Higher Education and Employment: An International Comparative ...

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Higher Education and EmploymentTable 3:Reasons for pursuit of higher education (percentage of respondents)Career Study for its Scholarship!Country prospects own sake grants Others TotalIndia (W. Bengal) 63 21 11 5 100Egypt (1) 2.1 2.0 1.4 1.2 -!ndonesia (2) 72 8 0 4 19.6 100Philippines 8e, - - - -Zambia 85 9 1 5 100Tanzania 95 4 1 100PDR Yemen (2) 69 9 - 22 100Sudan (2) 70 23 - 7 100(3) 1671 119] (111 (31 (100JBotswana (4) 95 5 - 100Sri Lanka 56.5 - - - -(I) The value is the rank order on a three-point scale. I denoting unimportant, 3denoting very important.(2) Preference for urban life has been included. The figures for Indonesia, PDRYemen, and Sudan were respectively 13.2, 17.6 and 3.3.(3) The figures in parentheses relate to graduate survey.(4) Relate to graduate survey.- Not available.Source: IIEP case studies.females are at least as career-oriented as males. In Zambia males are morecareer-oriented than females (72 per cent as against 26 per cent) but inTanzania female students gave employment-related factors greater importancethan male students. Here too the higher the income of the guardian,the greater the importance of employment-related factors.Third group of countries For the countries with the least favourablerelationship between higher education and employment, namely, Bangladesh,Benin, Botswana, Mali, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Sudan, the determinantfor higher education demand is also career possibilities. For example,in Botswana 95 per cent of the graduates indicated that they pursuedhigher education because they wanted a specific professional qualificationor better employment opportunities. In Sri Lanka the same reasons werecite' 56.5 per cent of students5 and in the Sudan the correspondingfigure was 70 per cent. Male students (72 per cent) and wards ofgovernment employees (73 per cent) in the Sudan give more importance toemployment-related factors in the pursuit of higher education. Anotherstrik. 4 feature in the Sudan is that the highe, the income of the guardian,the less motivation there is to study for career reasons. In Sri Lanka malestudents also attach more importance to employment-related factors.From the above it can be seen that in all the countries of our sample,career and employment opportunities came out as the dominant factors in38A paycif' i
The demand for higher educationmotivating individuals for higher education. Monetary rewards derivedfrom employment vary between market and non-market economies, butemployment remains an important facto in non-market economies as adeterminant of demand for higher e-lacation, because it provides socioprofessionalstatus. In the market economies monetary rewards receivedthrough employment become the motivating factor.The above findings also show that although socio-economic characteristics influence the demand for higher education, this does not follow thesame pattern in all the countries.Under certain circumstances, monetar, incentives available duringhigher education also generate demand for higher education. Developingcountries often used this as a way to attract students, particularly in theareas where high-level manpower was needed by the economy. Also, toprovide equality of opportunities in higher education, many countries haveused monetary incentives, in the form of bursaries or grants. Thus one ofthe reasons for increased demand in higher education is that the opportunitycost is very little in many developing countries because of scholarshipincentives, which make the private rate of return very high. We shalldiscuss below the importance individuals attach to bursary incentives as afactor for generating demand for higher education. Identification of thedegree of this importance may help decision-makers to check on theusefulness of the scholarship system in attracting students to the fieldsnecessary for the development of the economy.Scholarship or grants availabilityIn the non-market economies like the USSR and Poland scholarships playan important role in attracting individuals to higher education. Between 85and 90 per cent of the students 1ave scholarships and those few who studyat their own expense come from high-status families. The amount of the.scholarship varies according to the academic performance of the students.Those who have higher academic scores receive 25 per cent more than theordinary scholarship. For exceptional students the scholarship is still higher.In these economies the State uses scholarships as instruments for influencingthe demand for higher education. In narket economies like the FederalRepublic of Germany, scholarships also influence this demand. Durir,; thelate 1970s scholarships were not increased to keep up with the rising livingcosts, and it is believed that this presented a financial problem whichdisc mraged some prospective students.' In France scholarships for universityeducation are awarded only to economically underprivileged stndents.Behind this system is the objective of democratization of education.In most of the developing countries, higher education is almost free..4839
Page 1 and 2: DOCUMENT RESUMEED 295 549 HE 021 48
Page 3 and 4: International Institute for Educati
Page 5 and 6: ContentsPrefaceAcknowledgements1 In
Page 7 and 8: esponsibility of the higher-educati
Page 9 and 10: 1 Introduction: The Situation, the
Page 11 and 12: The situation, the project and the
Page 13 and 14: 7 he situation, the project and the
Page 15 and 16: The, situation, the project and the
Page 23 and 24: The situation, the project and tne
Page 25 and 26: The methodology used4 What are the
Page 27 and 28: The methodology usedareas listed ab
Page 29 and 30: The methodology used(c)(d)(e)given
Page 31 and 32: The methodology usedand the partici
Page 33 and 34: The methodology usedFrom this cross
Page 35 and 36: The methodology usedsampled; they w
Page 37 and 38: The methodology usedIlocos and Caga
Page 39 and 40: The methodology usedstudents who di
Page 41 and 42: 3 The Demand for Higher EducationIn
Page 43 and 44: The demand for higher educationtial
Page 45: Table 2. First-year students and gr
Page 49 and 50: The demand for higher educationacco
Page 51 and 52: The demand for higher educationTabl
Page 53 and 54: The demand for higher educationTabl
Page 55 and 56: By guardian'sincomeLess than kS 250
Page 57 and 58: The demand for higher educationengi
Page 59 and 60: Table 10:Desirability coefficient'
Page 61 and 62: The demand for higher educationNote
Page 63 and 64: Organization and access to higher e
Page 83 and 84: 5 The Quantitative Development ofHi
Page 85 and 86: The quantitative development of hig
Page 91 and 92: 7.0Growth rate (%) 1970-1975 11.719
Page 93 and 94: Oceania 1950 108.7 9.9 14.0 5.6 281
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Table 7:Enrolment in third level (i
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The quantitative development of hig
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Tlte (mown; ire dereIopment of high
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The operation of the higher educati
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The operation cf the higher educati
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The operation of the higher (qualif
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7 Transition from the World ofHighe
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Transition from the world of higher
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Transition from Me world of higher
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Table 9:Percentage of graduates in
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Transition from (1w world of higher
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The world of workIn another survey
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The world of workTable 2:Indone.sta
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The world of workgreat, although wo
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The world of workTable 6.Average sc
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The world of workTable 8. Order of
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The world of workGermany. In fact,
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The world of workreason for changin
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The world of workTable 10:Reasonsfo
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The world of workThe industry in wh
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Table 1.3. Percentage distribution
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The world of workimportance is the
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The world of workper cent considere
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The world of workTable 19:Assessmen
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The world of workTable 21: Distribu
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The world of workTable 24:Necessity
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The world of workcombination of job
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The world of workvery important for
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The world of worknot without its pr
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The world of workTable 35: Monthly
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The world of workparental income. H
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Conclusions: Implications for highe
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Conclu8.,,ns: Implications for high
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APPENDIX IStatistical profile of co
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APPENDIX IITables of variablesTable
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Table I:Lid of variables and types
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Table 1:List of variables and types
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Table 1:List of variables and typ6.
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AppendicesTable 4.Summary /1st of c
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AppendicesTable 6:Quasi-causal conc
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AppendicesTable 7:Quasi-causal conc
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AppendicesTable 8.Quasi-causal conc
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AppendicesTable 8.Quasi-causal conc
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Appendices.Humanistic professional
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Appendices33. What is the highest l
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AppendicesHelpful to others andsoci
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AppendicesInstitute of FinanceManag
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Appendices(b)personal talents 0In w
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Appendices30. (a) Indicate your gua
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AppendicesMarital statusOthers (spe
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AppendicesTime for familyand hobbie
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AppendicesA30A31A32A33Cooks, domest
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