without ever seeing the nakedbodies of children of the opposite sex, and the suddencasual sightof naked adults, for the first time, may sometimesproduce a painful shock. It is desirable that childrenshould be familiar with the sight of each other's nakedbodies, and some parents also adopt the plan of themselvesbathing naked with their children when the latterare still very young. Various risks are thus avoided, whilesuch simplicityand openness tend to delay the developmentof sexual consciousness, and to inhibit the developmentof undesirable curiosities. It may even happen thatwith his nakedthe little boy who is brought up familiarlylittle sister never even so much as discovers that there isany sexual difference of physical conformation. All theinfluences that delay precocioussexual consciousness areof good augury for future development; the wise sexualhygienist realizes that this end cannot be attained by theartificial creation of mysteries.But we must always bear in mind that the attitudetowards the child which isnow becoming recognized aswisest is not yet firmly established. If it is true, as hasbeen lately said, that the child has to create his parents inaccordance with his own needs, it is also true that thesituation thus presentedis not easy to adjust on the basisof our ancient traditions of which the existence mustalways be recognized, so that the child's is far lesspositionsimple than it used to be. It is indeed today peculiarly[140]

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHdifficult. He is no longer subjected to a generally acceptedand rigidly fixed collective method of education, while heis still too undeveloped to assume the self-discipline of theadult. "The child of today/' Rank remarks, "has to passthrough a more critical childhood than perhaps the childof any earlier period in the history of Man."We must not, therefore, be surprisedif, even undergenerally improved conditions, we still encounter the"difficult" or "problem" child. Both heredity and environmentstill tend to the occasional production of suchchildren. The more enlightened views now beginning toprevail will often prove a sufficient guide in dealing withthese cases without resort to special expert assistance, butnot always. We may, therefore, view with satisfaction thegrowing tendency to view such "problem children" not, asformerly, merely "naughty" or "vicious," but as propersubjects for the combined attentions of the physician, thepsychologist, the psychiatrist,and the social worker. Thedesirability of special Child Guidance Clinics with thisend in view is becoming constantly more recognized sincein 1909, with the aid of the inspiration and public-spiritedgenerosityof Mrs. W. F. Dummer, the Juvenile PsychopathicInstitute, with Dr. William Healy as Director, wasinstituted in Chicago, becoming established in 1914 as adepartment of the Juvenile Court. This may be said to bethe origin of the movement in favor of Child GuidanceClinics. As they have since developed theyconsist essentiallyof a team of three persons, psychiatrist, psychologist,that a doctorand social worker. It may sometimes happenwith a special personal equipmentfor such cases may,more simply and conveniently, combine these three functionsin himself, but the requirementsare seldom combined,nor can the ordinary doctor often find time forsuch special work. It is probable, therefore, that these

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXclinics will continue to develop, though not in connectionwith any special school of thought or practice, whichwould be undesirable. The New York Institute for ChildGuidance has been planned on a large scale. The LondonChild Guidance Clinic was established in 1930.The investigations invoked by Child Guidance maylead us to a deeper knowledge of human types.What isnow called "Constitutionology" the study of the specialpsycho-physical types into which human beings tend tofall proved attractive to physicians at an early period, forsuch a studyis obviously of high importance both formedicine and for life. It isonly in recent years, however,that the data have come into existence for placing sucha study on a sound basis. It may indeed be said that itwas only with the publicationin 1921 of the epoch-markingbook of Professor Kretschmer, Physique and Character,that constitutionology has been placed on agenuinely scientific foundation, thoughit is still at anearly stage and continuously developing.Looked at broadly, sexual enlightenment and educationpossess today a deeper significance than they have everpossessed before. Sexual initiation at puberty has alwayshad a well recognized racial importance. In central Africa,as we know, and in many other parts of the world amongthe peoples we choose to regard, more or less inaccurately,as "primitive," such initiation is at once a sacred rite anda practical preparation for adult life. The child may be,and theand often is, already familiar with sex as play,grown-up people often treat such play with indulgence.But at itpuberty becomes a more serious matter. Theclaims of the community and the race have to be considered;the youth or girl has to be fitted into his or hersocial place in the group, and for this what may be termeda moral education is necessary. It is often short and sharp,

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHperhaps with some physical mutilation or severe abstinenceor isolation, while the elders impart instruction inthe duties of life and reveal the sacred mysteries of thetribe. Thereafter the child becomes a man or a woman,and takes on new privileges, new duties, new responsibilities.It is an admirable system: nothing better couldwell be devised under more or less primitive conditionsof life. It has been unfortunate that in Christendom therelics of such systems had so far decayed as to becomeinsignificant, or for the most part to disappear.Today we are waking up to that loss and striving torepair it. But we can no longer build up any system on thesame lines, and before building at all we have to considerthe nature of the phase of civilization out of which weare passing.In that phase the insistence was all on the intellect andthe methods of teaching which carried weight, or acquiredwide popularity, were methods of educating the intelligence.But the sexual impulse which yetis the mainfoundation of social as well as personal life is not easilybrought into the sphere of intelligence. So it has comeabout that our educational systems have, even up to thepresent, almost completely excluded the irrational elementof sex; they have had little in common with those admirable,and, so far as the conditions allowed, completeschemes of initiation which prevailed in earlier ages ofthe world, the ages in which Man learned to become Man.Education with us has not been an education for life, butonly for a part of life, especially the money-earning part.This has been associated with in various stages anddegrees an indifference, dislike, even contempt for thatpart of life which is based on the sexual impulse, since itfailed to come into the sphere of intelligence with whichour educational activities were concerned. It is a familiar

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXfact that, among the products of our educational system,the more clever individuals that is to say those whosenarrow abilities are concentrated on the cultivation ofintelligence often adopt a sneering or cynical attitudewhere matters of love and sex are concerned. That is thenatural outcome of their school training, althoughIt wasnot a designed outcome. It was certainly not the usualoutcome of the ancient methods of initiation into life. Inbuilding up our new system we have, therefore, to avoidthe peril of the systems from which we immediatelyproceed.But there isanother point and one at which we mustavoid the example of primitive societies: that is to say indelaying sexual initiation to puberty. The work of thepsycho-analysts has made widely known the fact, whichthough previously known was not fully grasped in its fullsignificance, that sexuality is far from beginning only atpuberty. The racial bearing of sexuality begins at puberty,but its personal bearing which is indirectly racial mayand often does begin much earlier, even in infancy.A practicalresult of this fact is that the first initiationin sex, since it is called for in early childhood, is takenout of the hands of the community which of old conductedthe puberty initiations, and placed in the handsof the parents. Under these conditions it is not a formaland conscious initiation, but a slow, natural and almostimperceptible process under the guidance of a parent,usually the mother, who is freed from the taboos andinhibitions which formerly made it difficult for adults torecognize the existence of the phenomena of sex wheretheir children were concerned, or to speak of themnaturally.In the schools, concomitantly and as the child develops,we may reasonably expect to see an elementary training[H4]

THE SEXUAL IMPULSE IN YOUTHin biology, covering the main facts of human life including,though with no undue insistence, sexgiven toall boys and girls. As a distinguished biologist, RugglesGates, has said: "Every schoolboy and girl should, as anessential part of their education, receive some instructionregarding the nature, structure, and action of plant andanimal organisms, as well as their relationships and re^actions upon each other. They should know something ofheredity, and realize that every organism inherits andtransmits itsgenetic peculiarities, down to the finestdetails of difference."That education, as it develops, leads upto a racialinitiation corresponding to the rites of more primitivepeoples. It is along these biological lines that we reacHthe modern conception of that aspect of sex which theancients regarded as sacred, for we must not, I would sayonce more, accept the notion of those foolish though wellmeaningpeople who wish to bring up children to regardsexuality as commonplace, on the same level as nutritionand excretion. Along the line of biology it is easy to understandthat sex is much more than that; it is not merelythe channel along which the race is maintained and Builtup,it is the foundation on which all dreams of the futureworld must be erected. There are other and more personalbutends to which the sexual impulse may be directed,there isalways this solid central fact.The other ends also remain important. The indifferenceand even contempt with which our educational systemshave treated the impulse of sex have blunted the farspreadingmotive powers of that impulse. Yet they haveat the same time rendered more urgent the need to cherishand develop the energies that reside in the impulse ofsex. Intelligence alone, indispensable as it always remains,is sterile;it has no vital and penetrating influence in the

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXorganism. But amid the sterilizing tendencies of our lifethe impulse of sex still remains unimpaired, however con^cealed or despised.It is even, perhaps, as Otto Rank hastermed it, "the last emotional resource which the exaggeratedrationalization of our education has left us."Here, alike in its natural manifestations and in its sublimationsfor the two go together and neither canflourish with the complete suppression of the other wepossess a great hope for our future civilization*BIBLIOGRAPHYA. MOLL, The Sexual Life of the Child,HAVELOCK ELLIS, Studies in the Psychology of Sex> especiallyVols. I and VI; also "The New Mother" in MoreEssays of Love and Virtue.STANLEY HALL, Adolescence.MARY CHADWICK, Difficulties in Child Development(dealing especially with the mistakes of parents inbringing up their children) .OTTO RANK, Modern Education: A Critique of Its FundamentalIdeas, 1932.W. HEALY, The Individual Delinquent, 1915.BERNARD HART, "Work of a Child Guidance Clinic,"British Medical Journalj igth Sept., 1931.KRETSCHMER, Physique and Character.WINIFRED DE KOK., Guiding Your Child through the FormativeYears.K. DE' SCHWEINITZ, Growing Up: The Story of How WeBecome Alive, Are Born and Grow Up.

CHAPTER IVSEXUAL DEVIATION AND THE EROTICSYMBOLISMSSexual DeviationsIT was formerly taken for granted by all writers on thelife of sex that there is but one pattern for that life, andthat any straying from that one pattern was not "normal.'*This was assumed and never discussed. There seemedeven to be no need to define precisely what this singlepattern was; every one was supposed to know instinctively.As soon as we begin to inquire into the actual and intimatefacts of the sexual life, however, we see that thisancient and traditional assumption was mistaken. So farfrom there being only one pattern of sex-life, it would benearer the truth to say that there are as many patterns asthere are individuals. At the least there are a number oftypes of patterns to one or other of which the individualtends more or less, never exactly, to approximate. Thishas been visible to me ever since Ibegan to study sexualpsychology, and I have sought to make clear that here, aselsewhere in nature, we have to admit a wide limit ofvariations falling within the normal range. Today this isgradually being recognized by experienced observers. Toquote but one distinguished gynecologist, Dickinson expresses"a growing skepticism about a fixed pattern ofsex."In order to remain within the normal range, all variationsmust at some point include the procreative end for

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXwhich sex exists. To exclude procreation is perfectly legitimate,and under some circumstances morally imperative.But sexual activities entirely and by preference outsidethe range in which procreation isconsidered abnormal; they are deviations.possible may fairly beSexual deviations were formerly called "perversions."That word arose at a time when sexual anomalies wereuniversally regarded as sins or crimes, at the least as vices.It is still used by those whose ideas are rooted in traditionsof the past which they cannot outgrow. In earlieryears I have myself used it, though under protest, andwith explanations of what I thereby meant. I now realizethat (asDickinson also has pointed out) the time hascome to avoid the word, so far as possible, altogether.Even in the original Latin, peruersus sometimes conveysa moral judgment;it dates from days anterior to thescientific and medical approach to sexual matters, whichis concerned to understand sexual anomalies, and if necessaryto treat them, but not to condemn them. To retainhere a word which belongs to a totally different orderintroduces confusion, even apart from the undoubted andfact that it has unfortunate results onhighly importantthose persons who are told that they have been guilty o"perversion." The term is completely antiquated andmischievous, and should be avoided.The term "displacement" has sometimes been used toindicate an unusual fixation of the sexual impulse. Sucha term has the advantage of being morally neutral, butas it involves a static conception of the sexual impulse,which is really dynamic and living and liable to change,it is less satisfactory than "deviation" which is a termretaining dynamic force.For a long time past I have used the term "symbolism* *for many, or most, sexual deviations. By "erotic symbol-[148]

SEXUAL DEVIATIONism" (or more narrowly, erotic fetichism)is meant acondition in which the psychological sexual process iseither abridged or deviated in such a way that some specialpart of the process, or some object or action normally onitsmargin or even outside it altogether, becomes, oftenat an early age, the chief focus of attention. What isthe normal lover of secondary importance, or even indifferent,thus becomes of primary importance, and mayproperly be said to be the symbol of the whole sexualprocess.Looked at broadly, all the sexual deviations are examplesof erotic symbolism, for in every case it will befound that some object or act that for the normal humanbeing has little or no erotic value has assumed such value;that is to say, it has become a symbol of normal love.Moreover, erotic symbolism comes into play even in themore refined forms of normal love, for these involve atendency to concentrate amorous attention on somespecial points in the beloved person, such points beingthemselves unimportant but acquiring a symbolic value.When we thus use the term "symbolism" in its moreancient sense and applyit in the erotic field to deviationswhich were formerly called indiscriminately "perversions,"it is seen to go beyond the more narrow significanceassigned to it in psycho-analytic literature. Thehas in viewpsycho-analyst, when using the term, mainlya certain psychological mechanism which is often undoubtedlyoperative. "The essential function of all formsof symbolism/' says Ernest Jones, "is to overcome theinhibition that ishindering the free expression of a givenfeeling-idea," That isundoubtedly one way, and an interestingway, in which a symbol may function; but we mustnot incautiously attribute it to all forms of symbolism.To take a highly typical symbol: the flag is for die patriotto

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXthe symbol of his country, but his devotion to it is not thethe sailorconquest of an inhibition, and when in old daysnailed the flag to the mast in battle it was certainly notbecause he feared to give free expressionto his love forhis country. A fundamental significance of the symbol is(as this example indicates) that it gives concrete shape toa more abstract feeling-idea. When a lover concentrateshis attention on some special feature of his mistress or herbelongings her hair or her hand or her shoes he is notovercoming an inhibition; he isbringing to a more manageableconcrete focus the diffused emotions which hefeels for the beloved's whole personality.There is neverthelessa specialclass of symbols by which an indirectrepresentation replaces something hidden which is thereal motive force, because it has characteristics in commonwith it and can thus give a satisfaction which is reallyEven ifimparted by the hidden thing it represents.psycho-analysts have sometimes exaggerated the extent ofthis class of it existssymbolisms, and must not be overlooked.The extent of erotic symbolism is seen when we attemptto group and classify the phenomena which may bebrought under this head. Such phenomena may be con-on the basis ofveniently arranged in three great classes,the objects which arouse them.i. PARTS OF THE BODY (A), Normal: Hand, foot,breasts, nates, hair, secretions and excretions, odor(ophresiolagnia) . (B) Abnormal: Lameness, squinting,.pitting of smallpox, etc., Paidophilia, or the sexual loveof children, 1presbyophilia, or the love of the aged, and1 Paidophilia is sometimes regarded as a separatedeviation. Medicolegallyit is convenient so to regard it I am, however, inclined to agreewith Leppmann, who has carefully studied sexual outrages on children,that, psychologically, there is no definite deviation on a congenital basisinvolving an exclusive sexual attraction to unripe girls. It may easily

SEXUAL DEVIATIONnecrophilia, or the attraction for corpses, may be includedunder this head, as well as the excitement caused by animals(erotic zoophilia).2. INANIMATE OBJECTS (A) Garments: Gloves, shoes.and stockings and garters, aprons, handkerchiefs, underlinen.(B) Impersonal . Objects: Here may be includedall the various objects that may accidentally acquire thepower of exciting sexual feeling in auto-erotism. Pygmalionism(iconolagnia) or the sexual attraction of statues,mayalso be included.3. ACTS AND ATTITUDES (A). Active: Whipping,cruelty, exhibitionism, mutilation and murder. (B), Passive:Being whipped, experiencing cruelty. Personal odorsand the sound of the voice may also be included underthis head. (C).Scoptophilia or Mixoscopia or voyeurism:including objects and scenes found to be sexually stimulating;the vision of climbing, swinging, etc.; the acts ofurination and defecation (urolagnia and coprolagnia);the coitus of animals.It will be seen that there is a vast range of kind anddegree in the deviations of the sexual impulse. At one endwe find the innocent and amiable attraction which hismistress's glove or slipper may possessfor the lover anattraction which has been felt by the finest and sanestminds and at the other end the random murderous outragesof a Jack the Ripper. But we have to remember thatthere is at no point any definite frontier, and that byinsensible gradations the systematic arrangement of sexualdeviations can be seen to pass from the harmless maniato the murderous outrage. So that even when we are notbe associated with impotent senility. Otherwise it occurs either as anoccasional luxurious specialty of a few over-refined persons, or, morecommonly, as part of a general indiscriminating sexual tendency in theweak-minded. So far as it has any psychological definition, it may perhapsbest be regarded as resembling the symbolisms.

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXdealing with the criminal or medico-legal field, but aremainly concerned with the psychologyof the normal sex-we cannot avoid the consideration of deviations, forlife,at one end they all come within the normal range.Most of the extremes of symbolism are chiefly found inmen. They are so rare in women that Kraff t-Ebing stated,even in the late editions of his Psychopathia Sexualis, thathe knew of no cases of erotic fetichism in women. Theydo, however, occur occasionally, even in well-markedforms. In its normal form erotic symbolism is undoubtedlyquite common in women, and, as Moll points out, eventhe generalfascination exerted on women by the soldier'suniform isprobably due to the action of a symbolism ofBut it also occurs in abnormal forms. There iscourage.indeed one form of erotic fetichism Kleptolagnia orerotic kleptomaniawhich in its typical form, occurs almostexclusively in women.BIBLIOGRAPHYHAVELOCK ELLIS, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, especiallyVols. Ill and V.G. V. HAMILTON, A Research in Marriage.R. L. DICKINSON, A Thousand Marriages.KRAFFT-EBING, Psychopathia Sexualis.THOINOT AND WEYSSE, Medico-Legal Aspects of MoralOffenses.ERNEST JONES, "The Theory of Symbolism," Papers onPsycho-Analysis, Chap. VIII.S. HERBERT, The Unconscious in Life and Art.Sexual Deviations in ChildhoodWhen we took a wide survey of the sexual phenomenaof childhood and adolescence we saw that it is not easy,once we have put aside our religious, ethical, or social

SEXUAL DEVIATIONpre-judgments, to introduce the idea of "perversion."Biologically, many things are natural that are outside ourconventions, while ethnographically and historically thereis no uniformity in conventions. I find it quite impossible,therefore, and even mischievous, to describe the childin the term that was once frequently employed by Freudas "polymorph-perverse," though the term has since beenmore or less supplanted, as Jelliffe points out, by "autoerotic,"or, as some would prefer, "pre-genital." For, asFreud himself has more recently seen, the barriersgradually built up by development and education do notyet exist for children. There cannot therefore be anyquestion of "perversion," for that would be to judgethem precisely in the way in which Freud himself saysthey should not be judged "by the moral and legalcodes of mature and fully responsible persons." The impressionof "polymorphous perversity" is merely superficial;it is(as I have frequently had occasion to pointout) the kind of "perversity" which an ignorant observermight find in the twisted fronds of young ferns. The con*ditions of life demand that twisted shape in the youngwould be if thegrowing things, and the real "perversity"young thing were to exhibit the shape of that which isfully grown.It is necessary to emphasize this pointfor even wouldbepioneers and pedagogues of what is sometimes called"sexology" are often entangled in the meshes of the past.The extravagant horror of "perversity," the mania forfinding and dwelling on "perversions" in the young, isitself the most perverse of perversions. It is seldom found,so far as is yet known, among any people living a sane andreasonably natural life, whether we turn to the savages oftoday or to the races of classic civilizations in which wehave our own roots.We may indeed say as much of the

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXsame tendency when directed against adults. The so-called"perversions" of childhood persistin some form or otherand in some varying degree when the child isgrown up,for, as Jelliffe remarks, "very few people are really grownup." The difference is that there is now super-added theadult act of intercourse adequate to insure, if necessary,the consummating union of sperm-cell and germ-cell. Butthe "perversions"of childhood and adolescence may remainin due subordination as part of the play-function ofsex, a legitimateand even desirable part of the art of loveare within theand the technique of impregnation. Theylegitimate range of variations. It is only, if ever, allowableto call them perversionswhen so magnified as to replacethe desire for the central act of sex union and when theyhave diminished or abolished the ability to effect it.It thus comes about that we have speciallyto avoidspeaking about "perversions" in early life. The child'smind does not work in quite the same way as the adultmind; what is "natural" in one phaseis not necessarily soat an earlier phase of development. So that it is not alwayseasy either for the child to understand the operations ofthe adult's mind, or the adult the child's. It is unfortunatethat adults do not more vividly realize what theywere themselves as children. Many of us, however, canrecall how misunderstood we sometimes were, and howtreated. That is liable tounjustly we were in consequencehappen even in matters where children and adults havemuch in common and is, therefore, still more likely tohappen in the field of sex where they have so little incommon.Yet we must not conclude that sexual anomalies do notoccur in early life. It is, however, much more a questiona question of degree ratherof quantity than of quality,than of kind. Whether of kind or of degree we can rarely

SEXUAL DEVIATIONerr in attributing them to an unsound heredity. When thechild exhibits latent transformations of sexual impulse,likely to be harmful to himself or others such as algolagniacarried to the point of bloodshed or that form oftheft I term kleptolagnia we cannot be concerned witha child of sound heredity, and all our care is demandedin devising appropriate conditions for dealing with thecase, either therapeutic or hygienic. For we must alwaysremember that, in approaching such conditions, there aresome persons, who, by a peculiar twist of mind, seem in-of humancapable of appreciating the hereditary factorsactions, while others, by an equally peculiar but opposedtwist of mind, seem incapable of appreciating die acquiredfactors of human action. Both these kinds of peopledo useful work in the direction along which their line ofvision extends. But each alone is incapable of reaching asane and balanced picture of the whole mechanism oflife. We need to combine their two lines of vision in orderreally to see the object, and so be enabled to seek thecure for an anomaly in so far as it isacquired and tosecure the right conditions for it in so far as it is inbornand constitutional.There are two kinds of anomaly we mayoften find inthe early sex life, but with a tendency, under unfavorableconditions, to persist in adult life: the tendency to defectand the tendency to excess hypo-conditions and hyperconditions.Both kinds of anomaly are specially liable tooccur in a civilization like our own, where the stimulationsto sexual activity and the restrictions on that activityboth external and internal are alike so powerful. Theanomalies by defect(the hypo-esthesias and hypo-excitabilities)are less serious in early life than those by excess(the hyper-esthesias and hyper-excitabilities) for they maysimply indicate a development which is slow but quite

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXlikely to proceed vigorouslywhen adult life is reached.It may even be more likely to turn out happily, perhapsvigorously, when it is late. This is significantly suggestedby Hamilton's inquiries: he found that the later sexualcuriosity arises the more satisfactory (as shown by adequateorgasm which he regardsas the most convenienttest)married life is likely to be. It is thus that we mayprobably explain one of the most curious and unexpectedof Hamilton's results: the women who were shocked orfrightened wlien theyfirst learned the facts of sex show adecidedly more satisfactory married sex-life (nearly 65per cent, with adequate orgasm) than those who werepleased, interested, or gratified when theyfirst learnedthe facts of sex. The children who were gratified were,we may assume, those with an already developed sex life,the children who were shocked, those with an undevelopedsex life. So that this result, far from being reallyanomalous, is in line with the result that the childrenwith no early sex curiosity have eventually the most satisfactorymarried life. Sexual precocity, while by no meansnecessarily of evil omen, is less promising for future welfarethan its absence. It may be added that Dr. KatharineDavis did not find any markedly greater proportion oflater happiness in girls who had not masturbated or hadsexual play in childhood, as compared to those who hadhad such early sex experience. Dickinson and Pearsonstate that there is a real difference in the way of betterhealth among those women who keep on with the habit ofmasturbation than with those who dropit after early life;this might be considered due to greater health and vigorin those who continue the habit. They also state that thereis no appreciable difference in health between those whobegin to masturbate early and those who start after

eighteen, which isSEXUAL DEVIATIONnot a conclusion we can unreservedlyaccept.As regards the treatment of defects and excesses of sexualityin the young, the question of the defects is in anycase simple. The evidence seems, as we have seen, to indicatethat it is more likely than not to be a satisfactorystate in the years before puberty, provided always that itoccurs naturally, and has not been produced artificially,or merely superficially, by unwholesome external conditions,whether physical or psychic. The anomalies by excessare so numerous and often so complex that each hasto be considered by A itself. wise physicianis here required,familiar with children and their difficulties. Informer days such physicians can scarcely be said to havehad any existence; they are very far indeed from beingnumerous today; but there isgood reason to hope that,along the lines of child-study and child-guidance that arenow being developed, the wise treatment of sexual anomaliesof childhood and youth will no longer be so rarelyfound.But for the main partit is in the home that childguidance must begin and, for most children, end. And it isthe mother though there is an important place for thefather even in the guidance of girlswho is the naturallyelect child guide. Nowadays motherhood is a serious vocation,to which not all women are called. It is a disciplinewhich makes many demands, and women may be thankfulif, in a world rapidly becoming over-filled, it is reallytrue that the Napoleons of the future will no longerclamor so loudly at the marriage bed for cannon fodder.It is few mothers, but the best, that humanity now needs.That, we may be sure, will eventually mean a revolutionin our sex life, a revolution beginning, as any such revolutionmust begin, in infancy.

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXThe mothers of the immediate past,from this pointof view, may roughly be divided into two classes: a major*ity who, from ignorance or timidity, almost altogether ignoredsex in their children an attitude which oftenturned out well and a minority who suffered from theevils of half-knowledge and displayed a nervous anxietyand apprehensionover this matter which by no meansalways proved beneficial. Today the new mother, livingin a world in which a more wholesome atmosphere beginsto prevailin relation to sex, islearning by herself toassume an attitude towards her children which is differentfrom that of either of these two classes. She is alert andinformed, but at the same time not over eager to interfereeven with those manifestations concerning the nature andtendency of which she may not feel fully assured. She isrealizing sometimes almost instinctively that her childhas various phases to pass through before reaching fulldevelopment, that too great an anxiety tointerfere evenmore mis-with activities that seem undesirable may be yetchievous than the activities themselves, and that the mainthing is to understand the child, to win his confidence,and so to become a trusted adviser in his difficulties. Thisintuition, it may be remarked, is sound. Those who areintimately acquaintedwith children and infants are awarethat, for instance, confirmed masturbation prolonged intowhose mothers have fromadult life may occur in subjectsthe first been energetically attempting to combat thehabit, or that thumb-sucking, which some regard as tendingto pass into masturbation, may be practiced with obviousenjoyment from earliest infancy and later slowlydisappear, if not interfered with, without being replacedby more definitely sexual modes of enjoyment.When we turn from the home to the school difficultiesare increased since the school, in which many children are

SEXUAL DEVIATIONmiscellaneously crowded together away from the guidanceof those who know and love them best, is necessarily anunnatural state of life in which the possibilities of evilare multiplied. Elizabeth Goldsmith (in Sex in Civilization)tells of a school where "we have come to the conclusionthat it ischild in hisdesirable not to curb the youngmasturbatory activity, to study the whole child's adjustmentand put the emphasis on his being a healthy, outgoingactive child, satisfied in his relationships and activities."That "emphasis" is urgent and we are not told theresults of this policy. No doubt it is still too early to speakdefinitely; we must wait until the adult can look back onhis own early life. It ishardly a policy that can be carriedout auspiciously without a considerable degree of wellinformedawareness.The usual policy in schools has been, as we know, tocultivate blindness, and when, by chance, a culprit isdiscoveredto "make an example of him."(Thisis illustratedin Hugh de Selincourt's novel, One Little Boy, in whichWhile thethe whole questionisadmirably presented.)auto-erotic practices of girls, though widely varied, areusually carried on very secretly, and often more or lessunconsciously, boys are inclined to be less secretive; inlarge schools are sometimes found masturbation clubs,secret societies of which of course the teachers rarely suspectthe existence. In such centers there are usually exceptionalboys of congenital hyper-sexual temperament ofthe kind who when they become conspicuous are nowtermed "problem children." As their morbidity is oftenassociated with force of character they tend to exert anundue influence on companions who are of more normaltemperament but still at an impressionable age. Whenmany children are brought together this careful "eliminationof the problemcases is an essential condition if free-

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXdom for natural isdevelopment to be allowed. The resultsof experimental attempts have shown that otherwiseall sorts of bad habits, hygienic and other, quite apartfrom the sphere of sex, are encouraged, and the strong areable to exert their youthful impulses of cruelty, naturalor morbid, in persecuting the weak. Thus those who cultivatethe ideal of allowing the child to pass unimpededthrough his own natural stages of development encounterthe difficulty that they must not only restrain their ownimpulse of interference but that they must be careful toremove other influences which impede or distort naturaldevelopment. The treatment, which sometimes involvesthe segregation of these "problem children/' must alwaysbe highly individualized, since cases endlessly vary, andcall for a high degree of specialized skill; and while insuch children an abnormal sex element is frequently tobe detected, their peculiarities of behavior, which areoften of an anti-social character, extend far beyond thesexual sphere.For ordinary children, however, it remains true thatthe responsibility must inevitably rest in the first placeon the parents and especially the mother. That is whymotherhood can no longer be regarded as a merely animalfunction, but has become a vocation demanding enlightenedand trained intelligence, and not to be exercised bywomen who are not called to itby natural aptitude ofmind as well as of body. The evil influence of incompetent,careless, or foolish parents, is now becoming generallyrecognized. Even parents who would object to beclassed under any of these heads are constantly liable,when absorbed in their own occupations or carried awayby varying moods of the moment, to alternate betweenunreasonable severity and equally unreasonable indul-[160]

SEXUAL DEVIATIONgence, and so to call out highly critical reactions in theirchildren who sit in judgment over them, for children arehypercritical of their parents, in an egoistic anxiety thattheir parents should be models of perfection."The people who best disciplined children and taughtthem self-control/' Professor Winifred Cullis remarkedat a meeting of the Parents' Association in London, "wereother children." This is a wise observation so long as it istaken in connection with the considerations here broughtforward. Life must be lived with our equals and we cannotlive without discipline and control. There must alwaysbe repression in life, in the sense of an inhibition ofimpulses and a subordination of some natural possibilities.There is no room in social life for unrestrained license;as Freud well says, in the admirable twenty-seventhlecture of his Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, "free livingis itself a repression," for it crushes the half of our impulsesand the most human half, in which ultimately ourhappiness must mainlylie. It is better that elders shouldnot be the imposers of discipline and control, but ratherthe guides and referees when difficulties arise. From theearliest age there begins the formation of self-disciplineand self-control, and it may most naturally and mostwholesomely arise in that life among equals for which alleducation that is worth anythingis the training ground.BIBLIOGRAPHYA. MOLL, The Sexual Life of the Child.S. FREUD, Three Contributions to Sexual Theory.STANLEY HALL, Adolescence.HAVELOCK. ELLIS, "Sexual Education," Studies in the Psychologyof Sex, Vol. VI.WILLIAM and DOROTHY THOMAS, The Child in America:Behavior Problems and Programs.O. RANK, Modern Education.

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXUrolagnia and CoprolagniaThe most usual erotic symbolismsin childhood arethose o the scatologic group, the significance of which hasoften been emphasized by Freud and others. The channelsof urination and defecation are so close to the sexualcenters that the intimate connection, physical and psychic,between the two groups is easily understood. Urinationand defecation are processes which in any case could notfail to interest the youthful mind, for they gratify thechildish impulse to make things, and are thus a rudimentaryform of the artistic impulse,at the same time amanifestation of power. Hamilton found that 2 1per cent,cent, of his married womenof his married men and 16 perhad in childhood had fecal and urinary interests, andscatological fancies or play. These functions also appearto absorb something of the nervous energy which latergoes into the sexual channel; in young girls,and occasionallyin women, when tumescence has occurred, detumescencemay take the form of a spasmodic and involuntaryemission of urine. There isprobably a connection betweennocturnal enuresis and sexual activity, sometimesmasturbation. Freud believes that retention of the contentsof the bowels for the sake of pleasurablesexual sensationsmay occur in childhood; and it is certain that evenin later life the contents of the bladder are sometimes retainedfor the same reason.Children not unusually believethat the sexual acts of their elders have some connectionwith urination or defecation, and the mysterywith which the excretory acts are surrounded helps tosupport this theory. An interest in these functions is notuncommonly prolonged beyond the age of puberty, especiallyin girls, but it tends to die out, sometimes with afeeling of shame at the attention bestowed on it, as the[162]

SEXUAL DEVIATIONinterest in sex matters develops. Occasionally it persistsin the adult sexual impulse; more commonly perhaps,there is a more or less forced repressionof the infantilescatologic interests which may then play the part attributedto them by Freud. But up to puberty, scatologic interestsmay be regarded as normal; at thisagethe childhas still much in common with the primitive mind, which,as mythology and folk-lore show, attributes great importanceto the excretory functions. We may regard theseinterests as merely a phase in normal development. Inso far as they persist in adult life they remain normallyin the background, with a certain range of variation, andstill able to exercise, at all events as regards urination,a legitimate part in the play-functionof sex.Extreme cases have been described, notably of thecoprolagnic or coprophilic tendency. In such a case (onewas recorded in full detail by Moll) an interest in thewhole process of defecation and itsproduct may be sodeveloped that it replaces all normal sexual interests. Inminor degrees of this tendency, we have anal erotism(supposed to be associated with early constipation or theimpulse to restrain evacuation to procure pleasure) ; ithas speciallybeen explored by psycho-analysts,who regardit as based on a primary tendency of childhood, which,when after childhood it is repressed, may lead to psychicand whentraits of orderliness, frugality, even stinginess;not repressed lead to other psychictraits the reverse ofthese. This is a matter for further investigation. Hamiltontook it into consideration, and found ten persons (nineanal erotism butwomen and one man) who denied earlyhad early constipation and showed in an unusually largeproportion stinginess, orderliness, sadism, masochism,hoarding, and extravagance; but these results were tooconfused and contradictory to support speculations as to

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXthe precise relationship of early constipationto adultpsychic traits.After childhood coprolagniais not usually associatedwith urolagnia, although the association may be found inslight forms. The extreme forms of coprolagnia are inmen, but urolagnia, while more frequent in both sexes,is specially frequent, though often only in a slight degree,in women. It is doubtless encouraged by the close andobvious connection of the urinary function with thesexual organ, as well as by actual nerve connections.and women will sometimes seek to rival theYoung girlsattitude of the other sex in urination, a rivalry possiblefor many who are still young and have not borne children,as maternity enfeebles the expulsive muscular force.There is no necessary homosexual tendency here involved.Considerable importance has sometimes been attachedto what Sadger has termed "urethral erotism," or urinaryerotism, using the term widely, to cover not only theurethra and the urine, but the whole peripheral urinaryapparatus from the bladder to the urethral orifice. It isclaimed that this kind of erotism in early life may presentthe type of the later sexual life when by what may seema natural transition erotism is transferred to the morestrictly sexual sphere and its secretion; and, correspondingly,urinary irregularities may become seminal irregularities.It has further been argued that such urethralerotism may extend to the highest psychic sphere, since itis in regulation of the urinary as well as bowel functionsthat duty first appears to the infant.A tendency for bed-wetting to be associated with sexualityhas long been noted. Enuresis and urethral erotismhave by Freud and some other psycho-analysts been associatedwith psychic traits of ambition and aggressiveness.This supposition may have started in the fact that a special

SEXUAL DEVIATIONurinary interest in girls can manifest itself as rivalry withthe urinary function in boys. There seems, however, noreal and frequent association of urinary erotism with suchrivalry which, also, is common enough in those completelydevoid of such erotism.I have been accustomed to apply the term Undinismto the frequent presence of an early interest in waterin general, and the urinary function in particular, persistingin later life. This interest, not amounting to adefinite deviation of the sexual impulse, or becoming asubstitute for it, is common, especially in women, amongwhom its presence may be accounted for by various circumstancesof their life, perhaps now becoming less prevalentby changed social conditions, but there always remainsa closer association between sexual emotion andurination in women than in men, in whom the seminaland urinary functions of expulsion are in general mutuallyexclusive. The love of water generallyis also associatedwith a greater tendency in women than in men tofind pleasure in tactile associations.BIBLIOGRAPHYHAVELOCK ELLIS, Studies inV; also "Undinism," Studies in the Psychology of Sex,Vol. VII.ERNEST JONES, Papers on Psycho-Analysis, "Anal Eroticism,"Chs. XXX and XL.the Psychology of Sex, VoLErotic FetichismThe most typical of the erotic symbolismsis constitutedby erotic fetichism, a term devised by Binet in 1888. Evenan erotic symbolism such as exhibitionism may be fetichistic,and every fetich is a symbol. The number of objects

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXnot only parts of the body but inanimate things whichmay acquire special erotic significance is practically infinite.There is indeed nothing that may not take on suchsignificance. That is why the legal attempt to suppress"obscenity," regarded (according to the judicially recognizeddefinition) as a tendency to "deprave and corruptthose whose minds are open to such immoral influences,"iscompletely unworkable. Thus Dr. Jelliffe's patient,Zenia X, wrote that sex symbols became insistent at theage of thirteen and fourteen: "From this time on, thoughmore fully in later years since the struggle has been moreconsciously sexual and thus more violent, I have beensurrounded by symbols, particularly of the phallus: agarden hose in use or a jet of water, pears particularly orother elongated fruits, long pendant catkins, the pistilin the center of a flower, a stick or stick-shaped objectthrust into a round hole, the lobe of the ear with whichIhave toyed since birth, my teeth, and my tongue whichthe others,I have nervously pressed against them until weary, afinger which seemingly in order to suppress a suddensexual thought I have many times pointed before me andthen in quick correction have drawn in and folded withinthe thumb which again involuntarily in a repressiveeffort is folded close within the fingers, certainletters of the alphabet. These are some of the symbolswhich have beset me on every hand, thrusting themselvescontinually before me, to remind me of the phallus orof the actual contact of the organs male and female."The manifold complexity of sexual symbols is againbrought out in a case described by Marcinowski, a highlyintelligent married woman of 27, who was neurotic withslight germs of morbid deviation. The symbols were aptto occur in her dreams which she was skilful in interpreting:ships in haven were often the symbol of coitus,[166]

SEXUAL DEVIATIONas was sailing in a ship; water was the symbol of themother's body (connected with early ideas that the bladderwas associated with coitus); to die (being self-abandonment)is to be in love; a knife is a phallic symbol;worms and snakes are small masculine organs; the horseand the dog are sexual symbols (she had once kissed adog's penis) as are doves; a , railway engine (attractive toher from childhood)is a symbol of the penis, as is also atree and a banana; to kill equals coitus (she had sometimeshad sadistic fancies);many fish are symbols ofcoitus; rain, urine, and tears are symbols of semen; wantingto urinate is for her a form of sexual excitement.Most of these symbols are liable to occur anywhere andto anyone. The necessary conditions for a symbol to becomea fetich seem to be a special predisposition, no doubtusually of neuropathic nature, though this is by no meansalways obvious, and a strong impression by which theobject is poignantly presented to consciousness at a momentof strong sexual excitement, this event often occurringbefore or about puberty. The accidental associationwithout the predisposition will scarcely suffice to evoke afetich (except in slight degree), for such accidental associationsare constantly occurring. Hirschfeld has arguedthat a fetich is frequently the real expression of the individual'sspecial temperament. The soldier's red coat actslike a fetich on the servant girl because it is a symbolof the martial and virile character which appeals to her,and itmay well be that in many less obvious cases thefetich really expresses ideals based on individual idiosyncrasy.But in most cases this cannot be proved, and isoften indeed scarcely susceptible of proof on account ofthe neutral character of the fetich. A boy admires awoman who one day urinates in his presence so that hecatches a glimpse of her abundant pubic hair, and such

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXhair henceforth becomes an almost indispensable fetichto him; a youth is lying on the floor when a charming girlplayfully places her foot on him, continuing to play withhim thus until sexual excitement occurs, and he becomesa lifelong foot-fetichist.Such fetichisms are, in a slight degree, entirely normal.Every lover becomes speciallyattracted to some individualfeature of the beloved or to some of the various articlesthat come in contact with her. But this tendency becomesabnormal when it is exclusive or generalized, and it becomesa definite deviation when the fetich itself, even inthe absence of the person, becomes completely adequatenot only to arouse tumescence, but to evoke detumescence,so that there is no desire at all for sexual intercourse.In milder though definitely abnormal cases, the subjecthimself devises the appropriate treatment by taking carethat his fetich is set, as it were, in the ante-chamber tocourtship, so that it shall not cause any arrest or deviationof the emotions it arouses. In more serious cases the fetichistoften derives so much gratification from his perversion,and finds this gratificationso easy, that he has no wish tobecome normal. In some cases fetichism leads to variousanti-social offences, especiallyto the theft of the desiredfetich, such as shoes, handkerchiefs, or wearing apparel.Without leading to criminal actions it may prove annoyingfrom the undue sexual excitement caused, as in thecase of a young woman for whom eyeglasses or spectacleswere a fetich, and who experienced excitement whenevershe saw them worn, even by a woman. In such cases hypnotismwas formerly resorted to, sometimes with success.There are certain forms of erotic fetichism which areapt to be complicated in their psychological bearings.This isnotably the case as regards foot-fetichism, which,

SEXUAL DEVIATIONunder the conditions of civilization whereby the foot isusually seen clothed, becomes shoe-fetichism. There wouldseem to be an almost natural basis for foot-fetichism inthe tendency to a worldwide association of the foot withthe sexual organs. Even among the Jews the "foot" wasused as a euphemism for the sexual organs, and we read,for instance, in Isaiah of "the hair of the feet/' meaningthe pubic hair. In widely separated parts of the world,moreover, the foot has been a center of modesty. It wasso even in Spain, and Peyron noted in 1777 that the femininecustom of concealing the feet was only then passingout of fashion, and "a woman who shows her feet is nolonger ready to give her favors," as, itmay be added, shewas also in classic Rome. Even for the normal lover thefoot is one of the most attractive parts of the body. StanleyHall found that among the parts specified as mostadmired in the other sex by young men and women whoanswered a questionnaire the feet came fourth (after theeyes, hair, stature, and size). Other observers, however,like Hirschfeld, have found the hand a much more frequentfetich than the foot. Infants are peculiarly interestedin the foot, primarily in their own. Moreover, inmany parts of the world, notably China, some parts ofSiberia, as well as ancient Rome and medieval Spain, acertain degree of foot-fetichism has been recognized.It is not usual for the normal lover, in most civilizedcountries today, to attach primary importance to the foot,such as he frequently attaches to the eyes. In a small butnot inconsiderable minority of persons, however, the footor the shoe becomes the most attractive part of a woman,and in some morbid cases the woman herself isregardedas a comparatively unimportant appendage to her foot orher shoes. Restif de la Bretonne furnishes an interestingexample of foot-fetichism in a writer of considerable im-

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXportance; in his case the fetichism was well marked, butit was never extreme, and the shoe, however attractive,was not an adequate substitute for the woman.Eccentric as foot-fetichism may appear, it is thus simplythe reemergence, by a pseudo-atavism or arrest of development,of a mental or emotional impulse which wasprobably experienced by our forefathers, and is oftentraceable among young children today. The occasional reappearanceof this bygone impulse and the stability whichit may acquire are thus conditioned by the sensitive reactiono an abnormally nervous and usually precociousorganism to influences which, among the average and ordinarypopulation of Europe today, are either never feltor quickly outgrown, or strictly subordinated in thehighly complex crystallizationswhich the course of loveand the process of tumescence create within us. An interestingcase was elaborately psycho-analyzed byL. Binswanger:Gerda, as a child, had acquired the habit of sittingon her heels with her shoe pressed against the vulvaand anus. This would cause excitement in these erogeniczones and she would find pleasure in urinating (perhapsas a form of detumescence) The shoe became her friend.and lover and darling, to be carefully protected andguarded from the eyes of others. The foot and especiallythe shod foot became blended with all her sexual ideas,the representative o the phallus, and even, as amongprimitive peoples, the symbol of all fertility. On thisfoundation phobias and other symptoms in time developed,to some extent overlying and diminishing the originalmanifestations.It may be added that this isby no means true of footfetichismonly. In some other fetichisms a seemingly congenitalpredispositionis even more marked. This is notonly the case as regards hair-fetichism, fur-fetichism, etc.[170]

SEXUAL DEVIATIONIn many cases of fetichisms of all kinds not only is thereno record of any commencement in a definite episode (anabsence which may be accounted for by the suppositionthat the original incident has been forgotten), but itwould seem in some cases that the fetichism developedvery slowly. In this sense, although we cannot speak offoot-fetichism as strictly atavism, itmay be seen to ariseon a congenital basis. We may, with Gamier, regard thecongenital element as essential.This congenital element of erotic symbolism is worthother form of sexual devia-noting because more than anytion the fetichisms are those which are least clearly conditionedby inborn states of the organism and most frequentlyaroused by seemingly accidental associations orshocks in early life. Inversion is sometimes so fundamentallyingrained in the individual's constitution that itarises and develops in spite of the strongest influences ina contrary direction. But a fetichism, while it tends tooccur in sensitive, nervous, timid, precocious individualsthat is to say, individuals of more or less neuropathicheredity can usually, though not always, be traced to adefinite starting point in the shock of some sexually emotionalepisode in early life.Associations of this kind may occur in the early experiencesof even normal persons. The degree to which theywill influence the subsequent life and thought and feelingdepends on the degree of the individual's morbid emotionalreceptivity, or the extent to which he is hereditarilysusceptible of abnormal deviation. Precocity is undoubtedlya condition which favors such deviation; a child whois precociously and abnormally sensitive to persons of theopposite sex before puberty has established the normalchannels of sexual desire, is peculiarly liable to becomethe prey of a chance symbolism. All degrees of such sym-

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXholism are possible.While the average insensitive personmay fail to perceive them at all, for the more alert andimaginative lover they are a fascinating part of the highlycharged crystallization of passion.A more nervously exceptionalperson, when once such a symbolism has becomefirmly implanted, may find it an absolutely essentialelement in the charm of a beloved and charming person.Finally, for the individual who is thoroughly unsoundthe symbol becomes generalized; a person is no longerdesired at all, being merely regarded as an appendage ofthe symbol, or being dispensed with altogether; thesymbol is alone desired, and is fully adequate to impartby itself complete sexual gratification. While it may beconsidered a morbid state to demand a symbol as an almostessential part of the charm of a desired person, itonly in the final condition, in which the symbol becomesall-sufficing, that we have a completely morbid variation.In the lesscomplete forms of symbolismit is still thewoman who is desired, and the ends of procreation mayand the merebe served; when the woman isignoredsymbol is an adequate and even preferred stimulus todetumescence the pathologicalcondition becomes complete.Krafft-Ebing regarded shoe-fetichism as, in large measure,a more or less latent form of masochism, the foot orthe shoe being the symbol of the subjection and diehumiliation which the masochist feels in the presence ofthe beloved object. Moll, more correctly, states that theconnection is"very frequent." This was also the opinionof Gamier, who was, however, careful to point out thatthere are many cases in which no such connection can betraced.While we may properly admit the frequencyisof the connectionwe must be cautious in making any general at^

SEXUAL DEVIATIONtempt to amalgamate masochism and foot-fetichism. In thebroad sense in which erotic symbolismis here understood,both masochism and foot-fetichism may be coordinatedas symbolisms; for the masochist his self-humiliating impulsesare the symbol of ecstatic adoration; for the footfetichisthis mistress's foot or shoe is the concentratedsymbol of all that is most beautiful and elegant and femininein her personality. But if in this sense they are coordinated,they often remain entirely distinct. Masochism,indeed, merely simulates foot-fetichism; for the masochistthe boot is not strictly a symbol, it is only an instrumentwhich enables him to carry out his impulse; the truesexual symbol for him is not the boot, but the emotionof self-subjection. For the foot-fetichist, on the other hand,the foot or the shoe is not a mere instrument, but a truesymbol, the focus of his worship, an idealized object whichhe is content to contemplate or reverently touch. He himselfusually has no impulse to any self-degrading action,nor the slightest emotion of subjection. It be notedmaythat in the typical case of foot-fetichism which is presentedto us in the person of Restif de la Bretonne hethe woman for whomrepeatedly speaks of "subjugating"he feels this fetichistic adoration, and mentions that evenwhen still a child he especially admired a delicate andbecause she seemed to himfairy-like girl in this respecteasier to subdue. His attitude throughout life was activeand masculine, not masochistic.In determining whether we are concerned with a caseof fetichism or of masochism, it is necessary to take thesubject's whole mental and emotional attitude into consideration.The same act may have a different significancein different persons. Krafft-Ebing believed that the desireto be trodden on is absolutely symptomatic of masochism.That is not the case. The desire to be trodden on may be

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXfound as an erotic symbolism,associated with footfetichism,and not involving any desire to be subjugated.That was clearly seen in a very pronounced case I haverecorded in a man inow dead, whom I knew, a man ofmasterful and enterprising disposition and with no desirefor subjugation. In a rather similar case more recentlyrecorded by Marchand and Fuller they point out thatthere were no indications of masochism. Even when amasochistic tendency appears, that may be merely secondary,a parasitic growth on the symbolism.This desire to be trodden on sometimes experienced byfoot-fetichists is itself interesting because it shows howthe narrower attraction of fetiches tends to be merged inthe wider attraction of erotic symbols; the foot is morethan a mere material object to be idolized when it belongsto a beloved person.It is a center of force, an agentfor exerting pressure; and thus it furnishes a point ofdeparture not only for the static erotic fetich, but for thedynamic erotic symbolization. The energy of its movementsbecomes a substitute for the energy of the sexualorgans themselves. Here we have a symbolism which isaltogether different from that fetichism which adores adefinite object; it is a dynamic symbolism finding its gratificationin the spectacle of movements which ideally recallthe fundamental rhythm and pressure reactions of thesexual process.The same tendencyis well illustrated by acase observed by Charcot and Magnan, in which a footfetichistwas specially excited by the act of hammering anail into a woman's shoeevidently a symbol of coitus.BIBLIOGRAPHYFREUD, Three Contributions to Sexual Theory.HAVELOCK ELLIS, Studies in the Psychology of Sex. Vols.Ill and V.E'W]

SEXUAL DEVIATIONStuff-Fetichisms and Erotic ZoophiliaIT is now necessary, without entirely leaving the fieldof fetichism, to touch on a special group of sexual symbolsin which the association of contiguity with the humanbody is usually absent: the various methods by which animals,or animal products, or the sight of animal copulation,may arouse sexual desire in human persons. Here' weencounter a symbolism mainly founded on association byresemblance; the animal sexual act recalls the humansexual act; the animal becomes the symbol of the humanbeing.The group of phenomena we are here concerned withincludes several sub-divisions. There is, first, the more orless sexual pleasure sometimes experienced, especially byyoung persons, in the sight of copulating animals. Thishas been termed Mixoscopic Zoophilia;it falls within theof normal variation. Then we have the cases inrangewhich the contact of animals, stroking, etc., producessexual excitement or gratification; this is a sexual fetichismin the narrow sense, and isby KrafEt-Ebing termedZoophilia Erotica. We have, further, the class of cases inwhich a real or simulated sexual intercourse with animalsis desired. Such cases do not involve fetichism in thenarrow sense, but they come within the sphere of eroticsymbolism, as here understood. This class falls into twodivisions: one in which the individual is fairly normal,but belongs to a low grade of culture; the other in whichhe may belong to a more refined social class, but a psychopathiccondition is present. In the first case we may properlyapply the simple term bestiality (it is called sodomyin some countries, but this is incorrect as well as confusing,and to be avoided) , in the second case it may

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXperhapsbe better to use the term Zooerastia, proposed byKrafft-Ebing.Among children, both boys and girls,it is common tofind that the copulationof animals is a mysteriously fascinatingspectacle.It is inevitable that this should be so,for the spectacleis more or less clearly felt to be therevelation of a secret which has been concealed fromthem. It is, moreover, a secret of which they feel intimatereverberations within themselves, and even in perfectlyinnocent and ignorant children the sight may produce anobscure sexual excitement. It would seem that this occursmore frequently in girlsthan in boys. Even in adultage, it may be added, women are liable to experience thesame kind of emotion in the presence of such spectacles.In the sixteenth century, both in England and France,the ladies of royal and aristocratic circles would almostopenly go to enjoy such spectacles. In more modern timessuch sights are regarded as both prurient and morbid, andfor ill-balanced minds no doubt are so.While the contemplation of animal coitus is an easilyintelligible and in early life, perhaps, an almost normalsymbol of sexual emotion, there is another sub-divisionof this group of animal fetichisms which forms a naturaltransition from the fetichisms which have their center inthe human body: the stuff-fetichism or the sexual attractionexerted by various tissues, perhaps always of animalorigin. Here we are in the presence of a somewhat complicatedphenomenon. In part we have, in a considerablenumber of cases, the sexual attraction of feminine garments,for all such tissues are liable to enter into thedress. In part, also, we have a sexual deviation of tactilesensibility, for in a considerable proportion of these casesit is the touch sensations which are potent in arousingthe erotic impulse. But in part, also, it would seem, we

SEXUAL DEVIATIONhave here the conscious or sub-conscious presence of ananimal fetich, and it is notable that perhapsall thesestuffs, and especially fur, which isby far the commonest ofthe groups, are distinctively animal products. We may per-the fetich of feminine hair a much morehaps regardimportant and common fetich, indeed, than any of thestuff-fetichisms as a link of transition. Hair is at oncean animal and a human product, while it may be separatedfrom the body and possesses the qualities of a stuff.Krafft-Ebing remarks that the senses of touch, smell, andhearing, as well as sight, seem to enter into the attractionexerted by hair.As a sexual fetich hair belongs strictly to the group ofparts of the body; but since it can be removed from thebody and is sexually effective as a fetich in the absenceof the person to whom it belongs, it is on a level with thegarments which may serve in a similar way, with shoesor handkerchiefs or gloves. Psychologically, hair-fetichismpresents no special problem, but the wide attraction ofhair it is sexually the most generally noted part of thefeminine body after the eyes and the peculiar facilitywith which when plaited itmay be removed have longrendered hair-fetichism a condition of special medicolegalinterest.The hair-despoiler (Coupeur des nattes or Zopfab-have dimin-schneider) however modern fashions may ,ished his activities, might formerly have been found inany civilized country, though the most carefully studiedcases occurred in Paris. Such persons are usually of nervoustemperament and bad heredity;the attraction ofhair occasionally develops in early life; sometimes themorbid impulse only appears in later life after fever. Thefetich may be either flowing hair or braided hair, but isusually one or the other, and not both. Sexual excitement['77]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXand ejaculation may be produced in the act of touchingor cutting off the hair, which issubsequently, in manycases, used for masturbation. As a rule the hair-despoileris a pure fetichist, no element of sadistic pleasure enteringinto his feelings.The stuff-fetiches are most usually fur and velvet; feathers,silk, and leather also sometimes exerting this influence;they are all, it will be noted, animal substances.The most interestingisprobably fur, the attraction ofwhich is not uncommon in association with passive algolagnia.As Stanley Hall showed, the fear of fur, as wellas the love of it, is by no means uncommon in childhood;it may appear in infancy and in children who have nevercome in contact with animals. It is noteworthy that inmost cases of uncomplicated stuff-fetichism the attractionapparently arises on a congenital basis, as it appears inpersonsof nervous or sensitive temperament at an earlyage and without being attached to any definite or causativeincident. The sexual excitation is nearly always producedby touch rather than by sight. If the specific sexualsensations may be regarded as a special modification oticklishness, the erotic symbolisjn in the case of these stufffetichismswould seem to be a more or less congenitaldeviation of ticklishness in relation to specificanimal contacts.A further degree of deviation in this direction isreached in erotic zoophilia, as exemplified in a case recordedby Krafft-Ebing. In this case a congenital neuropath,of good intelligence but delicate and anemic, withfeeble sexual powers, had a great love of domestic animals*especially dogs and cats, from an early age; when pettingthem he experienced sexual emotions, although he wasinnocent in sexual matters. At puberty he realized thenature of his feelings and tried to break himself of his

SEXUAL DEVIATIONhabits. He succeeded, but then began erotic dreams accompaniedby images of animals, and these led to masturbationassociated with ideas of a similar kind. At the sametime he had no wish for any sort of intimate intercoursewith animals, and was indifferent as to the sex of theanimals which attracted him; his sexual ideas were normal.Such a case seems to be one of fetichism on a tactilebasis, and thus forms a transition between the stuff-fetichismsand the complete perversiontowards animals.of sexual attractionKrafft-Ebing considered that this is radically distinctfrom erotic zoophilia. This view cannot be accepted. Bestialityand zooerastia merely present in a more markedand profoundly perverted form a further degree of thesame phenomenon which we meet with in erotic zoophilia;the difference is that they occur either in more insensitiveor in more markedly psychopathic persons. It is, however,somewhat doubtful whether we can always or even usuallydistinguish between zooerastia and bestiality, for it seemsprobable that in most cases of ordinary bestiality someslight traces of mental anomaly might be found, if suchcases always were, as they should be, properly investigated.As Moll remarks, it is often hardly possible to draw asharp line between vice and disease.We here reach the grossest and most frequent perversionin the group: bestiality or the impulse to attainsexual gratification by intercourse, or other close contact,with animals. In seeking to comprehendthis deviation itis necessary to divest ourselves of the attitude toward animalswhich is the inevitable outcome of refined civilizationand urban life. Most sexual deviations, if not in largemeasure the actual outcome of civilized life, easily adjustthemselves to it.Bestiality (except in one form to benoted later) is, on the other hand, the sexual anomaly of

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXdull, insensitive, and unfastidious peasants. It flourishesamong primitive peoples and rural communities. It is thevice of the clodhopper who is unattractive to women orof culture it is not ainapt to court them. In some stagesvice at all. Thus, when in Sweden at the end of the thirteenthcentury it was first made an offense by the Swedishpagan provincial laws, it was still only as an offense againstthe owner of the animal, who was entitled to compensation.Among still simpler peoples such as the Salish ofBritish Columbia, animals are regarded as no lower in thescale of life than human beings, and in some respectssuperior,so that there is noplace for our conception of"bestiality."Three conditions have favored the extreme prevalenceof bestiality: (i) primitive conceptions of life whichbuilt up no great barrier between man and the other animals;(2) the extreme familiarity which necessarily existsbetween the peasant and his beasts, often combined withseparation from women; (3) various folk-lore beliefs suchas the efficacy of intercourse with animals as a cure forvenereal disease,etc.Bestiality in the country is far from infrequent. Forthe peasant, whose sensibilities are uncultivated and whomakes but the most elementary demands from a woman,the difference between an animal and a human being inthis respect scarcely seems to be very great. "My wife wasaway too long/' a German peasant explained to the magistrate,"and so I went with my sow/* It is certainly anexplanation that to the peasant, ignorant of theologicaland juridical conceptions, must often seem natural andsufficient. Bestiality thus resembles masturbation andother manifestations of the sexual impulse which may bepracticed merely faute de mieux, and not as, in the strictsense, deviations of the impulse. In this wayit is found

SEXUAL DEVIATIONamong soldiers at the front compelled to live an abstinentlife; and the goat has been mentioned in this connectionboth in medieval days and among the troops of the GreatWar.But it isby no means only their dulled sensibilities, orthe absence of women, which accounts for the frequencyof bestiality among peasants. A highly important factor isA large number of animals have been recorded astheir constant familiarity with animals. It is scarcely surprisingthat peasants should sometimes regard animalsas being not only as near to them as their fellow humanbeings, but even nearer.employedin the gratification of sexual desire at some periodor in some country, by men and sometimes by women.Domestic animals are naturally those which most frequentlycome into question, and there are few ifany ofthese which can altogether be excepted. The sow is oneof the animals most frequently abused in this manner.Cases in which mares, cows, and donkeys figure constantlyoccur, as well as goats and sheep. Dogs, cats, andrabbits are heard of from time to time. Hens, ducks, andespecially in China, geese are not uncommonly employed.The Roman ladies were said to have had an abnormalaffection for snakes. The bear and the crocodile are alsomentioned.The social and legal attitude towards bestiality has reflectedin part the frequency with which it has been practiced,and in part the disgust mixed with mystical andsacrilegious horror which it has aroused. It has sometimesbeen met merely by a fine, and sometimes the offenderand his innocent partner have been burnt together. Inthe middle ages and later itsfrequency is attested by thefact that it formed a favorite topic with preachers of thefifteenth and sixteenth centuries. It is significant that it

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXwas thought necessary to fix the periods of penance whichshould be undergone respectively by bishops, priests, anddeacons who might be guilty o bestiality.The extreme severity which was frequently exercisedtoward those guilty of this offense, was doubtless in largemeasure due to the fact that bestiality was regarded as akind of sodomy, an offense which was viewed with amystical horror, apart altogether from any actual social orpersonal injury it caused. The Jews seem to have feltthis horror; it was ordered that the sinner and his victimshould both be putto death. In the middle ages, especiallyin France, the same rule often prevailed. Men andsows, men and cows, men and donkeys were burnt together.At Toulouse a woman was burnt for having intercoursewith a dog. Even in the seventeenth century alearned French lawyer justified such sentences. It seemsprobable that even today, in the social and legal attitudetowards bestiality, sufficient regard is not paid to the factthat this offense is usually committed either by personswho are morbidly abnormal or who are of so low a degreeof intelligence that theyborder on feeblemindedness.Moreover, it has to be remembered that, except in theoccasional cases which involve cruelty to animals, or areunited with sadism, bestiality isnot a directly anti-socialact at all; so long as there is no cruelty, it is, Forel remarks,"one of the most harmless of the pathological aberrationsof the sexual impulse."BIBLIOGRAPHYKRAFFT-EBING, Psychopathia Sexualis.W. HOWARD, "Sexual Perversion/' Alienist and Neurologist,Jan., 1896.FOREL, The Sexual Question.THOINOT and WEYSSE, Medico-Legal Moral Offenses.

SEXUAL DEVIATIONKleptolagniaThe ancient term (it dates from the eighteenth century)"Kleptomania/ 1 originally put forward as a "monomania,"has never been generally accepted in medicineand has usually been denied altogether in law. When usedit was generally meant to indicate simply a more or lessirresistible impulse to theft, an obsession for which thereis no conscious motive and which the subject (usuallya woman) struggles against; it was regarded as most nearlyallied with manic-depressive insanity. The tendency nowis to allow it to drop out of use. When a "morbid impulse"isbrought forward in court as a defense for theft it is tooeasy for the magistrate to retort: "That is what I am hereto cure." But there is a fairly definite condition, not avague obsession but due to precise and traceable causes,which cannot so be dismissed, and comes before us hereas within the sphere of sex psychology. This is the so-called"erotic kleptomania" for which the best name is probably"kleptolagnia." That name (to indicate the association oftheft with sexual feeling, in analogy with "algolagnia") ,was devised by the psychiatrist Kiernan of Chicago about1917. I adopted it at once and have ever since regarded itas the most suitable name for this condition. (Similarly"pyrolagnia" may be used for the rare condition of "eroticpyromania.") The condition itself seems to have been firstrecorded by Lacassagne of Lyons in 1896.Kleptolagnia may be said to arise on the wide basis oalgolagnia, that is to say the association of pain, here inthe form of anxiety, with sexual emotion. It had beenvaguely touched on by various observers, who had notclearly understood it before French psychiatrists (such asDepouy in 1905) described definite cases. They showedthat the mental process involved was really the process of

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXsexual tumescence and detumescence symbolically transformedinto an obsessive impulse, an impulse accompaniedby resistance and struggle, to seize secretly some more orless worthless object frequently a piece of silk or otherstuff which could be, as the subject already knew, used tosecure sexual excitement culminating in an act of theftwhich corresponded to, and was sometimes actually accompaniedby, sexual detumescence and emotional relief. Nofurther value was attached to the stolen object, which wasconcealed or thrown away by the subject, usually a womanand often in good circumstances. She may not be clearlyaware of the sexual source of her behavior, and, if conscious,would not as a rule spontaneously avow it. We seethat kleptolagniais not truly a form of kleptomaniathough it used to be confused with it, for kleptomania istheoretically regarded as motiveless and irresistible, whilein kleptolagnia there is a definite motive, whether or notconscious, though that motive is not really theft, andthe act is not irresistible but carried out with reasonableprecaution at a suitable moment. The subject, thoughoften or always neurotic, is not necessarily highly psychopathic.We are not in the presence of insanity, and kleptolagniais not to be put with the now almost extinct "kleptomania,"but under sexual psychology;itmay be regardedas a morbid form of erotic fetichism.There are other less common combinations of sexualimpulse with theft which, though allied, must be distinguishedfrom kleptolagnia as here understood. Onesuch condition was specially described by Stekel in 1908and isput forward as a psychoanalytic explanation of"kleptomania" generally. The theft here is not erotic, thatis,it is not a method of sexual gratification, and is not thetheft of a fetich, but of any object appearingto offersexual suggestion. It is a substitute for sexual gratification,[184]

SEXUAL DEVIATIONoccurring especially in women with repressed emotionsdue to the impotency of their husbands. Stekel putit forwardas an explanation of all kleptomania, an explanationwhich falls if we dismiss the entity of "kleptomania."Another distinct combination of theft with sexualemotion has been described and clearly demonstrated byHealy. These cases occur in youths as well as girls whoare led into sexual temptations which appear so abhorrentand wicked to them that they yield to what seems the lessabhorrent temptation to steal. The mental process here isthe reverse of that found in kleptolagnia, for the theft isnot a real or symbolic gratification of sexual desire,an escape from it.BIBLIOGRAPHYHAVELOCK ELLIS, Studies inVII, "Kleptolagnia/'HEALY, Mental Conflicts and Misconduct.STEKEL, Peculiarities of Behaviour.butthe Psychology of Sex, Vol.ExhibitionismAnother symbolistic manifestation of the sexual impulse,serious in adult life, may occur innocently, and notabnormally, in childhood. This is exhibitionism. Severalwriters have pointed out that at puberty, and even inadolescence, an impulse of ostentation extending to thedeveloping organsof sex (ingirls more especiallyto thebreasts) is not uncommon. It is a common infantiletendency which seems perfectly natural. Freud refers tothe exhilaration even very young children experience innakedness; they love to dance about naked before goingto bed, often raising their little garments, even beforestrangers, a reminiscence, as Freud views it, of a lost Paradisiacalstate, to become later in exhibitionists a morbid

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXobsession, and often even normally re-asserted afterpuberty in a definite though restrained form. Putnamthought that the frequency with which we dream of beingin an insufficiently dressed state reveals a latent exhibitionism,though this view I cannot accept: it is overlookedthat during sleep we actually are in such a state. Sometimesin childhood it is a mutual practice (even to theage of twelve)as a manifestation of simple interest in thesexual organs; it is often also due to an impulse of mischiefor rebellion, though, when persistent, it may have anobscure sexual cause, and be the sign of an irritationdesiring unknown relief, a kind of vicarious masturbation,to be dealt with in the same manner as ordinary masturbation.In adults exhibitionism is more definitely a symbolof coitus, and its forms fall into several groups.First described and named by Lasgue in1877, Exhibitionismis thus a form of erotic symbolism in which anadequate equivalent of coitus is found in the simple actof deliberately exhibiting the sexual organ to persons ofthe opposite sex, usually by preference to young and presumablyinnocent persons, often children. It would appearto be a not infrequent phenomenon, and most women,once or more in their lives, especially when young, haveencountered a man who has thus deliberately exposedhimself before them. It is indeed the commonest sexualoffense, and Norwood East found that of 291 sexual offendersreceived for trial or on remand at Brixton Prisonas many asit101 were cases of "indecent exposure," thoughmust be added that sexual offenders were, altogether,only about 4 per cent of the total number of prisoners.The exhibitionist, though often a young and apparentlyvigorous man, is satisfied with the mere act of selfexhibitionand the emotional reaction which that actproduces;he seldom makes demands on the woman to[186]

SEXUAL DEVIATIONwhom he exposes himself; he seldom speaks, he makes noeffort to approach her; as a rule, he fails even to displaythe signs of sexual excitation. He seldom masturbates; hisdesires are completely gratified by the act of exhibitionand by the emotional reaction he supposes that it arousesin the woman. He departs satisfied and relieved.Various classifications of exhibitionism have been putforward; thus Maeder recognized three forms: (i) theinfantile, to gaze and to be gazed at being normal in childhood;(2) the senile, which is a method of sexual excitementin the impotent; and (3) exhibitionism as a methodof sexual invitation, which may occur in fairly normal personsof defective virility. This classification may not becomplete, but it rightly insists on the element of sexualweakness, which is significant in exhibitionism, and onthe fact that the aberration has a normal basis in the commonactions of childhood. Krafft-Ebing divided exhibitionistsinto four clinical groups: (i) acquired states ofmental weakness with cerebral or spinal disease cloudingconsciousness and at the same time causing impotence;(2) epileptics in whom the act is an abnormal organic impulseperformed in a state of imperfect consciousness;(3) a somewhat allied group of neurasthenic cases; (4)periodical impulsive cases with deep hereditary taint. Thisclassification is not altogether satisfactory. Norwood Eastfor practical purposes divided exhibitionists into two maingroups: the psychopathic (about two-thirds of the wholewith "visionaries" and mental defectives predominating) ,and the depraved (who have a vicious motive and includethe remaining one-third) Most cases fall into one or other.of two mixed groups (i) cases in which there is more orless congenital abnormality, but otherwise a fair or evencomplete degree of mental integrity; they are usuallyyoung adults, they are more or less conscious of the end[187]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXthey wish to attain, and it is often only with a severestruggle that they yield to their impulses; (2) cases inwhich the beginnings of mental or nervous disorder oralcoholic degeneration have diminished the sensibility ofthe higher centers; these subjects are sometimes old men(clergymen, etc.) whose lives have been absolutely correct;they are often only vaguely aware of the nature ofthe satisfaction they are seeking, and frequently no struggleprecedes the manifestation; with rest and restorativetreatment the health may be improved and the acts cease.It is in the first class of cases alone that there is a developedsexual anomaly. In the cases of the second class thereis a more or less definite sexual intention, but it isonlyjust conscious, and the emergence of the impulse is duenot to its strength but to the weakness, temporary or permanent,of the higher inhibiting centers. Of this alcoholis a common cause, either by causing real mental confusionor by liberating latent tendencies; Norwood East remarksthat the decreased consumption of alcohol in Englandhas been accompanied by decrease in the number ofconvictions for indecent exposure (in England and Walesin 1913 866 men were so convicted, in 1923 and among alarger population only 548) .Epileptic cases, with loss of consciousness during the act,can only be regarded as presenting a pseudo-exhibitionism.They are not so common as is sometimes supposed; NorwoodEast found none in a series of 150 cases (thoughepileptics were among them) and remarks that in his experiencethese cases are not as frequent as they are dramatic.It isundoubtedly true that cases of real or apparentexhibitionism may occur in epileptics as was clearly shownby Pelanda in Verona many years ago. We must not, however,too hastily conclude that because these acts occur inepileptics they are necessarily unconscious acts. When the[188]

SEXUAL DEVIATIONact of pseudo-exhibitionism is truly epileptic,it has nopsychic sexual content, and it will certainly be liable tooccur under all sorts of circumstances, when the patientisalone or in a miscellaneous concourse of people. It correspondsexactly to the cases in which epileptics sometimescarry out the act of urination, during a psychic attack,in an apparently purposive but really unconscious manner.Such an act is automatic, unconscious, and involuntary;the spectators are not even perceived; it cannot be an actof exhibitionism, for the act of exhibition implies deliberateand conscious intention. Whenever, on the otherhand, the place and the time are evidently chosen deliberatelya quiet spot, the presence of only one or two youngwomen or children it is difficult to admit that we are inthe presence of a fit of epileptic unconsciousness, evenwhen the subjectis known to be epileptic.Excluding these epileptic pseudo-exhibitionists, who,from the legal point of view, are clearly irresponsible, itmust still be remembered that in exhibitionism there isusually either a high degree of mental abnormality on aneuropathic basis, or else actual disease. This is true toa greater extent in exhibitionism than in almost any otherform of sexual perversion. No subject of exhibitionismshould be sent to prison without expert medical examination.Hirschfeld believes that the exhibitionist is nevermentally normal. In some cases the impulse to exhibitionismmay be overcome or may pass away. This result ismore likely to come about in those cases in which exhibitionismhas been largely conditioned bychronic alcoholismor other influences tending to destroy the inhibitingand restraining action of the higher centers, which may beand treatment. When it occurs inovercome by hygieneyouth it tends to be spontaneously outgrown, as in theyouthful Rousseau who records that as a boy he once or

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXtwice displayed his nates to girls at a distance. When travelingthrough Moravia many years ago I noted a youngwoman who had been bathing in a stream near the railwayline and as the train passed turned her back to it andraised her chemise. (Here we have to bear in mind theancient method of exorcism by displaying the nates, laterdegenerating into a way of showing contempt especiallypracticed by women.) True exhibitionism is rare in thefemale except in childhood. As Douglas Bryan puts it,women in exhibitionism treat the whole body as a penisto be exposed.Exhibitionism is an act which, on the face of it, mayseem nonsensical or meaningless, but it iswildly extravagantto regard it as necessarily an inexplicable act of madness,such as it was once, if not still, frequently treatedboth by writers on insanity and on sexual perversion, eventhough in its extreme form it may be associated witheither.We must regard exhibitionism as fundamentally a symbolicact based on a perversion of courtship. The exhibitionist,if a male, displays the organ of sex to a femininewitness, and in the shock of modest sexual shame by whichshe reacts to that spectacle he finds a gratifying similitudeof the normal emotions of coitus. He feels that he haseffected a psychic defloration.Exhibitionism is thus analogous, and indeed related, tothe impulse felt by many persons to perform indecorousacts or tell indecent stories before young and innocentpersons of the opposite sex. This also is a kind of exhibitionism,the gratification it causes lying exactly, as inphysical exhibitionism, in the emotional confusion whichit is felt to arouse, though we cannot accept the view ofNacke that exhibitionism issimply a form of sadism andthe satisfaction felt only due to the horror aroused. The[190]

SEXUAL DEVIATIONtwo kinds of exhibitionism may be combined in the sameperson.It is of interest to point out that the sexual symbolismof active flagellation is very closely analogous to this symbolismof exhibitionism. The flagellant approaches awoman with the rod (itself a symbol of the penis andin some countries bearing names which are also appliedto that organ) to inflict on an intimate part of her bodythe signs of blushing and the spasmodic movements whichare associated with sexual excitement, while at the sametime she feels, or the flagellant imagines that she feels, thecorresponding emotions of delicious shame. It is an evencloser mimicry of the sexual act than the exhibitionistattains, for the latter fails to secure the consent of thewoman nor does he enjoy any intimate contact with hernaked body. The difference is connected with the fact thatthe active flagellant isusually a more virile and normalperson than the exhibitionist. There is, however, onlyanalogy here and not identity; we must not regard theexhibitionist (as is sometimes done) as a sadist. In themajority of cases the exhibitionist's sexual impulse isfeeble, and he may even be suffering from an early stageof general paralysis,senile dementia, or other enfeeblingcause of mental disorganization, such as chronic alcoholism.Sexual feebleness is further indicated by the fact thatthe individuals selected as witnesses are frequently merechildren.Psychologicallythe exhibitionist's act is not so inexplicableas on the surface it may appear. He is usually ashy and timid person,sometimes of rather infantile constitution;and his act is a violent reaction against his disposition.Fetichists are also apt to be similarly shy andreserved, and Hirschfeld has insisted that there is frequentlyan element of fetichism in the exhibitionist. He

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXwould indeed recognize two factors as presentin all thesecases: (i)an endogenous and neurotic, and (s>)an exogenousfactor which is usually fetichistic. It is never theface that excites the exhibitionist but, much more usually,the legs,which iswhy, Hirschfeld believes, the spectacleof children and schoolgirls so often induces these acts, asthey are most likely to display naked legs.The reaction aroused by the act may fallinto one ofthree groups: (i) the girlisfrightened and runs away;(2) she isindignant and abuses the culprit; (3) she isthe last re-pleased or amused, and laughs or smiles. It isaction which affords the exhibitionist most satisfaction.cases in which sexual gratificationisIt seems probable that a form of erotic symbolism somewhatsimilar to exhibitionism is to be found in the rarederived from throwingink, acid, or other defiling liquids on women's whitedresses. Moll, Thoinot, Hirschfeld, and others have recordedcases of this kind. Thoinot considers that in thesecases the fleck is the fetich. That is an incorrect accountof the matter. The white garments in most cases probablyconstitute the primary fetich, but that fetich becomesmore acutely realized, and at the same time both partiesare thrown into an emotional state which to the fetichistbecomes a mimicry of coitus, by the act of defilement. Wemay perhaps connect with this phenomenonthe attractionwhich muddy shoes often exert over the shoe fetichist.Restif de la Bretonne associated his love of neatness inwomen with his attraction to the feet, the part, he remarks,least easy to keep clean.Gamier applied the term sadi-fetichism to active flagellationand many similar manifestations such as we arehere concerned with, on the ground that they are hybridswhich combine the morbid adoration for a definite objectwith the impulse to exercise a more or less degree of vio-

SEXUAL DEVIATIONlence. From the standpoint of the conception of eroticsymbolism I have adopted there is no need for this term.There is here no hybrid combination of two unlike mentalstates. We are simply concerned with states of eroticsymbolism, more or less complete, more or less complex.The conception of exhibitionism as a process of eroticsymbolism involves a conscious or unconscious attitude ofattention in the exhibitionist's mind to the psychic reactionof the woman toward whom his displayisdirected.He seeks to cause an emotion which, probably in mostcases, he desires should be pleasurable. But from one causeor another his finer sensibilities are inhibited or in abeyance,and he is unable to estimate accurately either theimpression he is likely to produce or the general resultsof his action, or else he is moved by a strong impulsiveobsession which overpowers his judgment. In many caseshe has good reason for believing that his act will be pleasurablerather than the reverse, and frequently finds complacentwitnesses among low-class servant girls, etc.But the exhibitionist usually wishes to produce morethan a mere titillated amusement; he seeks a powerfuleffect which must be emotional whether or not it is pleasurable.There is sometimes an evident effort on the partof a weak, vain, and effeminate man to produce a maximumof emotional effect. The attempt to heighten theemotional shock is also seen in the fact that the exhibitionistmay choose a church as the scene of his exploits, notduring service, for he always avoids a concourse of people,but perhaps towards evening when there are only a fewkneeling women scattered through the edifice. The churchis chosen, from no impulse to commit a sacrilegious outragewhich, as a rule, the exhibitionist does not feel hisact to be but because it really presents the conditionsmost favorable to the act and the effects desired, "just

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXwhat is necessary/' as one such said, "for an exchange ofimpressions." "What are they thinking? What do they sayto each other about me? Oh! how I should like to know!"A patient of Garnier's, who haunted churches for this purpose,made the significant statement: "Why do I like goingto churches? I can scarcely say. But I know that it is onlythere that my act has its full importance. The woman is ina devout frame of mind, and she must see that such an actin such a placeisnot a joke in bad taste or a disgustingit isobscenity; that if I go there it is not to amuse myself;more serious than that! I watch the effect produced on thefaces of the ladies to whom I show my organs. I wish tosee them express a profound joy, I wish, in fact, that theymay be forced to say to themselves: How impressive Natureis when thus seen!" It is clear that we have here atrace of the same feeling which inspired ancient phallicworship, a feeling which is, indeed, sometimes found today,as Stanley Hall and others have pointed out, in youthsat adolescence, as well as in women, thoughit is normallyunder restraint and merely exists as a certain pride in thepossession of the fully developed male or female attributes.That is why exhibitionism is in its most nearly normalforms a youthful manifestation. Norwood East found thatasmany as 57 of his 150 cases, over one-third, were below25 years of age, the number gradually diminishing at successivelater ages, while the great majority of the wholenumber are unmarried. That also iswhy so important agroup (40 in Norwood East's cases) can be termed "visionaries."That is to say they are cultivating youthful fantasiesof abnormal courtship, though, as East remarks, "innot a few one is reminded of the courtships of the farmyardand the love-antics and 'showingoff'indulged in bycertain animals."It isby a pseudo-atavism that this phallicism is openly

SEXUAL DEVIATIONmanifested by the exhibitionist. There is no true emergenceof an ancestrally inherited instinct, but, by theparalysis or inhibition of the finer and higher feelingscurrent in civilization, the exhibitionist is placed on thesame mental level as the man of a more primitive age, andhe thus presents the basis on which the impulses belongingto a lower culture may naturally take root and develop.When the hereditary neuropathic disturbance is not tooprofound there is often, under favorable conditions, agratifying and complete return to normal conduct.It will be seen that the exhibitionist is but carrying onestage further as so often happens with sexual deviationsa sexual manifestation which has a primitive foundation,and within duly controlled limits and under properconditions might even be considered legitimate. He isoften simply a too reckless narcissist. But under our presentday social conditions his conduct, however natural atits roots, cannot be tolerated; itmaylead to nervous orhysterical symptoms in the innocent girl who issubjectedto it; and the interference of the police is rightly called for.But what is to be done with the exhibitionist when heisbrought before the magistrate? As Norwood East states,in a large proportion of cases the courts now themselvescall for a report on the mental state. The problem has becomea difficult one with the more intelligent view ofsexual deviations which istending to prevail. A small punishmenthas no effect; a severe would be unjust andequally ineffective; unless the offender is well-to-do he cannotbe sent to an institution for expert investigation andtreatment. Imay here quote a letter from a friend who isa magistrate and a man of distinguished ability. "At quartersessions yesterday there was a case of a man, a laborer,who had been repeatedly convicted of indecent exposure.The sentence was six months' hard labour. The difficulty

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXseems to be twofold. One, there is, so far as we know, noplace where such a man can be sent for detention andtreatment, and two, as the prisondoctor would only saythe man was sub-normal and would not certify, we hadno power over him. The result is that a healthy man of 38,who may well live to be 68, will in six months be let looseand as likely as not repeat his offense. He had a very goodwere much concerned aboutarmy record. Other justicesthe case and I was cheered to notice that the feeling of theBench was much against sending such a man to prison.The only alternative was to release him. Happily we arepast the stage of flogging which is of course provided forunder the Statute and would certainly have been inflictedtwo or three years ago."Another magistrate,who is a physician and psycho-therapist,writes to me in this connection: "I have seen a goodmany such cases on the Bench; they are very sad indeed.Some I have managed to get off; others had to take theirpunishment 'according to the law/ There is no doubt thatthe majority need psycho-therapeutic treatment, beingmental cases rather than criminal offenders. Many aregenuinely horrified at their own practise which theystrenuously try to control. Much propaganda is necessaryto effect a change in the conventional outlook."With regard to the therapeutic treatment, I should liketo point out that it is most likely to prove effective ifcarried out in connection with a sun-bathing camp onnudist lines of the kind now becoming widely recognizedand accepted. If the exhibitionist is often simply a narcissistof unusually pronounced type, presenting impulseswhich are not necessarily anti-social, and indeed, undersome conditions socially recognizable, to give him an opportunityfor their legitimate manifestation is to conferupon him a new power of self-control. An exhibitionist

SEXUAL DEVIATIONwho isencouraged to practice nudity among men andwomen who, being themselves completely nude, accepthim as a matter of course is at once to gratify his narcissisticdesires so far as they are innocent and to deprive themof their morbid intensity. If his impulses cannot be rerstrained within innocent limits, he faces the certainty thathe will be deprived of the privilege conferred uponA him.wholesome and socializing channel isprovided for animpulse which otherwise becomes isolating and degrading.The first advice to give to an exhibitionist who has notyet attracted the attention of the police is that he shouldnever go out alone. Hirschfeld, who recognizes the importanceof this rule, remarks that the advice isalways takenin good part, for the exhibitionist tends to be in terror ofarrested andhis own impulses. When he is actuallythe sensible and humanebrought before the magistrate,course on a first offense is to dismiss him with a warningon condition that he seeks medical advice. In many largetowns there are now special clinics which are at the disposalof magistrates, police surgeons, and social workersat a negligible cost, and these should be oftener used. Onthe second offense there should be compulsory detentionfor at least a month in a Home for examination and treatment.This is in line with the opinion of Forel that exhibitionistsare not dangerous, and (unless when weakminded)should not be detained for more than a shortperiod for treatment in a Mental Home.BIBLIOGRAPHYKRAFFT-EBING, Psychopathia Sexualis.HAVELOCK ELLIS, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Vol. V,"Erotic Symbolism."W. NORWOOD EAST, "Observations on Exhibitionism,'*Lancet, Aug. 23, 1924.

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXAlgolagnia(Sadism and Masochism)Algolagnia is a convenient term (devised by Schrenck-Notzing) to indicate the connection between sexual excitementand pain, without reference to its precise differentiationinto active and passive forms. The active formis commonly called sadism^ after the Marquis de Sade(1740-1814), who illustrated it slightly in his life andlargely in his books. The passive form is called masochism,after the Austrian novelist Sacher-Masoch (1836-1895),who has repeatedly described this sexual deviation, whichhe himself manifested, in his novels. Sadism is generallydefined as sexual emotion associated with the wish to inflictpain, physical or moral, on the object of the emotion.Masochism is sexual emotion associated with the desire tobe physically subjugated and morally humiliated by theperson arousing the emotion. When fully developed, theactions which constitute the algolagnia whether activeor passive, whether real, simulated, symbolic, or only imaginedconstitute in themselves an adequate gratificationof the sexual impulse, and, in the last degree, ensure detumescencewithout the need for coitus.The desirability of using the term algolagnia is shownby the existence of manifestations in this group which donot conveniently fall within the sphere of either sadism ormasochism. Thus Krafft-Ebing and Moll refused to acceptpassive flagellation as masochistic, regarding it as simply aphysical stimulant; so itmay be; but in many cases it isdefinitely masochistic, active flagellation definitely sadistic.In either case there is an association of sexual emotionwith pain. Thus the term "algolagnia" conveniently coversphenomena which are not always easy tounder sadism or masochism.include eitherDefinitionally this merging of sadism with masochism is

SEXUAL DEVIATIONinconvenient, but psychologicallyit is sound. Masochism,as Freud put it, is sadism turned round on to the self. Thatindeed is the chief ground on which it is desirable togroup sadism and masochism together under one heading.Clinically, they often exist separately, but there is no clearline of demarcation between them, and thoughitmay berare to find an elementof sadism in the pure masochist,it is common to find an element of masochism in the sadist.Even de Sade himself was not a pure sadist, but hadin him distinct elements of masochism clearly revealed inhis works. The active and passive elements may be closelyunited, if not really identical. Thus a subject of mainlyactive algolagnia, for whom the whip is a stimulatingfetich, writes: "My reaction is to the active side of the act.I have developed a slight interest for the passive side, butam convinced that this depends upon a semi-sub-consciousinversion or transference of the act, so that, though appliedto me, it isimagined sub-consciously as applied by me tosomeone else." It is interesting to note, also, that whilethe masochist may sometimes seem masculine and robustin general temperament, the sadist is frequently a timid,delicate, and feminine personality. Thus Riedel, a sadistyouth studied by Lacassagne (and finally sent to an asylum)who killed another boy, had voluptuous ideas ofblood from the age of four and liked to play at killing,was of infantile physical development, very timid anddelicate, modest (so that he could not urinate in the presenceof another person), very religious, hating obscenityand immorality, and with a pleasant childlike face andexpression. But the love of blood and murder was anirresistible obsession, and its gratification produced immenseemotional relief. Another sadistic French youth,studied by A. Marie (and also sent to an asylum) was ofsimilar temperament, very timid, easily blushing, unable099]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXto look even children in the eye, or to make advances towomen, or to urinate in the presence of others.Hirschfeld has sought to overcome some of the difficultiessurrounding the definition of sadism and masochismby introducing the term metatropism, meaning thereby akind of reversed or exchanged sexual attitude, the mantaking on and exaggerating the normal feminine attitudeof the woman, and the woman taking on and exaggeratingthe normal masculine attitude of the man. So that sadismin a man would merely be a heightening of the normalmale sexual attitude, and masochism in a woman a heighteningof the normal female sexual attitude, both sadismand masochism becoming totally different conditions accordingas they occur in a man or in a woman. Masculinesadism and feminine masochism are thus for Hirschfeldsimply hyperesthetic or erotomanic excesses of the normalsexual impulse, while in the opposite sex they becomecomplete metatropic deviations from normality. This conceptionhas not, however, been generally accepted. It awkwardlycomplicates the matter; it is based on a conceptionof normal sexuality which not all will accept; Hirschfeldoften the reversehimself admits that the sadistic man isof virile, and the masochistic man the reverse of femininein temperament, so that the ismetatropic conception butlamely applicable.It still seems most convenient to speakof algolagnia, with its two opposite but often related formsof sadism and masochism, whether we are concerned withmen or women.A difficulty has been created out of the experiencing ofpain as pleasure. In algolagnia, however, it is not the painitself which is pleasure but the sexual emotion which itarouses. Algolagnic subjects are usually to be regarded asunder-sexed rather than over-sexed, they present the reverseof the hyperesthetic or the sexually athletic state.[200]

SEXUAL DEVIATIONThey need therefore a stronger than normal stimulus toarouse sexual activity. Strong sensations and strong emotions,even those of the most unlikely kind, such as anxietyand grief, are able to act as sexual stimuli, and so to producepleasure though in themselves painful. Cullerre hasbrought forward a number of cases, mostly in personsmanifesting symptoms of nervous exhaustion, both menand women, often highly moral people, in whom fits ofanxiety and dread, sometimes of a religious character, terminatedin spontaneous orgasm or masturbation. Thewidely extended implications of this fundamental psychologicalfact are taken advantage of, consciously or unconsciously,by the algolagnic subject to reinforce hisfeeble sexual impulse.It must further be remembered that in a mild degreepain (with the associated emotions of shock, anxiety, disgust,contempt, etc.) whether witnessed in others or ex-,perienced in themselves, can for many people, especiallyif neurotically disposed, evoke a pleasurable psychic statewithout being intense enough to stimulate actually sexualsensations. The natural reaction to pain is pathetic or sympathetic;one is sorry for it in oneself, one is, to a lessextent that varies with the affective nearness, sorry for itin others. But a certain element of pleasure or satisfactionis also possible. The classic expression of this is the passagein Lucretius (Book II) concerning the feelings of the manand it is in-safe on shore who witnesses others drowning,teresting to see how Lucretius explained it; "It is sweetto contemplate from the shore the peril of the unhappysailor struggling with death, not that we take pleasure inthe misfortunes of others, but that it is consoling to viewevils we are not experiencing." On newspaper placardsthere is no more frequent, and therefore presumably alluring,adjective than "amazing," and the "amazing" usually[201]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXinvolves an element of pain or shock. The Grand Guignoltype of play always finds fascinated spectators for its horrors,and it is noteworthy that the novels in which painfulsituations are made amusing, and pathetic figures ridiculous,are frequently the popular works of writers of highability. It is evident that in a mild degree an element ofwhat may be termed non-sexual sadism and masochism(what the Germans term Schadenfreude) i fairly widespreadamong the general population.When we bear these considerations in mind we mayunderstand how it is that the sadist is by no means necessarilyimpelled by the desire to be cruel. It is emotion thathe is concerned to arouse, as well as to feel, more thanpain. This is, for instance, illustrated by the active algolagnicsubject already quoted, a man of intellectualhabits and not extremely sadistic: "The actual act ofiswhipping the source of the fascination. There is absolutelyno desire to humiliate the subject. She must feelpain, but only as an expression of the vigour of the whipping.The infliction of pain itself gives me no pleasure; onthe contraryit is a source of repugnance to me. Apartfrom this sexual anomaly, I have a great dislike of cruelty.I have only once killed an animal and remember it withregret"Our attention is apt to be fixed on the presence of painin algolagnia because we fail to realize all the psychicphenomena involved. It is as though a musical instrumentwere sensitive: the supposition would be reasonable that amusical performance is the infliction of pain, and weshould certainly have would-be scientific and analyticalpeople concluding that the pleasure of music is the pleasureof giving pain, and that the emotional effect of musicis due to the pain thus inflicted.Algolagnia covers some of the most extravagant mani-[202]

SEXUAL DEVIATIONfestations of the abnormal sexual impulse. Sadism leadsto the most violent outrages against human nature; masochismto the most fantastic humiliations of human nature.It is, therefore, important to remember that both sadismand masochism are based on normal human impulses;they are the extreme term of tendencies which in a slightdegree are strictly within the biological sphere.The normal basis of algolagniaiscomplex and manifold.There are especially two elements to be borne inmind in this connection: (i) pain, inflicted or suffered,is a by-product of the process of courtship, alike in thelower animals and in man; (2) pain, more especially inenfeebled nervous conditions, congenital or acquired, isnervous stimulant, whether suffered or inflicted, and iscapable of acting powerfully on the sexual centers. If westeadily bear in mind these two fundamental factors wehave little in difficulty comprehending the mechanism ofthe algolagnic processes, various as they are in form, andwe have the clew to their psychology. Every algolagnicform of the sexual impulse is either a hypertrophied manifestation(sometimes perhaps atavistic in character) ofsome primitive phase of courtship, or it is the attempt ofan enfeebled organism to secure a powerful aphrodisiacalaid to the attainment of tumescence.All love, as the old English writer, Robert Burton longsince said, is a kind of slavery. The lover is his mistress'sservant; he must be ready to undertake all sorts of risks, toencounter many dangers, to fulfill many unpleasant du-her favor. Romanticties, in order to serve her and to gainpoetryis full of evidence of this attitude of the lover. Thefurther back we go among savages, towards primitive conditions,the more marked, on the whole, becomes thissubjection of the lover in courtship and the severity of thetrials he must undergo to win his mistress's favor. Among[203]a

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXanimals, the same thingis witnessed in a still cruder form;the male must exert his energies in the highest to win thefemale and he often returns maimed and bleeding fromcontests with a successful rival. Alike to suffer pain andto inflict pain is an incidental if not essential part of courtship.The female, on her part, is inextricably mixed up inthe same process, either by sympathetic or reciprocal influences.And if in the processof courtship the wooer isher slave and she isable to view with pleasure the sufferingsshe is the cause of, alike to successful and unsuccessfulwooers, she in turn becomes subjugated to her mateand later to her offspring, receiving her full share of thepain which the sexual process involves. Sometimes evenin the course of courtship the female suffers pain, asamong many birds when the male at mating time falls intoa state of sexual frenzy, and the more passivefemale suffers:thus the chaffinch is a rough wooer, though as thefemale becomes submissive he is said to become gentle andconsiderate. The love-bite, again, is an animal as well ashuman device, and horses, donkeys, etc., gentlybite thefemale before coitus.That the infliction of pain is a sign of love is a widespreadidea both in ancient and modern times.makes a woman say:"He who has not rained blows on hismistress and torn her hair and her garmentsis not yet inlove." The same idea, that for a man to beat his sweetheartis an appreciated sign of love, occurs in one of Cervantes'sExemplary Novels, "Rinconete and Cortadillo."And a patient of Janet's said of her husband: "He does notknow how to make me suffer a little. One cannot love aman who does not make one suffer a little." Reversely,Millamant says in Congreve's Way of the World, "One'scruelty is one's power."But algolagnic manifestations are more than a mere

atavistic exaggerationSEXUAL DEVIATIONof normal manifestations of courtship.They are, especially in organically feeble organisms,the manifestation of an instinctive attempt to re-inforcethe sexual impulse. The incidental emotions of courtship,viz.; anger and fear, are themselves stimulants to sexualactivity.It thus becomes possible to invoke angeror fearartificially in order to strengthen a failing sexual impulse.the actionThe most convenient method of doing this is byof pain: if the painisinflicted we are in the presence ofsadism, if suffered in the presence of masochism, if simplywitnessed we are in an intermediate stage which may betinged with either sadism or masochism according to thedirection of the sympathies of the algolagnic spectator.From this point of view the sadist and the masochist alikemerely use pain as a method of drawing on a great reservoirof primitive emotion, which imparts energy to afeeble sexual impulse.When we understand the foundations on which algolagnicdeviations rest, we see that they have only an accidentaland not an essential association with cruelty. It isnot the desire to be cruel which impels the sadist, howevercruel he may be in actual fact. He wishes to arouse hisown flagging emotions, and in order to do so he in manycases arouses the emotions of his victim; the most potentmethod of doing so he knows of is to give her pain. But hefrequently desires that she shall feel this pain as pleasure.Even in the sphere of normal love a man will often inflictsmall pains or hardships on the woman he loves, and allthe time be anxious that she should likethem, or evenexperience pleasure in them. The sadist merely goes a stepfurther, and (as in one recorded case) sticks pins into thegirl while insistingthat she shall all the time wear a smilingface; it is not his wish to be cruel, he would prefer togive pleasure, though he is content with the mere appear-

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXance of the victim's pleasure.Even when the sadist goesso far as to kill his victim he is moved not by the desire tothe emotionalcause death, but to shed blood, so securingstimulus which isimparted almost universally by the spectacleof shed blood, and Leppmann has acutely observedthat in sadistic crimes it is usual to find the wound in thoseparts of the body, like the neck or the abdomen, whichwill lead to the maximum shedding of blood.Similarly the masochist has no wish to suffer cruelty.In that slight degree of passive algolagnia which Krafft-Ebing, Moll, and others regard as simply a heighteneddegree of a normal attitude and entitle "sexual subjection''(Horigheif),there need be no serious violence,either physical or psychic, but only a complacent accept'ance of the capricesand domination of the beloved person.There is no clear line of demarcation between sexualsubjection and masochism apart from the important factthat in sexual subjection the normal impulse to coitus remains,while in masochism it tends to be replaced by theperverse impulse and the masochist retains the samepleasure, and even in many cases ecstasy, as he experiencesthe manifold ill-treatment he desires. This ill-treatmentmay involve the reality, or the simulacrum, of a greatmany actions: binding and fettering, trampling, semistrangulation,the performance of menial duties and taskscommonly felt to be disgusting by the beloved person,verbal abuse, etc. For the masochist such acts have becomethe equivalent of coitus, and the idea of cruelty, and inmost cases even pain, never enters. If we bear this in mindthe elaborate hypotheses which some psychologists (evenFreud) have ingeniously constructed to explain masochismare seen to be completely unnecessary.The manifestations of masochism, from their nature, areof little social significance and involve comparatively little[206]

SEXUAL DEVIATIONdanger to the community. It has thus come about that,though algolagnic phenomena of this kind may be tracedfar back in the history of civilization, masochism was notregarded as a definite perversion until Krafft-Ebing presentedhis masterly exposition of its characteristics in hisPsychopathic, Sexualis. Sadism, closely related as it is tomasochism on the biological and psychological sides, has avery different social and medico-legal significance. Thoughat one end its variations range from so innocent and normala manifestation as the love-bite, they extend to themost serious and dangerous anti-social acts as illustratedby the notorious case of "Jack the Ripper,"the extremetype of a group of cases, not so very uncommon, which involvewounding from erotic motives, though by no meansalways murder. (This class of cases was especially studiedby Lacassagne.) In another important group of cases,schoolmasters, mistresses, and other persons in authorityover children and servant girls torture their charges fromsadistic motives.Sadism ismanifested both by men and women. Masochismis more especially found in men; this may be in partbecause in women a certain degree of sexual subjection,the primary stage of masochism, may fairly be regarded asalmost normal, and in part because (asMoll pointed out)masochism being largely due to an attempt to attain asubstitute or a stimulus for an enfeebled potency, women,who are normally more passive in the sexual act, do notrequire it.Sadism and masochism, as has already been said, do notexhaust the manifestations of algolagnia. In the largesense, algolagnia is a great sub-division of erotic symbolism,and it includes all the cases in which sexual pleasureor in simula-is associated, actively or passively, in realitytion or in imagination, with pain, anger, fear, anxiety,

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXshock, constraint, subjection, humiliation, and allied psychicstates; for all these states involve recourse to a greatreservoir of primitiveemotion which may be utilized toreinforce the sexual impulse. It is in this way that flagellationwhether inflicted, suffered, witnessed or thoughtabout may in some predisposed persons act as a sexualstimulant from almost the earliest age. In most cases bothphysical and psychic elements enter into the influence,and an important and extensive group of algolagnic casesis thus formed. In other cases the mere spectacle of variousevents which produce an emotional shock such as anearthquake, or a bull-fight, or even the death and funeralof relations act erotically apart from any definite sadisticor masochistic attitude in the subject of the emotions.Looked at broadly, the sphere of algolagnia is thus verylarge. There are, moreover, certain groups of cases whichlie on its frontier though they may perhaps more accuratelybe classed with erotic fetichism. Gamier attemptedto set up a group of "sadi-fetichistic" cases; but a casewhich he brought forward scarcely seems to prove thecontention for it belongs to the class of foot-fetichism.Abraham, while admitting diminished sexual activity,thought this need not be primary, but sometimes due tosuppression or paralysis of an originally strong libido. Hereferred to the suggestion of Freud that osphresiolagniaand coprolagnia may sometimes play a part in the genesisof foot fetichism, these elements later receding as unesthetic,the visual pleasure remaining.An occasional combination of algolagnia and fetichismis termed corset-fetichism. Here the corset is a kind offetich, but its attraction is associated with pressure sensationsand the attraction of fetters. Karl Abraham elaboratedthe rather complex case of a male student of 22 whofoot-fetichism and corset-fetichism and the at-presented

SEXUAL DEVIATIONtraction of a fettering pressure as well as osphresiolagniaor the love of agreeable body odors, this last being regardedas the original manifestation and shown in relationto the subject's mother. There was also anal and urethralerotism. As in a case of a girl already mentioned, the subjectin early life would sit on his heel pressed to the anus.There were eonist tendencies and he desired to be awoman in order to lace himself tightly and wear uncomfortableand polished high heel shoes. The subject beganto fetter himself at puberty in an old corset of hismother's, and there was no accidental association found toaccount for the fetichisms.Necrophily, or vampyrism, the sexual attraction ofcorpses, is, again, a phenomenon often included undersadism. In such cases, there is, strictly, no pain inflicted orsuffered, so that we are not here concerned with sadismor masochism, but, in so far as the sexual stimulation maybe said to be due to the emotional shock of the contactwith a dead body, these cases come under the broad definitionof algolagnia. Occasionally, they may be said to belongmore accurately to the group of erotic fetichism.When, however, we investigate these cases in their clinicalaspects they are generally found to be in a high degreepsychopathic, or mental feebleness is present; they areusually dull-witted and insensitive persons, not infrequentlyanosmic (as in the typical "vampire du Muy"recorded by Epaulard) ; they are men whom women reject,and their resort to corpsesis almost a kind of masturbation,or at all events comparable to bestiality. The casesin which the corpseis not only violated but mutilated, asin the famous old case of Sergeant Bertrand, have sometimesbeen termed necro-sadism. There is of course hereno real sadism in the narrow sense; Bertrand began withphantasies of ill-treating women, later imagining that the[209]

women were corpses;PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXthe sadistic ideas were incidents inthe emotional evolution, the object throughout being notto inflict cruelty but to procure strong emotion; any mutilationis carried out in order to increase the emotionalexcitement. Such cases are highly abnormal.BIBLIOGRAPHYKRAFFT-EBING, Psychopathia Sexualis.HAVELOCK ELLIS, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Vol.Ill, "Love and Pain."STANLEY HALL, "A Study of Fears," American Journal ofPsychology, 1897 and 1899.W. A. F. BROWNE, "Necrophilism," Journal of MentalScience, Jan. 1875.FREUD, "The Economic Problem in Masochism," CollectedPapers, Vol. II and "Instincts and their Vicissitudes,"ib.j Vol. IV.Sexual SenilityThere Is a frequent well marked tendency in women toan eruption at the menopause of sexual desire, the lastflaring up of a dying fire, which may easily take on amorbid form.Similarly in men when the approach of age begins tobe felt the sexual impulse may become suddenly urgent.In this instinctive reaction it may tend to roam, normallyor abnormally, beyond legitimate bounds. This tendencyis by no means confined to men who have been lovers ofwomen in youth; it is sometimes most conspicuous inthose men who in earlier life have been severely restrainedby moral considerations and now act from a sort of subconsciousimpulse to make upfor lost time before it istoo late. It is the experience of most women that sexualattempts on them in early life the most daring and, itmust be added, often the most successful attempts have[2101

SEXUAL DEVIATIONbeen made not by young men, whose attitude towards thewomen who attract them tends to be more respectful andeven reverential, but by elderly married men, often bythose whose character and position rendered such attemptsextremely unlikely.Apart from senility there seems (as Leppmann longsince concluded) to be no congenital perversion directedtowards children. There may exceptionally be a repressedsubconscious impulse towards unripe girls,but the chiefcontingent before old age is furnished by the weakminded.It has to be recognized that with the advance of agethere is not only the liability to this eruption of sexualactivity but also the development of a certain egotism andcallousness which facilitates its manifestations. This is inother respects beneficial because it protects enfeebled oldage from the risks of strong emotion, but it is liable toabuses of which the most dangerous occur if there arisesan efflorescence of activity in the sexual sphere.This late exacerbation of sexuality becomes still moredangerous if it takes the form of an attraction to girls whoare no more than children, and to acts of indecent familiaritywith children. There is normally an attraction, of amore or less sexual character, on the part of the elderlytowards the young; it is a counterpart of the sexual attractionoften felt by young girls towards elderly men and bytowards adult women. But in old men the attractive-boysness of the young may take on an abnormal and mischievousform owing to the senile decline of potency whichrenders mere sexual contacts au adequate gratification.The older the man the more easily he is satisfied and theless compunction he appears to find in seekingsuch satisfaction,so that in sexual assaults, as Brouardel long agoshowed, the average age of the victim regularly decreases[*"]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXas the average age of the perpetrator increases. So long asthe physicalstate is fairly sound and the mental statefairly intact, such impulses,when they occur, are doubtlesseasily restrained, and we are not called upon to regardtake in the fresh-as morbid the pleasure which the agedness of the young. But with physical irritation, such asmay arise from an enlarged prostate, and with psychic lossof control from incipient mental decay, there is risk thatthe barriers may be removed, and the man become adanger to himself and to others. It is in this way sometimesthat senile dementia begins to declare itself before intellectualfailure is obvious.It was formerly thought (as by Krafft-Ebing and Lepp^mann) that offenses against children occur in old menmentally sound as a simple result of "satiety" in normalsexual relationships, but this is doubtful. Hirschfeld in hiswide experience has never seen a child violator who wasmentally sound. There should certainly always be a carefulpsychiatric investigation.BIBLIOGRAPHYKRAFFT-EBING, Psychopathia Sexualis.THOINOT & WEYSSE, Medico-Legal Aspects of MoralOffenses.The Social Attitude TowardsSexual Deviations,"The pathology of love is a Hell of which the gate mustde Gourmont in hisnever be opened," said RemyPhysique de I'Amour. That melodramatic declarationcould only have been made by a philosopher of love,however admirable on his own lines, who was withoutscientific training, and it is surprising to find it endorsedby a gynecologist like Van de Velde. It is a great thing,

SEXUAL DEVIATIONas Aristotle said, to be a master of metaphor, and here aGate of Hell is the wrong metaphor. We are not here onthe stage of a divine comedy such as Dante presented, butin the realm of biology, where the physiologicalis for everpassing into the pathological, and blending with it almostimperceptibly, without the opening of any gate.The elementsof pathology are already to be found in the physiological,and pathological processes are still following thelaws of physiology. Every normal man in matters of sex,when we examine him carefully enough,is found to showsome abnormal elements, and the abnormal man is merelymanifesting in a disordered or extravagant shape somephase of the normal man. Normal and abnormal, takenin the mass, can all be plotted as variations of differentdegree on the same curve. The loving woman whoexclaims: "I could eat you!" is connected by links, eachin itself small, with Jack the Ripper. We all possess withinus, in a more or less developed form, the germs ofatrocities.It is not, therefore, because it is "abnormal" that asexual act becomes reprehensible. That view once prevailed.A narrow conception of what is "natural" washeld; everything else was "unnatural" and to be vituperated,if not to be punished, even severely punished, for itwas perhaps a crime, almost certainly a sin.Now that our knowledge of what is "natural" hasgrown, and the existence of endless variations in naturehas to be admitted, a different conception is tending toprevail.We find that we have to discriminate. The questionis no longer: Is the act abnormal? It becomes: Is theact injurious? Society isnot concerned with the varietiesof sexual couples, but with the question of determiningthose variations which inflict injury. That question is ofsome importance since it is believed by experienced physi-

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXcians that many "perversions,"as such variations of sexualactivity are still usually called, have become more commonNumerous causes may contribute toduring recent years.this result. In part, significance is attached to a diminutionof prostitution,and to a greater repugnance to intercoursewith prostitutes, with the substitution of sexual gratifica-or fears oftion with women who, through moral scruplespregnancy, are unwilling to permit actual intercourse.In addition there isprobably to be considered a greaterdegree of refinement in the advance of civilization, whichleads lovers to find pleasure in ways which among primitivefolk, or even between themselves in the absence ofpassionate love, might appear disgusting. There are, ofsexual feeling,course, also, those who by some deep-rooted deviation ofsuch as inversion or masochism or fetichism,can only find sexual satisfaction possiblewhen thestimulus reaches them through some abnormal channel.Even here what we call a "perversion," when not carriedto an extreme point, is, as Wolbarst states, "often found asa normal constituent in the lives of normal individuals."Freud, indeed, has said, and probably with truth, thatthere is"perversity"no healthy person in whom some such element ofdoes not sometimes occur.The conclusion we are today slowly reachingis thatthe abnormal gratification of the sexual impulse, howeverunusual or even repugnant it may seem, calls for no condemnationor interference, except in two classes of cases,the one affecting medicine, and the other the law. Thatis to say, in the first class, the subject of the abnormalactivity may be injuring his health, in which case he needsmedical or psycho-therapeutic treatment. Or, in the secondcase, he may be injuring the health or the rights of hispartner or of a third party, in which case the law isentitled to interfere. There are a number of various ways

SEXUAL DEVIATIONin which this may happen, while there are also variousways in which in different countries the law reacts, or, inthe opinion of some, should react, to the injury inflicted.Such injuries are the seduction of a minor, the injury toconjugal rights by adultery, the conveyance of a venerealdisease by intercourse, the infliction of what on the objectiveside (even if not so intended) is cruelty to obtainsexual gratification, etc. On many of these questions thereis general agreement. A matter on which there is still widedifference of opinion, and in different countries of practice,is with regard to homosexuality with the manifestationsof which we shall be concerned in the next chapter.Homosexuality has always and everywhere existed. It isone of the intersexual conditions within the natural andinevitable range of variations. Apart from that, and apartalso from being based on the relative sexual indifferenceof early life, it has in some lands and in some cultures beenpopular as a fashion or cherished as an ideal. It cannot beeradicated either by legal enactments, however severe, orby social reprehension. In the early Christian centuries,after the State had, with Constantine, been captured forthe new religion, homosexuality was the object of ferociousdecrees, and in France, even to the eve of the Revolution,pederasts were occasionally burnt. After the Revolution,however, with the Code Napoleon,all actsof simple homosexuality carried out in private by consentingadults ceased to be punishable, though still severelypunished if effected in public or with a minor. Thatrule is now followed in those lands which have been influencedby the Code Napoleon. In other countries, however,and notably in England and the United States, the ancientharsh attitude still persists and it seems difficult to modifythe old laws; all that has so far been done is, in somedegree, to refrain from carrying them out.

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXThere is much still to be effected by the growth, whichwe are bound to expect, of a more enlightened attitude infrom the consideration that sexual acts andsociety. Apartattitudes, when not made a cause of public offense, are forthe persons concerned, and no one else, to decide, we haveto remember that such acts and attitudes are largely theoutcome of innate constitution. When so-called or seemingcongenital cases of sexual deviation come before the physician,a difficultproblem is sometimes presented. Shall heendeavor to make the patient "normal" when for him"normality" may be what for a genuinely normal personwould be unnatural and a "perversion." I agree withWolbarst that "we may possibly find ourselves on thecorrect road if we act on the theory that any sexual deviationwhich has always given satisfaction without injuryto a particular individual must be considered normal forthat individual," thoughit must be added that our attitudewill be modified if at the same time injuryis inflictedon some other individual. We are not called upon toattempt the fruitless task of drastic suppression, althoughwe should facilitate the medical, or even surgical, treatment,of those who wish to escape from what they mayfind a burden, congenital or acquired, too heavy to beborne. We must aim not only to be just, but also to besympathetic.The greater tolerance in sexual matters now seen to bedesirable is not alone a matter of justice to those personswho vary from the norm. It has weight in the whole socialconstitution and adds a new stability to the moral system.Not onlyis it a hopeless task to deal with sexual varietiesas immoralities or crimes, but the moral systemistherebydiscredited by its failures, and the prevalence of varietiesrecognized as regards alcohol) , prohibitionsis fostered, for in such matters, as we know (itis now wellare maters16]

SEXUAL DEVIATIONments. Licht, the historian of sexual manifestations inGreece, has pointed out the rarity of sexual perversions(homosexuality not being so regarded but as a normalsupplement to marriage) in Greece. The reason was, heremarks, that for the Greeks sexual matters were outsidemorals (except where children or violence were involved) ,which was concerned only with injustice, offenses againstthe State, and crimes. Where normal relationships arefree, variations are not artificially fostered, and, if theyoccur, tend to pass unperceived. "It may sound paradoxical,but it is true," Wolbarst states, "that the spread ofsexual perversion in American communities in recentyears has been very largely fostered and abetted, unwittinglyof course, by moral agencies."We cannot expect or desire to return to Greek morality,and its ideal of "the beautiful alike in body and soul"may be out of our reach. But there can be little doubtthat we shall gradually break down the false notions andthe rigid attempts at legal and social prohibitions whichhave caused so much trouble and confusion in the sexualhistory of our recent past. In so doing we shall purify omspiritual atmosphere and strengthen our moral code by removingfrom it prescriptions which were merely a sourceo weakness.BIBLIOGRAPHYHAVELOCK ELLIS, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Vol. II,"Sexual Inversion."W. McDouGALL, Outline of Abnormal Psychology.A. L. WOLBARST, "Sexual Perversions: their Medical andSocial Implications," Medical Journal and Record, July,1931.HANS LIGHT, Sexual Life in Ancient Greece.[217]

CHAPTER VHOMOSEXUALITYSexualInversionWHEN the sexual impulse is directed towards persons ofthe same sex we are in the presence of an aberration variouslyknown as "sexual inversion/' "contrary sexual feeling/'"uranism," or, more generally, "homosexuality/* asopposed to normal heterosexuality. "Homosexual! ty" isthe best general term for all forms of the anomaly, in distinctionfrom normal heterosexuality, while "sexual inversion"is best reserved for apparently congenital and fixedforms. It is the most clearly defined of all sexual deviations,for it presents an impulse which is completely andfundamentally transferred from the normal object to anobject which is normally outside the sphere of sexualdesire, and yet possesses all the attributes which in otherrespects appeal to human affection. It is a highly abnormalaberration, and yet it seems to supply a greater satisfactionthan any other aberration can furnish. It is probably thischaracteristic of sexual inversion which renders it so important.This importance is manifested in three ways:(i) its wide diffusion and the large place it has played invarious epochs of culture; (2)itsfrequency in civilizationtoday, and (3)the large number of distinguished personswho have manifested the aberration.The fundamental and what may be called"natural"basis of homosexuality is manifested by its prevalenceamong animals. It is common among various mammals,

HOMOSEXUALITYand, as we should expect, is especially found among thePrimates most nearly below Man. G. V. Hamilton, studyingmonkeys and baboons, states that "the immature malemonkey typically passes through a period during which heis overtly and almost exclusively homosexual, and that thisperiod is terminated at sexual maturity by an abruptturning to heterosexual ways." Zuckerman has closely observedthe homosexual behavior of baboons and chimpanzees,sometimes findingit more pronounced in the femalesthan in the males, and he is even inclined to assimilatehomosexual and heterosexual behavior among the apes,finding no pronounced differences.Among many savage and barbarous peoples homosexualityhas been conspicuous and sometimes treated withreverence. This was so even among the ancient civilizationson which our own is founded. It was known to theAssyrians, and the Egyptians, nearly four thousand yearsago, attributed paederasty to their gods Horus and SetIt has been associated not only with religion but withmilitary virtues, and was in this way cultivated among theancient Carthaginians, Dorians, and Scythians, as it waslater by the Normans. Among the ancient Greeks, finally,it was idealized not merely in association with militaryvirtue, but with intellectual, aesthetic, and even ethicalqualities, and was by many regarded as more noble thannormal heterosexual love. After the coming of Christianityit still held itsground, but it fell into disrepute, while as apsychological anomaly consisting in an idealization of personsof the same sex even apart from homosexual acts itwas forgotten or unknown. It was only recognized afterJustinian's time as sodomy, that is to say as a vulgar vice,or rather as a crime, deserving of the most severe secularand ecclesiastical penalties, even burning at the stake.In the Middle Agesit isprobable that sexual inversion["91

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXflourished not only in camps but also in cloisters, and it isconstantly referred to in the Penitentials. It is not, however,until the Renaissance that it plays a conspicuous partin the world; Latini, Dante's teacher, was inverted, andDante refers to the frequency of this perversion amongmen of intellect and fame. The distinguished Frenchhumanist Muret was from this cause in danger of deaththroughout his life; Michaelangelo, the greatest sculptorof the Renaissance, cherished homosexual ideals and passions,although there is no reason to suppose that he hadphysical relations with the men he was attracted to; Marlowe,one of the chief poets of the Renaissance in England,was clearly of the same way of feeling, as also, there isground for believing, was Bacon.It is quite true that the invert seldom places himselfunder a physician's hands. He usually has no wish to behe isdifferent from what he is, and as his intelligence is generallyquite up to the average level, if not above it,careful to avoid discovery and seldom attracts the attentionof the police. In this way the prevalence of inversionis unknown to those who do not know where to look forit or how to detect it. In Germany Hirschfeld, whoseknowledge of homosexuality is unrivaled, has shown thata large number of separate estimates among differentclasses of the population reveal a proportion of invertedand bisexual persons varying between one and five percent. In England my own independent observations,though of a much less thorough and extensive character,indicate a similar prevalence among the educated middleclass, while among the lower social classes homosexualityis certainly not rare, and even if not innate there oftenappears to be among them a remarkable absence of repulsionto homosexual relations; inverts have referredmanyto this point. Among women, though less[220]easy to detect,

HOMOSEXUALITYless common thanhomosexuality appears to be scarcelyamong men, in this respect unlike nearly all other aberrations;the pronounced cases are, indeed, perhaps lessfrequently met with than among men, but less markedand lessdeeply rooted cases are probably more frequentthan among men. Some professions show a higher proportion of inverts than others. Inversion is not specially prevalent among scientific and medical men; it is more fre>quent among literary and artistic people, and in the dramaticprofession it is often found. It is also specially commonamong hairdressers, waiters, and waitresses* Artisticaptitude of one kind or another, and a love of music, arefound among a large proportion of educated inverts, inmy experience as much as sixty-eight per cent.In America among the educated and professional classes,M. W. Peck among 60 college men in Boston, representingall departments of the University and College life, found7 who were definitely homosexual, six of them admittingadult overt experiences. Two others were clearly thoughunconsciously homosexual; he considers that 10 per centcollege men are homosexual, whether or not there areovert practices. G. V. Hamilton found that only 44 of his100 married men could deny all memory of homosexualplay in early life; while 46 men and 23 women owned tofriendship with their own sex involving stimulation ofthe sexual organs. Katharine Davis found that 31.7 percent women admitted "intense emotional relations withother women," and 57.5 per cent unmarried women admittedhomosexual play in childhood, 48.2? per cent ofthem droppingit after adolescence.The importance of homosexuality is, again, shown bythe prevalence of homosexual prostitution. This has beenspecially studied in Berlin where the police tolerate it, onthe same basis as female prostitution,in order to be able[221]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXto control and limit its manifestations. Hirschfeld considersthe number of male prostitutesin Berlin to be abouttwenty thousand; more recently and more cautiouslyWerner Picton estimates it as six thousand. More thanone third are judged to be psychopathic, less than a quarterof them to be homosexual themselves. Unemploymentis a commonly assigned cause, as of female prostitution,but probably various other elements enter into the causation.Although sexual inversion is thus so important a phenomenonit is only in recent times that it has receivedscientific study, or even recognition. This first took placein Germany, At the end of the eighteenth century twocases were publishedin Germany of men showing a typicalemotional sexual attraction towards their own sex. Butalthough Hossli, Caspar, and especially Ulrichs (who inventedfor it the term "uranism") further prepared theway, it was not until 1870 that Westphal published a detailedhistory of an inverted young woman, and clearlyshowed that the case was congenital and not acquired, sothat it could not be termed a vice, and was also, thoughneurotic elements were present, not a case of insanity.From that moment the scientific knowledge of sexual inversionrapidlyincreased. Krafft-Ebing, who was the firstgreat clinician of sexual inversion, brought together alarge number of cases in his Psychopathia Sexualis, whichwas the earliest scientific book dealing with abnormal sexualityto attract general attention. Moll, with a more criticalmind than was Krafft-Ebing's, and a wider scientificculture, followed with an admirable treatise on sexualinversion. Then Magnus Hirschfeld, with an unrivaledand most sympathetic personal knowledge of inverts,greatly contributed to our knowledge, and his book, DerHomosexualitat (1914), not yet translated into English.

HOMOSEXUALITYis an encyclopedia of the whole subject. In Italy, wherethe term "inversione sessuale" seems tohave originated,cases were from an early period brought forward by Ritti,Tamassia, Lombroso, and others. In France, where Charcotand Magnan first took up this study in 1882, a seriesof distinguished investigators, including Fere, S&ieux,and Saint-Paul (writing under the pen-name of "Dr.Laupts") have elucidated our knowledge of sexual inversion.In Russia Tarnowsky first investigated the phenomena.In England, John Addington Symonds, son of a distinguishedphysician and himself a brilliant man of letters,privately published two notable pamphlets, one on sexualinversion in ancient Greece and another on the modernproblem of homosexuality, Edward Carpenter (also atfirst privately) printed a pamphlet on die subject andlater a book (first published in German) on The IntermediateSex. Raffalovich published a notable book inFrench, and my own book on sexual inversion was publishedfirst in Germany (Das Kontrdre GeschlechtsgefilhL1896) and then in England and America, where also, at,an earlier date, Kiernan and Lydston had given attentionto the facts and theory of sexual inversion. The mostnotable recent book (1932) is Maran6n's, translated fromthe Spanish.The amount of study lately devoted to the subject hasnot yet resulted in complete unanimity. The first and mostfundamental difficulty lay in deciding whether sexual inversionis congenital or acquired. The prevailing opinion,before Krafft-Ebing's influence began to be felt, was thathomosexuality is acquired, that it is, indeed, simply a"vice," generally the mere result of masturbation or sexualexcesses having produced impotence in normal coitus, orelse (with Binet and Schrenck-Notzing)that it is theresult of suggestion in early life.Krafft-Ebing accepted

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXboth the congenital and the acquired varieties of homosexuality,and the subsequent tendency has been towardsminimizing the importance of acquired homosexuality.This tendency was well marked in Moll's treatise. Hirschfeldand Maranon consider that there is always a congenitalelement in homosexuality, and Bloch, Aletrino,etc., separated off the non-congenital homosexual personswho, for some reason or another, indulge in homosexualpractices, as belonging to a group of "pseudo-homosexuality";this was also the view of Nacke who consideredthat we have to distinguish not between congenital andacquired inversion, but between true and false, and whoregarded homosexuality appearing late in life as notacquired, but "retarded" or delayed homosexuality on abasis. Some authorities who started with thecongenitalold view that sexual inversion is exclusively or chiefly anacquired condition (like Nacke and Bloch) later adoptedthe more modern view. Many psycho-analysts still cherishthe belief that homosexuality is always acquired, but as atthe same time they also recognize that it is frequentlyconstitutional, the differ-fixed, and therefore presumablyence of opinion becomes unimportant.Another fundamental point in regard to which opinionhas changed is the question as to whether sexual inversion,even if congenital, should be considered a morbid or "degenerate"state. On this matter Krafft-Ebing at first rangedhimself with the ancient view and regarded inversion asthe manifestation of a neuropathic or psychopathic state,but in his latest writings he judiciously modified this positionand was content to look on inversion as an anomalyand not a disease or a "degeneration." This is the directionin which modern opinion has steadily moved. Inverts maybe healthy, and normal in all respects outside their specialaberration. This has always been my own standpoint,[224]

HOMOSEXUALITYthough I regard inversion as frequently in close relationto minor neurotic conditions. We may agree with Hirschfeld(who finds hereditary taint in not more than 25 percent inverts) that even if there is a neuropathic basis ininversion the morbid element is usuallyWe small.are thus brought to what may be regarded as thefundamental basis in biological constitution on which,when we go outside the psychological field, homosexualitycan be said to rest. It may seem easy to say that there aretwo definitely separated distinct and immutable sexes, themale that bears the sperm-cell and the female that bearsthe ovum or egg. That statement has, however, long ceasedto be, biologically, strictly correct. We may not knowexactly what sex is; but we do know that it is mutable,with the possibility of one sex being changed into theother sex, that its frontiers are often uncertain, and thatthere are many stages between a complete male and acomplete female. In some forms of animal life, indeed,it is not easy to distinguish which is male and whichfemale. In all these cases sex may be regarded as one ofthe devices (for there are other devices in Nature) forsecuring reproduction, though we are justified in studyingthe phenomena of sex apart from the question of reproduction.However true itmay be that reproduction isNature's primary aim, it is equally true that sexual reproductionisonly one of several devices for attaining thatendẆe are bound to assume that in every sex-chromosome,whether XX or XY, resides the physical basisof an impulsewhich tends to impose the male type or the femaleindividual. When two individualstype on the developingof different races, as of some moths (in which the phenomenahave been specially studied) are bred together,the offspring often ceases to be normal, and the male off-[225]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXspring may show a tendency in the direction of femaleness,or, under other circumstances, the female offspringshow a tendency to maleness, the strain thus able to givean impress being termed "strong" and the other "weak."Here we see already, in a low zoological form, the conditionof inter-sexuality which when we proceed to Man andenter the psychological field has sometimes been considered(though incorrectly)to constitute an "intermediate"sex. It is, more strictly, the result of a quantitative disharmonybetween the male and female sex-determiningfactors. Being part of the hereditary constitution of theindividual, it is inborn, likely to become more pronouncedas development proceeds, and, in the higher mammals, tomanifest itself in the psychic sphere.When dealing with moths, it is found that this intersexuality,more simple than when occurring higher in thezoological scale, may be produced by mixing differentraces of the same species. When we approach nearer toMan, the forms of intersexuality differ, are less pronounced,or not at all, in the external physical aspect, andare due less to mixture of different races than to variedindividual deviations from the normal, while sometimesat all stages external factors may be influential.We begin to come closer to the actual mechanism bywhich intersexuality isproduced when we turn again tothe action of the hormones. We may view these as takingup the guidance of the sex process after the influence of1the initial sex-chromosomes, XX or XY, has been ex-hausted. The somatic, or general, tissues of the body possessthe potency of developing the characters of either sexunder the stimulus of the special complex of sex-hormoneswhich they receive. The ovary, indeed, it is believed, doesnot at any early stage exert any marked influence upon thesoma, the female development being seemingly innate,[226]

HOMOSEXUALITYthough the developed female sex-equipment depends onthe sex-hormones for its maintenance. Male differentiation,on the other hand, requires the male testicular hormonefor itsdevelopment. Thus the female, it is held, representsthe neutral form which the soma assumes in theabsence of the male sex hormone. When the male hormoneappears later than usual some form of intersexuality thusresults, and the later its appearance the more femalenessthere is in the result. "The degree of abnormality," asCrew puts it, "will be determined by the time at whichthe male sex-hormone becomes operative." That helps toexplain why an individual who appears female in earlylife assumes male characters at sexual maturity.To the adrenal cortex is specially attributed the formationof a hormone which exerts a masculinizing influencein the same direction as that of the testes. This result,"virilism" as it is now sometimes termed (formerly"adreno-genital syndrome") , is associated with hypertrichosisand in males with precocious sexual and somaticdevelopment, while in females there is atrophy of theuterus, with changes in the ovaries, under-development ofthe labia and overgrowth of the clitoris, atrophy of themammae, narrowing of the hips, broadening of the shoulders,with either marked muscular development or adiposity.There are disturbances of sexual function and evencomplete sterility. Four types of virilism have been described,depending on the time of onset: (i) Congenitaltype (with feminine pseudo-hermaphroditism, the sexualglands remaining female while the secondary sex charactersare male) ; (2) Puberty type (beginning near puberty,with hirsutism and menstrual disturbances predominating); (3) Adult type (rather similar but less marked) ;(4) Obstetrical type (after the menopause with obesity,excess or loss of hair, psychic disturbances and asthenia).[227]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXThe exact method in which the adrenal hormone acts isstilla matter of dispute.When we deal with homosexuality we are stillintersexual sphere,and we are no doubt stillin thelargely concernedwith the action of the hormones, but we are in apsychic sphere where physical syndromes are usually difficultto trace. There is no doubt that in a slight degree,and occasionally in a marked degree, theystill exist, butthey are unimportant, though many years ago Weil andothers have sought to demonstrate the presence of slightbut measurable physical differentia of congenital origin inthe homosexual. Apart from such measurable differences,there can be little doubt that certain individuals, in organicconstitution, and probably as a result of unusualhormonic balance, possess a special aptitude to experienceTheresexual satisfaction with persons of their own sex.are a larger number, as is well known, presumably normal,both in Man and among lower animals, who when deprivedof the presence of individuals of the opposite sexcan find temporary sexual satisfaction in their own sex.It may seem hazardous to assert that every individual ismade up of mixed masculine and feminine elements,variously combined, and that the male invert is a personwith an unusual proportion of female elements, the femaleinvert a person with an unusual proportion of male elements;it is a schematic view which will scarcely accountaltogether for the phenomena. But when we put asideoccasional homosexuality in presumably normal persons,we seem justified in looking upon inversion as a con-an anom-genital anomalyor, to speak more accurately,aly based on congenital conditions which if it is pathological,is only so in Virchow's sense that pathology is thescience not of diseases but of anomalies, so that an invertedperson may be as healthy as a color-blind person.[228]

HOMOSEXUALITYCongenital sexual inversion is thus akin to a biologicalvariation. It is a variation doubtless due to imperfectsexual differentiation, but often having no traceable connectionwith any morbid condition in the individual himself.This view of sexual inversion now tends to prevail andhas gained much force recently. But itmaybe traced someway back. Ulrichs, so long ago as 1862, declared that inversionis "a species of hermaphroditism." Kiernan in Americain 1888 insisted on the significance of the fact that theancestors of the human species were originally bisexual;Chevalier in 1893 put forward a theory of inversion basedon foetal bisexuality. Letamendi of Madrid in 1894 setforth a theory of panhermaphroditism according to whichthere are always latent female germs in the male, andlatent male germs in the female. Finally, about 1896,Krafft-Ebing, Hirschfeld, and I(all,it seems, more or lessindependently) adopted a somewhat similar explanation.The prevalence of these general views of sexual inversionhas influenced the clinical classification of itsvarieties.Krafft-Ebing accepted four different varieties ofcongenital inversion and four different varieties of theacquired form. Moll rejectedthis elaborate classification,as itrecognizing only psychosexual hermaphroditism (or,is now usually termed, bisexuality) and complete inversion.This corresponds to the division now recognized bymost authorities. That is to say that when we have putaside the people who are exclusively attracted to the oppositesex, we have those who are exclusively attracted to thesame sex, and those who are attracted to both sexes. Whenwe go beyond this simple and elementary classification weencounter an endless number of individual variations butthey do not easily admit of being arranged in definitegroups. Even the bisexual class is not rigidly uniform, for

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXit certainly contains many individuals who are congenitalinverts with an acquired heterosexuality.When we consider well-marked cases of sexual inversionwe find certain characteristics which frequently tend torecur. While a considerable proportion (in my experienceover fifty per cent) belong to reasonably healthy families,in about forty per cent there is in the family some degreeof morbidity or abnormality eccentricity, alcoholism,neurasthenia or nervous diseaseof slight or greater degree.The heredity of inversion is well-marked, though ithas sometimes been denied; sometimes a brother andsister, a mother and son, an uncle and nephew, are bothinverted even unknown to each other; I find this familyor hereditary inversion in thirty-five per cent cases, andvon Romer has found exactly the same proportion. It isalone sufficient to show that inversion may be inborn.The general personal health is in about two-thirds of thecases good and sometimes very good; among the remainderthere is often a tendency to nervous trouble or to a moreor less unbalanced temperament; only a small proportion(about eight per cent in my experience) are markedlymorbid.In the great majority the inverted tendency appears inearly life, often at puberty, but frequently there are indicationsof it before puberty. Sexual precocity appears to bemarked in a large proportion and there is often a tendencyto sexual hyperaesthesia. Many inverts describe themselvesas "sensitive" or "nervous/* The influence of suggestioncan be not infrequently traced, but in these cases there isusually also evidence of predisposition. Masturbation hasbeen practiced in a large proportion of cases, but masturbationis also common among the heterosexual and thereis no reason to suppose that it is a factor in the causationof inversion. The erotic dreams of inverts are usually in-

HOMOSEXUALITYverted, but this isby no means invariably the case, andeven inverts who appear to be such congenitally sometimeshave normal dreams, just asnormal persons occasionallyhave homosexual dreams.The satisfaction of the inverted sexual impulse iseffected in a variety of ways. Among my cases nearlytwenty per cent had never had any kind of sexual relationship.In thirty to thirty-five per cent the sexual relationshiprarely goes beyond close contact, or at mostmutual masturbation. In the others inter-crural connectionor occasionally fellatio is the method practiced. Inwoman gratification is obtained by kissing, close contact,mutual masturbation, and in some cases cunnilinctus,which isusually active rather than passive. The proportionof male inverts who desire pcedicatio (more often activethan passive) is not large. Hirschfeld places it at eight percent cases; I have found it to be nearer fifteen per cent.In male inverts there is a frequent tendency to approximateto the feminine type and in female inverts to themasculine type; this occurs both in physical and in psychicrespects, and though it may be traced in a considerablenumber of respects it isby no means always obtrusive.Some male inverts, however, insist on their masculinity,feel more like a man or like a woman. Amongwhile many others are quite unable to say whether theyfemale inverts,there is usually some approximation to the masculineattitude and temperament though this isby no meansalways conspicuous. Various minor anomalies of structureor function may occur in inverts. The sexual organs inboth sexes are sometimes overdeveloped or, perhaps moreusually, underdeveloped, in a slight approximation to theinfantile type; gynecomastyis at times observed; in womenthere may be a somewhat masculine developmentof thelarynx, as well as some degree of hypertrichosis. (Mara-

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXnon finds that male traits tend to appear on the right sideof the body, female on the left.)Male inverts are sometimesunable to whistle. In both sexes a notable youthfulnessof appearance is often preserved into adult age.The love of green (which is normally a preferred colorchiefly by children and especially girls) is frequently observed.A certain degree of dramatic aptitude is not uncommon,as well as some tendency to vanity and personaladornment, and occasionally a feminine love of ornamentand jewelry. Many of these physical and psychic characteristicsmay be said to indicate some degree of infantilism,and this is in agreement with the view of inversion whichtraces it to a fundamental bisexual basis, for the furtherback we go in the life-history of the individual the nearerwe approach to the bisexual stage.Morally, inverts usually apply to themselves the normalcode, and seek to justify their position. Those who fightagainst their instincts, or permanently disapprove of theirown attitude, or even feel doubtful about it, are a smallminority, less than twenty per cent. This is why so fewinverts seek medical advice. They are fortified in their selfjustificationby the fact that not only in France but inseveral other countries (Italy, Belgium, Holland, etc.)which have been influenced by the Code Napoleon homosexualpractices per se are not touched by the law providedthere has been no violence, no outrage on a minor,and no offense against public decency. England and theUnited States are probably the chief countries in whichthe ancient ecclesiastical jurisdiction against homosexualitystill retains an influence. In these countries, however,the law in this matter causes much difficulty and dispute;it is difficult to decide what homosexual actions amountto a criminal offense; it isonlyin a few cases that theculprits are detected, or even sought, for, as a rule, the

HOMOSEXUALITYpolice carefully avoid pursuing their traces; and there isnot the slightest reason to suppose that the countrieswhich legislate against inversion possess a smaller, oreven less prominent, proportion of inverts. In France, forinstance, under the ancient monarchy, when an invert was,according to the law, liable to be burned, inversion wassometimes fashionable and conspicuous; at the present daythe reverse is the case. In view of these facts there is todaya movement, which finds support alike in medical and inlegal quarters, in favor of abolishing the punishment ofhomosexual acts except when the circumstances underwhich the acts are committed give them an anti-socialcharacter. It is a powerful argument in favor of suchabolition that it at once puts a stop to the movement ofof homo-agitation, and the tendency to the glorificationsexuality which is undesirable and even in many respectsharmful prevailing in those countries which still regardhomosexuality as a crime.BIBLIOGRAPHYHAVELOCK ELLIS, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Vol. II,Sexual Inversion.F. A. E. CREW, Art: "Sex" in Outline of Modern Knowledge.G. MARA&6N, The Evolution of Sex and IntersexualConditions.M. W. PECK, "The Sex Life of College Men," Journal ofNervous and Mental Diseases, Jan., 1925.G. V. HAMILTON, A Research in Marriage.K. B. DAVIS, Factors in the Sex Life of Twenty-Two HundredWomen.L. R. BROSTER, "A Review of Sex Characters," BritishMedical Journal, 2 May, 1931.WERNER PICTON, "Male Prostitution in Berlin," HowardJournal, 1931.[233]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXItThe Diagnosis of Sexual Inversionhas already been remarked that the sexual impulsetends to be more diffused in children than itsubsequentlybecomes in adults. Probably as a result of this diffusion,it is not so precisely focused on individuals of the oppositesex. Max Dessoir went so far as to say that up to the ageof fourteen or fifteen in both boys and girls the sexualinstinct isnormally undifferentiated. More recently Freud(following William James and others) has repeatedlystated that in allyoung subjects there is normally a homosexualstreak. Theoretically that view is entirely sound.Since every individual contains the physical germs of theopposite sex, it is reasonable to suppose that he should alsocontain the psychic germs, and since in childhood his ownsexual characters, physically and psychic are still undeveloped,we should expect the opposite traits to be relativelyprominent.The appearance of a homosexual tendency in early lifeharmonizes with the results independently reached by thephysiologists. Thus Heape concludes that the evidenceshows that "There is no such thing as a pure male orfemale animal; ... all animals contain the elements ofboth sexes in some degree/7Some of the reasons for thisconclusion are fairly obvious and it has long been recognizedas the most reasonable explanation of inversion.It isquite intelligible that the I tent sexual elementshould more easily come to the surface in early life whenthe dominant sexual element is still too undeveloped tobe able to suppress it. "I have never," wrote Freud in1905, "yet come through a single psycho-analysis of a manor a woman without having to take into account a veryconsiderable current of homosexuality." If we may acceptthis statement by so penetrating and experienced[234]an in-

HOMOSEXUALITYvestigator as true for the morbid subjects of psychoanalysis,it must be added that for more normal persons,between whom and those who become patients there isno clear line of demarcation, this current may be veryslight and not to be detected after adolescence.The acceptance of the homosexual current does nottherefore involve the belief in a completely undifferentiatedstate of the sexual impulse in early life. In some largeschools, it is true (notably in some of the large EnglishPublic Schools frequented by boys of upper social class) ,homosexuality is known to flourish, aided, it would seem,by a kind of tradition. But these appear to be exceptions.of us are unable to recall from the memories ofManyschool life and early associations anyclear evidence of theexistence of homosexual attractions, such rare sexual attractionsas existed being exclusively towards the oppositesex.It remains true that a certain liability to more or lessromantic homosexual affection is found among boys, whilegirls,much more frequently, cherish enthusiastic devotionsfor other girls somewhat older than themselves, andvery often for their teachers. Even, however, when theseemotions are reciprocated, and even when they lead todefinite sexual manifestations and gratification, they mustnot too hastily be taken to indicate either a vice calling fortreatment. Insevere punishment or a disease demandingthe great majority of these cases we are simply concernedwith an inevitable youthful phase.In dealing, therefore, with such manifestations, whichare in most cases purely sentimental, and with only avague sensual tinge, though they sometimes take crudeand even cruel shapes, it isimportant to realize that weare probably in the presence of an early stage of what maybe a more or less normal development. Much injury may[235]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXbe done to a boy's nervous and mental character,to saynothing of his future reputation, by the over-hasty assumptionthat such manifestations are diseased or vicious. Theycan adequately be dealt with, when they need to be dealtwith at all, by a kindly teacher or guardian, who in thecourse of imparting general sexual information inculcatesin the boy self-respect and regard for the welfare of others.In girlsthese manifestations usually escape serious treatment,partly because they are so common, and partly becausewomen, more often than men, are disposed to viewthem indulgently, if not indeed sometimes to share them.It remains, however, of considerable importance to distinguishbetween these temporary manifestations of homosexualityand the congenital sexual inversion which islikely to indicate a permanent life-long direction of thesexual impulse and ideals. In some children the sexualimpulse, far from being either undifferentiated or directeddirected towards thetowards the opposite sex, is definitelysame sex from the first. A diagnosis of congenital inversioncannot, however, always be made with certainty until theperiod of adolescence is entirely completed. A refined andwith aesthetic tastes, atintellectual youththe University,for instance, surrounded by attractive and congenial personsof his own sex, may remain indifferent to women andcontinue to cherish ardent sentimental friendships andadmirations, reaching the conclusion that he must be aninvert by nature. Yet, when he leaves the University forhe shares the com-the world, he discovers that, after all,mon passions of ordinary humanity. It is not, indeed, untilthe age of twenty-five has been reached or even later, thatwe can be fairly sure that homosexual impulses are not aphase of normal development. Even after maturity haslong been reached the homosexual impulse may veer[236]

HOMOSEXUALITYtowards the heterosexual, or else become genuinely bisexual.But at a much earlier period it may be possible to seegood reason to consider that we are dealing with a congenitalinvert. If we find unusual sexual precocity combinedwith complete sexual concentration on the same sexwithout any sexual attraction to the opposite sex, thoughwith perhaps an attraction to feminine interests and avocations,and if the family history shows a considerabletendency to nervous abnormality or to eccentricity, wemay suspect, although we cannot be certain, that we aredealing with a certain type of congenital invert.In other cases, however, the homosexual tendency maynot appear until late in life. It was formerly taken forgranted that in these cases the condition isacquired andnot congenital; this is, however, today disputed by manywho regard these cases as due to the late development ofa really inborn tendency, retarded congenital inversion.In this way it comes about that we have to distinguishbetween true congenital sexual inversion (early or retarded)bisexual attraction in which the individual's sexualimpulse goes out towards individuals of both sexes,(most though not all of these cases being apparently invertswho have acquired normal habits), and the largeand vague class of the pseudo-homosexuals, whose perversityis due either to temporary circumstances (asamong sailors) to senile impotency, or to a deliberate,search for abnormal sensations. Even in pseudo-homosexualitywe have to recognize, according to the prevailingview, that the homosexuality rests on a natural germinalbasis, and cannot therefore be regarded as completely acquired,but is the development of a latent aptitude.Sexual inversion has high significance in part becauseit tends to occur in individuals who are above the[237]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXaverage in intellect and character, even when we putaside many notable monarchs, statesmen, poets, sculptors,painters, composers, scholars, etc., both past and present.That isperhaps a reason why they are not easily recog-have never seennized. Many physicians believe that theyan invert; even so experienced an alienist as Sir GeorgeSavage once stated that he scarcely ever met with inversion.The experience of another distinguished alienist isinstructive. Nacke at one time, never having to his knowledgemet an invert, wrote to Hirschfeld, whose experiencein this field is wider than that of any other physician,asking for an invert to be sent to his house. Great wasNacke's surprise when the visitor proved to be a man hewas already well acquainted with, a near connection ofhis own by marriage. It isnot usually until some circumstancehas opened our eyes that we beginto discover thatin every social environment inverts are to be found. It is,however, only those of the lowest, most degenerate, andsometimes mercenary class who are willing to betray theirpeculiarity. The suicides and mysterious disappearanceswhich occur from time to time among highly placed persons,often of great ability, are frequently connected witheven after their fate has overtaken them,inversion, thoughthe cause of it often remains a mystery to the generalpublic. These persons have probably never confided in aphysician. They realize that it would be futile, that theaverage physician is quite unprepared to deal with theircase, if, indeed, he would not be shocked or disgusted.A physician, a man of high character and intelligence.,who is himself a congenital invert, though his moral traditionshave not allowed him to seek the satisfaction of hisimpulses, writes as follows regarding his education at aworld-renowned medical center: "The first reference bearingdefinitely on the subject of sexual perversion was[238]

HOMOSEXUALITYmade in the class of medical jurisprudence where certainsexual crimes were alluded to, very summarily and inadequatelybut nothing was said of the existence of sexualinversion as the normal condition of certain unhappypeople, nor was any distinction drawn between the variousnon-normal acts, which were all classed together as manifestationsof the criminal depravity of ordinary or insanepeople. To a student beginning to be acutely consciousthat his sexual nature differed profoundly from that of hisfellows nothing could be more perplexing and disturbing,and it shut me up more completely in my reserve thanever. It was still more unfortunate that neither in the classof systematic medicine nor in the course of the lectureson clinical medicine was there the slightest allusion to thesubject. All sorts of rare diseases some of which I havenot met with in twenty-one years of busy practice werefully discussed, but we were left entirely ignorant of asubject so vitally important to me personally, and, as itseems to me, to the profession to which I aspired." Thisabsence of reference to sexual problemsin the medicalteaching has probably been the experience of most of us,though such defective teaching has usually been less unfortunatefor the student personally than for those whomhe might have been enabled to help. Fortunately this is astate of things which will now rapidly cease to exist.It isnot, however, only among the people who are inother respects obviously exceptional, whether "degenerates'*or men of genius though among these indeed itseems to be peculiarly prevalent that sexual inversion isfound. It is also found among a fair proportion of theapparently average population, among people who areindistinguishable from the average. Inverts are sometimesreferred to, even by physicians, as an "effeminate" class.That is scarcely the case. A certain group of them may[*39]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXindeed be so styled, they are physically and mentallyflabby, self-conscious, vain, fond of jewelry and adornment;these men have the inclinations of the prostituteand in some cases actually become male prostitutes. Butthey are not more typical of inversion than the femaleprostitute, actual or temperamental, is typical of womanhood.A large number of inverts, indeed, are unusuallyrefined, sensitive, or emotional, but the same may be saidof many slightly neurotic people who are not homosexual.Others, both men and women, are not obviously distinguishedby any special character which could reasonablyIt issuggest an abnormal direction of the sexual impulse.this fact which accounts for so many people believing thatthey have never come across an invert, while yet the proportionof inverts in the general population has by carefuland well-informed investigation been found so considerableas to be at least well over one per cent.It seems probable, as already pointed out, that the prevalenceof inversion varies but very slightly in differentcountries, though in certain special regions of SouthernEurope it is said to be considerable, perhaps owing to thespecial habits or traditions of the people. It is sometimessaid by people of various countries that sexual inversionis not so prevalent in their land as it is abroad. But theyspeak in ignorance of the real facts. The apparent variationsare merely superficial and mostly due to the socialand legal attitude towards inversion which prevails in acountry. This does not mean that it flourishes where thelaws are lenient, for the existence of harshly repressive lawsmay merely serve to arouse an enthusiastic propagandafor their abolition which calls attention to the prevalenceof inversion. Homosexuality isthe most prevalentof allthe sexual deviations, for though the erotic symbolisms,[240]

HOMOSEXUALITYin a slight and undeveloped degree, are probably morecommon, they are not nearly so often met with in a fullydeveloped degree as is inversion. This prevalenceis stillfurther emphasized by the energy and character, in manyof the subjects of the anomaly.cases,It is the gradual recognition of the prevalenceof inversionamong people of ordinary normal intelligenceandconduct which has modified the opinions of alienists concerningthe nature of this and, indeed, other sexual anomalies.In medieval and earlier days homosexuality, in itsonly recognizable shape as sodomy and tribadism, was asin and a crime, often expiated at the stake; it continuedto be regarded only as a manifestation of disgusting depravityuntil well on in the nineteenth century; then therewas a tendency to look on it as a sign of insanity, or at allevents of degeneracy. That view isnow out of date, as isinevitable when we find that such deviations and the likeoccur in mentally capable and morally well-conducted andself-controlled people, many of whom are by no meansovermastered or obsessed by their impulses and some ofwhom have never yielded to them at all. Occasional homosexualityis a tendency to which Man iseverywhere liablein common with that part of the animal world to whichhe is most nearly allied. Congenital sexual inversion is ananomaly, an inborn variation of which we are beginningto understand the causes; it is, even when extreme, onlypathological in the same sense as color-blindness or albinismor transposition of the viscera is pathological.BIBLIOGRAPHYMOLL, The Sexual Life of the Child.HAVELOCK ELLIS, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Vol. II,"Sexual Inversion."FREUD, Collected Papers, Vol. III.

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXKATHARINE DAVIS, Factors in the Sex Life of Twenty-TwoHundred Women.EDWARD CARPENTER, The Intermediate Sex.Eonism (Transvestismor Sexo-dEsthetic Inversion)This is a condition, not to be identified with homosexualitythoughit sometimes tends to be associated with it,in which the subject more or less identifies himself orherself with the opposite sex, not merely in dress, but ingeneral tastes,in ways of acting, and in emotional disposition.The identification usually falls short of the oppositesex's sexual attitude; the normal heterosexual attitude isfrequently pronounced, yet it may be convenient to introducethe consideration of it here.It is rather a puzzling condition to define and to label.it aside for furtherI met with it many years ago and putconsideration. Meanwhile Hirschfeld in Germany, whowas already a leading authority on homosexuality, becameinterested in this condition, which he recognized as distinctfrom inversion and called "transvestism." He madeit the chief subject of several books. In my own first studyof the condition (1913) I called it "sexo-aesthetic inversion/'a sort of sexual inversion of tastes. Both these namesare unsatisfactory; "transvestism" is altogether inadequate,since a longing to wear the garments of the other sex isonly one of the traits exhibited, and in some cases it isscarcely or not at all found, while "sexo-assthetic inversion"may wrongly suggest that we are here concernedwith homosexuality, though that is usually not present."Eonism" is the name I finally devised (1920) for thiscondition. It has been accepted by many and stillseemsthe most convenient term, and adequately descriptive.Like "sadism" and "masochism," it is derived from a well-[*4]

HOMOSEXUALITYknown person who exhibited the anomaly in a typicalform, the Chevalier d'Eon de Beaumont (1728-1810), aBurgundian of good family, employed as a French diplomaticagent under Louis XV and finally dying in Londonwhere he was generally regarded as a woman, though theautopsy revealed him as a normal male. A less known personage,also French, the Abb de Choisy (1644-1724),andalso of aristocratic family, is in some aspects an even moretypical example of Eonism, and he wrote his ownmemoirs, which reveal him, as from other sources he isalso known, as a man of urbane and sociable temper, generallypopular in spite of his anomaly, refined, amiable,and rather feminine, a devoted admirer of women, withrather less than the average degree of sexual passion butthe father of at least one child,a man of genuine intellectualability,the esteemed friend of manyof the bestpeople of his day. He became a distinguished ecclesiastic,the historian of the Church, and the Doyen of the FrenchAcademy. Among notable women of analogous temperamenthave been Lady Hester Stanhope, and also JamesBarry, who spent a long' and distinguished life in masculinegarments and became Senior Inspector-General ofthe English Army Medical Department. There is no reasonto suppose that either of these women was homosexual.Eonism is a remarkably common anomaly; in my ownexperience it comes next in frequency to homosexuality'among sexual deviations. In ordinary life the subjects presentno startlingly unusual traits and may seem quiteordinarily masculine, but sometimes sensitive and reserved,often devoted to their wives, but seldom of vigoroussexual temperament. Their secret ideals are usuallyunsuspected, even by those nearest to them. Not all ofthem desire to adopt cross-dressingEdward (as Carpenter

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXtermed it), but when they do, it is with complete suc-and with a minute and almost in-cess, very skillfully,stinctive adoption of little feminine ways, which, theyfeel, come to them naturally. Though they do not oftendesire inverted sexual relationships, male Eonists sometimesfeel an almost passionate longing for a woman'sexperiences, of pregnancy and motherhood. In mentalability they are above the average and may attain distinctionas authors or otherwise.Eonism is to be classed among the transitional orintermediate forms of sexuality. But it is not easy toexplain its precise origin. We may agree with Kiernanthat there is sometimes an arrest of development, similar,as I have suggested, on the physical side, to eunuchoidism,to which indeed it sometimes seems related. We may thusprobably invoke some defective endocrine balance, andthereby see an opening, with better knowledge, for readjustmentof the normal balance.On the psychic side, as I view it, the Eonist is embodying,in an extreme degree, the aesthetic attribute of imitationof, and identification with, the admired object. Itis normal for a man to identify himself with the womanhe loves. The Eonist carries that identification too far,stimulated by a sensitiveand feminine element in him-associated with a rather defective virile sex-self which isuality on what may be a neurotic basis. An abnormalchildhood, with too close attachment to the mother, whomay herself be rather abnormal, seems sometimes to encouragethe appearance of Eonism. Fenichel considers thatthe specific factor of Eonism is a castration complex; hewould, however, say much the same of allsexual deviations,so that we are not thereby carried far; while headmits that this view will not apply to female Eonists.[244]

HOMOSEXUALITYHAVELOCK ELLIS, Studies inBIBLIOGRAPHYthe Psychology of Sex, Vol.VII, "Eonism."HOMBERG & JOUSSELIN, D'Eon de Beaumont: His Life andTimes.O. FENICHEL, "The Psychology of Transvestism," InternationalJournal of Psycho-analysis, April, 1930.FLUGEL, The Philosophy of Clothes.The Question of TreatmentA condition so uniqueas that of sexual inversion raisesspecial problems. On the one hand there is the similitudeof a complete variation combined in many cases with astate of general good health. Yet we are not in the presenceof a specifichuman mutation. The variation affects a specialfunction, even though it happens to be a functionwith a widely pervading influence on the whole organism.It isonly a variation in the sense that color-blindness is avariation. Oswald Schwartz in a recent searching study(though tending to be metaphysical)still insists that wemust regard homosexuality as morbid, though he is carefulto define "morbidity" as "the insubordination of anorgan to the functional law of the organism," generallydue, he holds, to a retained infantility, so that "morbidity"here has much the same definitional value as Virchow's"pathological." We are not here far from the position ofFreud that predisposition and experience are indissolublylinked, or from those authorities who hold that allgenuinehomosexuality has an innate basis, while acquired forms,due to external pressure, are only pseudo-homosexuality.We are not here primarily concerned with therapeuticalconsiderations. They have been fully discussed by Maran6nand others. But the question of treatment has con-!>45]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXstantly come to the front in connection with homosexualstates, whether or not innate inversion is suspected. Andhas not yet come into common practice.as the proposed treatment is usually psycho-therapeuticwe are bound to discuss its psychological advisability.I put aside the question of surgical treatment as thatLipschiitzmentionsthe case of a homosexual man who after transplantationof the testicle of a normal man became heterosexualand within a year felt able to marry. We need a muchlarger number of observations than are at present availablebefore coming to conclusions as to the possibility anddesirability of such a proceeding. More considerationsthan are at first obvious need to be regarded. At one timethe necessity of attempting some such treatment in allcases was taken for granted. That is not so now, thougheven yet some authorities are in favor of this courseeven in cases of clearly congenital inversion, where thepatient is anxious for the attempt to be made. If, however,we are clearly in the presence of a deeply rooted and completecase of inversion even the attempt at a radical unsettlementof the organized habits, conceptions, and ideals,involving a violation of the individual's fundamental nature,should not be made without careful consideration.It must be remembered that, when we are dealing with areally fixed condition, all normal methods of treatmentbecome difficult.Hypnotic suggestion, which was formerlyfound useful in many cases of the most various kinds ofsexual anomalies, is of comparativelylittle service in welldeveloped congenital deviations. It cannot even easily beapplied, for the subject resists the suggestion, just as thenormal subject usually resists under hypnotism the suggestionto commit a crime. Schrenck-Notzing, many yearsago when sexual inversion was not commonly regarded asinnate, expended great time and trouble in treating in-[246]

HOMOSEXUALITYverts by hypnotism, aided by visits to the brothel, andbelieved that he had been successful. But an appearance osuccess when success ismerely shown by the ability toeffect intercourse with the opposite sex, is admitted to bepossible, with much good will on the patient's part; it byno means follows that the ideals and impulses have beenreally and permanently turned into a new or even desirablechannel; the result may merely be, as one such patientexpressed it, that masturbation per vaginam has beenachieved.The psycho-analytic method of Freud has also been employedtherapeutically in these cases, and for this methodalso some success has been claimed. There is now, however,a tendency among psycho-analysts to recognize thatwhen the state of inversion is fixed (whether or not it isregarded as innate) it is useless to apply psycho-analysisin the expectation of a change of sexual direction. I haveknown many homosexual persons who have subjectedthemselves to psycho-analysis. Some stopped the treatmentat the outset; some considered that there had been little orno effect of any kind; some found distinct benefit, mainly,and self-however, through the increased self-knowledgerealization thus obtained rather than by any change in thedirection of the sexual impulse; I do not know of anycases in which a complete and permanent transformationof homosexuality into heterosexuality was achieved. Moll'sassociational therapy may perhaps be said to constitute athird psycho-therapeutical method calling for notice inthis connection, though it represents no new departure inmanner of application. It is, however, sound in theoryand practicable, and consists in finding a bridge by whichinto asso-the subject's perverted desires may be broughtciation with normal ends. Thus, if the subjectis attractedto boys he may be led to cultivate an attraction for boyish[247]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXwomen. It was already known that the invert is affected bysuch considerations as these. Thus one of my subjects wholeads a healthy and active life, is masculine in habits,represses his homosexual desires, and would like to marryand have a son, made various fruitless attempts at coitus.Later at Malta at a public dance, he met an Italian girlwho invited him to her home: "She had a very slim boyishfigure and a boyish face and hardly any breasts. I went toher flatby appointment and found her dressed in a man'spyjamas. I felt decidedly attracted, but even then wasunable to play the man's part. I came away, however,without the usual feeling of repulsion and on returningthe next night the result to my great delight was satisfactory.I went on several occasions before leaving Malta,but although attracted by this girl I never really enjoyedthe act and as soon as it was over had a desire to turn myback. Since then I have had intercourse with about adozen girls.But it isalways an effort and leaves a feelingof repulsion. I have come to the conclusion that for menormal sexual intercourse isonly an expensive and dangerousform of masturbation." But that is the best thatpsycho-therapeutics can generally hope to achieve.It must be added that all these methods, even in so faras they can be said to attain success at all, when appliedto deeply rooted cases of inversion, at best, for the mostpart, lead to a condition of bi-sexual attraction, by whichthe patientis enabled to find gratification with persons ofeither sex. This artificial shifting or looseninganchorage of the sexual impulseof theis not favorable to stabilityof character nor to any high morality. Nor is italtogether a matter of congratulation to render an invertcapable of procreation. The offspring of an invert unitedto a sound partner have, indeed, a fair chance of turningout satisfactorily, but the risks are too serious to enable[348]

HOMOSEXUALITYus to say that they may be lightly run. When an invert isprofoundly dissatisfied with his condition and keenlyanxious to become normal it is not easy to resist theattempt to render him normal. But it is not possible totake a sanguine view either o the prospects of success or"the results of success when it is achieved.There may still be ample room for treatment, even whenno direct attempt is made to suppress the inverted tendencyand the cheerful and easy-going view (which I haveseen advocated)isadopted of regarding homosexuality asmerely "a form of bad manners." The invert is, in a considerableproportion of cases, generally and sometimessexually, what used to be termed neurasthenic; in somecases he issexually hyperaesthetic with the irritable weaknesswhich commonly accompanies hyperaesthesia; he isoften sensitive and emotional, sometimes liable to panicsof apprehension or anxiety in connection with his abnormality.In such cases the ordinary treatment of the conditionis indicated, whether by sedatives, such as the bromides,or in some cases, tonics. Electricity, balneo-therapy,physical exercises, wholesome occupation, change of air,etc. all the ordinary methods of combating nervous exhaustionmay prove beneficial in dealing with forms ofsexual deviation. Many inverts are little worried by theexistence of their sexual anomaly so long as they are ingood health, so that it is on this ground alone highly necessaryto apply any special medical treatment that may berequired and to insist on the cultivation of hygiene. Theinversion will not thus be removed, but with intelligentcomprehension and sympathy the anxiety it causes may beallayed, its excesses may be restrained, and it may bebrought under rational self-control. This is in most casesall that is necessary, and in many all that is desirable.The question of marriage sometimes arises in the case[ 2 49]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXof inverts, althoughit is most usually settled withoutreference to the physician. As a method of treatment,whether the patientis a man or a woman, marriage mustcertainly be rejected, absolutely and unconditionally. Itmay perhaps enable the invert to become bisexual if thesexual instinct has not already taken on this double aspect,but the chances that it will abolish the inverted impulse,unless it isalready on the way to do so when the marriagetakes place, are of the smallest. On the contrary,marriage, by the difficulties and the disgust which itmayforce the inverted partner to contend with, sometimesexacerbates the inversion. Cases have occurred where itwas not until shortly after an apparently happy marriagethat an invert has recklessly placed himself within theclutches of the law. In or out of marriage, normal sexualintercourse cannot be regarded as a remedy for inversion,least of all in the form of prostitution, which tends topresent women in the aspect which is most repulsive tothe invert. Platonic friendship with a refined and intelligentperson of the opposite sex is more attractive and morehelpful, and if the Platonic friend is of a type which inthe same sex would appeal to the invert there is more likelihoodof the relationship serving as a method of associationaltherapeutics than when the question of sexualintercourse is directly approached. The invert whoseanomaly is based on an innate predisposition tends to bean invert all through, and any influences that modify hispsychic state must be gradual and manifold.While sexual intercourse, in or out of marriage, mustnever be regarded as a therapeutic method it is not necessaryto conclude that here and the same is true of otherprofound sexual deviations marriage is always to beprohibited. It is not unusual to find inverts marrying.But it is desirable that such marriages should not be made[250]

HOMOSEXUALITYin the dark or with illusory hopes. The conjugal partnershould not be too young, and should be accurately informedbeforehand as to the precise condition of affairs(most bisexual persons are predominantly homosexual) ,cannot experience with a person of the opposite sex thatintimate unreserve and emotional extravagance which areof the essence of sexual love, and though potency isand the probable prospects. Unions so formed sometimesprove tolerable and even happy, should the couple be congenialto each other. But it must always be rememberedthat the chances of complete sexual satisfaction on eitherside are small. The invert, unless genuinely bisexualpossibleitmay only be secured by imagining that the partneris of the same sex or even by concentrating the thoughtson some attractive individual of the same sex. This state ofthings fails to give great satisfaction to the inverted partner,while the other partner, even if not clearly consciousof the imperfect character of the relationship, instinctivelyfeels some degree of dissatisfaction and depression, if notrepulsion. A union of this kind is often more happy whenthe attempt to secure sexual satisfaction is excluded, andthe relationshipis based on the satisfaction of other interestscommon to both partners.Whether offspring should be one of these interests isserious question which it is not always easy to decide resolutelyin the negative. Certainly it may be laid down as ageneral rule that it is not desirable a person constitutionallypredisposed to homosexuality should procreate. When,however, the inverted partneris otherwise healthy, andbelongs to a fairly sound family, and the other partnerisentirely sound and normal, there is a reasonable hopethat the children may turn out fairly well. Children areafrequently desired by the invert; they also form a consolationfor the other partner and may serve to consolidate the

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXunion. But a marriage of this kind is often unstable; thereis a prospect of separation or of alienation of the partners,so that the risks of an unsatisfactory home life for thechild are considerable.Much the best result seems to be attained for thecongenital invert, as modern society isconstituted, when,while retaining his own ideals, or inner instincts, he re-to become normal andsolves to forego alike the attemptthe attempt to secure the grosser gratificationof his abnormaldesires, even though finding occasional auto-eroticnot rarerelief inevitable, however unsatisfactory. This isin persons of fine character. One such, who had somehomosexual experiencesbefore the age of nineteen butnot since, writes: "Occasionally I go for several monthswithout masturbating and find that when I do this mymind seems more self-satisfied though I develop a moreuncontrolled desire for masculine love, and my best menfriends would be surprised to know that I am a sentimentalistin regard to them. Only to myself do I appearnormal. I believewhat I am. To my friends I am sexuallythat there is nothing about me to suggest to the most discriminatingobserver that I have a passion so generallyassociated with degenerates. I do not feel a degenerate.I have never felt ashamed of my desires, though I wouldbe ashamed for people to know, as then I would losecaste."Another man, who has never had any homosexual relations,a naval officer living an active life, has found considerablesatisfaction in non-sexual friendships. He writes:"I am not in any way effeminate and by my own choice Ihave led a hard and often dangerous life. My desire forthe companionship of men who have a sexual attractionfor me is very great and the happiest days of my life havebeen spent in the companionship of such. My desires are

HOMOSEXUALITYnot only sexual but composed of about 50 per cent of thedesire for complete mental harmony which accompaniessuch attraction. Fear of losing this has kept me from evermaking advances, and I imagine that with a male prostitutesuch harmony would be impossible. I have got overmy shame at being different from other men and lookupon my condition as natural for myself."For some, no doubt, this is scarcely possible,and formany it involves painful struggle and impaired vitalenergy for the tasks of life. But in a large proportion ofinverts the sexual impulse, althoughitsabnormality maycause it to be unduly present to consciousness and the prohibitionof gratification artificially emphasize the need forit, is not really strong. It may find a largemeasure ofsatisfaction in a Platonic friendship with a congenial personof the same sex. Such friendship may be fortified by astudyof the ideals thatare inculcated in the writings ofPlato himself and the Greek poets who were touched byhomosexual emotions; such modern writers as Walt Whitmanand Edward Carpenter and Andre Gide may also benamed.It must, further, be remembered that the invertedsexual impulse is peculiarly apt for the ends of sublimation.Freud considers that sublimation in the direction offriendship and comradeship and esprit de corps and thelove of mankind in general may be developed after heterosexualimpulses are established. But to wait for that mustusually be the postponement of sublimation until (accordingto the ancient phrase) the Greek Kalends. Fortunatelywe may often witness what may fairly be calledsublimation taking place at a much earlier stage and inpersons in whom the homosexual impulse can be consideredfixed. It has often happened that inverts have devotedthemselves with ardor to valuable social and philanthropic[253]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXwork for the benefit of the young of their own sex, andfound joy and satisfaction in the task.A man of Quaker antecedents, belonging to a familyincluding many members displaying both nervous tendenciesand distinguished mental ability which he himselfshares, has homosexual impulses to which he has neveryielded except in a very slight degree, and is married,although his heterosexual impulses are not strong. Hewrites: "The bisexual seems to love all mankind instead ofonly one person; perhapsit is a noble and more usefulkind of devotion. To reproduce one's life through scientificpapers of originality seems more useful to-day than toadd to the spawning which one sees on every hand." Notinfrequently the homosexual tendency passes into a religiousrather than a scientific channel. A correspondent,who has much studied Dante and regards himself as bisexualin tendency, writes: "I think a close correlationexists between sex and religion. The inverts I know well(four males)are all devout believers. I am myself a serverin the Church of England. On my personal theory theessence of love is unselfish devotion, and I believe thatservice is the only key to genuine happiness. Invert or no,one must refuse admission to some thoughts, howeverloudly they knock. I can see a wealth of beauty in bothboys and girls, but I utilize the inspiration in my religionand daily work, and try not to be unduly sentimental. Ihave passed the stormiest point in my psychic development.Perhaps one day I shall meet the right girl and havethe joy of being myself the father of boys."It istrue that these motives only appeal to the superiorsuch form a considerableinvert. But, itmay be repeated,to feel atproportion of the whole group. They are aptfirstare homeless wanderers in a universe thatthat theywas not made for them. It is worth while by increasing[254]

HOMOSEXUALITYtheir knowledge to increase also their happiness and theirusefulness, so enabling them to feel that for them also,even as they are, there is still a place in the world, andoften even an enviable place.BIBLIOGRAPHYHAVELOCK ELLIS, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Vol. II.EDWARD CARPENTER, The Intermediate Sex and also MyDays and Dreams (autobiography) .Edward Carpenter; In Appreciation, Edited by G* Beith.

IntroductoryCHAPTER VIMARRIAGE(The Problem of Sexual Abstinence)MARRIAGE in the biological sense, and even to someextent in the social sense, is a sexual relationship enteredinto with the intention of making it permanent, evenapart from whether or not it has received the sanction ofthe law or the Church. But before entering on its considerationit may be desirable to touch on the problem ofsexual abstinence, and the troubles, real or alleged, thatmay be associated with it.This problem has passed through several phases. A centuryago it scarcely came before the physician, and if itdid, all he could legitimately say was that for men sexualabstinence outside marriage was moral and sexual intercourseimmoral (though left privately free), while forwomen, who had no recognized sexual needs, the questioncould not arise. Then, within the lifetime of many of us,with the emergence of new social conditions and a somewhatmore open attitude towards them, the physicianbegan to be approached and he was asked to proclaimgeneral principles in this matter for the world at large.This demand led to the formulation of various vaguepropositions concerning the harmlessness of continence,which meant nothing and might be used in senses not intendedby the formulators; they could, for instance, bequoted with much satisfaction by those persons who advocatedno sexual intercourse except for the production of[256]

MARRIAGEchildren, that is to say, perhaps two or three times in alifetime. No doubt continence in the use o the muscularand glandular system generallyis not injurious to health;continence likewise in the use of the specifically sexualmuscles and glandsisequally not injurious to health.Such frivolous exercises in verbal juggling were, however,felt to be rather beneath the dignity of the medical profession,and more suitably left to the charlatans who takeadvantage of the sexual ignorance and prejudices of themultitude. The physicianis called to deal with the manifoldcasesof living men and women, not with abstractformulas. This is now realized, and since less rigidnotions of sexual morality now prevail it is possible todeal more variously with the resulting problems.The difficulties and dangers of sexual abstinence havein the past been both under-estimated and over-estimated.On the one hand it was emphatically stated, always bythose who were over-burdened by the moral interestswhich they conceived to be at stake, that such difficultiesand dangers are negligible. On the other hand were thosewho, partly by reaction against this extreme view andpartly by ancient tradition, went to the other extreme,and declared that various forms o insanity, as well as ofnervous disorder, were due to sexual abstinence. Thereseems no ground to believe that any serious psychosis orneurosis is caused by sexual abstinence alone in congeni-is due to thetally sound persons. The belief that itmayfamiliar confusion between the "post hoc" and the "propterhoc"; similarly when insanity occurs in a person whohas led a life of unbridled sexual license, we are not entitledto put down his insanity to the sexual impulse."The majority of those who compose our society," saidFreud in 1908, "are constitutionally unfit for the task ofabstinence," but he adds the significant remark, which we

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXshould always bear in mind, that it is in the presence of adisposition to neurosis that abstinence proves most troublesome,especiallyas leading to anxiety neurosis, whilein his later Introductory Lectures he states that "we mustbeware of over-estimating the importance of abstinencein affecting neurosis; only a minority of pathogenic situationsdue to privation and the subsequent accumulationof Libido thereby induced can be relieved bythe kind ofsexual intercourse that isprocurable without any difficulty."Since Freud has never under-estimated the importanceof the sexual impulse in life his testimony onthis point is of peculiar value. Reference may also bemade to the fact that, as has been pointed out by Lowenfeld,who has studied the matter in a judicial spirit on abasis of wide experience, Catholic priests usually enjoyexcellent health in nervous respects and seldom suffer fromabstinence, this being probably due, Lowenfeld remarks,to being brought up to their profession from youth.We have always to remember that the whole art ofliving lies in a fine balance of expression and repression.For repression understood in the wide sense and notmerely in the special sense sometimes given to it byispsycho-analystsas central a fact of life as expression.We are constantly at the same time both repressing someimpulses and expressing other impulses. There is nonecessary penalty in the repression, for it is essential toexpression. It is far from being an unfortunate influencepeculiar to civilization; it is equally marked in primitivestages of human life. It is even easily to be observedamong animals. So natural a process can be nothing butwholesome in the main, even althoughit must be frequentlyliable to maladjustments, especially in those individualswho are not constitutionally organized for thetask of attaining harmonious balance.C25&]

But it isMARRIAGEnot therefore to be denied that the difficultieso sexual abstinence, even though they do not involveany great risk to life or to sanity, are still very real toto cause minormany healthy and active persons.* It is aptdisturbances of physical well-being, and on the psychicside much mental worry and a constantly recurring strugglewith erotic obsessions, an unwholesome sexual hyperaesthesiawhich, especially in women, often takes the formof prudery. A student, for instance, who lives chastely,who is ambitious, vho wishes to put all his best energiesinto his studies, may endure great anxiety and mentaldepression from this struggle.Many young women, also,actively engaged in various kinds of work, suffer similarly,and are sometimes thereby stimulated to a feverishactivity in work and physical exercise which usuallybrings no relief. One is sometimes, indeed, inclined tothink that women have suffered more from this causethan men, not (asFreud believes) that sublimation isspecially difficult for women, or because their sexual impulsesare stronger, but because men have been and areeven still, more easily able to form sexual relationshipsoutside marriage, while the spontaneous orgasms whichin chaste men normally give relief during sleep are inwomen who have had no sexual experiences comparativelyrare, even when sexual desire is strong. It is often thesuperior women who suffer most from this cause and theyare precisely the women who are most anxious to concealthe factf*This has long been held by all competent authorities. Thus Nacke,a cautious and critical writer, stated over twenty years ago that theopinion that sexual abstinence has no bad effects is not today held bya single authority on questions of sex. The fight is concerned with thequantity and quality of the bad effects, which Nacke believed never tobe of a gravely serious character.in this way; they fre-fl hear from many women who suffer acutelyquently write from a distance or conceal their real names. One lady[259]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXIt may be interestingin this connection to considerthe answers given by over a thousand women to the questionin Dr. Katharine Davis's questionnaire: Do you believesex intercourse necessary for complete physical andmental health? It must of course be borne in mind thatthe replies to this question cannot be always, even if generally,based strictly on physiological and psychologicalconsiderations. We have inevitably to recognize the influenceof moral, social, and conventional ideas. Still it isto know how educated American women,interestingbrought up in the early twentieth century, privately regardthis matter. It was found that 38.7 per cent (394in number) answered in the affirmative, a few emphatically,a large number with specific qualification,and someof them only dubiously. There remained a majority of61.2 (622 in number) who replied in the negative, someemphatically and a few dubiously. Some of the womenanswering affirmatively qualified their reply by saying"especially for men," or "for mental health," or "for acomplete life," or "for some types."Of those who answerednegatively, many qualified by saying "not necessarybut normal/' or "but desirable," or "not for completemental health," or "no, but difficult," or "no, but peoplewho do not have it seem harsh and shrivelled up." It isfrom whom I heard several times (who happened, without knowing it,to be well known to a friend of my own) is fairly typical: middle-aged,robust, well-developed and handsome, highly intelligent, has independentmeans and often lives abroad; has never had any sexual relationships.Though enjoying good health on the whole, some slight disturbances(notably a mental shock at sixteen which diminished menstruation)have stimulated sexual activity to an abnormal degree. There is constantsexual desire and all the physical and mental methods of dealing withit which she can adopt are fruitless to relax this perpetual tension. Hercharacter and traditions render any irregular gratification impossible,and prevent her even referring to her condition, while the occasionalmasturbation which she has been compelled to resort to at the monthlyperiods brings no relief but only remorse.[260]

MARRIAGEa significant commentary that, of those who believed sexintercourse unnecessary for health, 59.5 more than halfpracticed masturbation. It may not be surprising thatof those who replied affirmatively a larger proportionIt is(76.0 per cent.) acknowledged the same practice.natural to find that of those answering affirmatively alarger proportion than in the negative group had knowledgeof sexual intercourse.Those who belittle the difficulties of sexual abstinencemay do well to consider the experience of the early Christianascetics in the desert, as described, for instance, inthe Paradise of Palladius. These men were vigorous andresolute, they were wholeheartedlydevoted to the idealsof asceticism, they were living under the best possiblecircumstances for cultivating such ideals, and their regimewas austere to a degree that is for us impossible andalmost inconceivable. Yet there was nothing that troubledthem so much as sexual temptation, and thistrouble tosome degree persisted throughout life.It may be added that another fact should warn usagainst any facile acceptance of mere platitudesin dealingwith this question. I refer to the fact that, puttingaside altogether the experiences of ancient ascetics andcoming down to the present day, all careful investigationshows that the proportion of persons, even among physicians,who really live continuously in true sexual abstinence,that is without any manifestation of sexual activity,is really very small.* It is only considerable whenwe leave out of account the imperfect forms of normalsexual gratification involved in flirting, etc., the abnormal*Meirowsky of Cologne, by inquiries among eighty-six physicians,found that only one had never had sexual intercourse before marriage,In English speaking lands the proportion may well be smaller, but onthe other hand the proportion adoptingauto-erotic practices probablylarger.[261]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXforms of the impulse, and its various auto-erotic manifestations.Rohleder, an experienced physicianin thisfield, believed some years ago that, when we thus widelylook at the matter, there is no such thing as sexual abstinence,the genuine cases in which sexual phenomenafail to appear being simply cases of sexual anaesthesia.The seeming variations which we find would thus mainlybe due to national differences in tradition which in somecountries favor, in effect, resort to prostitution, and, inothers, resort to masturbation. There are, indeed, twoschools of physiciansin this matter, one of which sternlyreprobates any indulgence in the unmanly habit of masturbation,but iscomparatively lenient to prostitution;while the other severely condemns any resort to the dangerousand immoral practice of prostitution, but is comparativelylenient to masturbation. Such considerations asthese may profitably be borne in mind when we attemptto treat, or to palliate, the manifestations of unsatisfiedsexual activity, such as local congestion, insomnia, irritability,depression, headache, vague hystericaland nervoussymptoms. When the resulting troubles definitely approachthe borderland of the psychoses it isusually found thatother co-operativecauses must be taken into account, andhere psycho-analysts have sought out many devious pathsin the Unconscious. Below the age of 24, as Lowenfeldfinds, men seldom suffer from abstinence, and even laterrarely to a degree requiring medical aid. It is a bad constitutionwhich makes abstinence a cause of nervous trouble,and this, as Freud, Lowenfeld and others found,usually in both sexes takes the form of anxiety neurosis.For the most part, however, as so often in the sexualfield, treatment has usually resolved itself largely intohygiene, which, to be effective, must begin earlier thanthe conditions it is meant to combat: a simple life, plain[262]

MARRIAGEfood, cold bathing, the absence of luxury, avoidance ofall strong physical or mental excitations, no evil companionship,abundant occupation and ample exercise inthe open air, etc. The child who, being well born, is thusbred from his earliest years however willing we may beto accept, in the abstract, the doctrine of infantile sexualityhas a fair chance, in the absence of unavoidableaccidents, of prolonging sexual unconsciousness, eventhough sexual instruction may have been imparted, for along time. But when once the organic sexual impulseshave become irresistibly present to consciousness, all theseexcellent rules of regimen are no longer so effectual asthey are sometimes represented to be. They are good tofollow, in any case, and they are not sometimes withouteffect in subduing the activity of the sexual impulse, butwe must not expect from them what they cannot give.Healthy physical moderate exercise, so far from repressingsexual desire, much more often, both in men and women,acts as a stimulant to evoke it, and only has a subduinginfluence when carried to an unhealthy and immoderateexcess producing exhaustion. Mental work, likewise, sometimeseven when of a purely abstract nature, is liable tocause sexual excitement. It is, indeed, obvious that therules of general hygiene, being conducive to vigor, cannotfail to impart vigor in the sexual sphere; we cannot takemeasures to generate vigor in the system, and then impedeits overflow into sexual channels.We may,it is true, transmute sexual energy into othermore spiritual forms; but only a small proportion of sexualenergy can thus be sublimated; as Freud well says,itis with sexual energy in the human organism as it is withheat in our machines, only a certain proportion can betransformed into work. Certainly we may resort to drugs,of which the bromides are the most generally employed,[263]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXand probably the most effective. Such resort isperhapsespecially beneficial in nervous and over-excitable personswhose sexual erethism is not the outcome of sexual vigor.In robust and temperamentally sexual personsthe bromidesare often useless unless pushed to an extent productiveo a general deadening of the finer activities.This isnot a satisfactory method of dealing with a greatnatural impulse capable of fine uses. We have to recognizethe limitations of our powers in this field, refrainfrom platitudes in the face of difficulties which the socialenvironment often renders inevitable, and leave to thethose diffi-patient himself the responsibility of solvingculties.There are indeed some physicians who boldly declarethat in this matter we must ourselves assume an unlimitedresponsibility. A patient comes say, a Catholic priest ora married woman with an impotent husband clearlysuffering from nervous troubles as a result of sexual abstinence.It is our duty, they say, to these patients, firmlyto recommend sexual intercourse. I do not think so.Apartfrom the fact that the physician obviously cannot guaranteethe purity of the drug he isprescribing, apart alsofrom the immorality of recommending in private a courseof action entirely opposed to that which, in all probability,he implicitly or explicitly recommends in public, thephysician who gives advice outside his own strictly medicalsphereis bound to consider the wider effects of thatadvice on the patient himself. Ifas in the instances mentionedsuch advice leads a man into conduct antagonisticto his professional character, or leads a woman to placeherself in a painful social position, the results, even tohealth, may be worse than those involved by the struggleto repress sexual desire; one struggle has merely givenplace to another and perhaps more serious struggle. The[264]

MARRIAGEphysician would do well, when he goes beyond the purelymedical sphere in this matter, to confine himself to a clear,wide, and impartial presentment of the issues that arebefore the patient, leaving to the patient himself the responsibility,which must rightly belong to him, of selectingthe solution. The physician's part here is that of ajudge charging the jury; he must clear up the issues butnot pronounce the verdict. In so doing he may at thesame time bring his patient to a calmer and more rationalattitude, and will perhaps prevent a rash attemptto cut the knot which it seems impossible to untie.of sexual abstin-The conventional remedy for the illsence certainly also the best when it can be carried outunder good conditions is a fitting marriage.BIBLIOGRAPHYWALLIS BUDGE, The Paradise of the Fathers.HAVELOCK ELLIS, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Vol. VI.FREUD, "Civilized Sexual Morality and Modern Nervousness/'Collected Papers, Vol. II.K. B. DAVIS, Factors in the Sex-Life of Twenty-two HundredWomen.The Advisability of MarriageThe physicianisnowadays consulted much more frequentlythan used to be the case concerning the desirabilityof a marriage when there appears some ground foranxiety as to the results of the union on the couple ortheir offspring. Moreover, the opinion of the physician onsuch matters is now taken more seriously than itformerlywas. It is necessary, therefore, in such cases to avoid platitudes,which under the circumstances may be inconsiderate,and to give, so far as possible, a deliberate and circumspectopinion. The scientific material on which such[265]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXan opinion can properly be based is for a large numberof cases still imperfect and only now beginning to be coordinated,so that this whole subject belongs largely to afuture, perhaps not remote, when it may be possible toforecast the probable results of sexual unions with muchmore precision than can now be done. At present,asKarin Horney also concludes in studying this question,even psycho-analysis (in which nevertheless she has muchfaith) will not furnish the insight necessary to enable usto prophesy concerning the future of a marriage. Moreover,the subject is,for the most part, outside the scopeof the present chapter. There are, however, a few pointsin regard to which some indications may here be given.A simple case which not infrequently occurs isthat ofthe youth or girl who suddenly overwhelms relations andfriends by announcing an intention to enter on a marriagewhich is flagrantly unsuitable, although it may notobviously clash with any eugenic principle. The physicianis appealed to in order to ward off the dreaded marriageand is sometimes expected to declare that the imprudentlover is not mentally sound. That is a matter for investigation,but it may be said that in most cases of this kind,while there may be a slightly neurotic heredity, the aberration,if it is an aberration, so little overpasses physiologicallimits that it cannot safely be combated on thesegrounds. The Romeo and Juliet lovers who disregard thesocial barriers which oppose their union are overcomeby a temporary exaltation, but they are not insane, exceptin the sense in which Burton in his Anatomy of Melancholycopiously argued that all lovers are insane. In mostcases of this kind we are concerned with young peoplewho have not yet emerged from the storm and stressperiod of adolescence, and in whom the sudden eruptionof the new erotic life produces an almost physiological[266]

MARRIAGEdisturbance of mental balance which will speedily rightitself and never occur again. A typical case which sometimesoccurs is that of a chaste and upright youth who,having accidentally been brought into close contact witha prostitute, forms the design of marrying her, in such acase the obscure promptings of the sexual impulse beingmore or less disguised by the idea of redeeming a womanwho seems never to have had a fair chance. Now it notinfrequently happens that marriage with a prostitute turnsout well when it is the result of deliberate choice by amature and experienced man who clearly realizes whathe is doing. But that is not likely to happen in the caseof an ignorant youth blinded bythe exaltation of his feelings.In these cases the best method of preventing theunion is to temporize. Severe opposition will merely serveto increase the exaltation and lead to rash steps whichwill precipitate the dreaded marriage. By contriving toobtain delay, and in the meanwhile securing for the youthample opportunity to see and study his beloved, he maybe brought to view her in something the same light as hisfriends. In the case of a girl who contemplates a rashmarriage, it may often be possible to remove her into adifferent environment in which new interests and relationshipswill gradually be formed. Sometimes a youngwoman will, for a time, contemplate marriage with an attractiveman of lower social class. Such a union should bestrongly discouraged, however little value we may attachto class feeling, for it isvery unlikely to work out, and thewoman who has had such an idea never repents abandoningit. Lady Chatterley can never be the happy wife of herpeasant lover. The unions which are the speedy result ofa sudden infatuation so often produce a chain of disastrousresults that it isalways legitimate in such cases tointroduce obstacles tending to cause delay, even though it

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXis true that Absence is "the mother of ideal beauty," andthat many a lover thus frustrated cherishes the belief thathe or she thus missed happiness in life. The experienceof Dickens, who when rejected by the girlhe admired inyouth came to regard her as the supreme embodiment ofperfect womanhood and molded his heroines in herimage, only to be repelled and disgusted when he at lastmet her again in the flesh, is an experience which hasoften been repeated in the lives of lessdistinguished persons.These are specialdifficulties which may not oftencome under our notice. But whenever the question of marriagearises at all there is at some point or another a problemto be solved, and such problems are more and morefrequently brought before the physician. They can onlybe slightly touched on here, and it is scarcely necessaryto say that there is seldom any definite and positive formulato be applied. Each case has to be considered individually,and the most desirable solution of one may bethe most undesirable of another. It isprobable that inthe future all great centers of city life will possess Institutions(of which the Sexual Institute of Berlin may beregarded as the pioneer) at which advice may be obtainedconcerning all the various problems of marriage.The question of age may arise, the question of healthand heredity, the question of physical examination, thequestion of preparedness or of preparation for marriage,the question of delayed procreation, and the highly importantquestion of compatibility, physical or psychic, onwhich so often the happiness of marriage rests.As regards the desirable age of marriage for maritalhappiness, as well as for the production of the best childrenthere is considerable difference of opinion, and atpresent few adequately convincing data on a broad basis.[268]

MARRIAGEHart and Shields in Philadelphia, measuring satisfactionin marriage by appearances in the Domestic RelationsCourt, found results opposed to early marriage, while Patterson,also in Philadelphia, failed to find a significantlylarger proportion of marital difficulties when marriagetook place under 20 years of age than in later marriage.Dickinson and Lura Beam found that the average age ofwives who could be regarded as "adjusted without complaint"was some years over the average age, and in consideringthe length of married life of those couples whoeventually separated or divorced it was not found to beshortest in those who married youngest. Those who marrylater are in the best position to know their own deepestneeds and to form sound judgments, but at the same timethey have often acquired psychic habits and physicaltroubles which render mental adjustment difficult whilethe young girl is not only more adjustable psychicallybut usually much more apt physically for coitus, and eventhan iscommonlyfor maternity, supposed. The questionis indeed not entirely of age but also of character, intelligence,and experience; the average age of marriage isprobably at present quite as high as is desirable, and oftentoo high. Burgdorferisemphatically on the side of earlymarriage, while Hagen and Max Christian conclude thatfrom the eugenic standpoint a man should marry at 25and a woman earlier,courageously facing whatever difficultiesmay arise later. In Germany, where the age for menit wasis around 29 and for women 25, a few centuries agounder 19 for men and under 15 for girls.At whatever age marriage takes place, it is highly desirable,and ought indeed to be considered necessary, thatfull medical examination of each party should be madefrom the point of view of marital relationships and parenthood.This should be made at an early stage, and[269]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXbefore the proposed marriage is made known to any widecircle of friends. It must of course include gynecologicalexamination of the woman and genito-urinary examinationof the man. It has been argued that such certificatesshould be compulsory and some attempts have been madein that direction. But such an examination is so highlydesirable for the welfare of both parties, even apart fromall eugenic considerations with which we are not hereprimarily concerned, that no couple proposing to marryshould wait for compulsion.There is another kind of preparation for marriage, ofan even more essential nature, which can only be madeThat is an examina-by the couple themselves in private.tion into their own knowledge and feelings with regardto the intimate relationship they are proposing to initiate.What does each know about the anatomy and physiologyof the other's body, and his or her own, and what aretheir emotional reactions to these matters? It has too oftenhappened that, as Dickinson and Lura Beam put it,"theyoung husband finds her 'too sacred* to consider her innermechanism, or the wife thinks of herself as a tree witha solid trunk. The knowledge of anatomy of some of themiscomparable with that of the early Persians." What,above all, are their feelings about intimacy in marriedlove? There are husbands as well as wives who dread anyprivate touch; there are husbands and wives who havenever been in the bath-room together, because of someterror either on his part or on hers. But there can neverbe any real confidence and trust, never any real marriageunion, without the possibility of a complete intimacy welcometo both. As Katharine Davis found, the percentageof happy marriages among women who were, in one wayor another adequately prepared, was very much largerthan among those who were not thus prepared.[*7]

MARRIAGEIt is not of course only on the sexual side that thismutual knowledgeis needed. Marriageis much more thana sexual relationship. There are many marriages nowadays,and not always the least happy provided there is fullmutual understanding, in which no sexual relationshipever takes place.It is, as so many investigations show,compatibility which is the chief clue to satisfaction in marriage.There are many temperaments which, howeverestimable in themselves, will not suit each other. Thismust be tested before marriage,it cannot safely be lefttill after. It isnecessary for the couple to live together forconsiderable periods under some of the ordinary aswellas extraordinary stresses of life in order for each to observethe other's reactions, not merely to each other forsuch reactions are too often liable to be modified aftermarriage but to outsiders. Such a noviciate, which theCatholic Church wisely regards as necessary before takingthe veil for the cloister, isequally necessary before takingthe veil before the altar of marriage, whether or not itiscarried so far as actual sex relationships.Not onlyiscompatibility of temperament, which by nomeans involves identity of temperament but may eveninvolve the opposite provided there isharmony, called forin marriage. A harmony of tastes and of interests isalsoin the highest degree desirable. A difference of temperamentas of extrovert with introvert may be harmoniousand complementary, and much more satisfactory to bothparties than a tendency to identity of reaction. But a harmony,not necessarily an identity, of tastes and interestsis essential to a complete marriage union. Thus a distastefor music is not easily associated with a devotion to music;a difference in politicalideals may not always be overbalancedby sexual compatibility; and where there arepronounced differences of religious conviction (such as[271]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXRoman Catholicism and Evangelical Protestantism)marriageshould be definitely discouraged. The wife is todayno longer a purely domestic creature, with no interestsoutside the home, and it is not easy to imagine a satisfactorymarriage in which there is no general agreement concerningthe larger movements of social life in the world,whatever difference there must inevitably be concerningmatters of method and detail.It must always be remembered that all counsel concerningthe advisability of a particular marriage is simply anattempt to foretell something which cannot be known beforehandwith certainty. The couple, especially ifyoung,will not be tomorrow altogether the same as today. AsExner well puts it, "psychologic marriage, marriage as ais an achievement betweencreative personal relationship,mates and is not necessarily entered into at the wedding."It is often a very slow achievement, years of gradual progressmay be needed before a relationship which can becalled marriage in the full and deep sense is reached. Itnever be reached at all.mayThere are many persons who, for some personal reason,cannot be advised to marry. Others for hereditary andeugenic reasons may be permitted to marry but not toprocreate; in such cases by far the best method of contraceptionis sterilization of the husband.BIBLIOGRAPHYMAYO FOUNDATION LECTURES, 1923-4, Our Present Knowledgeof Heredity.LEONARD DARWIN, Eugenic Reform.K. B. DAVIS, Factors in the Sex Life of Twenty-two HundredWomen.DICKINSON and LURA BEAM, A Thousand Marriages.MRS. HAVELOCK ELLIS, "A Noviciate for Marriage," TheNew Horizon in Love and Life.

MARRIAGEEXNER, The Sexual Side of Marriage.R. L. DICKINSON, Premarital Examination.LOPEZ DEL VALLE, "Pre-Marital Medical Examination/World's Health, Sept. 1927.Satisfaction in MarriageIn old times marriage was regarded as a sacred duty,appointed divinely or by the State. We do not marry forourselves, said Montaigne. The question of satisfactionhardly entered, though it was assumed that happinessattended the fulfillment of an ordained duty, except forpersons who were exceptional and perverse. That was theview sanctified alike by religion and by art; reputablenovels of love ended in the unquestioned bliss of life-longunion, and the Church romantically refused to admit thatthe end could be otherwise. Such a view is now antiquated;real facts, partly because the facts had previously beendisguised, and partly because the conditions now haveit was bound not to be in accordance with theactually become more complex. Today many have goneto the opposite extreme of opinion and declared that, farfrom yielding life-long bliss, marriage hardly ever leads toeven moderate satisfaction and happiness."Spiritual disappointment and physical deprivation becomethe fate of most marriages/' declared Freud in 1908,and again, "a girl must be very healthy to 'stand* marriage/*Numberless statements by less eminent writerscould be quoted to the same effect.It is to be noted, however, that all such expressions conveypersonal impressions, which are notoriously liable tobe unreliable in scientific matters and are never placed ona statistical basis. Moreover, they do not coincide with thepersonal impression of other experienced observers. The

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXevils of marriage, as we have known it, alike for husbandand wife and children, however for a large part easily preventable,are frequent and undoubted. Yet, as Exnerpoints out, there is no need to be unduly pessimisticabout marriage, and there would be still less if societydid not so often disturb the vision of the young and misguidetheir first steps. As the same writer well says, a highrate of dissatisfaction is not an unmitigatedevil. It meansa high ideal and a desire to attain it, for marriage is reallyan achievement. That, indeed, is a point often overlooked.In our civilization, possibly in any civilization, marriagein any full sense of the term cannot be reached at a bound.Considering the frequent extraordinary ignorance alike ofself and of the partner with which marriageisapproached,it would be strange if true marriage were not difficult toachieve. There are Karen (as Horney puts it), even onthe strictly personal side, at least three aspects o marriage:(i) the physical relationship, (2) the psychic relationship,and (3) what may be called the associationalof a life encountered in common. It is almostrelationshipinevitable that, with so inadequate a preparation, the difficultiesmet are often but slowly conquered, until finally,though perhaps after many years, a real and true marriageis attained. Even when, as isundoubtedly often the case,the marriage remains imperfect, we find on deeper insight,in most cases, that many compensations have beenachieved. In no field more than in marriage does theEmersonian doctrine of compensation hold good.To obtain a fairly clear vision of the facts a methodicalinvestigation over a wide field is necessary. Even then anonly faintly approximate result is possible. Many peopleare unwilling to admit, even to themselves, still less toothers, that marriage is for them a failure. Others, on thecontrary, in the thick of the inevitable little worries and[*74]

MARRIAGEirritations of marriage, lose sight of the central facts whichcan only be seen when one stands some way off and looksat one's life as a whole; they are temptedto admit a failurewhere at another moment they would claim a greatsuccess. There is a yet more fundamental source of difficulty.So few peopleare aware of the nature of the satisfactionthat may reasonably be found in marriage. Theyfail to realize that marriage is but life in miniature, andthat if married life were all easy and all pleasant, it wouldbe but a feeble image of the world and would fail to yieldthe deepest satisfaction that the world can give to thosewho have drunk deeply of life.We must, therefore, at least make the attempt to putthe question on a statistical basis, even though we cannotsecure an absolutely precise answer. Katharine Davis,assuming (though the statement may need some qualification)that "the sex relationship indisputably plays themajor part" in marriage, found that among one thousandpresumably normal married women 872unequivocallyaffirmed that their married lives were happy; 116 wereeither partially or totally unhappy, incompatibility beingthe chief cause; only 12 failed to answer.Dickinson, among his gynecological patients who cannotbe assumed to be so normal as Katharine Davis's subjects,found a somewhat smaller proportion of satisfiedwomen; he concludes that 3 in 5 among one thousandpatients were "adjusted," in the sense of being at least"without complaint" of their married life. In compositionthe two groups of "adjusted" and "maladjusted" were notmarkedly different; they were of similar social and economicstatus; at some period about two-thirds in bothof auto-eroticclasses had had considerable experiencepractices; the adjusted were slightly more fertile than theother group; but the chief general difference seems to be

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXthat the outlook on life of the adjusted was more objectivethan that of the maladjusted; they were less self-centeredand less troubled by mental conflicts. Yet he found a maladjustedgroup of one hundred wives "socially normal,"with ''better than the average educational and economicstandard/' and in typical cases they were fine, well-dressed,sometimes beautiful or brainy women; 13 of them haddefinitely undesirable characters, and 19 came near to"profound total disturbance/' They do not, however,greatly vary from the adjusted group in social and educationalstanding or in health, while the general externalsof personality and environment are the same. The prevalenceof auto-erotic practices before marriage had beenalmost the same, and sex was by no means always the beginningof the maladjustment, which was often due toincompatibility. The chief difference in the groups wasthe presence or absence of "mental conflict." We see hereinstructively how complexis often this question of"adjustment."G. V. Hamilton among his smaller number of subjects,but of both sexes and all presumably normal, one hundredmarried men and one hundred married women,made a most elaborate investigation into their degree ofsatisfaction in marriage, with fourteen grades of happiness,according to the number of points to be assigned toeach person. He found that husbands are definitely moresatisfied with marriage than are wives. In the highestgrades (7 to 14) there were 51 men and only 45 women,leaving 49 men but 55 women in the lower grades ofsatisfaction. Hamilton states that the result correspondswith his definite impression from personal contact that"the women, taken as a whole, had been more seriouslydisappointed with their marriages than had the men/'It cannot be said that this conclusion should cause sur-[276]

MARRIAGEprise and it seems to agree with my own experience. Tosome extent it lies in the relationship of the two sexes tomarriage. To a woman marriage means more than toman, because in the care of husband and child and householdit necessarily absorbs a larger part of her being, sothat if there is a sense of disappointment that disappointmentis more serious. A man is more detached from homeand family because his life is usuallyso much outside.Home occupies a smaller section of his field of activity;it constitutes a haven of rest. A woman, on the other hand,must often feel that marriage is her whole life, and deeperproblems are thus stirred within her. This brings us toDickinson's significant observation that the main differencebetween the adjusted wives and the maladjustedwives is that the former are more objective, and lesstroubled by mental conflicts. They are, in other words,more like the average husbands.But the discontent with marriage which we so oftenfind among wives, even though more or less below thesurface, has a real foundation. It is associated with thenew and larger claims on life which the women of recentgenerations have more and more taken, not content liketheir mothers to accept as natural and inevitable the predominanceof men and their own place of subjection. Thereligious and social aspects of the world have changed forwomen without in any corresponding degree changing formen, because the change has for women been in largemeasure socially recognized and legally registered. Thebut little. So that when atraditions of men have changedwoman enters marriage she isapt to become aware of adiscrepancy which tends to become a mental conflictwithin herself. There are many women old-fashionedromantically minded women brought up away from menas well as more modern girls who realize even during thea

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXfor thehoneymoon the nature of man and of marriagefirst time and acquire a dissatisfaction which may neverbe entirely outgrown.There is, as I have indicated, a stilldeeper ground forthisdiscontent with marriage. The changes in the externalorder of marriage during recent times have too oftenleft out of sight the fundamental facts of the relationshipof marriage. They have concentrated attention on its moreexternal features and they have made itappear that happinessin marriage depends on an easy readjustment ofthe external order. Above all, they have tended to put outof sight the fact, much better realized in old days, thatsuch a relationship, penetrating so deeply into the spirit,can never be save for the most shallow-spirited personswithout difficulty and trouble. The old conception of theinevitable pains of marriage is out of date. But they remainin new shapes and are of the nature of the relationship.Divorce may be no cure at all, even when we admitthat there should be the greatest possible freedom fordivorce. We constantly see people who divorce but are noIt is not marriage that washappier in a second marriage.wrong; it was themselves that were wrong. Count Keyserling,in a subtle and penetrating analysis of the marriageproblem, describes marriage as "an interpolar tension";there is a unity constituted by two foci: the two are heldtogether by a tension "a tragic tension" he elsewherecalls it which cannot be abolished if the relationshipisto remain intact. Such a relationshipis a symbolof lifeitself, and, as in life generally, it is essential to its joy. Sothat no ascetic emphasis on pain or trouble for their ownsake ishere implied. As the poet-prophet Kahlil Gibranagain and again asserts, joy and sorrow are inseparable."Is not the cup that holds your wine the very pot that wasburned in the potter's oven?" Long before that was said[278]

MARRIAGEthe wise Montaigne, in the essay "On some lines of Virgil"which contains so many memorable sayings, had recalledthe fact that the same muscles with which we weepare those with which we laugh.BIBLIOGRAPHYR. L. DICKINSON and LURA BEAM, A Thousand Marriages.G. V. HAMILTON, A Research in Marriage.K. B. DAVIS, Factors in the Sex Life of Twenty-two HundredWomen.EXNER, The Sexual Side of Marriage.HAVELOCK ELLIS, "The History of Marriage/' Vol. VII ofStudies in the Psychology of Sex and Little Essays ofLove and Virtue.COUNT KEYSERLING, "Correct Statement of Marriage Problem,"in The Book of Marriage.The Monogamic StandardUntil modern times monogamy has been regarded asthe only legitimate form of marriage for our Westerncivilization. Indeed that has for the most part beenassumed and taken for granted without discussion; anyexceptional person who disputed this dogma, or even discussedit, was regarded, and usually in fact was, a crank,a negligible eccentric, if not something much worse.Today the question of the form of marriage cannot thusbe taken for granted and dismissed, as a matter that hasfor ever been fixed by religious, ethical, legal, and socialregulations. Those who discuss it are no longer alwaysnegligible persons. So that any one who now concerns himselfwith the psychology of sex must be prepared to holdan opinion on sex relationships in regard to monogamy.As a pioneer in the movement to bring our monogamicmarriage system into the field of discussion we may well[279]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXregard James Hinton. It was half a century and more ago,though his arguments on the matter were not clearly publishedto the world until some forty years later. Hintondelayed any full public presentation of his criticism ofWestern monogamy until he had mastered the subject,and before then he died. He was not a man who could beput aside as abnormal or eccentric. He was a distinguishedLondon physician and a philosophic thinker as well, inclose touch with the scientific activities of his day, widelyinterested in general social questions, and in daily contactwith life. The masses of manuscript he left behind areshapeless and unsystematic, but have made it possible togather the general drift of his criticisms of monogamyand the conventional social systemassociated with it. Heconsidered that no real monogamy existed, and that inWestern Society, as he knew it, there are fewer men whoare genuinely monogamic than are to be found in Easternpolygamic societies. Monogamy, as established, is, he held,an essentially selfish and unsocial institution, and is responsiblefor prostitution. We arrived at ittoo soon, forit is a mistake to convert an ideal, however good, prematurelyinto a universal legal form. The result has beenthat, though ostensibly existing to avert licentiousness, ithas called out more license than a polygynywould haveled to. So it seemed to him that our marriage system isrotten,and rapidly breaking up. What we need, he believed,isa fluid order in our sex system, not rigid andseemed desirable,unmodifiable, but permitting, when itthe union of one man with two women, though alwaysleaving the order adjustableservice.to the claims of humanIn more recent days, a rather similar thesis, thoughoften on different grounds and seldom or ever with thesame concentrated intensity as by Hinton, has been put

MARRIAGEforward from time to time. Simultaneously,it must beadded, our marriage system actually has undergone modifications.If we compareits state today with the conditionsin Hinton's time, many changes may be observed,and often in the direction he desired. Divorce is easier;women have gained greater legal and social independence;illegitimacy is viewed with somewhat less severity, themethods of birth control have become widely known, andin all civilized coun-greater freedom between the sexes istries admitted.At the same time, in the exact and precisesense of theterm, monogamy is today as firmlyestablished as it hasever been, and even more so. By imparting to it a greaterflexibility we to a considerable extent relieve it of theabuses to which in the former more rigid form it wassubject.Confusion has been introduced, it must be made clear,by using the word "monogamy" in the wrong sense. Itis, for instance, common to say that one sex is more"monogamic" than the other sex, especiallythat men are"polygarnic" while women are "monogamic." Strictlyspeaking, such statements are meaningless. At the outsetit is obvious that since the sexes are born nearly equalin number (with at the start a preponderance of males)the natural order in a civilized society cannot work outas two wives for every male, and in the societies whichrecognize polygamy it is only practiced by a small wealthyclass. But it is incorrect to assert that in our civilizationmen (rare exceptions aside) ever desire two wives,whether in the same home or in separate homes; thereare various considerations of different orders which makesuch an arrangement undesirable for the majority ofmen; while, for a woman, to carry on two families, with[281]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXseparate fathers, is still more impracticable;she is necessarily"monogamic."In fact, that is the wrong word to use. The people whodiscuss whether men are more "polygamic" than women,really mean more poly-erotic.That is to say, not whetherbut more sexual freedom. Tothey desire more marriagessay that a man is monogamic still leaves open the questionof whether he is mono-erotic or poly-erotic,and if itis decided that he is poly-erotic, that by no means implieseither that he ispolygamic, or that he is promiscuous,which involves indiscriminate sexual attraction withoutselection, a state of things not found, save occasionally ininsanity. Much confused and futile discussion has beencaused by this ignorant misuse of terms.It would seem that most persons, women as well as men,are monogamic and poly-erotic. That is to say they onlydesire one permanent marriage, but they do not find thatthat relationship stands in the way of sexual attraction toone or more other persons, though the attraction thusaroused may be felt to be of a different nature to thatexperienced for the permanent partner, and it may provequite possible to hold such attractions more or less incontrol. There appears to be no sexual difference in thismatter. Women are fully as well able as men to experienceaffection for more than one person of the opposite sex,though on account of the deeper significance of sex forwomen they may be instinctively more fastidious thanmen in sexual choice, and on account of social and otherconsiderations more reticent and cautious than men inmanifesting or in yielding to their affections.While, however, this seems the most frequent type ofsexual attraction, there are other types and endless individualvariations. We must not assume that one special typeof sexual pattern is invariably of higher moral character

MARRIAGEand social value than the other types* Blonsky in SovietRussia has discussed the two chief types of women (mainlyamong teachers) which he terms the monandric and thewith one man and the other who tends to formpolyandric types, the first only drawn into serious relationshipnumerous relationships with men, either successively orsimultaneously, though of course there are intermediategroups between the two marked types. Blonsky finds thatthe monandric woman, not only individually but socially,tends to be superior to the polyandric woman, who ismore egoistic and assertive and more liable to unduenervosity, while the monandric women, who are twice asnumerous, are more devoted to duty, better balanced,more capable organizers and more successful in social contacts.These conclusions of Blonsky's doubtless have truthfor the average, outside as well as inside Russia, but wemust beware of generalizing too positively,and there arewomen of polyandric type for whom far more is to be saidthan Blonsky seems willing to admit. Exactly the sameconclusions may be applied to men.This is not a matter in which we are called upon to giveadvice. In matters of social morality, individuals arebound to take the responsibility for their own actions.But it is desirable for the psychologist to be able to viewintelligently the psychic reaction occurring in the communitiesof today in which he lives. In this matter weundoubtedly witness a process of change, thoughit isalarmists would make itmuch less extreme than manyout to be.The "polygamy" which some people view today withconsternation is mostly, as some one has improperly termedit, merely a "consecutive polygamy/' due to an increasedtendency to divorce. That is to say, it is simply an enlargementof the familiar monogamy. For the rest it is a recog-[283]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXnition of the claim of variety in erotic affection. Everyman and every woman, however monogamic where thecentral affections are concerned, iscapable of a more orless erotically colored affection for other persons,as werecognize today more frankly than it has been recognizedin the past. The adjustments thus rendered necessary callfor a generous and large-hearted understanding on thepart of all the persons concerned, with mutual consideration,an equable sense of justice,and the conquest ofthose vestiges of primitive jealousy without which nowholesome civilized life can harmoniously be carried on.But marriage in its main lines remains today, and islikely to remain, in the same form as we have alwaysknown it. To give it greater flexibility, to bring to it afiner intelligence, and to accord a greater sympathyto itsvarying needs, so far from destroying it, is to imparta firmer stability.to itMarriage, we must never forget as too often happensis more than an erotic union. To the truly "ideal"marriage there goes not only an erotic harmony, but aunion of many-sided and ever deepening non-erotic affection,a community of tastes and feelings and interests, alife in common, a probability of shared parenthood, andoften an economic unity. The erotic element tends tobecome lessprominent as the marriage in other respectsbecomes a closer bond. It may even disappear altogetherand the marriage remain unshakeably firm in mutualdevotion.BIBLIOGRAPHYWESTERMARCK, The History of Human Marriage.HAVELOCK ELLIS, Studies inthe Psychology of Sex, Vols.VI and VII.HAVELOCK ELLIS, Little Essays of Love and Virtue andMore Essays of Love and Virtue.

MARRIAGEV. F. CALVERTON, The Bankruptcy of Marriage.MRS. HAVELOCK ELLIS, James Hinton: A Sketch.The Control of ProcreationKeyserling has remarked that those who are not ableto accept the relationship of marriage in its fundamentalsense would be well advised to avoid marriage and adoptsome other form of sexual relationship.Apart from that solution, however, there is one pointwhich must nowadays always be held in mind when weare considering marriage from the eugenic standpoint inrelation to the probable quality of the offspring. Formerlymarriage and procreation were one and in aimindivisible. To recommend marriage meant to permitprocreation; to advise against procreation meant to prohibitmarriage, and permanently to impair the happinessof the lives thus condemned to solitude, as well as indirectlyto encourage prostitution or other undesirablemethods of sexual relief. This necessity no longer existsamong the educated classes in any civilized country. Contraception,the use of a variety of methods to permitintercourse while avoiding conception whether or notit receives formal public approval has become so generalthat the discussion of its desirability no longer subservesany useful purpose. It exists on a large scale even in countrieswhere the law forbids its dissemination, and evenamong the adherents of creeds which disapprove of it.Thus we have nowadays to distinguish between thedesirability of marriage and the desirability of procreation,the latter question involving not only regard to theprobable interests of the couple themselves, especially thewife, but also to the probable interests of the offspring.It is an undoubted advantage to be able to deal separately[285]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXwith the issues involved. Nor can it even be said that anyrevolutionary change has hereby taken place.It has longbeen customary in certain serious eventualities to enjoinabstinence from procreation for the future. It is only onestep further to utter this injunctionat the outset of marriage.It is well known that neuropathic persons tend tobe attracted to each other. This is part of a general tendencyof people to be attracted to their like, now knownto prevail over the attraction to opposites, which was onceis moreimagined to be the rule; homogamy, that is to say,prevalent than heterogamy. The craving for opposite qualitiesis confined to the sphere of the secondary sexualcharacters, a very masculine man being attracted to a veryfeminine woman and vice versa, but it fails, as a generalrule, to extend beyond that sphere.This fact has a bearing on the advice we may be calledupon to give to neuropathic persons who contemplatemarriage. Sensitive, intelligent, refined, as such a personoften is, the neuropath finds an answering sympathy in afellow neuropath, while the healthy normal person mayseem irritatingly dull and insipid. In the same way thenormal person finds the morbid and capricious temperamentof the neuropath uncomfortable and unattractive.It is, therefore, somewhat futile to adopt the commonadvice furnished by the text-books that the neuropathshould marry, if at all, a robustly normal person, withsound heredity. The advice is not even theoretically correctwhen we bear Mendelian conditions in mind. Butit is unpractical because it overlooks the fact that theaffinity between the normal and the morbid isnot strongand that the chances of such a union proving satisfactoryare not large. These chances are not considerable even inthe case of two pronounced neuropathic people whomarry each other, and such people may well be advised[286]

MARRIAGEnot to marry at all, alike for the sake of themselves andof their partners, however difficult the problem of sexualgratification may be to them in the unmarried state; thereasons against marriage in the case of such persons becomeall the more emphaticif there is a highly developedsexual deviation which the partner may not be able togratify. But for the milder neuropathic cases these objectionshave less force, while the attraction is often so strongthat opposing advice has but a small chance of beingaccepted. In such cases the necessity of distinguishingbetween procreation and marriage becomes stringent.The necessity of birth control is now generally recognized,not only by those who do not desire to have childrenbut by those who do. The reason is that, both forthe sake of the mother and for the health and well-beingof the offspring, it is desirable that births should be properlyspaced, allowing at the least an interval of two yearsbetween births, while there are various legitimate reasons,economic or other, why those who marry early do not seetheir way to become parents immediately. The child,therefore, however much desired, should come at a timewhen the parents are best able to receive it and to carefor it. Moreover, the day of large families is over. Alikefor the sake of the family, and for the interests of thenation and the race, an average of between two and threefor each married couple suffices, and under the hygienicconditions of civilization isample to keep up the numberof the population. When, for any good reason, such asthe health of the mother or the existence in either parentof a bad heredity which should not be carried on, conceptioncannot be allowed, then strict birth control iscompulsory.We are not here concerned with methods of birth control.The literature of this subject[287]is now extensive,

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXthough there is still dispute regarding the best methods,and even the best (sterilization apart), whichever theymay be, are not always reliable. Fortunately birth controlclinics are rising up rapidlyin various countries, and heremay be obtained practical help and advice, to the absenceof which failure is often due among those who possessimperfect knowledge, though even with the best knowledgeit is frequently difficult to maintain invariably thecare necessary for success. It is true that the most ancientand common of all methods of contraception, coitus interruptus,or the method of Onan, requires no appliancesand is practiced without advice; and it is fairly certain.But though not so generally harmful as is sometimes supposed,it is frequently unsatisfactory, for in most men itinvolves undue haste, which isunpleasant for the husbandand apt to be inadequate for the wife who may needsatisfaction afterwards.A common problemis indeed presented by interruptedcoitus. This practice is held by the best authorities to bethe commonest of allmethods of preventive intercourse.It is also no doubt the most ancient and is referred to inthe book of Genesis as being adopted by Onan in orderto avoid conception. Its popularity is due to its simplicity;it requires no forethought or preparation and it costsnothing. But there can be no doubt that, in relation tothe well-being of the nervous system, the practice is sometimesopen to question. It is quite true that in dealingwith a practice so extremely prevalent, it is not enoughto say that it is often found injurious. But it is clear that,in a certain proportion of cases, whether a large or asmall proportion,various minor nervous conditions, indicatingnervous irritability,in the woman, the man, orboth, seem to be traceable to interrupted intercourse. It iseasily intelligible that this should be specially so as regards[288]

MARRIAGEwomen. Husbands do not always display the considerationnecessary to ensure orgasm in their wives, and sinceorgasm is normally slower in women than in men it isobvious that, in the absence of such consideration, withdrawalmust frequently take place before the orgasm hasoccurred in the wife, who isthus left in a state of acutenervous dissatisfaction and irritability. But the anxiousapprehension and attention to his own state involved onthe husband's part by premature withdrawal and the jarcaused by the sudden breaking off of the act at its culminatingmoment cannot fail sometimes to be injuriousto him. It is necessary to be alive to the possible existenceof this practice, and to suspend it if the symptoms seemto depend on it. For a large number of people, there canbe no doubt, interrupted coitus is unsuited and shouldgive place to some better method of preventive intercourse.Interrupted intercourse should not be persisted inunless it can be so carried out, by mutual sympathy andcooperation, that no shock or apprehension is caused tothe husband, and that the wife receives due satisfaction;the latter point may be achieved by delaying intercourseuntil tumescense is well advanced and she is approachingthe orgasm.The opposite practice of prolonged or reserved coitus,with or without ultimate orgasm, has nowadays numerousadvocates and a considerable body of practical adherents,not so many as interrupted coitus because it is less easyto carry out. It was the ordinary practice of the OneidaCommunity, and was later advocated in Dr. Alice Stockham'swell-known book, Karezza. There can be no doubtthat prolonged intercourse is highly agreeablewoman partner, and without the slightest evil results;to theshe is left entirely free and is not precluded from experiencingthe orgasm at its own good time. All women whofor

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXhave had experience of this method seem to approve of it.Some doubts, however, have been expressed as to itseffects on the men who practiceit. There is reason tothink that in some cases greatly prolonged coitus may producesome of the same nervous results, though usually ina milder degree, as interrupted coitus. But in a large proportionof cases this is certainly not the case. The practiceis not usually easy except for men with sound and wellbalancednervous systems, and such persons do not usuallyseem to be conscious of any evil results from the practice,provided of course that it is not carried to excess.When contraceptionfails either owing to carelessnessor the use of an unsuitable method a serious situationmay sometimes arise. But there is nothing to be done. Itis still a criminal offense to aid a woman to procure abortionfor personal, social,or even eugenic considerations.Women seldom understand this illegality, and cannot understandwhy, if poor, they are compelled to take injuriousdrugs in vain, or, if better off, be obliged (if English) togo abroad for the operation. When women have moreinfluence than at present in effecting legislative changesthere can be no doubt that the legal prohibition of abortion,which is based on grounds that are now antiquated,will be modified. And it will become clearly establishedthat this is a personal question with which the law is notentitled to interfere. If inadvisable, it is for the doctor,not the policeman, to offer an opinion. There is alreadya movement in this direction in various countries, andin Soviet Russia, although abortion isiscarried out with due medical precautions in the hospi-pending a more widespread popular enlightenmenttals,not encourageditwith extended facilities for contraception.The prevention of conception involves so much careand precaution that of recent years an alternative and

MARRIAGEmore reliable method of attaining that end has receivedan increased degree of favor: the method of sterilization.Bythis method all risks are eliminated. It can now beeffected, simply and harmlessly, without removal of thesexual glands, by vasectomy in men and ligature and sectionof the Fallopian tubes in women. As a method oftreating any psychic condition its value is dubious, andin itsifperformed compulsorily it may be perniciousmental effects; but, adopted voluntarily, as a method ofpreventing conception, its advantages seem to be great,while it abolishes the need for those preventive precautionswhich most people, quite legitimately, regard withdisfavor.* It is scarcely necessary to add that sterilization,being a permanent contraceptive measure, should not beadopted without due consideration.It is sometimes imagined, even by medical men, thatsterilization is at present illegal. There is no sound groundfor this belief. The Eugenics Society has in Englandattempted to put forward a Parliamentary Bill to furthersterilization, not, however (assome have supposed) tomake it legal (for it is already carried out) but to bring,its benefits within the reach of defectives and among thepoorer class. The benefits have sometimes been questioned,even, it must be said with regret, in the medicalprofession.But there can be no reasonable doubt that,whatever the exact proportionof defective children bornof defective parents,sterilization would here be personsonally,socially, and eugenically helpful, althoughit could* In one of the earliest cases known to me, an American p&ysician, ingood health and with a family of several children which he had nowish to increase, submitted to vasectomy in order to avoid the .routineof preventive precautions which was repugnant to himself and his wife.The pain and discomfort of the operation were not sufficient to interferewith his ordinary office work, and the result proved entirely satisfactoryto both partners. It remained so several years later,when lastheard of. There was no loss of potency or of desire. This case maynow be regarded as fairly typical.

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXnot be possible in this way to eliminate the mentally unfitelement in the population.It would only be a beginning.In regard to this subject there is still much need forthe spread of enlightenment.An equally common problemispresented with regardto the frequency of coitus. Very widely divergent viewsare dogmatically set forth on this point. Some personsconsider it normal and necessary to have intercourse everynight, and they continue this practice for many years withno obvious bad results. Others assert that intercourseshould never be practiced except for the end of procreation,which might mean only two or three times in a lifetime,and they argue that such a practiceis alone naturaland moral. It is undoubtedly true that this is the only endin the intercourse of animals, but in determining what isnatural for man we are not entitled to consider the practiceof the animals belonging to remote genera. We haveto consider the general practiceof the human specieswhich by no means shows so narrowly exclusive an aimin procreation, although unspoiled uncivilized peoples areon the whole (contrary to a common assumption) muchmore sexually abstinent than civilized peoples. But evenif it were not so we are quite justified in departing, if wethink fit, from the habits of the lower races. Certainly thesexual organs were developed for procreation, not for thesexual gratification of the individual; certainly also thehands were developed to serve nutrition, not to play onthe piano or the violin. But if the individual can find joyand inspiration in using his organs for ends they were notmade for, he isfollowing a course of action which,whether or not we choose to call it "natural," is perfectlyand moral. Those who advocate imitation ofjustifiablethe lower animals by confining sexual intercourse to the"natural" end of procreation, are also bound to imitate

MARRIAGEthe lower animals by, for instance, discarding the "unnatural"use of clothing. Human art legitimately comesinto human activities, but it introduces no real conflictwith Nature."This is an artWhich does mend Nature, changeit rather, butNature."The art itself isPutting aside all dubious theories, it must be recognized,from a practical standpoint, that the natural rangeof variation as regards frequency of intercourse is verywide, and it is necessary to find out in each individualcase what frequency best suits each of the partners, andhow any discrepancy, if it exists, can be harmonized.Luther's dictum of twice a week commends itself to many,but it seems best to lay stress on the advantages of chastity(a very different thing from sexual abstinence) and onthe disadvantages of rendering sexual intercourse a frequentand spiritless routine. There are sometimes advantagesin a certain irregularity, an unusually speedy repetitionbeing followed by a long intermission; this repetitionmay easily occur at the woman's desire, just aftermenstruation. As desire isusually more irregular andmore capricious in the woman than in the man it is thewife who may properly be regarded asthe law-giver inthis matter and the husband may find his advantage inaccording her this privilege. But, it may be repeated, itis in any case better to space out the acts of intercourserather than to multiply their frequency. Its benefits, bothphysical and spiritual, tend to be lost by frequent repetition.Sexual union can only become the fine ecstasy it israre.capable of becoming when it isThe cultivation of coitus as a frequent habit is alsoundesirable because it renders very difficult the long in-

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXtermission which may be necessary during absence, illnessof one of the partners, or the period (amonth or sixweeks) following childbirth. The questionof intercourseduring pregnancy is difficult. The physician is usuallyreluctant to give advice in this matter on account of thedomestic difficulties that may arise. It is largely,no doubt,a question of the predispositionto abortion, which variesgreatly; some women, it has been said, will abort ifyousneeze in their presence,while others will not abort ifyou throw them out of the fifth floor window. Where thetendency exists, it is certain that sexual abstinence shouldbe enjoined. It is also desirable that it should be cultivated,in any case, during the latter months of pregnancy.But it seems necessary to exercise a certain amount ofcircumspection in recommending abstinence during thewhole of pregnancy.A sympathetic and intelligent couplecan often find their own solution of the difficulty, andthere is not much risk of a habit of masturbation undersuch circumstances. But the physicianwho enjoins sexualabstinence during pregnancy may sometimes find that hehas evoked difficulties it may be beyond his power toremove.We are not here primarily concerned with the regulationof the conditions of procreation, nor with the optimumnumber of children for a normally healthy couple.It is widely held that, unless when marriage occurs at anunusually late age, conception should not be allowed tooccur at too early a period after marriage. Under presentsocial conditions, that danger, however, is small. Nor isit by any means so injurious as isfrequently supposed fora young woman to bear a child. Thus at the EdinburghObstetrical Society recently (8 June, 1932) Miller gavethe results of 174 cases of pregnancy and labor in girlsof 17 years of age and below at the Royal Maternity Hos-[294]

MARRIAGEpital. The spontaneous deliveries were 85 per cent, andonly in 8 cases was any intervention necessary for disproportion,while the still-birth and neo-natal death-ratewas 6.5 per cent as against 11.8 for all children born inthe Hospital. Difficulty and danger are much greater forelderly women. Whatever the age at which childbirth begins,it is most certainly desirable, in the interests ofmother and children alike, as well as of the husband andfather, that an interval of at least two years should elapsebetween pregnancies. The optimum average number ofchildren, under modern conditions, alike for the familyand for the maintenance of the population,is betweentwo and three. Formerly, under bad social conditions andwith a high mortality, the number was higher. Eugenicconsiderations will here, as social enlightenment advances,become more and more influential, some families will besmaller, and others may legitimately be larger.In considering the attitude towards procreation and thefrequency with which, under present conditions, contraceptionis demanded, a question arises to which, finally,reference may here be made. Since most contraceptivemethods involve either the avoidance of contact of thesperm with the vagina or at all events its speedy removal,are the benefits of intercourse for the woman thus diminished?This question involves in the first place the problemof the uterine and vaginal absorptive capacity.It is aquestion which has sometimes been made prominent byopponents of contraception anxious to find usefully offensiveweapons. There can be no doubt that the vaginalwalls are absorptive, as is the bladder in which injectedpoisons have provedfatal to animals in a few minutes.This was formerly often denied, as by Rohleder. But ithas since been repeatedly demonstrated. Thus G. D. Robinsonand Loeser, both in the same year[295]1925 though in

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXfound that the human vagina woulddifferent countries,absorb a number of drugs, such as potassium iodide andsodium salicylate, rapidly,and quinine and cane sugarslowly, the presence of these substances in the urine beingdemonstrated. Loeser found mercuric chloride and iodinethe most rapidly absorbed substances. But some substancesare with difficulty absorbed, or not at all, and states ofhealth and age also affect the result, young healthy womenabsorbing most readily. It is, further, demonstrated thatthe spermatozoa also are really absorbed, and can producea ferment in the blood, apparently able to break up thetesticular proteids. This was shown in 1913 by the importantinvestigation of E. Waldstein and R. Ekler inVienna on rabbits. Later in 1921 the experiments ofDittler, in injecting semen into the blood of female rab-indicated that they were thereby rendered immunebits,of semen in coitus.The male ejaculate iscomposed of an admixture of theto the fertilizing effectssecretions of various glands: the testes, the vesiculae seminules,the prostate, and Cowper's gland. Kohlbrugge askedlong ago whether coitus iscomparable to an injection ofserum. As Arthur Thomson more precisely asked, in1922: Is any change effected in the female by the act ofinsemination apart from the specific act of fertilization?Still more definitely, are the beneficial effects on a womanof an act of coitus due, not to its functional effectivenessand resultant psychic exhilaration, but to the physicalstimulation of substances contained in the semen?The doubt in answering that questionis due to thedifficulty of separating the psychic results from the possiblephysical results. Zoth and Pregl found reason, as farback as 1896, working with the ergograph and makingcontrol observations with glycerine to eliminate the influenceof suggestion, to conclude that orchitic extract ex-

MARRIAGEerted a stimulating effect, and retarded fatigue. We maycertainly believe that the semen may be absorbed naturallyin coitus, even apart from the evidence alleged byVan de Velde that the breath after recent coitus maysometimes exhale an odor of semen. (Ican recall as a boyreading of a German monk who was able to detect byodor a woman who had been unchaste.)Error has crept in by assuming too easily that, ifsuchabsorption is possible, we must necessarily attribute to itthe beneficial results of coitus. It has been fortified by theundoubted fact that in contraceptive intercourse the beneficialresults have not always followed. It would seem,however, that the main question here is whether the actwas felt to be gratifying and satisfactory. There cannot bethe slightest doubt that, even with absence of contactwith the semen, coitus can be completely pleasurable andentirely beneficial in its results. There may be furtherbenefits proceeding from the semen itself, but there areother ways of securing them and not all contraceptivemeasures involve absence of contact with the semen. It isone of the numerous advantages of sterilization as a contraceptivemeasure that it allows complete freedom for theeffusion of semen. Even at the worst, as Killick Millardhas observed, many an over-burdened wife and motherwill gladly forgo these additional benefits for herself solong as she is able to escape from the evils of excessivematernity and at the same time be able to satisfy herhusband.BIBLIOGRAPHYG. V. HAMILTON, A Research in Marriage.R. L. DICKINSON, A Thousand Marriages.MARGARET SANGER, The New Motherhood.MICHAEL FIELDING, Parenthood: Design or Accident? AManual of Birth Control.

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXJ. F. COOPER, Technique of Contraception.M. C. STOPES, Contraception: Its Theory, History andPractice.A. KONIKOW, Contraception.Some More Medical Views on Birth Control, Edited byNorman Haire.CARR-SAUNDERS, The Population Problem.LANCELOT HOGBEN, Genetic Principles in Medicine andSocial Science.LEONARD DARWIN, Eugenic Reform.GOSNEY AND POPENOE, Sterilization for Human Betterment.HAVELOCK ELLIS, Studies in The Psychology of Sex, Vol.VI, and More Essays of Love and Virtue.The Eugenics Review.The Journal of Social Hygiene.The Problem of Childless MarriageWhen we have put aside those married couples whohave decided on mature consideration that it is best forthem, whether temporarily or permanently, not to havechildren, and also those who, being childless but desiringchildren, have good reason to hope that by medical orout that wish,surgical treatment they may be able to carrya minoritystill remains who have become convinced thatthey will never be able to have a child but who still desireone. What are they to do?This situation ought indeed seldom to arise. If there isa strong wish for children it ishighly desirable that bothparties should submit themselves to medical investigationbefore marriage, if only to ascertain that there is a fairprobability of successful conception and parturition. Thiscannot, however, be more than a probability, as issufficientlyevidenced by the cases in which a couple cannotproduce the child they are eager for, though, after divorceF2Q81

MARRIAGEand subsequent remarriage, they both become parents.Conditions, also, which could not be known or foreseenbefore marriage, may afterwards be found and preventconception. There remain four possible solutions all ofwhich have their psychic aspects.this solution(1) To accept the situation. For manymay prove the best. While most people, and certainlymost women, at some time desire children, the desire isby no means always permanent.It is realized that thereare also other things in life. It is at the same time recognizedthat at the present time the world is not perishingfor lack of children. It may also be found that the pathchosen in life has proved so exacting and absorbing thatit is not justifiable, especially for a woman, to undertakealso the duties of motherhood, which is itself, if adequatelyperformed, for some years of life equivalent to aprofession, and even an exacting and absorbing one. Perhaps,also, there are no special aptitudes for such a vocation,or there is present the consciousness of an unsatisfactoryhereditary constitution which it may not bedesirable to pass on. But the instincts of parenthood maybe in large measure sublimated; the maternal instinct maybe directed to social ends. Instead of being the physicalno benefit toparents of children who may perhaps bringthe world or to themselves, it is possible to expend theenergies thus liberated in far-reaching activities of unquestionedbenefit. Many women have attained eminence, aswell as satisfaction, in such ways and performedsocialservices of immense value.(2) To seek divorce. This may be a legitimate solutionof the difficulty for those couples who regard children asof the first importance. But, even apart from the difficultyunder most legal systems of obtaining divorce honestly onsuch grounds,it is not a solution to be welcomed. It is("2991

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXpossible to approve of facility for divorce as an abstractprinciple and yet to deprecate resort to it. Moreover, asecond marriage may prove even more unfortunate thanthe first and equally unfruitful. Divorce is,further, at thebest a confession of failure in the most vital of personalmatters, and even at the worst there are probably bondsof union between the partners which cannot easily betreated as of no account because there do not happen tobe children. Married people who wish for divorce becausethey have no children usually, if the full truth wereknown, wish to be divorced because they feel incompatible.So that for them the problemof childlessness isreally part of a larger problem.(3)To adopt a child. This is the solution which mostreadily presents itself, and with sound judgmentit worksadmirably, all the more since now, at all events in England,it can be put on a firm legal basis. The marriageisnot broken but probably strengthened, and a real child isfor whom the wife can be a mother in all butprovidedthe physical sense. There is even an element of socialservice involved, for the reasonable prospect of a happyfuture is bestowed upon a child who might otherwisehave proved a burden not only to its parents but to itselfand to the community. To many women, even with a fulland intellectual life, the adopted child has proved anunspeakable blessing and a constant source of happiness.There are obvious precautions to be taken if childadoptionis to prove successful. Not only must the childbe taken when quite young, but the transfer must beabsolute and complete. The chief questionis of health andheredity. To neglect consideration of the child's parentageand ancestry may lead to bitter results. A child shouldnever be adopted until all the ascertainable facts of its[3oo]

MARRIAGEhistory have been carefully considered with the physician'said.(4) To have a child by a union outside marriage. Thisis the most difficult of all the solutions. It is sometimescontemplated but can only be carried out under exceptionalcircumstances. The difficulty arises from the factthat the consent isrequired of three persons, each ofwhom can scarcely fail to view the matter differently fromthe others, and all of whom must feel that they are actingin a way which a large portion of the social group theybelong to would disapprove. The conditions for satisfactoryachievement are so rare that it isunprofitable to discussthis solution, and it would be impossible to recommendit.It is true that there are two modifications of this solution:one, altogether to be disapproved,when the wifetakes the matter into her own hands, without consultingher husband, and another, which is the most practicableform of this solution, by artificial insemination. It hasoften failed and it presents obvious disagreeable features.But it is practicable, and is from time to time carried outsuccessfully. The technique has recently been discussed byVan de Velde.BIBLIOGRAPHYVAN DE VELDE, Fertility and Sterility in Marriage.Impotence and Frigidity (Sexual Hypoasthesia andSexual Hyperasthesia)The limits within which the sexual impulse may varyboth as regards its strength and the age at its first appearanceand final disappearance are wide. In this matterMan differs from nearly all lower animals (except some

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXof the higher apes) , in whom the impulse is closely connectedwith the procreativelife and is mostlythose times when it would be useless.absent atIf in childhood it isprobable that sexual feeling, exceptin its pre-genital forms, is usually absent, and, even whenlatent, not easily aroused, yet manifestations of sexualimpulse, as we know, both on the physical and the psychicside, are in ordinary healthy children by no means sorare that we can regard them as abnormal. At the otherend of life there are likewise no definite frontiers to thepsychic sexual life. In women, the ismenopause notalways, or even usually, accompanied by the disappearanceof the sexual impulse, and in men sexual desire, andeven sexual potency, are often found at an advanced age.There is the same kind of variation in the strength ofthe sexual impulse.If we seek to measure it in continentyoung men by the frequency of involuntary seminal emissionsduring sleep, it is found that while, in some, suchemissions occur two or three times a week, without producingany seriously exhausting effect, in others they onlyoccur once or twice a month, and in some individualsnever occur at all. If, again, we seek to measure it by thefrequency of coitus in those living in sexual relationship,it is found that while in some cases coitus takes placehabitually every night during a long period of years withoutany obvious injury, in other cases even once a monthis felt as the limit beyond which excess lies. Individualvariations, even within what may fairly be considered astate of tolerable general health, are wide, and no generalrules can be laid down.Complete sexual anaesthesia (or anhedonia, as Ziehentermed it)in men is, however, extremely rare. Hypoaesthesia,or hyphedonia, that is a relative frigidityand indifferenceto sexual excitation is, however, common in[302]

MARRIAGEmen, much commoner than is sometimes supposed. Insome cases, indeed, it isapparent rather than real, and isdue to the concealed, or even merely latent and unconscious,existence of an abnormal direction of the sexualimpulse, more especially to an unrealized homosexual impulse.In many cases frigidity may be merelythe result ofthe exhaustion of excessive masturbation. In yet othercases it isthe accompaniment of a strenuous developmentof other activities, psychic or physical, which use up allthe superfluous energy of the organism, though in someof these we must probably admit that the sexual impulsewas feeble at the outset. In others, again, it is due to akind of infantilism, and is then a form of retarded development.In civilization the strenuous demands of life and themore or less unnatural conditions under which the sexualimpulse develops combine to produce a frequent inability,relative or absolute, to secure potency in coitus. Hamiltonfound that only 55 per cent of his husbands and 38 percent of his wives, all belonging to what we must regard asthe most civilized stratum of the community, regardedtheir potency as normal; and while there were a certainnumber of inconclusive answers among both men andwomen, the proportion of both husbands and wives whoconsidered their sexual potency below normal was decidedlyhigher than of those who thought it was above, aresult in contradiction of the common belief that bothmen and women are disposed to exaggerate their own sexqualities. It is also noteworthy that the number of husbandswho thought their wives undersexed was about thesame as of wives who thought their husbands undersexed.Hamilton found, further, that 41 cent husbands ad-permitted that there was, or had been, a difficulty in securingpotency, while 24 per cent wives (not,it must be'[303]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXremembered, necessarily wives of the husbands examined)regarded their husbands' potency as defective. It may benoted, however, that both the husbands and the wiveswho regarded themselves as below the average in sexualisindeed a common experience and maydesire presented a higher percentage of fairly to highlysatisfactory marriages compared to those who rate themselvesas equal to or above the average in sex desire. Thiswell be rememberedby those who look upon marriage as a mainly sexualrelationship and imagine that a high degree of sexualactivity is essential to happiness in marriage. Dickinson'sgynecological explorations, only indirectly concerned withhusbands, seem to show that about 6 per cent of themwere impotent.We have to bear in mind that both excess and defectof sexual feeling may cooperate to produce sexual impotence.It is an important consideration since one of thegreat nervous terrors surrounding marriage in somemen's minds a terror which may also occur apart altogetherfrom marriage as well as in later stages of the stateis connected with the doubt as to potency. A comparativeabsence of sexual power and sexual impulse, from onecause or another, is more common in men than is some*times recognized. The number of marriages, indeed, isbyno means small in which from this cause conjugal relationsare not effected, and such unions are by no means.always below the average in happiness. But the suspicionthat he isimpotent although such sexual quiescence isa goal which others are vainly longing to attain causesthe average man extreme anxiety, so that he ispreparedto adopt any course of treatment and often to resort toany of the quacks who are prepared to trade on these terrors.A temporaryloss of potency under a high emotionalstrain may easilyoccur and is not[304]of any serious import.

MARRIAGENervous and inexperienced men are specially liable to it.Montaigne long ago pointed out in his essay on the forceof imagination that it ismerely due to fear, and he sagaciouslydescribed how, by ingenious methods of neutralizingthe fear, potency is perfectly restored.In some cases, however, the defect of potency rests onan acquired habit of the nervous system, that is to say, weare confronted not by psychic impotence but by neurasthenicimpotence. Chastity, masturbation, sexual excesssuch are the causes commonly arraigned for such a defectin potency. Moreover, the conditions of civilization arevery favorable to a general nervous excitability, an overhastyreaction to stimuli, which on the sexual side tendto produce an abbreviation of tumescence and a prematuredetumescence unfavorable to the satisfactory accomplishmentof the sexual act.I agree with Freud and others that the frequency ofpremature ejaculation is very great, though I do not agreewith Lowenfeld in attributing this in 75 per cent cases tomasturbation. In a certain proportion, no doubt, this playsan important part, but even an extreme degree of masturbationhas sometimes no serious effects on potency,while in any case it is so frequent that considerable cautionmust be exercised in asserting that it is the cause ofanything. Usually, it is probable, we must regard neurasthenicimpotence as in part a special manifestationof the general tendency to quick and sensitive reactionswhich marks all urban life under modern conditions(manifested in women by the tendency for pregnancy tocome to a termination before full term) and in ,part asthe result of ungratified desire during the period of adolescence,and beyond, leading to prolonged tumescencenot followed byits natural relief even in masturbation,[305]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXand a consequent impairment of the vascular mechanismof detumescence.In most cases there is only a relative defect of potency.Erection more or less completely occurs and is followed,though too rapidly, by ejaculation. The subject may notBut we cannot doubtbe conscious that anything is wrong.counts for much inthat this defect of masculine potencythe prevalence of sexual frigidity among women.When the loss of ispower more absolute whether dueto temporary psychic impotence or to real enfeebling conditionsthe subjectis often alarmed, even very alarmed.Under the influence of his nervous terror we often find aman constantly brooding over his own sexual powers, constantlytrying to arouse them, constantly, ifperhaps, he isunmarried, making appointments with prostitutes,to meetwith frequent disappointment.*We thus have two classes of cases, those of psychic impotenceand those of what may perhaps still be termedneurasthenic impotence. In the former, the mechanism ofdetumescence is intact but its action is inhibited by psychictension; the treatment, therefore, simply consists inremoving the psychic inhibition by allaying the subject'sdoubts and suspicions. In the cases of neurasthenic impotence,the mechanism of detumescence is not inhibitedbut, on the contrary, more or less enfeebled, and the treatmentis less promising, though it is usually quite possible,if not to restore the impaired mechanism, at all events tominimize the results of the impairment. In all these casesthe main pointis to allay the patient's terror, turn his*It is scarcely necessary to say that in the case of a chaste andrefined man impotence with a prostitute proves nothing. Moll mentionsthe case of a man who, never having had sexual intercourse, visiteda prostitute before marriage, on the advice of a friend, to ascertainif he was potent. He was quite impotent. But he married and wasentirely potent with his wife*[306]

MARRIAGEthoughts out of sexual channels, and ensure the practiceof a sound hygiene. Drugs are not here considered, andthey are of secondary value though much advertised.Some have been found useful in some cases, but it remainsdoubtful whether they have any considerable real somaticinfluence on the condition; while a drug like nux vomica,notwithstanding its strong excitingeffect on the sexualsystem, and the spinal cord generally, and its value as atonic, is worse than useless when over-excitability alreadyexists. The patient should be forbidden to attempt coitusand should especially be discouraged from making suchattempts with prostitutes. Prolonged suspense and expectationis the worst prelude to coitus, especially in thesecases, and all acute mental activity and emotional worryare unfavorable. A sensible and tactful wife is the physician'sbest assistant. The famous case of Rousseau is inthis matter instructive. He was a man of extremely sensitiveand erethic temperament, psychic and physical;emotions responded to a touch, and his sexual impulsereflected this high nervous irritability. With a prostitute,or with a woman for whom he felt ardent passion, he wasan ineffective lover. But with Thrse, with whom helived in calm and constant companionship, he was seeminglypotent, and, if his own honest belief is correct, hewas the father of numerous children. In these erethiccases everything that allays genital excitability is favorable;thus it is that after prolonged sexual abstinence thefirst ejaculation may be premature, but the second attainthe normal result; the interval, of course, varies with theindividual sexual constitution, and while itmay be lessthan half an hour in one person,it may be several daysin another. It may also be recommended not to attemptintercourse on retiring to bed, but only after a period ofrest and sleep, or in the early morning, a time which some[307]his

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXauthorities advise as generally the best. With mental peaceand rational hygiene fairly satisfactory results may bereached in these cases.This indicates that sexual incapacity is largely a matterof personal and social adaptation. In most cases if thesubject had been from youth in a natural and wholesomerelationship with individuals of the opposite sex the difficultyor incapacity for harmonious union with a congenialmember of that sex would not arise, and there would belittle tendency to nervous terror, immature timidity, oraggressive frigidity in approaching a sexually desirableperson. We are justified in believing that sexual incompetenceis, to a large extent, a special manifestation ofincomplete social adaptation. We must not ignore theconstitutional factors, which may, for instance, involvea homosexual tendency, nor physical defects or weaknesswhich calls for the surgeon's aid. But the wise surgeonhimself admits that when he has done his best there oftenremains much for the psychologist and psycho-therapist.We seem justified in believing that the sexual impulseis never so feeble that it cannot, at times, under favorableconditions, become in some degree manifest. Krafft-Ebingaccepted the existence of complete sexual incapacity inrare instances, but he brought forward no observations ofhis own in evidence, only a case of Legrand du Saulle's inwhich seminal emissions had still taken place and one ofHammond's in which there had even been transitory erections.These cases were undoubtedly marked by a considerabledegree of hypoaesthesiabut the definite sexualmanifestations they yet exhibited prevent us from acceptingthem as examples of complete sexual anaesthesia.It seems equally doubtful whether complete sexualanaesthesia can exist in women. There can indeed be nodoubt as to the extreme frequency of hypoaesthesia, or, as[308]

MARRIAGEit is usually termed, frigidity, which has indeed been estimatedI do not know by what method as occurring innearly seventy percent of women. Such wild statementsmust be put aside.Among his one hundred normal marriedwomen of the educated class Hamilton could onlyfind one case of actual frigidity in the sense of persistentabsence of sexual desire and sexual feeling; although afew women were only able to respond to auto-erotic orhomosexual stimuli. In a long chapter on this subject inOne Thousand Marriages Dickinson points out that"frigidity" is not to be regarded as a fixed state or a definitecongenital condition. Its causes are multiple: inphysique, temperament, education, habit (including ignoranceand auto-erotic practices),the husband's inadequacy,etc. The most consistently "frigid/' he remarks,are the auto-erotic; yet, strictly speaking, the auto-eroticare not frigid at all, and may be highly sensitive to thosesexual stimuli which appeal to them.The chief reason why women are considered "frigid"lies less in themselves than in men. It is evident throughoutthat while in men the sexual impulse tends to developspontaneously and actively, in women, however powerfulit may be latently and more or less subconsciously, itsactive manifestations need in the first place to be calledout. That, in our society, is normally the husband's functionto effect. It is his part to educate his wife in the lifeof sex; it is he who will make sex demands a consciousdesire to her. If he, by his ignorance, prejudice, impatience,or lack of insight,fails to play his natural part,his wife may, by no defect of her own, be counted as"frigid." It so happens that, during a long period fromwhich we are only now beginning to emerge, when all sexknowledge was suppressed or treated as unworthy of consideration,a large proportionof men were unable to[39]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXbecome good lovers and a large proportionof womenconsequently remained "frigid."to be apparently frigidThere are thus many reasons why women should tendunder the conditions of civilization,since these conditions involve profound ignoranceof sexual matters in both sexes, bad education, prudery,and an abnormally late age for the commencement ofsexual relationships.But when it is asserted that an absolutesexual anaesthesia is common in women it is necessaryto remember that the questionis much more difficultand complicated in women than in men. Moreover, inwomen we have to distinguish between the presence oflibido and the presence of pleasure in coitus. The firstof these may be present in the absence of the second, andeven when both are absent it cannot be affirmed that sexualanaesthesia exists. It isperhaps significant that Hamil-of womenton found that a high proportion (55 per cent)with inferior capacity for orgasm yet rateabove the average in sex desire.themselves asCases occur in which awoman is frigid with a succession of men but at last, perhapsin late middle age, the sexual impulse arises. Even ifit never occurs at all in coitus itmay be manifested inother forms, not merely in deviated activities, but alsothrough the medium of outlying erogenous zones whichin women are far more numerous than in men, and farmore apt to be stimulated.Thus it is much more difficult in a woman than in aman to affirm the presence of sexual anaesthesia. All wecan say in a particular case is that we have not yet discoveredthe form in which the woman's sexual impulse ismanifested, or may in the future be manifested. EvenOtto Adler, who was confident concerning the frequencyof sexual anaesthesia in women, when he wished to bringforward a final proof of the existence of the "femme dc

glace,"MARRIAGEthe woman of "pure psychic sexual anaesthesia,"went back to the case of a woman who died more than acentury before he was born and of whom no medical historyexists,Madame de Warens. Moreover, he relied onthe narrative of Rousseau, who was by no means an accomplishedlover, and he overlooks the recorded statementof M. de Warens that his wife was hysterical, a state, aswe now know, leading to many subtle transformations ofthe sexual impulse which cannot be traced in the absenceof a detailed medical history. We must be cautious inaccepting any of the alleged cases of complete sexualanaesthesia in women. It is doubtful whether such a casehas ever existed.The existence of sexual hyperaesthesia in both sexes is,under the conditions of civilization, even commoner thanhypoaesthesia, and is likewise largely due to those conditions.They tend to increase the excitations of sex while atthe same time they impede the channels of its expression.A certain degree of hyperaesthesia is normal in courtship;in animals this manifests itself in the extreme excitementa constant brood-they show at this period and in man bying on the charms of the beloved. Under the influence ofsexual abstinence, also, hyperaesthesia usually occurs, anderotic excitation is found in objects and actions whichhave no normal relationship to the sexual sphere. Whensexual hyperaesthesia goes beyond these limits it is abnormaland isusually associated with neurotic conditions.Abnormal sexual hyperaesthesia by no means indicatesany excess of genital force. The man of abnormal genitalforce, the sexual athlete, as Benedikt termed him, is notmarked by hyperaesthesia; strength requires repose, andthe sensations of the hyperaesthetic enjoy little repose. Theappearance of genital force in hyperaesthesia is mainly a

PSYCHOLOGY fJ FSEXsemblance, though it often suffices to delude the subjectthe affinities of hyperaesthesiaare with weakness.of it;Abnormal sexual hyperaesthesia may occur before pubertyas well as in old age. It probably plays an importantpart in the constitution of various deviations, for it isonly when an abnormal sexual excitation coincides withan abnormal state of hyperaesthesiathat there is any likelihoodof a perversesexual association being formed.When sexual hyperaesthesia exists, anything connectedwith persons of the opposite sex, or even any non-sexualobject or action which seems to show analogies to sexualobjects and acts, arouses sexual associations and producessexual feelings. Any part of the body, the garments evenapart from the wearer, any unusual attitude or posture,however apart from sexual ends, the coitus o animalsand even of insects, anything in nature or in art whichrecalls the penis or the vulva or the act of coitus, all becomenot merely sexual symbols, as they normally may,but are apt actively to arouse sexual emotions. In suchgeneral sexual hyperaesthesiathere is no choice and allsuggestions are liable to be aroused indiscriminately. Butthe soil is thus furnished on which particular fetichismsmay take root and flourish, though this is not usually theway in which fetichisms arise. It may be added that sexualhyperaesthesia may exist in a disguised form, and evenwithout the active participation of the subject. Pruderyis a form of sexual hyperaesthesia. The exaggerated horrorof sexual things, as well as the exaggerated love of them,alike rest on a basis of sexual hypersesthesia.Sexual hyperaesthesia, while it is abnormal, and apt tobe associated with neuropathic conditions, isby no meansnecessarily a manifestation of insanity; it can be restrainedand concealed, and it is more or less under the controlof the will. In its more extreme degrees, however, when

MARRIAGEthe motor and impulsive elements become pronounced,the power of control tends to be lost. In the extreme degreewe may thus have what is termed satyriasis in menand nymphomania in women.BIBLIOGRAPHYHAVELOCK ELLIS, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Vol.Ill, "The Sexual Impulse in Women."HAMILTON, A Research in Marriage.DICKINSON, A Thousand Marriages.STEKEL, Frigidity in Woman.ChastityWhen we speak of abstinence we have in mind a negativestate, that is to say the mere repression of a naturalimpulse. Such a repression has its motive in causes frequentlycauses of a low order outside the impulse itself,and in opposition to it. That iswhyit is liable to beharmful. It can never be in itself a virtue, thoughitmaybe the outcome of other motives which in themselves maybe associated with virtues. Asbe termed virtues or mayFlaubert wrote to George Sand, in an interesting discussionof this question in their correspondence,it is theeffort that is good, not the abstinence in itself. Chastity,however, stands on a different level.Chastity does not necessarily involve abstinence. It hassometimes been used as synonymous with absolute sexualabstinence, but it is not desirable to encourage that debaseduse of the term. It may be better defined as selfcontrolwithin the sexual sphere. That is to say that,though it may sometimes involve abstinence, it may alsoinvolve indulgence,its essence lying in the acceptance ofa deliberate and harmonized exercise of the psychic im-

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXThus understood it is notpulses. a negative state, but anactive virtue. I once overheard a girl of about fourteenreproaching a companion of about the same age for greediness:"You have never learnt self-restraint!" 'It's not necessary,"replied the other. "It's not necessary," retortedthe first, "it's nice." That girlwould in later life have nodifficulty in understanding chastity. It is the manifestationof temperance, of the Greek sophrosyne,in the sphereof sex.Chastity is a virtue independent of all creeds and religions.It is true that in many parts of the world there havebeen religious sanctions to hold lust in check. That is tosay that the exercise of sexual activity outside certain prescribedlimits has been held to be a "sin." It was inevitablethat religious communities, Christian or other, shouldtake this attitude. But, on a purely human basis, chastityhas been and still remains a virtue.Among savages, in many parts of the world, young childrenare freely allowed to play at sex and even to practiceit. That indicates that there is no abstract prohibition ofsexual activity.But, as soon as the child approached puberty,even in what we consider the primitive mind, a newattitude towards sex seems necessary: an attitude of control.Among peoplesof low culture it is common to findsexual activity hedged in by a great number of limitations,quite apart from the formal Christian prohibitionsof "fornication" and "adultery." And these limitationsare for a large part conducive to the highestimation ofsex, not only through the avoidance of it when its exerciseisregarded as dangerous but by prescription whenthat influence isregarded as beneficial, and by associatingits manifestations with sacred festivals. This kind of control,this regulated exercise accepted as good, we mayproperly call chastity, and it may be regarded as already[314]

MARRIAGEbuilt into the structure of savagelife. A tissue of uses,often fanciful though even then still helping to ennobleits exercise have been popularly or traditionally assignedto chastity among lower as well as higher races,"Yet, toa remarkable degree/' as Crawley well pointed out, "atleast in primitive sociology, these uses, whatever theirpopular explanations, harmonize with biological facts,and the value of the explanations consists in havingassisted the plastic nervous organism of man towards selfcontrol,intelligent living, and general individual andsocial efficiency." If carried too far, as Crawley also pointedout, disintegration tends to follow; but the main processcontinues, having as its goal, "after many experiments,slowly but surely, a scientific development of that primalnatural chastity with which man's sexual history began."That fundamental fact tends to be obscured preciselybecause of the extremes, referred to by Crawley, to whichthe conception of chastity has sometimes been carried byreligious creeds and social conventions. This has been wellillustrated during recent centuries in our own civilization.When chastity is transformed into a mere compulsoryabstinence it ceases to be either natural, or a virtue,or beneficial. Its essential character is lost sight of. It isthen denounced as "unnatural," and regarded as the concomitantof an outworn religious creed or an effete politicalhierarchy. Thus it is that among ourselves the decayof ancient artificialrestrictions in the sphere of sex hassometimes led to the other extreme equally unnaturaland undesirable of license and promiscuity as an ideal,if not even a practice.Such violent oscillations of the just balance of chastitymay take a considerable time to reach equilibrium, sinceany sudden rebound leads to another bound. We mayobserve this difficulty in Soviet Russia. In old Russia there[315]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXwas much conventional restraint and beneath it muchconcealed license, each tending to produce its consequentreaction. The immediate effect of the liberation effectedby the Revolution was largely in the direction of license.To some extent that seems still to be felt, especially bythose who regard restraint and regulation as bourgeoistraits. But the main tendency now is a reaction againstlicense. Members of the Communist Party are expelledfor their private sexual behavior, as much as for politicalbad behavior. The situation resembles that in eighteenthcentury Calvinist Geneva, for Russian Marxism is as rigidand as austere as Calvinism. "Frivolity, promiscuity, libertinism,rape (which may include several marriages inquick succession) ," we are told, "are frowned on and theirperpetrators expelled from the Party because such behaviorbetrays the social purposes of the Party."These oscillations are the more or less unfortunate exaggerationof a virtue which is still to be cherished. It isnot only demanded for the sake of maintaining the vigorousactivity of the sexual function but also for maintainingits human dignity. Beyond that, it is essential to anygracious art of love, which is,as it has been put, "the artof touching the things of sex with hands that remembertheir aptness for all the fine ends of life."BIBLIOGRAPHYA. E. CRAWLEY, art. "Chastity," Hastings' Encyclopediaof Religion and Ethics,HAVELOCK ELLIS, Studies inthePsychology of Sex, Vol.VI, Chap. V, "The Function of Chastity."MARGARET MEAD, Growing Up in New Guinea.MALINOWSKI, Sex and Repression in Savage Society.

MARRIAGEThe MenopauseThe menopause cannot fail to constitute a psychologicalepoch in marriage, even though its importance was formerlyexaggerated. Nowadays the pendulum has swungtowards the opposite extreme. Various medical womennow declare that the attribution of ailments to the climactericismerely an "obsession" and that they rarely finddue to this cause.any symptoms directlyYet we have here a phenomenon which cannot be withoutdirect psychological significance for the woman herselfand an indirect bearing on her family and social life.It marks the end of her reproductive phase just as pubertymarked its beginning.The menopause, climacteric,* or "change of life," as itis variously termed, is the involutional period of the reproductivesexual system, and occurs between wide limitsof age, 35 to 55, but most commonly between 45 to 50,and iscompleted within two 'or three years; it is said nowto occur on the average some five years later than wasthe average of half a century ago. It is associated withchanges in the functional activity of the endocrine glands,and also in the autonomic nervous system, with consequentemotional, vasomotor, and nervous symptoms, ofwhich palpitations and flushing are found specially unpleasantand are due not so much to heightened bloodpressure as to oscillations in that pressure. We are nothere called upon to consider the possible initial causesof these changes. Maran6n long since advocated a pluriglandulartheory of the menopause, fundamentally in theovaries, thyroid, and suprarenals, and secondarily in the*The menopause is sometimes distinguished from the climacteric,the former as the time when menstruation ceases, and the latter as thelater period of the cessation of ovulation.[317]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXhypophysis. FitzGibbon regards it as an apparently spontaneousatrophy of the genital organs liable to producetoxins, whence a train of symptoms such as flushing, etc.,which may be eliminated in severe cases by removal of thewomb; but as flushings and allied symptoms may occurto a pronounced degree after the womb is removed, onaccount of disease, at an earlier age, this view seemsdubious at the best.Although slight emotional and physical disturbances arealmost invariable at this period, many women, even thoseof unstable nervous disposition, pass through this stage oftransition with no serious trouble, though a few are liableto some degree of breakdown, physical or mental.On the psychic side it is inevitable that the "change oflife," the realization of the fact which she has perhapstried to postpone that she is no longer young, shouldmake a deep impression on a woman. The end of thereproductive life, moreover, appears as the end of thewhole sexual life, though that is by no means actuallyThe woman awakes with a start to the fact thatthe case.what seems the chief period of life is rapidly slipping awayfrom her. There is thus sometimes a sudden increasedsexual activity, with occasionally an unwonted tendencyto be attracted to some new man and to make advancesto him. In unmarried women who have lived respectableand conventional lives the same tendencies occasionallyappear and are more apt to be accompanied by indicationsof mental unbalance. All such manifestations are familiarlyknown and their frequency often exaggerated.Yet we have to recognize that the period of the menopausemay sometimes be marked by such disturbances inthe sexual psychic life,exacerbation of desireespeciallya final flare of the generative flameperhaps accompaniedby various caprices and suspicions and occasionally by

MARRIAGEactual deviations of the sexual impulse. In marriedwomen the results are often aggravated by the fact thatthe husband is at this time beginning to lose sexual power,and his affection for his wife has entered into a stage ofpeaceful affection rendering it difficult for him to respondto her renewed ardor, which thus tends to go into otherdirections and perhaps to assume the form of jealousy. Sothat on the psychic side a number of unamiable traitsmaydevelop as well as painful troubles on the physical side.But on both sides, when these become at allare due not directly to the menopausegrave, theybut to the liberationat this period of tendencies alreadyorganism.It isimportant to make clear that not onlylatent in theare suchsymptoms not essentially inherent in the menopause itselfbut that this time of life naturally brings with it manycompensating advantages." Among countless numbers ofwomen/' as W. J. Fielding remarks, "the climacteric hasbeen the beginning of a golden period of achievement.Nor is there any reason why women, normally constituted,should lose their sexual charms at this time. As amatter of fact, many women are more attractive at fiftythan they were at twenty-five; and if their personality hasbeen developed and enriched by the passing years, theymay be more charming at sixty than they were at thirty."Hofstatter remarks that there become visible not onlysome physical male characteristics but what he terms "asurprising approximation to masculine habits and ways ofthought: clarity, objectivity, a sense for conceptions ofabstract justice, toleration, business aptitude, generalsocial as well as political aptitudes/'While recognizingthese as possible psychic accompaniments of the postmenstruallife it is not necessary to call them masculine.They are non-sexual aptitudes, by no means so common

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXin the male sex as some might desire. For many marriedcouples, however, itmay be said that it is only after thewife's menopause that marriage is finally achieved in itsfull sense as a happy and harmonious fellowship, eventhough it may sometimes seem to recall that of brotherand sister. There is no doubt about the increased intellectualactivity of women at this age and the activecareers of many women of distinction may only be said tohave begun after the sexual reproductive period was over.There are, indeed, some women who at this time use theirincreased activities in striving to interfere with the activitiesof their growing-up children, especially to dominatetheir daughters, if unmarried and still within the homecircle;many lives have thus been blighted, and kindlybut firm rebellion is here necessary; for if some sufferingis inevitable it is better that the old should suffer thanthe young. But the wholesomely cultivated woman, whileoften devoted to her grandchildren, exercises her liberatedmaternal energies in the larger social world, whichoffersendless scopefor wide moral and other activities.It is a debated question how far there can be said to beIf soany period in men corresponding to the menopause.it is certainly vague, as indeed is sufficiently indicated bythe fact that the sperm-secreting function has no necessaryfinal term and may be continued to advanced old age,even in one reported case to the age of 103. There are,however, times in a man's life when in some cases arecognition of a sudden turn in the road enters consciousnesswith disturbing effect. Since Kurt Mendel calledattention to the point, such a phenomenon, correspondingto the menopause in women, has been widely recognized,though Krafft-Ebing and others have denied it. But evenin ancient days a "grand climacteric" was recognized andplaced at the age of 63. We cannot, however, speak strictly

MARRIAGEof a "male menopause." On this ground Maran6n prefersthe term "critical age/' meaning thereby a stage of organicevolution, having permanently at its center the extinctionor diminution of active genital life, although this is notthe axis on which itturns. The biological foundation isgenital decadence with changed neuro-endocrine reactions.Kenneth Walker would place the age of this change atabout 55 to 60, Rankin between 57 and 63, Max Marcusebetween 45 and 55 and even at 40. In many cases, I wouldsay, such a period occurs even near the age of 38. Theman suddenly realizes that the period of expanding powerhas reached its limits, even that there is a comparativefailure of power, this also manifesting itself in the sexualsphere, and by a sudden revulsion of feeling he may beginto feel that he is no longer a young man but an old man.Such a recognition with advance of age may involve notonly the liability to an eruption of sexual activity butalso the development of a certain egotism and callousnesswhich facilitates its manifestations; this is on the wholebeneficial, because it protects enfeebled old age from therisks of strong emotion, but it is liable to abuses of whichthe most dangerous occur should there be an efflorescenceof activity in the sexual sphere. In abnormal cases theremay be exhibitionism, the sexual attraction to young girls,or, sometimes, taking a homosexual turn ("retardedhomosexuality") to , boys. The distinguished German novelistThomas Mann has dealt in Der Tod in Venedig withthis theme, which he has himself stated to be an illustrationof the pathological male climacteric. Hirschfeldbelieves that this phenomenon is speciallymarked in unmarriedmen and widows, and Max Marcuse in sexuallyinadequate men.The wider psychic aspects of this male climacteric arefrequently said to include that loss of youthful aggressive-

. OnPSYCHOLOGY OF SEXness and audacity, and the tendency to social and politicalconservatism, which is everywhere regarded as characteristicof old age, though there are notable exceptions to thistendency.the whole, since the reproductivelife in men is ofso much less intensity than in women, the male climactericis a somewhat vague and comparatively unimportantperiod. Still it may induce a number of minor psychictraits of disagreeable character irritability, meanness,miserliness, etc. corresponding to traits found in womenat the same period. It may also lead to a wider and calmeroutlook on life, the psychic changes involved, however,being more endogenous, more within, on account of thenormally greater activity of men in the world, than withwomen. There may be, as Rankin put it,"a new lease oflife," even though on a plane of lessened activities, modifiedambitions, and a chastened philosophy.BIBLIOGRAPHYF. H. A. MARSHALL, The Physiology of Reproduction.G. MARANON, The Climacteric.KENNETH WALKER, "The Accidents of the Male Climacteric,"British Medical Journal, 9 Jan. 1932.W. J. FIELDING, Sex and the Love-Life.W. GALLICHAN, The Critical Age of Women.

CHAPTER VIITHE ART OF LOVEThe Sexual Impulsein Relation to LoveTHERE are many ways of regarding "marriage." In abald and abstract elementary form itbe defined asmaycohabitation." Under civilized conditions it be-'legalizedcomes a more complex part of the mores or moral customs(morality being essentially custom) of a country, and isthen a contract, and, as Max Christian puts it, "not onlya contract to exercise and maintain a sexual relationshipbut also a true life community with economic and psychicfoundations and moral (that is to say social) obligations.Yet more intimately, however, it is the association by freechoice of two persons who suit each other, with the objectof finding an unhamperedfield of exercise for all thevaried manifestations of love."By a common euphemism the word "love" is used tocover any manifestation of the sexual impulse. That is,needless to say, incorrect. We must distinguish betweenlust f or the physiological sexual impulse, and love, or thatimpulse in association with other impulses.There is no verbal agreement as to the best definitionof the distinction between love and lust. It may, indeed,be said that many of the definitions offered may be acceptedas expressing some part of the distinction. Lovemay be regarded, roughly speaking, as a synthesis of lustand friendship. Or looking at the matter physiologically,we may say, with Forel, that love is the sexual instinct as[3*3]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXmanifested through the cerebral centers. Or, with Kant,we may say that love is the sexual impulse released fromitsbondage to periodicity and made permanent throughthe help of the imagination. Pfister, after devoting a longchapter to various definitions of love, concludes that itmay best be defined as "a feeling of attraction and a senseof self-surrender, arising out of a need, and directedtowards an object that offers hope of gratification."an inadequate definition, and so are most of such defini*tions.It isWhile love apparently becomes in its most developedforms a completely altruistic impulse, it springs out of anegoistic impulse and even when it involves self-sacrificethere is still an egoistic gratification. Freud, among others,has insisted in his Introductory Lectures on this egoisticsource (even stating elsewhere, about the same time, that"love is primarily Narcissistic") although recognizing that,love later becomes detached from its source. Putting asidethe specifically sexual element, the mother, as Freud andothers hold, is the child's first real Zow-object, althoughlater, in subjects who are not neurotic, this primary loveobjectfalls into the background, with the naturally growingprominence of other love-objects.In developing into love, the sexual impulse, which atthe outset ispredominantly egoistic, becomes also consciouslyaltruistic. There are, under normal and naturalconditions, altruistic elements from the outset of its sexualdevelopment. Without consideration for the other partner,even among animals, courtship fails, and coitus cannottake place. But with the development of love thisaltruistic element becomes conscious and highly developed;it may even lead to the complete subordination ofthe egoistic element.This process by which love isdeveloped may be said to[324]

THE ART OF LOVEbe double. In partit is due to the irradiation of the sexualinstinct through the whole organism, taking longer nervouscircuits and suffusing regions which are outside thesexual sphere so long as the sexual impulse attains its endsspeedily and without impediments. In partit is due tofusion with other psychic elements of a more or less alliedcharacter.At an early stage after full sexual development love isreinforced by the allied emotions derived from the relationshipof parents to offspring. The woman's sexual loveis thereafter mingled with the tenderness and patiencewhich have been evoked by her children, and a man'swith the guarding and protecting elements involved inthe paternal relationship. Sexual love thus becomes, inmarriage, part of the structure of society, while in someof its highest manifestations it may be allied with theimpulses of religion and the impulses of art. In thiswomen seem often to have been pioneers. Letourneaupointed out that in various parts of the world womenhave taken a leading part in creating erotic poetry, andsometimes seem even to have monopolized the emotionof love. In this connection itmay be mentioned thatamong primitive peoples suicide from erotic motives seemsto occur chiefly among women.It must, however, be remembered that the evolution oflove from lust has proceeded but a little way among manylower human races, and is indeed rudimentary among alarge number of persons in civilization. While 'lust" isknown all over the world, and there are everywhere wordsto designate it, "love" is not universally known, and inmany languages there are no words for "love." The failuresto find love are often remarkable and unexpected.We may also find it where we least expect it. Sexual desirebecame "idealized" even by some animals, especially birds,[3*5]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXfor when a bird pined to death for the loss of its mate thiscannot be due to the uncomplicated instinct of sex, butmust involve the interweaving of that instinct with theother elements of life to a degree which is rare evenamong the most civilized men. Some savage races seem tohave no fundamental notion of love, and (like the AmericanNahuas) no primary word for it, while, on the otherhand, in Quichua, the language of the ancient Peruvians,there are nearly six hundred combinations of the verbmunay> to love.Brinton long since remarked that the words for lovein some American Indian languages reveal four mainways of expressing the conception: (i) inarticulate criesof emotion; (2) assertions of sameness or similarity; (3)assertions of conjunction or union; (4) assertions of aBrinton adds that "these same no-wish, desire, longing.tions are those which underlie the majority of the wordsof love in the great Aryan family of languages." The remarkablefact emerges, however, that the peoples ofAryan tongue were slow in developing their conception ofsexual love, while the American Mayas, going beyond thepeoples of early Aryan culture, possessed a radical wordfor the joy of love which was in significance purelypsychic.Even the Greeks were late in developing any ideal ofsexual love. True love for the Greeks was nearly alwayshomosexual. The Ionian lyric poets of early Greece regardedwoman as only an instrument of pleasure and thefounder of the family. Theognis compares marriage tocattle-breeding; Alcman, when he wishes to be complimentaryto the Spartan girls, speaks of them as his "femaleboy-friends." -^Eschylus makes even a father assume thathis daughters will misbehave if left to themselves. Thereisno sexual love in Sophocles, and in Euripides it isonly[326]

THE ART OF LOVEthe women who fall in love. In Greece sexual love, downto a comparatively late period, was looked down on, andheld to be unworthy of public discussion and representation.It was in Magna Graecia, rather than in Greece itself,that men took interest in women, and it was not untilthe Alexandrian period, and notably in Asclepiades, asBenecke maintained, that the love of women was regardedas a matter of life and death. Thereafter the conceptionof sexual love in its romantic aspects appears in Europeanlife. With the Celtic story of Tristram, as Gaston Parisremarks, it finally appears in the Christian Europeanworld of poetry as a main point in human life, a greatmotive force of conduct. But such romantic conceptionsstill failed to penetrate the European masses who continuedto regard "love" as a crude act of sexual intercourse.When, however, love isfully developedit becomes anenormously extended, highly complex emotion, and lust,even in the best sense of that word, becomes merely a coordinatedelement among manyother elements. HerbertSpencer, in an interesting passage of his Principles ofPsychology, has analyzed love into as manyas nine distinctand important elements: (i) the physical impulseof sex; (2) the feeling for beauty; (3) affection; (4)admiration and respect; (5) love of approbation; (6)self-esteem; (7) proprietary feeling; (8) extended libertyof action from the absence of personal barriers; (9) exaltationof the sympathies. "This passion," he concludes,"fuses into one immense aggregate most of the elementaryexcitations of which we are capable." Even this comprehensiveanalysis omits the element of love, already mentioned,based on the parental impulse, yet that is a highlyimportant element; when the specifically sexual elementin the conjugal relationship has fallen into the back-

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXground the emotional tone of the husband's love for hiswife, and still more that of the wife for her husband,becomes easily that of love for a child. Every analysis oflove serves to show that, as Crawley remarked, "love isdifficult to define as life itself, and probably for the samereasons. In all itsforms love plays a part in society onlyless important than that of the instinct to live. It bringstogether the primal elements of the family, it keeps thefamily together, and it unites in a certain fellow-feelingall members of a race or nation."Even so brief a discussion of love may serve to indicatethat it is foolish for even the most superficial thinker toimagine that we are here concerned with a romantic illusionthat may be dismissed, or, as some would-be analystslike to imagine,a mere transformation of hate. It is true,asthat, as Ibsen said, "no word is so full of falsehood andfraud as the little word 'love* has become today." Yet thething the word stands for remains, and the extent of theabuse of "love" is the measure of its inestimable values,for it isonly gold and diamonds and the most preciousthings that lend themselves to the abuse of imitation inpaint and paste and cheap alloys and substitutes of everysort. There can be no self without others and the cravingfor others, and we cannot put aside others and the emotionswhich others excite without first puttingaside theself. So that, properly speaking, love is involved in life,and if love is an illusion then life itself is an illusion.When, indeed, we consider further, how love is boundup with the race as well as the individual, and with endsnot only natural but such as we term spiritual,it seems,as Boyce Gibson puts it, "the great transforming and inclusiveagency, the ultimate virtue of all life." So that,as it has been said, "Love is the supreme virtue/' and[3*8]

THE ART OF LOVE"Virtue is love," or, as the early Christian epistolist soughtto express it, "God is love."BIBLIOGRAPHYWESTERMARCK, History of Human Marriage;ib. TheOrigin and Development of the Moral Ideas.HAVELOCK ELLIS, "Sex in Relation to Society," Studies inthe Psychology of Sex, Vol. VI.EDWARD CARPENTER, Love's Coming of Age.ELLEN KEY, Love and Marriage.BOYCE GIBSON and A. E. CRAWLEY, Articles, "Love" and"Primitive Love," in Hastings' Encyclopedia of Religionand Ethics.FREUD, Psychoanalysis for Teachers and Parents.OSKAR PFISTER, Love in Children and Its Aberrations.Why Love Is an ArtLove has been defined (as by Boyce Gibson) as a "sentiment"and a "passion," this varying with the point ofview. In either case it is a stable and complex organizationof the emotional life, but when regarded as a sentimentit is a more intellectual, refined, and subtle emotionalfeeling, and when regarded as a passion it is anemotional complex of predominantly forceful kind, a"passion" being defined by A. F. Shand as "an organisedsystem of emotions and desires," that is, more than a systemonly of emotions. In every passion, however, a systemof self-control tends to arise, by whatever mechanism wemay consider that it works, whereby its intensity is moreor less effectively regulated. By reason of its systematiccharacter and its unifying principle, it is possibleto regardthe passion of love as "stable, regulative, inclusive,and instinct with a profound rationality." But for its normaldevelopmentand at this point we discern the pathwith which we are here mainly concerned the essential[329]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXcondition is (as Boyce Gibson again states) joy in its object,even though that condition of joy inevitably involvespain and the possibility of sorrow, these emotions beingindeed cooperative and interpenetrating;sorrow thusenters with joy to strengthen the passionthisof love. It isbycomplexity and inclusiveness that love may becomein a supreme and unique sense the master passion.We have not indeed, even at that point, reached the fullsignificance of love in the large sense. The "master passion"may still be merely an enlarged egoism, an "goismea deux," and, therefore, however still justifiable,notgreatly more enlarging and ennobling than simple egoism.Love thus understood may be a source for the generationof energy, but if the two generating partners expend itmerely on each other the energy is largely wasted. Loveis one of the supreme things that make life worth while,but, as Bertrand Russell well points out, the love of twopeople for each other is too circumscribed to be by itselfthe main purpose of a good life. There must be purposeswhich stretch out beyond the individual couple into thegreat world outside and into the future, purposes, maybe,which can never be achieved but are always growing."It isonly when love is linked to some infinite purpose ofthis kind that it can have the seriousness and depth ofwhich it is capable/'There remains a primary condition of love which, wesee, the moralists admit, even if somewhat slurring overthe details: joy in its object. There it is that we areto love as an art.broughtThere was a time, and not so long ago, when the considerationof love as an art found no place either in manualsof psychology or of morals. It was left to the poets,who were quite content that it should be regarded as arather illegitimate subject. That was so when Ovid wrote[330]

THE ART OF LOVEthose poetic treatises on the Art of Love which remainedfamous, and sometimes infamous, for more than fifteencenturies, and so it still was in Christendom. It was notproper or respectable or moral to treat sexual love, eithersocially or in literature, as anything but a duty. It is sometimessaid that, for modern times, the first beginnings ofthe art of love were discovered in France in the twelfthcentury, but it remained a rather illegitimate art.Today the situation is different. To regard love as anart iscommonly justified, and moralists themselves arenot behindhand in maintaining that justification. Theyrecognize that duty alone is no longer an adequate motivefor fidelity in marriage, and that to enlarge the basis oflove, to multiply the motives that make mutual affectionattractive, by converting love into an art, is to deepenthe foundations of a marital union and to fortify its morality.We are not here directly concerned with morality,but we are entitled to allow for its claims.Attempts to recognize this art date some time back inmodern civilization. Ambroise Par, a great pioneer insurgery, advised a considerable degree of love-play as adesirable preliminary to coitus. More recently Fiirbringer,in his treatise on sexual hygiene in marriage, consideredthat the physician should be competent to expound to hispatient the technique o conjugal intercourse. To returnto France, the land with which the art of love seems in thefirst place especially associated, it was in 1859 that Dr.Jules Guyot produced his Brdviaire de I'Amour Expdrimentalewhich most admirably presented the main pointsin the art of love, and was much later (1931) in parttranslated into English under the title of A Ritual forMarried Lovers.At this point we are brought back to the characteristicsof the sexual impulse in women, and to that sexual cold-

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXness which has been commonly regarded as so frequent inwomen. For it is by the recognition of these characteristicsthat the art of love has been stimulated, and that the elementaryfact becomes clear that throughout the animalworld courtship tends to be an art.Sexual frigidity,it has become recognized, producesdomesticinfelicity, suffering to the wife, and disappointmentto the husband who istempted to seek more congenialrelationships elsewhere. In such cases there is either defectivedesire for sexual union or defective pleasure inunion, and commonly both, and either may callfor theexercise of art in love.In the biological game of sex the female normally playsthe more passive part,and in civilized women this relativepassivity is reinforced not only by Nature but by our conventions.It is true that the doctrine alike of the sexual activityof the male and the sexual passivity of the femaleneeds to be qualified.It is fundamental, and constitutes,as is too often forgotten, the deep foundation for far^reaching psychologicaldifferences between men andwomen. As Douglas Bryan points out, sexual tension inthe two sexes, being opposite and complemental, cannotfail to lead to different feelings and reactions in each sex:the excitablepenis producing impulses of propulsivity,activity, mastery, etc., and the excitable vagina impulsesof receptivity, passive submission, etc. That is to say wehave here the essence of what we call "masculinity," andthe essence of what we call "femininity." But, as DouglasBryan also points out, before this stage is reached, in theearlier phase of courtship,the parts are in some degreereversed; the male must be to some extent submissive, andthe female to some extent active. The sexual centers aremore numerous and more diffused in women, so that theimpulse is more easily dispersed and gratified in remote[33*]

THE ART OF LOVEand unconscious channels, while at the same time old traditionstaught women to repress as disgusting and sinfulthe manifestations of the sexual impulse. It thus happensthat in women more than in men the sexual impulse tendsto be driven below the surface, to seek an outlet in remoteand often unconscious paths, this indeed being the greatfact on which Freud seized. But notwithstanding the specialcharacteristics of the sexual impulse in women thereisno good reason to suspect frigidity among women livingunder fairly natural conditions. Even among the poorin civilization (putting aside a certain proportion of domesticservants who even still sometimes live, like domesticanimals, under artificial conditions) there are, as it is said,no "old maids/' and this suggests, without actually proving,that there is no defect of sexual impulse. But thecivilized woman, under the combined influences of Nature,art, convention, morality, and religion,has oftentended to come into her husband's hands, usually at arather late adult age, in a condition inapt for the conjugalembrace, which, if the bridegroom is lacking in skill orconsideration, may cause her suffering or disgust, or merelyleave her indifferent.there are various conditions in the womanCertainlyherself which in this circumstance may need direct attention.Masturbation and homosexual practices have frequentlyrendered normal intercourse difficult or repulsive.The sexual organs may be in a disordered condition, per-Sometimes there is ahaps increased by neglect. tendencyto vaginismus. In such cases the gynecologist's aid is requiredand itmay that with his aid the naturalhappensexual feelings quickly and satisfactorily develop and theorgasm is enabled to take place. But the main part of thetask in curing sexual anaesthesia in a woman must usuallyrest with her husband. He isby no means always equipped[333]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXfor this treatment. One fears that there is still too muchthat in this matter the husbandtruth in Balzac's sayingis sometimes like an orang-outang with a violin. Theviolin remains "anaesthetic/' but it isprobably not theviolin's fault. This isby no means to say that husbandsare consciously or intentionally brutal. Certainly muchbrutality may be exercised by a husband in sheer ignorance,from a sense of conjugal duty. But often the inexpertnessis combined with a real desire to be considerate.The sad thing is,indeed, that the awkward husband is,in a great proportion of cases, awkward simply because heis virtuous and high-minded, has tried to live a life ofchastity before marriage, and has never learned to knowthe nature and needs of women. It is quite true that thevery happiest marriages, marriages of life-long devotionon each side, have sometimes been made by two youngone but each other.people who have never known anyBut this innocence is a two-edged sword, and in manycases it is the other way that it cuts. Then the man whohas faithfully lived by the rules of the morality he wasbrought up in may find that he has thus wrecked his ownIt must be added thatdomestic happiness and his wife's.the man whose pre-marital experiences have been confinedto prostitutes is often by no means any better equipped,and either thoughtless crudity, or an exaggerated considerationfor his wife's"purity," may prove equally unfortunate.It must be admitted that the husband's task is oftendifficult. The difficulty is increased by the late age atwhich in civilization a woman enters the state of marriageafter a long period of years in which she has presumablybeen leading a life of chastity. During those long yearsthere has been, we know, a constant generation of sexualenergy which must be consumed along some channel or[334]

THE ART OF LOVEother. The woman has acquired habits and fallen intoroutines; her whole nervous system has been molded andhardened. Even on the physical side of sex, the organs areby no means always so ready to respond normally to theexercise of their natural functions. The difficulties of lateprimiparity are paralleled by those of the late initiationof coitus. It is a mistake to suppose that early adolescenceis an unfavorable age for coitus and involves a kind ofviolation; on the contrary, all the evidence goes to showthat the young adolescent girl is more apt for the initiationof coitus than the adult woman. The reasons for thedelay in initiating coitus are not based on natural factsbut on our civilized traditions. It is quite true that Naturehas aimed through the course of zoological evolution atthe delay of maturity, but that end iseffected by makingpuberty late, and in the human species pubertyisverylate. The demands of civilization make it desirable thatwe should postpone the relationships between the sexesto a still later period, but in so doingit is inevitable thatwe should lay up for ourselves many troubles which onlyart can redress.It is thus certainly true that we cannot regulate thesexual life of man without considering that of woman.true that if we wish to un-But it is yet more emphaticallyderstand the psychological life of the woman on the sexside we must keep one eye on the man.There are several reasons whyit is essential to understandthat the sex life of woman islargely conditioned bythe sex life of man. They have already been touched onbut we need to recall them when considering the significancein sex psychology of the art of love. In the first placewhile it has been argued and even with a measure oftruththat in this matter the woman dominates and thatthe man ismerely a plaything in her hands, that is not[335]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXthe fundamental fact. Ultimately, throughout the zoologicalseries we belong to and most of the others, in sex themale is the more active, the female the more passive agent.Anatomically, if not physiologically,the male is the giver,the female the receiver. The psychological relationshipcannot fail to be essentially a reflection of this fact, eventhough, under varying circumstances, it may be departedfrom without disturbing the general norm of nature.In the second place, apart from the natural animal relationship,all our traditions in the recognizable historicpast are based on the dominance of the man in the establishmentof the sexual relationship, and the assumptionthat the chief if not the sole part pertainingthe sexual life isto woman inthat of the child-bearer, any erotic partexercised by her being a more or less illegitimate by-play.and been estab-Our social institutions have grown uplished on this male dominance and this commonly receivedassumption: marriage, the legal headship of thehusband with the legal irresponsibility of the wife, andoutside marriage the recognition of prostitution with asole view to the assumed needs of the man alone and notof the woman. We know that in all these matters bothsocial opinion and law are changing, but ancient institutions,and still more the feelings and opinions rooted inthem, can only change slowly, and even in a state of transitionwe are stillprofoundly influenced by the past.There is a further important consideration, proceedingfrom those that go before, though belonging more intimatelyto the feminine psychological sphere. Modestyboth what may be termed natural modesty, which is moreor less shared with the lower animals, and artificial modesty,which depends on social fashion and iseasily modifiableis more especially a feminine trait. Here is notthe place to show that this is so, or to deal with the[336]

THE ART OF LOVEnumerous qualifications that must be made to the statement.In the main it is not doubtful, and it is closely connectedwith the more passive part in sex activity playedgenerally by the female in nature, and fortified by oursocial traditions. (But how modifiable ismodesty mayclearly be seen by the increasing number of societies establishedfor die practice of what is termed "Nudism"whereby men and women in a completely unclothed stateare enabled to meet socially without any embarrassment.)The modifications taking place in our traditions have nothere yet produced any pronouncedeffects. They have indeedtended to produce in women a disharmony betweenthe manifest and latent elements of consciousness. Thewoman is free to know what she latently feels and desires,but she is not yet usually free to manifest these feelingsand desires. The result is that we have today a far largerbody of women who definitely know what they want, butdefinitely know also that to make that clear would causemisunderstanding, if not repulsion, in the very men whoare in need of that knowledge. So we are always broughtback to men.-Even these considerations may suffice to suggest that weare in the presence of two different and sometimes conflictingideals of the sexual sphere of women. There is one,very ancient in our civilization, according to which maternityis the central fact in the sexual life of women,a fact we cannot dispute, while outside that fact, thesexual sphereismainly regarded as man's concern; womanhaving no sexual impulses (if any at all)which do nottend to motherhood, is thus by nature monogamous, whileman, not being anchored to home and child, but with awider scope of psychic variation, isby nature polygamous;so that, while the sexual problem for women is simple andobvious, for men it is more complex. That, one may al-[337]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXmost certainly say, is the theory which has been regardedas natural and wholesome from classic times almost toour own, whether or not the actual facts fitted into it.Less than a hundred years ago the English surgeon Actonwrote a book which until near the end of last century wasthe standard authority on sexual questions, and he statedin it that to attribute sexual feelings to women was "a vileaspersion," while at the same period, in another standardmedical work, it was laid down that only "lasciviouswomen" showed any physical signs of pleasure when inthe embrace of their husbands. And these statements, ofan inconceivable absurdity, were generally accepted.Today we see arising another ideal, which is, we probablyhave to recognize, not only in accordance with ourgrowing tendency to place the two sexes on the same level,but also more in accordance with the natural facts. Evenoutside the field here under consideration, we do not drawdo not involve two different sortsthe sharp line of sexual distinction which was formerlyaccepted We recognize differences that are indeed fundamental,and endless in number, but they are subtle differences.They of humannature. They represent the same human nature withthe same varying tendencies. These tendencies may in themale lead more often to modifications in one direction andin the female more often in the other, but the humannature still retains essentially the same common characteristics.We have already come in contact with the old dictum,endlessly repeated, that man ispolygamous and womanmonogamous, and seen how far that dictum is true andhow far it is false. The fundamental fact that in naturethe sex act has weightier consequences for a woman thanfor a man renders her instinctively slower and more carefulthan * man in selecting a mate. This difference has[338]

THE ART OF LOVEalways been pronounced. Yet there is a large minorityof women, indifferent to the question of maternity, whocan form a relationship of sex as easily as the average man,while women generally are just as sensitive as men to theclaim of variety, and just as able if not better able tolove two persons at the same time. The custom of establishinghard and fast oppositions between "man" and"woman/* in this field as in others, will not bear seriousconsideration, though it is not yet extinct. Women, liketheir brothers, had fathers, and however numerous theminor distinctions between masculine nature and femininenature, they inherit the same fundamental humannature. It is, as we see, the existence of two different idealsbelonging to two different stages of culture which ismainly responsible for an artificial opposition. It is theclash between these ideals which we witness in our phaseof transition today.That is why we should attribute importance to all preciseand statistical studies, on a large scale, of the sexualsituation in women, whether normal women or women belongingto special groups, as compared with men. Merepicturesque general statement, the dogmatic generalizationsof psycho-analysts and others inevitably colored bythe prejudices and the necessarily limited experiences ofthe man or woman making them, are no longer of muchinterest, and, fortunately, are no longer required. Precisegroups of data are now being accumulated. It is indeedonly today that they have become available, and that wepossess valuable statistical investigations by competentlytrained hands, such as those by Katharine B. Davis, R. L.Dickinson, and G. V. Hamilton.Does the seeming greater passivityof women meanany fundamental psychic difference of feelings or physicaldifference of needs? A convenient measurement for[339]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXtesting this point, thoroughly explored alike by Hamilton,Davis, and Dickinson, is the relative prevalence ofauto-erotic manifestations of the sexual impulse. Whenan auto-erotic act occurs in either sex we are justified inaccepting even though we may refuse to believe that theimpulse was absolutely irresistible the presence of anactive sexual desire. Our investigators differ, as we mightexpect, in the figure they present, and it has to be rememberedthat their subjects, not being bound to answer thequestions, sometimes preferred to pass them over, andsome may consider that the women were specially likelyto do so. It is therefore significant to find how frequently,as has already been pointed out in Chapter III, they admittedactive auto-erotism. Thus Dickinson found that70 per cent, of average women belonging to all classesexperienced sexual impulses of sufficient strength, andusually, it is evident, with considerable frequency, to inducethem to resort to solitary gratification. KatharineDavis, among 1,000 unmarried women college graduatesfound that 65 per cent, of those answering the questionacknowledged that they had practiced masturbation, abouthalf of these admitting that they still do so, the generalhealth of those who still carry on auto-erotic practices beingin a larger percentage of cases "excellent or good"than among either those who have given them up or thosewho have never practiced them, since a vigorous sexualimpulse is the efflorescence of vigorous health. Hamilton,dealing with persons of position and ability above theaverage and all married, found that only 26 per cent,women stated positively that they had never masturbated,and he observed the tendency (which I have myself longsince noted) for women, after childhood is passed, tobegin the practice later in life than men, for only i percent, men began after the age of 25, but 6 per cent, women.[340]

THE ART OF LOVEThe practiceVarious interesting points came out clearly.had not generally been taught, as is so commonly supposedto be the rule. In by far the larger proportion of cases,of both sexes, it was discovered by the individual spontaneously.It is significant that while 17 per cent, men and42 per cent, women state that they have not masturbatedsince marriage, the number of women who state that theyhave done so "frequently" since marriage is nearly aslarge as of men and includes nearly half the women who doit at all after marriage, the infrequent practice beingmuch more common among the men. That would seem toindicate that while in married men it ismainly due toabsence from home, or other extraneous cause, in marriedwomen it expresses the greater incidence on them of dissatisfactionin marriage. It is further to be noted that afar larger proportion of men than of women consider thatthe practice has been physically or mentally injurious.Hamilton was the only investigator of the three whowas able to approach directly the question of the relativesatisfaction in marriage experienced by husbands andwives, since his husbands and wives were comparable,equal in number and investigated in precisely the samemanner. He made fourteen grades of satisfaction in marriage,and when the results were tabulated itthat 51 per cent of the husbands had attained to the seventhhighest degree of satisfaction, but only 45 per cent,was foundof the wives. The women, taken as a group, had beenmore seriously disappointed in their marriages than hadthe men. Katharine Davis confirmed this, though onlyable to make the comparison indirectly, by finding that thewives reported a larger proportion of husbands who weresatisfied by marriage than they themselves showed. Myobservations though lessprecise, both as regards English[341]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXand American marriages, are in harmony with these. Thedifference may not be great but it is recognizable.It isbecoming increasingly evident that there is no specialsexual psychology of woman. That was a notion originatedby ascetics and monks, though it has taken a longtime to fall into discredit. Differences there are, and alwaysmust be. So longoody they cannot be alike in spirit.as men and women are not alike inBut these differences,on the psychological side, are not of substance. We seenow that, essentially, men and women are of the samesexual composition, and the old notion that such a beliefwas "derogatory" to woman is for us merely moonshine.We see also, that,mainly, no doubt, as a result of thewomentraditional ignorance and prejudice of the past,suffer more than men from the conditions of the sexualsituation. Apart from general expressions of satisfactionor of dissatisfaction in marriage, which seem always toshow a less amount of satisfaction in marriage on the partof wives although in old days it used to be said thatmarriage was magnanimously devised by men for the benefitof women the more precise gynecological evidencepoints in the same direction. Thus Dickinson records 175cases of dyspareunia, that is to say more or less pain anddiscomfort in the physical relationship of sex, and 120cases in which there was in that relationship some degreeof frigidity or sexual coldness, which in the act of unionmust practically amount to dyspareunia. In the case ofhusbands both these conditions have practically no existence(their counterpart being an impotency which is apurely negative condition) so that here ,again we have animportant disadvantage on the side of women.How far is this feminine disadvantage rooted in thenature of things, and how far in circumstances which wecan control? There is something of both. That is to say[342]

THE ART OF LOVEthat physiological and psychological adjustment to thesexual relationship is under normal conditions less easilymen. That is a natural disad-achieved by women than byvantage but one that may be naturally overcome. Theproblem before us concerns the fact that this partly naturaldisadvantage has been more acutely felt in recent timesthan, so far as we know, it has ever been felt in human historybefore. "Why should not husbands be taught more?"asked one of Dr. Davis's subjects as she reviewed her ownpainful experiences. And what these experiences may havebeen we gather from the nature of the answers given bythe married women to the question concerning their firstreaction to marriage: "amused/* "astonished," "bewildered,""disappointed," "frightened," "indignant," "resigned,""shocked," "stunned," while 173 merely "took itas a matter of fact." Naturally such answers came in amuch larger proportion from the women who enteredmarriage in ignorance of all that it meant, and we arebrought at the end to the point at which we started.Formerly there was a kind of sexual adjustment, at allevents on the surface, because women were trained beforehand,by a closer relationship to the life of their age,to know and "to expect what they actually found on marriage.In more recent times, if not still, they have beentrained, rightly or wrongly, if trained at all, to expectwhat they did not find. That is to say, that there has beena revolution quietly going on in the status of woman andin every field of women's activity, not directly touchingthe sexual impulse but from every side having an undesignedrepercussion on that impulse. No correspondingrevolution has taken place in the status and activities ofmen and hence an inevitable lack of sexual adjustment.Since we cannot expect, nor even desire, the effects ofthe feminine revolution to be undone, the present sexual[343]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXsituation isnew husband isrequired to meet the new wife.All life, as I have often had occasion to point out, isart.mainly one with which men have to deal. AThe statement has been denied bythose who haveconfused art with aesthetic sensibility, which isquite anothermatter. All making and doing is of the nature ofart, which is not confined to man's activities alone, andmay even be said to be unconsciously true of all Nature.To say that life is art ought, indeed, to be a mere truism,and would be so if it were not so often denied or indiffer-Asently ignored, even by those who profess to accept it.it is, one istempted to say that if life is art, life ismostlybad art.There isperhaps no field of life in which one may bemore tempted thus to qualify the statement than in thatof love. It is often said that it is the male rather than thefemale who reveals in Nature the stronger impulse to art,and there is no doubt that this is so in various zoologicalgroups (it is only necessary to think of birds) but such a,generalization could hardly have been reached, as regardsmodern man in the field of love, by reading the resultsrecorded in the pages of Hamilton and Davis and Dickinson.This is unfortunate, because love, considered as thepsychic side of sexual relationship, is life itself, the gesturewithout which, so far as we are concerned, life wouldcease. We can see today and coldly enumerate all thecauses which led to the art of love falling into reprobation,neglect, and contempt: religious, moral, spiritual, aestheticcauses. We can also see today on how shallow a foundationall those causes worked. That vision is a necessary conditionfor the improvement of our art. We know that it isalready becoming influential, even though not always inaccordance with right knowledge. Some, indeed, havesoughtnot as had once often been done by unreasoning[344]

THE ART OF LOVEinstinct but on principle to eliminate any problems hereinvolved by reducing sexual activity to a mere routine,involving no deeper thought than is involved by eatingand drinking, or a mere amusement like dancing or tennis.But, as an acute exponent and critic of modern fashionsin life and love, Aldous Huxley, has truly remarked, followingRobert Burns: "Nothing is more dreadful than acold unimpassioned indulgence. And love infallibly becomescold and unimpassioned when it is lightly made."Moreover, it must be added, we do not really touch thewith, or with-problem of the adjustment of the sexes by thus reducinglove. We were far from Nature when, in the days now passingaway, we made the sexual act a duty,out, throwing in sentiment and romance but we areequally far away if we make it a routine or an amusement.Not only in civilized man, but in the physiological factsof Nature, even going beyond the mammals, we are hereconcerned with an act which normally evokes resistances,and demands for itscompletely satisfactory achievementboth passion and art. If we seek to disregard that essentialfact, one way or another we inevitably suffer.We are thus led to emphasize the therapeutic importanceof the art of love. In old days not only would suchemphasis have been impossible but the whole idea wouldnot have been intelligible. The art of love in this connectioncould be ignored or spurned, partly because the eroticneeds of the wife were never considered, partly becausethe erotic needs of the husband, it was generally conceded,could be gratified in silence outside marriage. But alongboth these linesour attitude has now changed. We aretending to concede to women the same erotic privilegesas to men; we are also tending to aspire after a monogamywhich, unlike our present system, may eventuallybe realand not nominal only. Thus it comes about that today the[345]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXcultivation of the art of love is inseparably associated withthe cultivation of monogamy, because without it any satisfactorymarriage, as we now understand marriage, isscarcely practicable, while even with it marriage may stillfull of difficulties.proveIn its finest and subtlest manifestations the art of loveisthe outcome of a man's or a woman's most intimatepersonality. But in its lower rangesit is an extension ofsexual hygiene and comes properly within the sphere ofthe physician who is called upon to givevarious difficult situations which mayadvice in thearise in marital life.Our advocates of sexual hygiene still too often ignore thismatter, but such an attitude cannot be maintained and isindeed rapidly breaking down. It is no longer possible toassert that a knowledge of the methods of sexual courtshipand intercourse comes by Nature. As Paget remarkedmany years ago, it is certain that in civilization suchknowledge has to be taught. It may be added that the sameis even true, to a large extent, of uncivilized races, andtraining in these matters ispartof the serious initiationof life among various peoples. Moreover, it is not sufficientlyrealized that among peoples living in natural conditionsgreat attention is often paid to the preliminariesof intercourse, and a considerable variety of methods ofintercourse prevails.Both these points are highly important.The prolongation of the preliminary courtship beforethe act is necessary on the physical side,in order toensure tumescence; it isnecessary on the psychic sidebecause without it the ideal element of love, which isessential to real marriage, cannot well be developed. Therecognition that a number of methods of intercourse, farfrom being vicious "perversions," come within the normalhuman range of variation isrequired because it is oftenfound that when one method is unsuitable to secure grati-[346]

THE ART OF LOVEfication another method proves more successful. Sometimesyears elapse before the conditions and the methodare found which alone render coitus agreeable or eventolerable to a woman. Due attention to the preliminarycourtship of the act of intercourse and to the method mostsuitable for adoption suffices to cure the majority of casesof sexual frigidity in women.These things, as we are now beginning to learn, cannotwisely be neglected by the physician. The sexual gratificationof the woman is even a part of the act of fecundation,for her share in that act is not purely passive. Adistinguished gynecologist of an earlier generation, MatthewsDuncan, placed stress on this need of sexual pleasurein the woman in order to ensure fecundation, and Kischwith other later authorities have confirmed that doctrine.It cannot be essential when we think of the vast numberof children who have certainly been conceived withoutpleasure on the mother's part. But Kisch found thatdyspareunia (by which he means absence of gratification inintercourse) was with remarkable frequency associatedwith sterility; he found it in 38 per cent, cases of sterility,but neglects to state its average frequency.The elementary fact, to which reference has here sooften been made, is that courtshipis a natural and evenessential preliminary to everyact of sexual intercourse.Usuallyit is for the male to take the initiative in this,when he divines that the right moment has come (forhe must not expect the woman to tell him this)and totake the most active part, although there isnothing reallyabnormal in his partner's assumption of the more activepart, and the art of love can scarcely be exercised whenthe female is merely passive. On the purely physical side,it is not until, by the preliminary play of courtship, thewoman's genital regionis bathed in the glandular secretion[347]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXliberated by emotions of pleasure that intercourse is eitherpleasurable or often even easy, so that, sometimes, artificialsubstitutes, which should not be needed, are recommendedto replace the natural lubricant.All this, though often ignored in civilization, is wellunderstood among peoples in a less "advanced*' stage. Thusamong the Melanesians of British New Guinea, we aretold, there was much freedom in selecting partners (solong as the rules of totem and blood-relationship wereobserved) but no ,question of marriage arose until afterseveral months of intimacy. In some districts a customexists by which a boy may sleep with a girl for the night,holding her in his arms and caressing the upper part ofher body. Sexual connection seldom occurred; if it didmarriage usually followed. With such a system theelementary principles, at all events, of the art of love areinvolved.In the course of any preliminary courtship before intercourseit is natural and desirable that more or less contact,pressure, or friction should be exerted on the clitoris,which is from the first the chief focus of sexual sensationin women. It is sometimes said by psycho-analysts that thisisonly true for an early age, and that with adolescencesexual sensation isnormally, if not constantly, transferredfrom the clitoris to the vagina. It is difficult to account forthe origin of this notion which seems to have been devisedin the study, and might easily have been dispelled by alittle actual knowledge of women. The clitoris is a normalfocus of sexual sensation and tends so to continue, frequentlyas the chief if not the only focus. That with theinitiation of adult intercourse the vagina should also becomea focus of pleasurable sensation is natural, but itis incorrect to speak of any "transfer." As so authoritativea gynecologist as Dickinson truly states, "a large proportion[348]

THE ART OF LOVEof women have orgasm only from pressurein the clitorisregion, and this isperfectly normal."With regard to posture in coitus, it is sometimes assumedthat there isonly one right, proper, and normalposture, with the feminine partner supine, and that anyother postureis unnatural, if not indeed "vicious." Thatis a mistake. The custom most usual in one particularphase in human history, or among one particular race, isnot to be taken as a rule for other times and other peoples.The oldest picture of coitus we possessof the palaeolithicrepresents the manSolutrian age and found in Dordogneas supine while the woman squats. At the present timemany different customs as regards posture prevail amongdifferent peoples, and many peoples admit variouspostures. Van de Velde remarks, as regards Europeans,that husbands seldom realize that the monotony of themarriage-bedif such it is found to be may be relievedby variations that come within the normal range; andeven if they do realize this possibility they often put itindignantly aside as "licentious."There is, indeed, more than this to be said. In manycases it may merely be a question of selecting an agreeablevariation, but in other cases the questionis more urgentFor some women there are postures, sometimes thosemost usually adopted which may provedifficult or intolerable,while another and perhaps more unusual postureproves easy and pleasurable.Taking sexual relationships in the widest sense, but stillon the physical side, it isimportant always to bear inmind that whatever gives satisfaction and relief to bothparties is good and right, and even in the best sense normal,provided (as is not likely to happen in sound andhealthy persons) no isinjury effected. Fellatio and curtnilinctus(the impulse to either of which frequently[349]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXin men and women who never heardarises spontaneouslyof such practices) are perhaps the chief of these contacts.It isextremely common, I find, for nervous or scrupulouspersons to inquire whether this, that, or the other unusualmethod of sexual gratification iswrong or injurious. Ashock is often thus caused, for we seem to be in thepresence of something which is "unassthetic." It seems tobe forgotten that not even the most recognized methodsof sexual intercourse can well be described as "aesthetic."It is not understood that here, amid the most intimatemysteries of love, we are in a region where the cold andabstract viewpoints either of science or of aesthetics areout of place unless qualified by more specially humanemotions. To the rigid formalist in these matters, wellintentioned but ignorant, we may gently recallthe endlesslywise words of Shakespeare: "Love talks with betterknowledge and knowledge with dearer love."It may be added that of the 100 married women investigatedby Hamilton presumably normal and healthywomen and of good social position he found that thirteenhad had experience of fellatio, cunnilinctus, or both, butin no case could any ill effects be discovered. "No sexplay is psychologically taboo," Hamilton reasonably concludes,while making certain reservations, of which themost important are that no injury to physical structureis involved and that there are no serious guilt reactions.That isimportant. Hamilton states that he has elsewheremet with a series of cases of naive persons who had innocentlypractised some such "perversion," without knowinghow formidable and objectionable it appeared tomany, whereupon "the shock of suddenly acquiring abelief that they had been engaged in a loathsome and pervertedpractice appeared to precipitate serious paranoidsymptoms." Nothing could better show how urgent it[350]is

THE ART OF LOVEto spread abroad more sensible notions on these matters.A woman should be "assured/' as Dickinson, a wise andexperienced gynecologist, declares, "that there isnothingin the fullest sweep of passion that is not compatible withher highest ideals of spiritual love, and that all mutualintimacy of behavior isright between husband and wife/'In a simple introductory manual we are not called uponto consider the art of love in detail. But itmay be wellto say that that art is far from being confined to thephysical aspects of love. There is here an art, and a difficultart, even when physical love is not directly concerned,or when it has fallen into the background, orwhen physical relationships do not take place at all. Therecognition of individual freedom, the allowance fordifference of tastes and of disposition even when there is afundamental unity of ideals, the perpetual call for mutualconsideration, the acceptance of the other's faults andweaknesses with the acknowledgment of one's own, andthe problem of overcoming that jealousy which becauseit is rooted in Nature every one has in some form andat some time to meet all these difficulties and the likeexist even apart from sex in the narrow sense. Yet theyare a large part, even the largest part, of the art of love.Every failure here may become a source of misery or ofweakness in the whole art of living.We have, it becomes clear, to take a wide view of themarital relationship, before we can grasp all the factorsthat constitute it in any completesense. The satisfactionof all these factors is essential to individual well-being,and, in addition to therapeutic importance, possesses socialsignificance as a guarantee of the probable permanenceof the union. "It is not the physician's business to comeforward with proposals of reform/' said Freud in 1908.That notion now belongs to the past,as Freud himself

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXseems to have realized,for since then he has meditatedover some of the largest questions of life.Today we maysay explicitly, even if we thereby reverse the primitive conceptionof medical art, that it is no longer the physician'sbusiness to preserve evils in order to tinker at them. Inevery department of medicine and now at last in the mostintimate of all it is our business so to adjust the conditionsof life that, if possible, the evils may not arise. Thereis no field in which it is more necessary than in that nowbefore us for the physician to acquire a wider knowledgeor to exercise a finer intelligence.BIBLIOGRAPHYJULES GUYOT, A Ritual for Married Lovers (Part translationof Breviaire de I'Amour Experimental by GertrudeM. Pinchot).HAVELOCK ELLIS, "The Art of Love," Studies in thePsychology of Sex, Vol. VI; also Vol. III.HELENA WRIGHT, The Sex Factor in Marriage.VAN DE VELDE, Ideal Marriage.EXNER, The Sexual Side of Marriage.W. F. ROBIE, The Art of Love.R. L. DICKINSON, Premarital Examination as Routine PreventiveGynecology.DOUGLAS BRYAN, "Bisexuality," International Journal ofPsycho-Analysis, April, 1930.KISCH, Sexual Life of Woman.C. G. SELIGMAN, The Melanesians of British New Guinea.[352]

CHAPTER VIIICONCLUSIONThe Dynamic Nature of The Sexual ImpulseUNDER the ordinary conditions o social life, as we knowit in civilization, there are three main channels alongwhich we may direct the energy o the sexual impulse:(i) We may avoid all overt manifestations, leaving theimpulse to expend its dynamic energy along whateverpaths, normal or abnormal, the organism may lend itselfto; (2)We may be content with temporary or merelycasual sexual relationships, of which prostitutionis thefamiliar type; (3) We may enter on marriage, that is tosay, a sexual relationship set up with the intention of,possible, making it permanent, and involving a communityof more than sexual interests. There can be nodoubt whatever that whatever one's religion or moralprinciples may be or even in the absence of any thisthird condition, even in the absence of children, leads tothe richest and deepest life experience.But while it is the best path, it is without doubt adifficult path. Indeed, as we have seen, the whole path ofsexual activity, and not only for the neuropathic but evenfor the normal, is. beset with perils. This is in part due tothe comparatively late period at which the sexual impulse,as compared to the other impulses, undergoes full development,even though it may begin early, in part to theperiodic and violent nature of the impulse, and in part,not the least part, to the rigid rules which religion, morals,[353]if

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXlaw, and convention have combined to lay down in thesphere of sex. A wise and watchful ishygiene here for evernecessary, and is the more imperative because, when it isdefective, we are often faced by situations which it is notalways altogether within the sphere of medicine to treat.We have to regard the sexual impulse as a force, generated,we are now becoming accustomed to think, by powerfulferments, springing up from within and capable of takingon endless forms, healthy and morbid, normal and abnormalforms that are sometimes scarcely recognizable assexual at all, and which, while we can to some extent controlor guide, we can never altogether repress. Thisdynamic conception of the sexual impulse has long beenvaguely perceived; Anstie used it, half a century ago, toexplain some forms of what was later called neurasthenia;James Hinton developed it more especially in its moralaspects; it underlies the conception of auto-erotism; ithas been worked out with endless subtlety by Freud.I have referred to sexual energy as "a force generatedby powerful ferments." That is vague; if we now try todefine it more precisely than was attempted at the outset,we may perhaps say that the erotic personality rests ona triangular association between the cerebrum, the endocrinesystem, and the autonomic nervous apparatus.This lastcomponent has not come conspicuously to thefront, but itsimportance may here be indicated. It isconstituted by the digestive, circulatory, respiratory, andurinary systems, the secretory glands and their ganglionicnervous systems. This apparatus thus regulates what maybe considered the fundamental function of living. It islargely responsible for setting in action what Kempf,who has mainly insisted on the significance of the autonomicfactor for behavior, calls the acquisitive and avertivecompulsions to action in relation to the environment.[354]

CONCLUSIONThe animals with primeval autonomic systems which felttensions of distress sought to protect themselves, and bysurviving through the relief of these tensions transmittedthem to higher organisms. We are thus helped to bringinto line somatic causation and psychic causation andto understand the individual working as a unit. We arefurther helped to greater precision in the conceptionof the conations and desires, the libido if we prefer toterm it, or the Schopenhaurian Will to which the philosophersof the sexual impulse are apt to appeal. AsCarlyle long ago wrote: "Perhaps the notablest God wehear tell of is one of whom Grimm the German Etymologistfinds trace: the God Wiinsch or Wish."With his usual powers of luminous expression, Freudlong since (1912) set forth the varying conditions underwhich the difficulties of the sexual life may lead to nervousdisorder, and his exposition is the more important sincemay be held to stand independently of many psycho-itanalytic doctrines which are in dispute. Freud himselfadmitted that it is unsatisfactory as a clinical classificationof cases since the same case may exhibit the various conditionsat different times, or even to some extent at thesame time; but it is useful in helping us to a knowledgeof those conditions. Four types thus become recognizable,(i)The simplest and most obvious sexual occasion ofneurotic disorder an occasion to which most people arein some degree liable is that of denial; the subjectishere quite healthy so long as his need of love is satisfiedin a real object in the outer world; and only becomesobject without any ade-neurotic when deprived of thisquate compensation; under these circumstances there aretwo possibilities of preserving health in spite of the denialof sexual needs: either the psychic tension isdirected towardsactivity in the practical world and finally finds a[355]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXreal satisfaction of sexual desire, or, such satisfaction beingrenounced, the inhibited desires are sublimated intoenergy which is directed to non-erotic ends. In this processthere is a possibility of what C. G. Jung termed introversion,that is to say, the inhibited sexual impulse insteadof being sublimated may be turned from real channelsinto imaginative channels where it occupies itself withdream-wishes. (2)In the cases of the second type theindividual becomes morbid, not through any change inthe outer world replacing satisfaction bythe need forrenunciation, but by his own inner efforts to attain satisfactionin the outer world. The subject becomes disorderedby the inner difficulties which he finds in adapting himselfto the real world and by his efforts to attain a normalmethod of sexual satisfaction which he is still unfitted for.(3) The next class of cases, in which various disordersoccur through inhibition of development, is really anextreme group of the second class, and there is no theoreticalground for considering them separately, the sexualfixed on infantile aims which nosatisfaction remaininglonger accord with the individual stage of development,and the conflict arises in the effort to subdue the outgrowninfantile impulses which still seek gratification. (4)In thefourth class of cases we find individuals who were formerlyhealthy becoming morbid without any change in theirrelation to the external world. But, on more careful examination,it is found that there has been, in consequenceof biological changes such as the attainment of a certainperiod of life (puberty or the menopause) , a change inthe amount of sexual desire, this alone serving to destroythe balance of health and to introduce the conditions forthe occurrence of neurosis. The inhibition of the sexualimpulse through the external inability for its satisfactionhere becomes pathogenic; the amount of sexual desire is[356]

CONCLUSIONnot indeed measurable, it is a relative changethat causes the trouble, and the subject finds himselfin amountoverburdened in the struggle with this relatively changedamount.this ab-Although it has no objective clinical validity, stract analytical classification may be said to sum up convenientlythe various conditions with which we have beendealing. It indicates the lines on which the treatment ofsexual disturbances in the nervous and psychic sphere, andstill more the hygiene of the sexual life, most properlylie.However sound the individual's constitution may be,the inevitable difficulties of the sexual life, and its constantreadjustments to inner and outer changes in the conditions,involve difficulties of the kind we have dealt with.These difficulties are emphasized when there is an inheritedmorbid predisposition. The sexual impulseis aforce, to some extent an incalculable force, and thestruggle of the man to direct that force, when he and itare both constantly changing, and the conditions underwhich they move are also changing, is inevitably attendedwith peril,even when the impulseis normal or at allevents seeking to be normal.The conditions are still further complicated when theimpulse is abnormal, that is to say when it is not merelyundue in amount or passing into undue channels, butwhen it has definitely taken on an abnormal form, a formwhich may sometimes be congenital, in so far as the formsof the sexual impulse can ever be said to be congenital.It will have become fairly clear that while we set outwithout defining too precisely what we mean by "sex," orwhat Freud calls "libido," the term grows wider as weexamine it.Freud himself has been led to an ever wider[357]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXconception of "libido,'* and some of those psycho-analyststo an extreme inwho were at first his disciples even gominimizing what is ordinarily understood as the impulseof sex; similarly F. L. Wells would substitute "hedonic"for "erotic" and "auto-hedonic" for "auto-erotic." Thisenlargement of libido is (as Cyril Burt has pointed out)in accordance with the general tendency of psychology,which now seems to regard the innate tendencies we inheritfrom our animal ancestors as merely specific differentiationsof a single life-impulse. And McDougall, en^larging his earlier more rigid delimitation of instincts,is now almost inclined to unify them as part of "the greatpurpose which animates all living beings, whose end wecan only dimly conceive and vaguely describe as the perpetuationand increase of life."It is,in his muchindeed, interesting to note that Jung criticized enlargement of the connotation of "libido," beyondthe earlier Freudian exclusively sexual sense, wasreally returning to the original classical sense of "passionor desire in general." It thus comes into line withSchopenhauer's "Will" and Bergson's "dan vital," andBurt is able to define it as general conative energy proceedingfrom all the instincts.If we are to use the word "instinct," let it be added,it seems best to regard an instinct as more primitive andfundamental than emotion, and not, as has sometimesbeen done, to regard emotional qualities as a central partof instinct. Where "instincts" are concerned, we are perhapsjustified (with Garnett) in considering ourselves inthe presence of conational rather than emotional systems.The associated impulseis that of a fundamental conation.Freud once suggested (in 1918) that the instinctivefactor in lifemayform the nucleus of that subliminal[358]

CONCLUSIONportion of the psyche to which as the " Unconscious" he attachesso potent an influence. This would be a primitivekind of mental activity, overlaid by human reason, correspondingto the instinctive knowledge possessed by animals.Repression, says Freud, would be the return to thisinstinctive stage, and man would be paying for his ownnew acquisitions by a liability to neurosis.We are again brought tobalance of ex-that rhythmicpression and repression which is so dominant a featurein our civilized life, but is also to be seen in all animallife. As I have already pointed out, psycho-pathologists,in accordance with their own special experiences, aretoo often tempted to see here mainly a possibility ofneurotic disorder.Within the normal range, and in the sound organism,the play of expression and repression, it is essential tounderstand, is harmless and wholesome, even essential toariy developed form of life. To hold that the Unconsciousis always, or even often, in disharmony with the Consciousis a distortion of the facts. He is indeed an unfortunateperson whose Unconscious isalways out of harmony withhis Conscious. A verylittle consideration shows that, formost of us, it is not so. We have only to appeal to dreamswhich furnish the most familiar revelation of the Unconscious.It must be within the experience of most normalpeople that dreams perpetually bring back to us, with evena heightened beauty or tenderness, the facts and emotionsof our conscious wakinglife. Dreams are sometimes arevelation of concealed disharmonies. They are also themost brilliant proof we possess of unsuspected harmoniesbetween our conscious and unconscious lives. We are tooapt to be content with the superficial aspect of dreams, andfailto see their latent and more significant content.[359]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXBIBLIOGRAPHYE. J. KEMPF, The Autonomic Factors in Personality.McDoucALL, Psychology: the Study of Behaviour.C. BURT, Eugenics Review, Jan., 1918.FREUD, Collected Papers, Vol. Ill, "An Infantile Neurosis."C. G. JUNG, Psychology of the Unconscious.SublimationThe balance of expression and repression, howeverfairly maintained on the whole in a healthy organism,can seldom be achieved without difficulties, and in anunsound organism such difficulties are apt to be disastrous.A remedy commonly put forth is sublimation. It is usuallyoffered too easily and too cheaply. There has, indeed, oftenbeen a tendency to believe that the stresses of sex canreadily be put aside. For some persons they may, but, aswe know, for many, even with the best will in the world,it is not so. Neither muscular exertion nor mental distractionhere proves effective. The games in which schoolmastersseem to have faith do not arrest sexual activity,unless carried to an extreme and harmful degree. Atschool, it has been said, the best athletes are usually themost prominent rakes. We have, however, to form as clearan idea as possible of what it is we are seeking to do. If,as Garnett believes, we must distinguish between sex asan instinct and sex as an appetite (he considers that Freudaroused whentends to confuse them) the instinct is onlythe opportunity of sexual satisfaction ispresented, and itmay be possible to avoid such opportunity. But sex asan appetite, receiving its impulses not from without butfrom within, still remains. We are here concerned, asErnest Jones would put it, not so much with sex in thenarrow sense but with "the individual biological com-[36o]

CONCLUSIONponents of the instinct, i.e. with the various infantiletendencies that later on form the bases of erotic desire aswell as of many other (non-sexual) interests ... aspecific transference of energy from one given field ofinterest to another/' It is important, at the same time, toremember that it is not usually in early life that thisproblem arises. Matsumato pointed out that the fact thatthe interstitial cells of the testes pass into a resting stagesoon after birth, not to become active until after puberty,does not indicate the presence of strong sexual interestsin early life (though, it must be added, we do notpositively know all the sources of the sexual impulse),while in women such interests are frequently either latentor widely diffused, not to become acute sometimes untiltowards the age of thirty. Yet, sooner or later, we mayexpect this problem of sublimation to arise, and moreurgently in the best constituted natures.Plato said that love was a plant of heavenly growth.If we understand this to mean that a plant, havingitsroots in the earth, may put forth "heavenly" flowers, themetaphor has a real and demonstrable scientific truth.It is a truth which the poets have always understood andtried to embody. Dante's Beatrice, the real Florentine girlwho becomes in imagination the poet's guide in Paradise,typically represents the process by which the attraction ofsex may be transformed into a stimulus to spiritual activities.The precise formulation of this doctrine has been tracedback not only to Plato but to the more scientific Aristotle.Lessing understood that philosopher's doctrine of katharsisas "a conversion of passion or emotion in general intovirtuous dispositions." But that seems scarcely correct, forit was simply the alleviation brought by emotional dischargesof pity or fear which Aristotle seems to have had

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXin mind, and, as Garnett rightly points out, the mere"draining off" o emotion is not sublimation.It is not until the coming of Christianity that the ideaof sublimation, even as a concrete image, begins to takedefinite shapes. It istraced back to an early Father of theEgyptian Desert, Abba Macarius the Great, sometimes regardedas "the first scientific mystic of Christendom"; andEvelyn Underbill in The Mystic Way expounds his psychologicalview of a gradual transformation in the substanceof the soul(which he did not regard as absolutelyimmaterial) into an ever less dense and more pure spiritualityunder the influence of the Divine Fire. "Likemetals," he said, "which, cast into the fire, lose their naturalhardness, and the longer they remain in the furnaceare more and more softened by the flame." The painfulfire becomes heavenly light, and for Macarius light andlife are identical. Here we have, as definitely as possible,our modern conception of sublimation. Macarius was thefriend of St. Basil, who was in the main stream of Christiantradition, and this idea constantly recurs in the laterChristian mystics and is the foundation of St. Catharineof Genoa's doctrine of Purgatory the fire of purgatoryburning away the rust of sin.Later it appears, apart from any religious doctrine,under the definite name of "sublimation," in the poetsand still later in the moralists. To sublimate is to bringa substance by heat from what we usually regard as itsgrosser,more "material" and sordid form, to a state ofvapor which we usually regard as more exalted and refined.The poets seized on this process as symbolizing whattakes place in the human spirit,and they frequently usedthe idea in the early seventeenth century. Thus Davies inhis "Immortality of the Soul" sang of turning "Bodiesto spirits by sublimation strange." Prose writers, religious[36*]

CONCLUSIONand other, seized on the conception. Jeremy Taylor spokeof "sublimating marriage into a sacrament* ';Shaftesbury,in 171 1, of the original plain principles of humanity being"by a sort of spiritual chemistry sublimated" to higherforms, and still later, in 1816, Peacock, reaching nearerto our use of the idea, referred to"that enthusiastic sublimationwhich is the source of greatness and energy."Schopenhauer subsequently attached importance to theconception.In the field of sexual psychology, "sublimation" isunderstoodto imply that the physical sexual impulse, orlibido in the narrow sense, can be so transformed intosome impulse of higher psychic activity that it ceases to beurgent as a physical need. The conception is now widelycurrent in popular psychology. Those who adopt it, however,do not always seem to realize that this process of"sublimation" is even in its original imagery a processinvolving much expenditure of force, and in itsmetaphoricaland spiritual form far easier to talk about than toachieve. That itstands for a real psychic transformationof physical impulses, by which the grosser physical desiresare lifted on to a plane where their keenness is lost in thegratification of desires which correspond tothe physicalbut are more, as we say, "spiritual" in nature, may beaccepted. But that transformation, though possible, isnoteasy nor of swift attainment, and perhaps only possible atall for those natures which are of finer than averagenervous texture. Thus, Hirschfeld, who prefers to Speakof "sexual equivalents,"is cautious in admitting sublimation,and denies that the sexually abstinent yield intellectualproducts in art or science superior to those yieldedin men ofby persons not sexually abstinent. It is onlyreligion, and in those engaged in strenuous motor activ-that Hirschfeld would clearly admit sublimation.ities,[363]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXFreud, however, recognizes sublimation, and is evenprepared to assert that civilization itself may be regardedas a kind of sublimation of instinctive forces which includethe sexual. He points out that the sexual impulses areexceptionally, as he would say, "plastic"; that they can bemoulded into different shapes and even directed towardsdifferent objects.He remarks that artists are often, it isprobable, endowed with a specially powerful capacity forsublimation.Psycho-analysts in recent years have been concerned toexplain and define "sublimation" in very precise ways, aswell as to distinguish it from other processes with whichitmight be confused. Edward Glover has, for example,discussed this matter in a lengthy and elaborate manner.His treatment of the question will chiefly appeal to thosewho are interested in "metapsychology" (which mayroughly be described as the metaphysics of psychology) ,but his main conclusion is that, though the conception ofsublimation is still surrounded by some confusion, andwe cannot attempt any binding formulations, it is legitimateto make use of the term.For ordinary practical purposes, no doubt, we may remainin ignorance of the nature of the exact change inwhen sublimation occurs. It hasenergy which takes placeto be recognized that the process is largely below the levelof consciousness, and that, however readily the will goeswith it, the will cannot suffice to accomplish it. Also, it isobviously necessarynot to confuse sublimation with asimple displacement of unchanged sexual activity intoanother channel, or with the substitution of a morbidsymptom. It is involved in the whole conception of sublimationthat the change is into a form more precious; ahigher cultural level is necessarily involved. The victimof kleptolagnia who displaces sexual activity into theft hasF364]

CONCLUSIONnot achieved sublimation. It would not be necessary tostate this if tne notion had not been foolishly put forward.By some psycho-analysts, carrying on the suggestion ofFreud that all civilization may be regarded as a sublimationof libido, the idea has been pushed to extremelengths. Thus, the Swiss school of analysts (notably asonce represented by Maeder) have emphasized sublimationas helping to constitute a kind of psycho-synthesis,and even a kind of religion, the soul being led, as Dantewas in his great poem, through Hell and Purgatory toParadise, the physician as guide playing the part of Virgil.The Italian psycho-therapeutist Assagioli more temperatelyattaches high value to sublimation when there isa contrast and conflict between excessive sexual energyand the obstacles to its normal gratification. He does notdesire to explain all the highest psychic faculties as simplythe product of the more elementary impulses, and, puttingaside the efforts of direct psycho-analytic treatment, heattaches importance to auto-sublimation. He does not regardit as less real because we cannot register it on arevolving cylinder and show a graphic curve, and herightly points out that to gain the benefits of sublimationit is necessary to put aside the notion that sex is bestialand shameful, and "repression" therefore required. Thesexual excitation may be intense but it may at the sametime be linked on to higher emotional and spiritual activities,and especially, he holds, by a complete change ofoccupation, to some creative work, for artistic creation isdeeply but obscurely related to the process of sexual sublimation.(Hirschfeld has referred to genus and genius ashaving the same root.) Assagioli invokes Wagner's Tristanas a marvelous example of sublimation since it was clearlyfilled with the fire and passion of itscomposer's ungratifiedlove for Mathilde Wesendonck.[365]

PSYCHOLOGY OF SEXAssagioli's advice may help to bring home to us the limitsof sublimation. According to the second law of thermodynamics,"no machine converts nor can convert intowork all the heat received; only a small part of this heatis transformed into work; the rest is expelled in the formof degraded heat." When we deal with sublimation weare treating the organism dynamically, and we must beprepared to accept and allow for a certain amount ofsexual energy "expelled in the form of degraded heat/*whatever the form may be. Even Dante had a wife andfamily when he wrote the Divine Comedy.As Freud truly says in his Introductory Lectures: "Themeasure of unsatisfied Libido that the average humanbeing can take upon himself is limited. The plasticity andfree mobility of the Libido is not by any means retainedto the full in all of us; and sublimation can never dischargemore than a certain proportion of Libido, apartfrom the fact that many people possess the capacity forsublimation only in a slight degree." So that, on the onehand, the possibility of sublimation, its value, and itsfarreachingsignificance must always be held in mind, on theother hand it must also always be remembered that, evenin the process of sublimation, a portion of the sexual impulsewill be left, either to be dispersed in wholesome butmore primitive ways or else to seek a channel in neurotictransformations.BIBLIOGRAPHYFREUD, Introductory Lectures.ERNEST JONES, Papers on Psycho-Analysis.S. HERBERT, The Unconscious in Life and Art.A. C. GARNETT, The Mind in Action.EDMUND GLOVER, "Sublimation, Substitution and SocialAnxiety," International Journal of Psycho-Analysis,July, 1931,[366]

GLOSSARYAlgolagnia. The association of sexual pleasure withpain, whether given or received.Anhedonia. A term devised by Ziehen for sexual frigidity.Auto-erotism. The spontaneous manifestations of thesexual impulse not directed towards a sexual object(or, as frequently understood by psycho-analysts, directedtowards the subject himself).Auto-hedonia. See Auto-erotism.Chalone. A hormone with an inhibitory action.Chromosomes. The rod-like filaments into which thechromatin of the nucleus of the reproductive cell breaksup in the course of development.Coitus interruptus. Sexual intercourse brought to anend by withdrawal when emission is about to occur.Coitus reservatus. Sexual intercourse prolonged by controlover the act of seminal emission, which may takeplace after withdrawal or not at all.Contrectation. The term devised by Moll for the preliminaryapproaches of courtship needed to producetumescence.Coprolagnia. Also Coprophilia. The association of sexualpleasure with defecation or with the faeces.Cunnilinctus. Also but incorrectly Cunnilingus. Theapposition of the mouth to the female genital organs.Detumescence. The stage of sexual excitement, followingtumescence, during which the orgasm occurs.Endrocrinology. The science of the endocrines or hormones,products of the various ductless glands whichinfluence the whole organism.Enuresis. Bed-wetting, now frequently regardedas havinga sexual association.Eonism* The impulse to assume the dress, habits, andways of feeling of the opposite sex.[367]

GLOSSARYErogenic or Erotogenic zones. Regions of the bodywhich, habitually or occasionally, prove sexually excitable.Erotic symbolism. A deviation by which some object oridea normally on the verge or outside of the sexualprocess becomes its chief focus.Exhibitionism. The impulse to expose a part of thebody, especially the genital region, with some consciousor unconscious sexual motive.Fellatio. Apposition of the mouth to the male genitalorgans.Fetich. Some object to which a special sexually excitinginfluence is attached.Frottage. Sexual pleasure derived from rubbing againstsome part of the body of another person.Gamete. The reproductivecell.Gonad. The relatively undifferentiated reproductivecell.Heterosexual. The normal sexual attachment to a personof opposite sex.Homogenic. A substitute for the term Homosexual proposedby Edward Carpenter.Homosexual. The general term for sexual attraction toa person of the same sex.Hormones. The internal secretions of the ductlessglands which act as "chemical messengers."Hyphedonia. A little-used term for relative sexual frigidity.Karezza. See Coitus reservatus.Kleptolagnia. The association of sexual excitement withthe act of theft.Libido. The term selected by Freud to indicate the energyof the sexual impulse manifesting itself in variousforms, and subsequently used by some authors to covervital energy in general without special reference to thesexual impulse.Masochism. Sexual pleasure experienced in being hurt,humiliated, or dominated.Metatropism. A term proposed by Hirschfeld for a re-[368]

GLOSSARYversed sexual attitude, a man assuming that of awoman, or a woman that of a man.Mixoscopia. Sexual pleasure experienced in prying atsights of a sexual nature, sometimes termed voyeurism.Mixoscopic zoophilia. Sexual pleasure in the spectacleof animals copulating.Narcissism. Auto-erotic self-admiration, regarded eitheras a phase of sexual development or (in an extremeform) as a sexual deviation.Necrophilia. The sexual attraction of corpses; vampirism.Oedipus complex. Early attachment to the mother accompaniedby jealous hostility to the father, whichFreud originally regarded as a general psychic phenomenonwith far-reaching significance.Osphresiolagnia. Or Ozolagnia. Sexual pleasure arousedby body odors.Paedicatio. Sodomy, sexual connection by the anus,whether active or passive.Paidophilia. Or Paiderastia. Sexual attraction to theyoung, not necessarily associated with physical relationship.Pyrolagnia, Or Erotic pyromania. Sexual pleasure arousedby conflagrations.Sadism. Sexual pleasure experienced in hurting, humiliating,or subjugating the object of sexual attraction.Scatologic. Referring to the excretions.Scoptolagnia. An alternative and perhaps preferableterm for Mixoscopia.Stuff-fetichisms. Sexual fetiches constituted by variousfabrics, such as silk, velvet, etc.Tribadism. The ancient term for female sexual inversionwhich was believed to involve an attempt at physicalintercourse.Transvestism.Hirschfeld's term for Eonism, which reallyinvolves more than cross-dressing.Tumescence. The preliminary stage of orgasm involvingengorgement of vessels, and leading on to detumescence.Undinism. Sexual pleasure associated with water andspecially apt to be connected with the act of urination.Uranism. The term for homosexuality devised by Ulrichs.[369]

GLOSSARYUrolagnia. Sexual pleasure associated with urination.Venus obversa. The normal face-to-face posture in sexualintercourse.Zooerastia. The desire for real or simulated intercoursewith animals.Zygote. The fertilized egg.[370-*

INDEXAbortion, 290.Abraham, K., 208.Abstinence, 256 et seq.f 313.Adler, Otto, 34, 310.Adoption, child, 300.Adrenals, II, 12.jEschylus, 326.Alcman, 326.Algolagnia, 89, 198 et seq.Alopecia areat a, 45.Anal erotism, 82, 163.Anti-sexual instinct, 56.Apes, courtship among, 60.Aristotle, 361.Arrhenius, 34.Art & Sex, in, 365.Art of love, 323 et seq.Assagioli, 365.Associational therapy, 247.Auto-erotism, 107, 340,Autonomic system, 354.Bacon, 220.Balzac, 334.Barry, James, 243,Basil, St., 362.Beam, L., 269, 270.Beard, the, 70.Beauty, origin of the idea of,Bell, Blair, 10.Bell, Sanford, 87Bergson, 84, 358.Berkhan, 126.Bestiality, 179.Binet, 54> *65*Binswanger, L., 170*64.[371]Birds, courtship among, 31, 38,60, 6 5.Birth control, see Contraception.Bloch, L, 57, 224.Blonsky, 283.Bohn, 1 6.Bonnet, C., 49.Breasts, the, 48, 69.Breeding season, 32.Brill, 75-Brinton, 114, 326.Brown, Langdon, 11.Bryan, Douglas, 190, 332.Biicher, 58.Burgdorfer, 269.Burt, C, 358.Burton, Robert, 203 r266.Cabanis, 49.Campbell, Harry, 35.Carlyle, 355.Carpenter, Edward, 223, 243, 253.Castration-complex, 97.Catharine of Genoa, St., 362.Cathartic process, 6,Cervantes, 204.Chambard, 29.Charcot, 29, 174.Chastity, 313 et seq.Chevalier, 229.Child Guidance Clinics, 4, 141.Childhood, sex in, 82 et seq.Choisy, Abbe de, 243.Christian, M., 127, 269, 323.Chromosomes, 8, 225.Clarke, Pearce, 42.

INDEXClement of Alexandria, 2.Durckheim, 32.Dukes, 123.35i, 354, 357, 358, 359, 360,Dummer, Mrs. W. F. 141. 366.Climateric, male, 320 et seq. Dyspareunia, 342.Clitoris, 19, 44, 90, 34&Coitus, 21 et seq. t 349.East, Norwood, 186, 187, 188,Coitus interruptuSj I2O, 288.194, 195-Coitus reservatus, 289.Edinger, 50.Congreve, 204.Education, 89, 136 et seq.Constitutionology, 142.Ekler, R., 296.Contraception, 26, 285 et seq. Elephants, courtship of, 41.Contrectation, 17.Emminghaus, 126.Coprolagnia, 162.Enuresis, 164.Courtship, 18, 30 et seq, 40, 203,346.Eonism, 242.Epaulard, 209.Crawley, 94, 95, 3*5, 328.Epilation, 71.Crew, 9.Epilepsy, 187, 188,Cruelty, 202, 205.Erb, 128.Cullerre, 201.Erection, 19, 20.Cullis, W., 161.Ergophily, 77.Cunnilinctus, 48, 231, 349, 350. Erogenic zones, 29, 46.Curschmann, 128.Eulenburg, 113.Cushing, Harvey, 12.Euripides, 326.Evans, 9, 12.Dancing, 75.Dante, 361, 366.Exhibitionism, 185 et seq.Exogamy, 94.Darwin, 38, 60, 105.Davies, 362.Fellatio, 48, 231, 349 350-Davis, K. B., 35, 83, 100, 123, Fenichel, 244.130, 139, 156, 221, 260, 270, Fere, 29, 45, 53, 59, 60, 62, 77,275, 339, 341, 343-223.Day-dreaming, 108 et seq.Fetichism, 149 et seq., 165 et seq.Depouy, 183.Fielding, W. J., 319,Dessoir, Max, 234.FitzGibbon, 318.Detumescence, 17 et seq.Flagellation, 191.Dickens, 268.Dickinson, 107, 147, 156, 269, 270,Flaubert, 313.Fonssagrives, 83.275, 277, 304, 309, 339* 342, Foot-tickler, official, 44.348.Fox, Munro, 33, 34.Distillatio, 22Freud, 6, 7, 84, 85, 86, 91, 92, 96,Dittler, 296.97, 108, in, 112, 119, 135, 153,Divorce, 299.161, 162, 164, 185, 199, 206,Dogiel, 59.214, 234, 247, 253, 258, 259,Dreams, 99, 112 et seq., 186, 359. 262, 263, 273, 305, 324, 333,

Frigidity, 301, 332.Frottage, 43.Fiirbringer, 128, 331.Fuller, 174.Fur-fetichism, 178.Gaedefccn, 32.Gametes, 8.Garbini, 56.Garnett, 358, 360, 362.Gamier, 171, 172, 192, 194, 208.Gates, Ruggles, 145.Gibson, Boyce, 330.Gide, Andre, 253.Gilles de la Tourette, 118.Glover, E., 364.Goldsmith, E., 159.Goncourts, the, 62.Gourmont, Remy de, 212.Greek erotism, 104, 326.Griesinger, 126.Groos, 56*Gualino, 115.Guttceit, 127.Guyot, 331.Gynecomasty, 231.Hair despoilers, 177.Hair-fetichism, 177.Hair-pins in bladder, 122.Hall, Stanley, 116, 169, 178, I94Hamilton, G. V., 35, 83, 84, 87,90, 100, ill, 114, n8, 139, 156,162, 163, 219, 221, 276, 303,309, 3io, 334, 350.Hammond, 114, 123, 127, 308.Hart, 269.Haycraft, 32.Healy, 75, H^ 185.Heape, 2, 34, 94-Hearing, 58 et seq.Helmholtz, 62.Herodotus, 39.Herrick, 44.INDEX[373]Heterogamy, 286.Heymans, 39,Heyninx, 51.Hinton, James, 280, 354.Hippocrates, 253.Hirschfeld, 31, 74, 167, 169, 189,191, 192, 197, 200, 212, 220,222, 229, 231, 238, 363, 365.Hofstatter, 319.Homogamy, 286.Homosexuality, 218 et seq.Hormones, 10, 13, 227.Horney, Karin, 266, 274.Howard, Eliot, 38, 40.Hudson, W. H., 60.Huxley, Aldous, 345.Hymen. 20.Hypnotism, 246*Hysteria, 118.Hysterogenic zones, 30.Iconolagnia, 151.Impotence, 301 et seq.Incest, 93.Insemination, artificial, 301,Instinct, the definition of, 16,Inter-sexuality, 227.Introversion, 356.Inversion, sexual, 218 et seq.Ipsation, 120.Jager, 55.James, W., 56Janet, 204.Jealousy, 95.Jelliffe, 91, 153, 154, 166.Jones, Ernest, 85, 149, 360.Jung, 84, 356, 358.Kahlil, Gibran, 278.Kant, 324.Karezza, 289.Katkarsis, 361.Kempf, 354.

Keyserling, 278, 285.Kiernan, 54, 55, 126, 183, 239,244.Kisch, 347.Kiss, the, 47.Kleptolagnia, 43, 152, 183.Kleptomania, 183.Koch, 127.Kossmann, 35.Kraepelin, 127, 131, 132.Kraflt-Ebing, 34, 105, 127, 152,172, 173, 175, 176, 177, 178,198, 206, 207, 212, 222, 223,224, 229, 308, 320.Kretschmer, 142.Kurdinowski, 49.Lacassagne, 183, 199, 207.Larynx at puberty, 61.Lasegue, 186.Latini, 220.Learoyd, 108.Legrand du Saulle, 308.Leppmann, 150, 206, 211, 212.Lessing, 361.Letamendi, 229.Libido, 84, 357, 3^5-Loeser, 295.Lowenfeld, 114, 115, 116, 127,258, 262, 305.Lombroso, 106.Love as an art, 323 et seq.Love in children, 88.Love-bite, 204.Lucretius, 201.Luther, 113, 293.Macarius the Great, 362.Maeder, 187, 365.Magnan, 174.Malinowski, 93, 102.Mann, Thomas, 321.Mantegazza, 121.Maraichinage, 47.INDEX[374]Maranon, 223, 224, 245, 317, 321.Marc, 83.Marchand, 174.Marcinowski, 166.Marcuse, 321.Marie, A., 199.Marriage, 265 et seq.Marro, 56, 115, 127.Marshall, F. H. A., 2.Martin, L., 42.Masochism, 173, 198 et seq.Massenet, 62.Masturbation, 83, 97 et seq. f I2(,et seq., I59 230, 305, 34O.Matsumato, 361.Maudsley, 127.McDougall, 15, 558,Mead, M., 103.Meirowsky, 261.Mendel, K., 320.Mendelism, 4, 9.Menopause, 317 et seq.Menstruation, 34.Metatropism, 200.Michelangelo, 220.Millard, Killick, 297.Mixoscopia, 73, 151.Mixoscopic zoophilia, 175.Modesty, 35, 336.Moll, 16, 61, 100, 113, 116, 126,152, 163, 172, 179, 192, 198,206, 207, 222, 224, 229, 247,306.Monin, 53.Mons Venerls, 19.Mono-erotism, 282.Monogamic standard, 279, 338.Montaigne, 273, 279, 305.Morality, 5.,Muller, R,, 17, 61.Muret, 220.Muscle erotism, 75.Music, 58 et seq.Musk, 57.

Mylitta, 38.Mysticism, 362.Nacke, 116, 127, 134, 135, 190,224, 238, 259-Narcissism, 134.Necrophilia, 151, 209.Necro-sadism, 209.Nelson, J., 33.Neumann, 41.Nipples, the, 48.Nocturnal emissions, 113 et seq*Nose, the, 54.Noviciate for marriage, 271.Nudism, 36, 337-Obscenity, 166.QEdipus-complex, 91, 95 et seq.Olfactionism, 54.Onan, 120, 288.Oral erotism, 86.Osphresiolagnia, 150, 208.Ovid, 330.Ozolagny, 54.Paedication, 231.Paget, 346.Paidophilia, 150.Pain as a stimulant, 205.Palladius, 261.Para-sympathetic system, 1 1.Parathyroid, II.Pare, A., 331.Paris, G., 327.Parker, G. H., 52.Partridge, 109.Patrizi, 59.Patterson, 269.Peacock, 363.Pearson, 156.Peck, M., 221,Pelanda, 188.Penis, the, 85, 90, 97-Perez, 83.INDEX[375]Perfumes, 57.Periodicity in sex, 32.Perry-Coste, 33.Perversion, 2, 21, 46, 82, 101, 148153, 154, 214, 216, 350.Peyron, 169.Pfister, 88, 324-Phallicism, 67, 194.Physician, his place, 6, 351.Pick, 109.Picton, Werner, 222.Pieron, 16.Pineal, n.Pituitary, II, 12.Plato, 253, 361.Pollutio, 113.Poly-erotism, 282, 338.Polygamy, 281 et seq.Polymorph-perversity, 153.Poulton, 65.Precocity, 156, 171.Preferential mating, 37.Pregl, 296.Presbyophilia, 150.Problem children, 159.Prostitution, 334, 353.Pruritus, 44.Psychic coitus, 123.Puberty initiation, 142.Putnam, 186.Pygmalionism, 74, 151.Pyrolagnia, 183.Raffalovich, no, 223.Rank, 92, 96, 135, 136, 137, H*146.Rankin, 321.Reproduction, mechanism of, 8.Restif de la Bretonne, 94, 165173, 192.Ribbing, 114.Riedel, 199.Robie, 83, 99, 132, 133-Robinson, G. D., 295.

INDEXRobinson, Louis, 43.R5mer, Von, 33, 230.Rohleder, 114, 123, I35 295.Roman erotism, 104.Rousseau, 98, no, 189, 37> 3"-Russell, Bertrand, 330,Saboureau, 45.Sade, Marquis de, 199.Sadi-fetichism, 208.Sadism, 198 et seq.Saint-Paul, 17, 223.Samoans, 103.Sante de Sanctis, 118.Savage, Sir G., 238^Scatologic interests, 112.Schopenhauer, 356, 358, 363.Schrenck-Notzing, 246,Schiile, 127.Schwartz, O., 245.Scoptophilia, 73, 151.Sebaceous glands, 45.Seerly, 123.Selincourt, Hugh de, 159.Senility, sexual, 210.Sexual selection, 37.Shaftesbury, 363.Shakespeare, 350.Sharpey-Schafer, 13.Shields, 269.Simpson, 12.Skin erotism, 75.Smell, 50 et seq.Smith, Elliot, 50.Smith, Theodate, 109.Sodomy, 219.Sollier, 119.Soviet Russia, 283, 290, 315.Spencer, Herbert, 16, 60, 327.Sperber, 58.Spinoza, 44.Spitzka, 127.Stanhope, Lady Hester, 243.Steatopygia, 69,Stein, B., 44.Stekel, 184.Sterility, 347.Stendhal, 18, 76.Sterilization, 291.Stockham, Alice, 289.StufE-fetichism, 175.Sublimation, 360 et $eq.Suckling, 49.Suggestion, 6.Swezy, 9.Symbolism, 148 et seq.Symonds, J. A., 223.Sympathetic system, n.Tactile element in sex, 41 et'TarchanofF, 59.Taylor, Jeremy, 363.Tchlenoff, 114, 124.Thayer, A., 56.Theognis, 326.Thigh friction, 122.Thoinot, 192.Thomson, Arthur, 296.Thymus, n.Thyroid, n, 12.Ticklishness, 43.Touch, 41 et seq.Toulouse, 128.Tournade, 12.Transvestism, 242.Trobrianders, 102.Trousseau, 127.Tumescence, 17 ei seq,Uffelmann, 126.Ulrichs, 222, 229.Unconscious, the, 359.Underbill, Evelyn, 362.Undinism, 165.Uranism, 222,Urethral erotism, 164.Urolagnia, 87, 162*[376]

INDEXVaginal absorption, 295.Vaginismus, 333.Van de Velde, 59, 212, 297, 301,349-Vaschide, 56, 63.Venturi, 53, 105, 106.Venus obverse, 21.Virchow, 228.Virilism, 227.Vision, 63 et seq.Vogel, 126.Voyeurism, 73, 151.Vurpas, 63.Wagner, 62, 365.Waldstein, E., 296.Walker, K., 321.Wallace, A., 38-Warens, Madame de, 311.Wells, F. L., 358.West, 127.Westermarck, 93, 94.Westphal, 222.Whitman, Walt, 253.Wolbarst, 133, 214, 216, 217.Wundt, 58.Yellowlees, 127.Zondek-Aschheim test, 13, 57cZooerastia, 176.Zoophilia, 151, 175, 178.Zoth, 296.Zuckerman, 219.Zwaardemaker, 5I[377]