Higher Education and Employment: An International Comparative ...

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Higher Education and EmploymentStatistics on the level of unemployment in relation to the educationallevel of the citizens concerned are not available for most countries. The ILOpublishes statistics on unemployment by different categories of occupationfor the countries in which those figures are available. The two occupationalcategories defined as 'professional, technical and related workers' and'administrative, executive and managerial workers' consist mostly ofgraduates, that is, people who have successfully completed any third-leveleducation. The unemployment situation in these two categories thus refersmainly to graduates. According to the ILO, the number of unemployedpeople with previous employment experience in these two categories hasincreased in all the industrialized free-market countries and most of thedeveloping countries during the last decade. In the Federal Republic ofG'rmany, unemploy:nent figures for the professional category alone rosefrom 10,897 in E70 to 205,200 in 1982; in the United States for the samecategory they re se from 339,000 in 1970 to 579,000 in 1982; in India, for theprofessional and managerial categories combined, unemployment rosefrom 452,000 in 1954 to 846,000 in 1981; in Sri Lanka for the samecategories the figures rose from 93,228 in 1970 to 110,644 in 1977; inUrugvay for the same categories they rose from 600 in 1970 to 1,400 in1981.2Particularly striking is the faster growth rate in unemployment amonghigh-level professionals, both at the administrative and managerial leveland at the professional/technical and related level. The growth rate ofgeneral unemployment during the given periods was less than that ofgraduate unemployment in 25 out of the 31 countries where generalunemployment increased during the given periods. In addition to theindividual and social problems involved, unemployed graduates representan investment on which no return is being made.Definition of unemployment and underemploymentThe figures given above are based on the general definition used by theILO for unemployment, which is as follows:Persons in unemployment consist of all persons above a specifiedage who, on the specified day or for a specified week, were in thefollowing categories:(a)(b)workers available for employment whose contract of employmenthad been terminated or temporarily suspended and who werewithout a job and seeking work for pay or profit;persons who were available for work (except for minor illness)during the specified period and were seeking work for pay orprofit, who were never previously employed or whose most recent211
The situation, the project and the countries involvedstatus was other than that of employee (i.e. former employers,etc.), or who had been in retirement;(c) persons without a job and currently available for work who hadmade an angements to start a new job at a date subsequent to thespecified period;(d) persons on temporary or indefinite lay-off without pay.The following categorit s of persons are not considered to heunemployed:(a)(b)persons intending to establish their own business or farm, butwho had not yet arranged to do so, who were not seeking work forpay Or profit;former unpaid family workers not at work and not seeking workfoi pay or profit.This definition of unemployment shows only the tip of the iceberg,because it does not include the enormous amount of underemploymentwhich takes place in non-voluntary part-time work and the underutilizationof skills and capabilities on the job. The ILO therefore hascategorized two types of underemployment: 'visible underemployment'involving shorter than normal periods of work, and 'invisible underemployment'which applies to persons whose earnings are abnormally low, whosejobs do not permit full use of their capacities or skills, or who are employedit establishments or economic units where productivity is abnormally low.In most developing countries, underemployment of graduates is amore serious problem than their open unemployment. In the Philippines,where open graduate unemplcyment did not seem to exist during the lastfew years, one out of four employed persons was a non-voluntary part-timeworker. This is an example of visible underemployment.In Sr: Lanka. it is estimated that from 1,000 to 2,000 universitygraduates in arts-based disciplines work in the clerical service, whichrequire,: only second-level education. This is an example of invisibleunderemployment. In Bangladesh, according to a Planning Commissionestimate, out of 610,000 educated job-seekers employed (with secondaryeducation or higher qualifications), 189,000 were inappropriately placed,being unable to utilize their training.The industriai .;I:1 countries also suffer from underemployment. Accordingto one estimate, in the United States the under-utilization of collegegraduates ranges between a quarter and half of the graduate labour force.'In countries where graduates are guaranteed employment, there is noopen unemplo nient, but underemployment, particularly of the invisibletype, is a common phenomenon. This is to he found in most of the socialistcountries Underemployment in the form of inappropriate placement ofgraduates is also widespread in the African -ountrie.
Page 1 and 2: DOCUMENT RESUMEED 295 549 HE 021 48
Page 3 and 4: International Institute for Educati
Page 5 and 6: ContentsPrefaceAcknowledgements1 In
Page 7 and 8: esponsibility of the higher-educati
Page 9: 1 Introduction: The Situation, the
Page 13 and 14: 7 he situation, the project and the
Page 15 and 16: The, situation, the project and the
Page 17 and 18: The situation, the project and the
Page 23 and 24: The situation, the project and tne
Page 25 and 26: The methodology used4 What are the
Page 27 and 28: The methodology usedareas listed ab
Page 29 and 30: The methodology used(c)(d)(e)given
Page 31 and 32: The methodology usedand the partici
Page 33 and 34: The methodology usedFrom this cross
Page 35 and 36: The methodology usedsampled; they w
Page 37 and 38: The methodology usedIlocos and Caga
Page 39 and 40: The methodology usedstudents who di
Page 41 and 42: 3 The Demand for Higher EducationIn
Page 43 and 44: The demand for higher educationtial
Page 45 and 46: Table 2. First-year students and gr
Page 47 and 48: The demand for higher educationmoti
Page 49 and 50: The demand for higher educationacco
Page 51 and 52: The demand for higher educationTabl
Page 53 and 54: The demand for higher educationTabl
Page 55 and 56: By guardian'sincomeLess than kS 250
Page 57 and 58: The demand for higher educationengi
Page 59 and 60: Table 10:Desirability coefficient'
Page 61 and 62:
The demand for higher educationNote
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Organization and access to higher e
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5 The Quantitative Development ofHi
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The quantitative development of hig
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7.0Growth rate (%) 1970-1975 11.719
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Oceania 1950 108.7 9.9 14.0 5.6 281
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Table 7:Enrolment in third level (i
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Tlte (mown; ire dereIopment of high
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The operation of the higher educati
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The operation cf the higher educati
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The operation of the higher (qualif
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7 Transition from the World ofHighe
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Transition from the world of higher
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Transition from Me world of higher
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Table 9:Percentage of graduates in
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Transition from (1w world of higher
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The world of workIn another survey
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The world of workTable 2:Indone.sta
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The world of workgreat, although wo
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The world of workTable 6.Average sc
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The world of workTable 8. Order of
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The world of workGermany. In fact,
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The world of workreason for changin
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The world of workTable 10:Reasonsfo
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The world of workThe industry in wh
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Table 1.3. Percentage distribution
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The world of workimportance is the
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The world of workper cent considere
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The world of workTable 19:Assessmen
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The world of workTable 21: Distribu
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The world of workTable 24:Necessity
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The world of workcombination of job
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The world of workvery important for
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The world of worknot without its pr
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The world of workTable 35: Monthly
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The world of workparental income. H
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Conclusions: Implications for highe
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Conclu8.,,ns: Implications for high
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APPENDIX IStatistical profile of co
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APPENDIX IITables of variablesTable
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Table I:Lid of variables and types
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Table 1:List of variables and types
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Table 1:List of variables and typ6.
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AppendicesTable 4.Summary /1st of c
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AppendicesTable 6:Quasi-causal conc
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AppendicesTable 7:Quasi-causal conc
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AppendicesTable 8.Quasi-causal conc
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AppendicesTable 8.Quasi-causal conc
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Appendices.Humanistic professional
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Appendices33. What is the highest l
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AppendicesHelpful to others andsoci
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AppendicesInstitute of FinanceManag
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Appendices(b)personal talents 0In w
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Appendices30. (a) Indicate your gua
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AppendicesMarital statusOthers (spe
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AppendicesTime for familyand hobbie
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AppendicesA30A31A32A33Cooks, domest
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