Official Brochure - Qatar Museums Authority

H.E. SHEIKHA AL MAYASSABINT HAMAD BIN KHALIFAAL THANICHAIRPERSON OF QATARMUSEUMS AUTHORITYThis summer, the city of Londonwill be hosting the Olympic Gamesfor the third time since 1908.The best athletes in the entireworld will take part in the largestorganised sports festival. The Stateof Qatar has been participating inthe Olympics since 1976 and willbe sending their national team ofmale and, for the first time, femaleathletes to compete in severaldisciplines.Billions of people will be watchingthese events unfold on television;millions of fans will descend onLondon to be part of the Olympicexperience.From the late 19th century theOlympic movement and thedevelopment of film andA MESSAGE FROMTHE CHAIRPERSONphotographic media have hada long relationship. But it wasnot until the advent of televisionbroadcasting that the OlympicGames flourished with the globalpopularity it deserved.Aided by new technologies includingcolour and satellite broadcasting,post-war television audiences havegrown larger and larger.It is because of this fascinatingstory starting with the first modernOlympics right up to this summer’sGames that the exhibition'Olympics through Media' wasconceived. It will be presentedusing audio-visual installationsand artifacts from the QMAcollections.The Qatar Olympic & SportsMuseum together with theQMA Media CollectionsDepartment organised, developedand researched this project and,in the process, uncovered anumber of long forgotten heroicstories of human achievementsand excellence in sport.Following the core elementsof QMA’s vision and educationalmission we are presenting thisexhibition as a celebration of theOlympic ideal and hope that itwill open a virtual gate for thevisitor to the Olympic Games fromits beginning in 1896 to the 2012London Olympics.4 5

FIRSTSPORTING FILMSMOTION STUDIESThe influence of sport throughsporting figures and personalitieswas aided from 1839 with theinvention of photography pioneeredby Louis Daguerre which heraldeda new age of technologicaldevelopments in photographicmedia. With the daguerreotypeprocess studio portraits of athletesin their sporting attire becamecommonplace.As major technologicaldevelopments continued into the1870s with improvements in optics,chemical processes and cameradesign, it was now possible tophotograph slow moving subjectswith a degree of clarity. The firstappearance of motion capturephotography came by way ofscience in 1878 with EadweardMuybridge, who had becomefamous for taking sequentialimages of a galloping horse,providing illustrative proof that allfour hooves were off the groundat the same time. Inspired byMuybridge, Etienne-Jules Mareyin 1883, and Ottomar Anschützin 1886, produced “a set ofphotographs of a moving objecttaken for the purpose of recordingand exhibiting successive phases ofmotion”. It was Marey who coinedthe phrase chronophotography.These sequences of photographsanalysed the distinctive movementsof men and animals, and oftenfeatured gymnasts and track andfield athletes performing speciallychoreographed sports movements.The nature of these pictures hada completely scientific purpose;all three inventors had medical,educational or military applicationsin mind for their motion studies.Marey would later record someof the visiting American athletesto the1900 Olympic Games sohe could compare their methodswith those of French athletes. Oneinventor who did take note of thesemotion studies was Thomas AlvaEdison, the famous inventor of theKinetoscope.Horse in MotionEadweard J. Muybridge, 1881These developments inphotography also coincided withimprovements in the paper printingprocess. By the mid-1890s it wasalso possible to reproduce qualityphotographic images in print. Inconsequence, this gave rise tophotographic media in print andthe widespread large circulation ofdaily newspapers. The increasedpublic awareness of world eventsthrough news media no doubtcontributed to the popularisationof major sporting events and inturn provided the tool for theirpromotion and helped garnerfinancial support.The Kinetoscopeinvented by ThomasAlva Edison in 1893Around 1894 important cinematicsporting triumphs were occurringin the United States of Americawith the first commercial exhibitionof the Kinetoscope, a film viewingmachine which was used to showthe first film of an actual sportingevent: a six-round boxing contestbetween Mike Leonard and JackCushing. In 1895 Birt Acres wouldshoot two sporting films, theEnglish Derby and the Oxford &Cambridge University Boat Racefor Robert Paul’s own version ofthe Kinetoscope. Grey and OtwayLatham screen the world’s firstfilm to a paying audience in NewYork, using their Eidoloscopeprojector. This film turns out againto be a boxing contest.8 9

1900PARIS,FRANCENATIONS: 24PARTICIPANTS: 1,600COMPETITIONS: 185SPORTS: 23IN THE NAME OF SCIENCEEven though no standard filmswere made of the Paris Games,fleeting cinematographic recordsdo exist. The “Institut Marey”,the scientific institute led byEtienne-Jules Marey, who haddeveloped the art and scienceof chronophotography, decidedto record some of the visitingAmerican athletes, to comparetheir jumping, hurdling and shotput techniques with those ofFrench athletes. The films wereonly a few frames long and eachlasted less than a second. Yetthey were enough to demonstratethe superiority of the Americantechniques over the correct militarybearing of the French athletes.The Olympic Games of 1900 in Paris were only a side-event of the WorldExposition held simultaneously. The poor organisation and lack of interestturned the Games into a meaningless sporting event, which lastedover three months from 14 May until 28 October. The press referred tothe events as “International Championships“, “World Championships”and rarely used the term “Olympic Games”. The term is also absentin the report about the competitions written by Daniel M Merillon,Commissioner General of Sports and Physical Education of theWorld Exposition.Maxwell “Maxey” Long of the USA, goldmedal winner in the 400 metres.© Popperfoto / Getty ImagesTHEINSIGNIFICANTGAMESRichard Sheldon Throw, 1900Etienne Jules Marey, 1830 - 1904QMA Media Collections14 15

1904ST. LOUIS,USANATIONS: 12PARTICIPANTS: 689COMPETITIONS: 91SPORTS: 17The marathon took place in dire conditions. The course included seven hillsand only one well for water. The road was extremely dusty and the weatherwas hot (32 degrees centigrade). Only 14 out of 32 athletes reached thefinish line. In the last quarter of the race, the American Thomas Hicks wasin the lead, but he felt so tired that he wanted to lie down. His staff did notlet him and administered small doses of strychnine, egg whites and brandyat various times to keep him going. He reached the finish line six minutesbefore his followers. A protest by Everett Brown that Hicks had receivedillegal support was denied. Unfortunately no films were taken of theGames as a visual recordSTRYCHNINE,EGG WHITESAND BRANDYThe starting line-up for the marathon with theAmerican Thomas Hicks wearing number 20.© Popperfoto / Getty Images16 17

1906ATHENS,GREECENATIONS: 20PARTICIPANTS: 903COMPETITIONS: 78SPORTS: 13The Intercalary Games of Athens 1906 did not occur during an officialOlympiad (ie. the four-yearly period that marks when the OlympicGames are held), but this intermediary contest, designed partly as anappeasement to the Greeks who were disappointed that the Games werenot being held permanently in Athens, was a relative success and didmuch to get the idea of the Olympics back on track. It also attracted thefilm companies. Gaumont and Pathé from France, the Warwick TradingCompany from Britain and Burton Holmes of America all made shortfilms of the Games but are a long way from feature-length documentaries.THE INTERCALARYGAMESDimitrios Tofalos of Greecewearing 872, gold medalist inthe two-handed lift. Athens 1906© Popperfoto / Getty Images18 19

1908LONDON,UNITED KINGDOMNATIONS: 22PARTICIPANTS: 2,035COMPETITIONS: 109SPORTS: 21In the marathon race, the Italian Dorando Pietri arrived first in thestadium, with only one 400-metre lap left to the finishing line. But Pietriwas exhausted, collapsing five times on this last lap. Carried by officials,he dragged himself the last few metres over the finishing line. The judgesdeclared him the winner, but his success did not last long. Second-placedAmerican Johnny Hayes successfully protested and Pietri was disqualifiedbecause of outside assistance. Nevertheless, Pietri was the darling of theGames and Queen Alexandra gave him a cup to honour his dedication.MARATHONMAN PIETRITHRILLON FILMThe Games were filmed by Pathé,in what seems to have been asemi-exclusive deal. The CharlesUrban Trading Company filmedevents outside the stadium,including the marathon, but withinthe stadium it was Pathé alone,an indication of arrangements tocome. Around ten minutes survive;basic coverage is given to thepole vault, high jump, tug of war,discus, water polo and women’sarchery. But what distinguishesthe 1908 coverage is the marathon.Around half of the extant filmof the Games is devoted to therace, concentrating on the ItalianDorando Pietri. For the first timeon film the public thrilled at thesight of Olympic endeavour.Dorando Pietri is helpedacross the finish line in the1908 marathon.20 © Getty Images21

1912STOCKHOLM,SWEDENNATIONS: 28PARTICIPANTS: 2,574(ONLY 48 WOMEN)COMPETITIONS: 102SPORTS: 14DRAMAResponsibility for filming theGames went to the AB Svensk-Amerikanska Film Kompaniet,which commissioned Pathéexclusively to film a series of shortnews films. For the first time, theathletes are named and thereis a sense of competition andachievement. The first of two reelscovers gymnastics, the Swedishjavelin thrower Eric Lemming -winner with the world’s first60-metre throw - fencing, shot putand the 10,000-metre walk. Thesecond reel features men’s doublestennis, the football tournament,Greco-Roman wrestling, hammerthrowing, the standing high jumpand the marathon. Filmed inengrossing detail, the drama ofthe marathon is built up well, thetension in the sporting endeavourpushing forward the form of thefilm attempting to encapsulateit. The race was won by KennethMcArthur of South Africa.25 DOLLARSThe Swedish King Gustav V named Jim Thorpe, winner of the pentathlon and the decathlon,“the greatest athlete the world has ever seen”. Six months later, it was revealed that Thorpe,an American of Native-American descent, had received 25 dollars a month when playing for abaseball team in 1909 and 1910. This violated the amateur rules of the Olympic Games and Thorpewas stripped of his Olympic success. According to the official rules the challenge to Thorpe’squalification as a competitor came too late, but this was disregarded. Only in 1982, 29 years afterThorpe’s death, did the International Olympic Committee (IOC) return his name to the record books.Jim Thorpe at theAmerican trials for the 1912Stockholm Olympics© Getty Images22 23

1928THE LAST OLYMPICS OF THESILENT FILM ERAAMSTERDAM,NETHERLANDSNATIONS: 46PARTICIPANTS: 2,883COMPETITIONS: 109SPORTS: 14The idea of dedicating a film tothe Games had been established,although the 1928 film “OlympischeSpelen” suffered from poorpopularity. Nevertheless, it was forthe first time a director with an ‘arthouse’ pedigree was chosen. Thedirector was the German WilhemPrager, who had enjoyed notablesuccess with his 1925 sportsdocumentary “Wege zu Kraft undSchönheit” (Ways to Strength andBeauty). Prager’s film is no morethan efficient, though it does havesome innovations such as havingthe names of athletes in somedistance races appear as captionsalongside them as they run. Slowmotion film techniques premieredin the 1928 Games.THE OLYMPICFLAMEThe Olympic stadium with themarathon tower and OlympicFlame during the OpeningCeremony. Amsterdam 1928© Popperfoto / Getty ImagesThe Games were by now thoroughly established as an event of worldwidesignificance. For the first time in the history of the Olympic Games, thedeeply symbolic Olympic Flame - a symbol of peace - was lit in 1928.The Olympic Flame in Amsterdam was ignited on a tower in a stadiumespecially designed by architect Jan Wils.Herman Brix, who won thesilver medal in the shot put inthe 1928 games, later becamea famous movie actor.28 © Getty Images29

1932LOS ANGELES,USANATIONS: 37PARTICIPANTS: 1,331COMPETITIONS: 16SPORTS: 14STARSTRUCKThe Coliseum Olympic stadiumastonished the whole world. Itsscale and quality were beyondanything that had come before,creating the first Games comingclose to present standards. Thecrowds were also unprecedented,with over 100,000 people attendingthe Opening Ceremony. The publicinterest for the Olympic Games wasscarce at first. Only after the filmstars Marlene Dietrich and CharlieChaplin agreed to perform in thestadium, the demand for ticketsincreased and the Games becamea box office success.TECHNICALINNOVATIONSIn 1932, Olympic films came with sound for the first time. Additionally,the stop-watch and photo finish were employed for the first time,which caused a stir: When officials found it impossible to determinethe winner of the 100-metre race by naked eye and stopwatch alone,newsreel film was analysed to determine that Eddie Tolan (USA) wasthe gold medal winner.The Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum in1932© Gamma-Keystone / Getty ImagesAmerican Eddie Tolan - middle -wins the 100 metres.© Gamma-Keystone / Getty Images30 31

1936BERLIN,GERMANYNATIONS: 49PARTICIPANTS: 4,066COMPETITIONS: 129SPORTS: 19THE JESSE OWENS SHOWThe 1936 Games were characterised by the fact that the ruling NationalSocialist Party successfully abused them as a propaganda platform toshine a positive light on the Nazi regime. For this purpose, all racistsymbols were removed from public areas. Nevertheless, the Germansuperiority was to be demonstrated, which was undermined by thesuccess of the African-American athlete Jesse Owens (winner of the100-metre, 200-metre, 4 x 100-metre relay and long jump). According toOwens’ account, he almost failed to qualify for the final in the long jump.Before his last attempt in the qualification round, the German long jumperLuz Long advised him to put a mark a few centimetres before the take-offpoint to avoid faulting the attempt. Owens qualified for the final, in whichhe won gold. Long finished second.Jesse Owens at the start of the100 metres final.© Roger Viollet / Getty ImagesFIRST TIME ON TELEVISIONThe 1936 Berlin Olympic Gameswere televised by two Germanfirms, Telefunken and Fernseh,using RCA and Farnsworthequipment. Although experimental,it marked the first live televisioncoverage of a sports event in worldhistory with a total of 138 viewinghours. Both systems were telecastusing three electronic camerascalled the Fernsehkanonen(television canon), which was 6 feetlong. The camera was developedby Walter Bruch and RudolphUrtel, incorporating an Americaniconiscope tube for a crude 180-line definition (as well as twentyfour movie cameras). Only oneof these three Fernsehkanonencameras could be used live andeven then only if the sunlight wasbright. Even so, 162,000 peoplewatched the competition in specialviewing booths, called “PublicTelevision Offices” in Berlin andPotsdam where projection setsFernsehkanonen (televisioncanon) electronic camera usedat the 1936 Berlin Olympics fortelecasting.were used to produce 10 x 8 foot(3.0m x 2.4m) images on a screen.In addition to the introduction oftelevision, Leni Riefenstahl wascommissioned by the GermanOlympic Committee to film theGames. Riefenstahl created thefamous film, “Olympia” which,thanks to the use of multiplecameras on one subject, hasshaped today’s world in thefilming of sports.Leni Riefenstahl, along withLothar Rübelt and Paul Wolff, wereassigned as official photographers.The Games broke new ground asthe most technically photographedsporting event in history withcameras mounted at every locationto capture every possible actionshot. Furthermore, the 1936Games received extensive radiocoverage, with a total of 2,500 radiobroadcasts made in 28 differentlanguages.32 33

1948LONDON,UNITED KINGDOMNATIONS: 59PARTICIPANTS: 4,106COMPETITIONS: 136SPORTS: 17THE FLYING DUTCHMAMDue to financial reasons, the post-war Games had to be kept simple andwere therefore called “Austerity Games”. Star of the Games was FannyBlankers-Koen. She won four gold medals over 100 metres, 200 metres,80 metres hurdles and the 4 x 100-metre relay. This is all the moreremarkable as the mother of two children practiced only four hours perweek at the time. The “Flying Dutchmam” is considered one of the mostsuccessful track and field athletes of all time. During her career, sheset 21 world records in six different disciplines. In 1991, the stadium inHengelo and the FBK-Games (Fanny Blankers-Koen Games) held thereinwere named after her. In 1999, the International Association of AthleticsFederations (IAAF) voted Blankers-Koen as field athlete of the century.Flying “Dutchmam” FannyBlankers-Coen in the 80-metrehurdles. London 1948OLYMPICS INTHE LIVING ROOMThe 1948 London Olympics werethe first to be shown on domestictelevision with a regular TV service.The British Broadcasting Company(BBC) had paid $3,000 for exclusivebroadcasting rights. It was claimedthat the number of receivers in theLondon area had increased from14,550 in 1946 to 66,000 by 1948.Receiving the broadcasts was onlypossible within a 50-mile radius ofLondon, although viewers in theChannel Islands reported excellenttransmission!Under blazing sunshine and thewatchful eyes of 82,000 stadiumspectators and the BBC’s new CPS(Cathode Potential Stabilisation)Emitron cameras, the 14th Olympiadopened at 2.45pm on Thursday29 July 1948. Peak events wereallowed to break into scheduledafternoon programming. The title ofthe daily programme was “OlympicSports-Reel 4”. A camera was usedoverlooking Olympic Way to catchpictures of the crowds as well asthe contestants.BBC television broke all recordsduring the Olympic Games in arguablythe greatest fortnight in its history.By the time the Games finishedon 14 August, the Corporation hadbroadcast 68 hours and 29 minutes -an average of almost five hours of livetelevision a day.34© Popperfoto / Getty Images35

1952HELSINKI,FINLANDNATIONS: 69PARTICIPANTS: 4,955COMPETITIONS: 149SPORTS: 17The Czech distance runner Emil Zátopek became a national hero at the1952 Olympic Summer Games in Helsinki because he won three goldmedals. He won the 10,000-metre race as the odds-on favourite. Inthe 5,000 metres, he passed three runners in front of him on the finalmetres and won the gold medal as well. Therefore, Zátopek decided toalso compete in the marathon. He had never before run a marathon in acompetition. Incredibly, he again finished first and even ran an Olympicrecord. He not only won three gold medals in the 1952 Games, butalso set the Olympic record in all three races. In all Olympic Games tofollow, no other athlete managed to repeat Zátopek’s success. For hisachievements he was nicknamed “Locomotive Zátopek”.“LOCOMOTIVEZÁTOPEK”Czech Emil Zátopek leads the fieldduring the 5,000-metre final.© AFP /Getty Images36 37

1956MELBOURNE, AUSTRALIASTOCKHOLM,SWEDENNATIONS: 72PARTICIPANTS: 3,314COMPETITIONS: 147SPORTS: 16INTERNATIONALBLACKOUTCompetitors in thedressage event at the 1956Equestrian Olympics© IOCBLOOD IN THE WATERThe USSR drew the world’s resentment in the 1956 Olympic Gamesbecause of the crushing of the Hungarian uprising a few weeks earlier.The water polo semi-final between Hungary and the USSR - also known asthe “Blood in the Water” match - quickly turned to an aggressive fight andthe referee stopped the game before completion. Because the spectatorswanted to attack the Soviet players as well, the police intervened to preventa riot. Switzerland, which accommodated 14,000 Hungarian refugees,boycotted the Games because of the participation of the USSR. However,the Swiss equestrian team still managed to win a bronze medal in dressagebecause the equestrian games took place in Stockholm five months priorto the Melbourne Games to avoid Australia’s strict quarantine laws foranimals. The Swiss boycott decision was taken after that.In a quarrel over television rightsno agreement could be reached sothat screens in the United Statesand Great Britain, among othercountries, remained blank. Initially,a deal was arranged that wouldallow international broadcastersto show three minutes ofhighlights each day. When itcame to negotiating details, thearrangement was called off. Inthe end, local television coveragewas available as GTV Channel 9and the Australian BroadcastingCommission (ABC) reported onthe Games. The 1956 MelbourneGames had been a driving forcebehind the introduction of televisionin Australia.38 39Water polo, 1956QOSM, Collection

1960ROME,ITALYNATIONS: 83PARTICIPANTS: 5,338COMPETITIONS: 150SPORTS: 17NO SHOESLIVE BROADCAST FEEDThe audience of the OlympicGames began its steady rise withthe 1960 Olympic Games in Rome.The Italian broadcaster RAI wasresponsible for the production with18 European countries receivingthe live broadcast feed and 21countries overall receiving the feedprovided by RAI.For the United States, Canada andJapan, a tape was flown out everyday, which meant the competitionscould be screened with just a fewhours delay. With only a coupleof weeks delay, images weretransferred onto film and sent toAsia, Australia and South America.At the 1960 Summer Games in Rome, the Ethiopian runner AbebeBikila made sports history. He was the first black African to win Olympicgold. He covered the marathon in 2:15:16, a new world record. In thisfirst marathon to be run at night, Bikila and his opponent Rhadi BenAbdesselem of Morocco ran side by side along the course lit by torchesuntil the Arch of Constantine, where Bikila pulled away from Rhadi withone mile to go. With a lead of 25 seconds he won the race. What surprisedeveryone was his foot attire: he ran barefoot.Ethiopian Abebe Bikilarunning the marathon inRome - without shoes.© Gamma-Keystone /Getty Images40 41

1964TOKYO,JAPANNATIONS: 93PARTICIPANTS: 5,151COMPETITIONS: 163SPORTS: 19IMAGES INORBITThe 1964 Summer Olympic Games in Tokyo were the first Games thatwere held in Asia. The flame carrier for the last section was runnerYoshinori Sakai. He was born on 6 August 1945 - the day on which theatomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima. He symbolised a post-warJapan at the dawn of a new era. There was also a tribute to all the victimsof this dark day in the history of the country which called for global peace,thus honouring the Olympic ideal.OLYMPICPEACEJapan’s Sakai Yoshinori on hisway to light the Olympic Flameduring the Opening Ceremony.© Mondadori / Getty ImagesThe 1964 Tokyo Games madehistory as the “Technology Games”.Television images were broadcastvia satellite for the first time withNHK providing the globe withthe pictures and sounds of theGames. The images were takenlive in Tokyo and could be seensimultaneously via the Syncom IIIsatellite in more than 20 US statesand Canada. In addition, countriesthroughout Europe watched theGames through Mondovision. Intotal, 40 countries tuned into theTokyo Games and paid $1.6 millionfor the rights.Former US Olympicchampion Rafer Johnsonand Chinese Olympicdecathlon contestantC K Yang besides thecommunications satelliteSyncom III in 1964.© Getty Images42 43

1968MEXICO CITY,MEXICONATIONS: 112PARTICIPANTS: 5,516COMPETITIONS: 172SPORTS: 18COLOUR TELEVISIONFor the first time ever in the history of theOlympic Games the television transmissionswere in colour. The images captured by 25 colourand 37 black and white cameras were viewedby an audience of 600 million. However, theinternational broadcasters all received the samesignal and therefore had limited possibilities tocustomise the images for their home audiences.BLACKPOWERTwo US sprinters, Tommie Smith and John Carlos, wongold and bronze in the 200-metre race. Yet they are betterremembered for their gesture during the medal ceremony.Standing on the podium without shoes and wearing blacksocks, during the American national anthem each of themlowered their head and raised a black-gloved fist in theBlack Power salute. They wanted to bring the discriminationof the African-American population in the United States topeople’s attention and show their solidarity with the BlackPower movement. The two athletes were sent home afterthe IOC imposed pressure upon the US Olympic Committee.The Black Power salute byTommie Smith and John Carlosof the USA during the medalceremony for the 200 metres.© Popperfoto / Getty Images44 45

1972MUNICH, FEDERALREPUBLIC OF GERMANYNATIONS: 121PARTICIPANTS: 7,132COMPETITIONS: 195SPORTS: 21Mark Spitz waving his shoesat the audience during themedal ceremony for the200-metre freestyle.© Mondadori / Getty ImagesPhotographers and onlookers atthe Olympic Village during thehostage-taking in Munich.© Mondadori / Getty ImagesBLACKSEPTEMBERLIVEMark Spitz’s father Arnold often told his son “Swimming isn’t everything,winning is”. Spitz embraced this motto and was the first athlete towin seven gold medals in the same Olympic Games, winning all thecompetitions he competed in (100-metre freestyle, 200-metre freestyle,100-metre butterfly, 200-metre butterfly, 4 x 100-metre freestyle relay,4 x 200-metre freestyle relay and the 4 × 100-metre medley relay). Inthe medal ceremony for the 200-metre freestyle, he waved his shoes tothe crowd and the cameras. In consequence he had to explain himselfbefore an IOC committee, which he convinced that it had been an act ofcelebration rather than commercialism. After the Games he retired fromsports at the age of 22 to market his popularity.“SWIMMINGISN’T EVERYTHING,WINNING IS”Mark Spitz won seven goldmedals at the MunichOlympics.© Time & Life Pictures /Getty ImagesOn 5 September 1972, eightmembers of the Palestinianorganisation Black September tookeleven Israeli Olympic athleteshostage and demanded the releaseof 232 imprisoned Palestinians.The rescue operation ended in abloodbath: all the hostages, fivePalestinians and one policemanwere killed. The events made historyas the Munich Massacre. With allthe media present in the OlympicVillage the Munich Massacreunfolded live on televisions aroundthe globe and became one ofthe first violent acts “made fortelevision”, designed to bringattention to the Palestinian cause.46 47

1976MONTREAL,CANADANATIONS: 92PARTICIPANTS: 6,084COMPETITIONS: 198SPORTS: 21The organisation of the 1976 Olympics was not perfect. Because oftechnical difficulties and labour strikes, the Olympic stadium was notcompletely finished when the Opening Ceremony took place inside.The Romanian gymnast Nadia Comaneci’s ˘ achievements were close toperfection. The 14 year old was the first gymnast to receive perfect scoresof ten for her performance on the uneven bars. The scoreboards werenot equipped to display 10.0 and showed 1.00 instead. After all her eventswere over she had been awarded seven 10.0s and had won five medals– three gold, one silver and one bronze. When a journalist at the Gamesasked her what her greatest wish was, she answered “I want to go home.”10.0The unfinished Olympic stadium- with construction cranes in thebackground - during the MontrealOpening Ceremony.© Getty ImagesNadia Comaneci ˘ ofRomania on the balancebeam in Montreal.© AFP / Getty Images48 49

1980Great Britain’s Sebastian Coe,winning the 1500 metres.© Getty ImagesMOSCOW, UNION OF SOVIETSOCIALIST REPUBLICSNATIONS: 80PARTICIPANTS: 5,217COMPETITIONS: 203SPORTS: 21BOYCOTTAfter Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan in 1979, US President Jimmy Carter demanded that the IOC relocateor cancel the 1980 Moscow Olympic Games. Since the IOC did not agree, the US called for a worldwide boycottof the Olympic Games. 36 Islamic countries initially agreed to participate in the boycott, which finally spreadglobally, eventually resulting in 64 nations boycotting the Games. Some governments such as Australia andGreat Britain supported the boycott, but left it to the athletes to decide if they wanted to participate or not.In consequence, the British runners Steve Ovett and Sebastian Coe, the great rivals in the 800-metre and1500-metre races, competed against each other for the first time since 1978. Coe, favourite in the 800-metre,only won silver behind Ovett. In the 1500-metre Coe, beating the favourite Owen, won gold. Because of GreatBritain’s official boycott, instead of the British flag and anthem, the Olympic flag and anthem were used.50 51

1984LOS ANGELES,USANATIONS: 140PARTICIPANTS: 6,797COMPETITIONS: 221SPORTS: 21KING CARLIMAGETRANSMISSIONThe 1984 Los Angeles OlympicGames provided an excellentopportunity for experimentaluse of image transmission. Atthe request of the Japanesenewspaper, Yomiuri Shimbun,Canon was involved in imagetransmission experiments usingtheir professional colour still videocamera (RC701) and transmitter.During the broadcasting of themen’s marathon, the automobiletelephone attached to theelectronic transmitter failed towork, and the information hadto be transmitted over a publictelephone. As it took only 30minutes, the experiment provedsuccessful, giving invaluableknow-how in the developmentof magnetic recording stillcameras designed for commercialbroadcasting, which culminated inthe production of the Canon StillVideo System of 1986.The big star of the Games, Carl Lewis, matched the feat his idol JesseOwens achieved in 1936 in Berlin, and won four gold medals in the100-metre and 200-metre races, long jump and the 4 x 100-metre relay.Leading up to the Olympics Lewis had won 36 straight competitions inthe long jump. In Los Angeles, Lewis won gold with a first round jump of8.54 metres. He took one more attempt and passed the last four rounds tosave his strength for the other competitions.Carl Lewis of the USA,winner of the long jump inLos Angeles.© Getty Images52 53

1988SEOUL,SOUTH KOREANATIONS: 159PARTICIPANTS: 8,391COMPETITIONS: 237SPORTS: 23At the 1988 Seoul Olympics the Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson set a newworld record in the 100 metres. After the event, a doping test proved that“Big Ben” had been taking steroids, which was against the rules. Thegold medal went, as four years earlier, to his great rival Carl Lewis. For along time, Johnson denied his guilt, but in 1989, he admitted he had beentaking performance-enhancing substances since 1981. Consequently, healso lost the world championship title of 1987 and the world record to CarlLewis and was excluded from all competitions for two years. Even thoughother athletes had tested positive for taking performance-enhancingdrugs in previous Olympics, Johnson was the first really prominent athleteto be caught.BIG BENThe medical commission’spress conference regarding BenJohnson’s positive doping test.© IOCBen Johnson on the starting blocksin the Seoul 100 metres final.© Getty Images54 55

1992BARCELONA,SPAINNATIONS: 169PARTICIPANTS: 9,956COMPETITIONS: 257SPORTS: 25DREAM TEAM USAIn 1989 the International Basketball Federation (FIBA) introduced theopen competition, eliminating the distinction between amateurs andprofessionals. Consequently, the US assembled the greatest basketballteam ever including NBA-stars such as Michael Jordan, Magic Johnson,Larry Bird, Charles Barkley, Patrick Ewing and Karl Malone. Every singlematch they played was sold out. The Americans scored over 100 points inevery game and averaged 117.25 points per game. Charles Barkley (18.0)and Michael Jordan (14.9) were the top scorers. In the final, the “DreamTeam” defeated Croatia by 117:85.2.5 BILLIONDOLLARSThe news coverage duringthe Games in Barcelona wasas comprehensive as neverbefore. The telephone companyTelefonicá invested $2.5 billion andconstructed two giant transmissiontowers specially for the Games. Inaddition to the “Torre Telefonica” onMontjuic, the “Torre de Collserrola”was built. Additionally, two satellitecommunication stations with largesatellite dishes were established 40kilometres away.56 57Michael “Air” Jordangoing for the dunk.© Getty Images

1996ATLANTA,USANATIONS: 197PARTICIPANTS: 10,320COMPETITIONS: 271SPORTS: 26DAWN OF THEINTERNETThe main sponsor of the Games – the beverage company Coca-Colabased in the US state of Georgia - induced the IOC to host the 1996Games at the company’s headquarters in Atlanta. The city welcomed theOlympic Games with Coca-Cola billboards and a two-story high giantCoke bottle in the Olympic theme park. Many people were astonished atthe commercial exploitation around the competition venues. Quickly theGames were dubbed the “Coca-Cola Games”. Prior to the Games, theCoca-Cola company served as the exclusive presenter of the Olympictorch relay.THECOCA-COLAGAMESPerhaps most groundbreaking forthe Atlanta Games, which markedthe 100th anniversary of theOlympics’ modern inception, wasthe implementation of the Internet.For the first time, the Olympics hada dedicated webpage, comprising“a treasure trove of news, photosand near-instantaneous resultsof sporting events” one magazinereported. Before the Games, thewebsite was primarily used forticket sales.Promoting Coca -Cola withoversized bottles.© Bongarts/Getty ImagesMuhammed Ali with the torchbefore lighting the OlympicFlame. Atlanta 1996© Getty Images58 59

2000SYDNEY,AUSTRALIANATIONS: 199PARTICIPANTS: 10,651COMPETITIONS: 300SPORTS: 28The Australian athlete Cathy Freeman was the first Australian ofAboriginal descent who participated in the Olympic Games. She becamea symbol for Australia’s wish to reconcile whites and Aborigines and wasselected to light the Olympic flame at the Opening Ceremony. When shepulled away in the lead of the 400 metres, the crowd was so loud, that“it vibrated through my body” (Freeman’s words). She crossed the finishline first and then sat down on the track for two minutes completelyoverwhelmed. On her victory lap she carried both the Australian andAboriginal flag.A SYMBOL FORRECONCILIATIONAustralia’s Cathy Freeman winningthe 400 metres final in Sydney.© Getty Images60 61

2004ATHENS,GREECENATIONS: 202PARTICIPANTS: 11,099COMPETITIONS: 301SPORTS: 28The surveillance airshipover the Olympicstadium. Athens 2004© AFP / Getty ImagesSURVEILLANCECAMERASSHARKSKINSwimmer Michael Phelps won six gold medals and set a single-Gamesrecord with a total of eight medals (gold in the 100-metre butterfly,200-metre butterfly, 200-metre individual medley, 400-metre individualmedley, 4 x 200-metre freestyle and 4 x 100-metre medley and bronzein 200-metre freestyle and 4 x 100-metre freestyle). He was wearing asuit which replicated the dermal denticles of sharkskin. In 2010, suchswimsuits were banned.Michael Phelps in the200-metre freestyle heats.© WireImageIn the first Olympic Games after theattack on the World Trade Centerin New York, safety issues were amajor concern for the 2004 AthensOlympics. Greece invested 1.2billion Euros in safety measures- approximately four times morethan were spent at the 2000Sydney Olympics. Besides a largenumber of security personnel andsurveillance cameras, there was a59-metre long airship circling 500metres above the stadium. Giventhe nickname “flying spy” by thelocal population, the zeppelin wassupposedly capable of interceptingconversations and detectingchemicals.62 63

2008BEIJING,CHINANATIONS: 204PARTICIPANTS: 11,129COMPETITIONS: 302SPORTS: 28The incredible Jamaican sprinter Usain Bolt broke both the 100-metreand 200-metre world records and claimed a third gold and record withthe Jamaican 4 x 100-metre relay team. In the 100 metres Bolt pulverisedhis old world record finishing in 9.69 seconds, gaining a top speed of43.9 km/h, even though his shoe lace had come undone early in the race.About twenty metres before the finishing line, he slowed his pace andspread out his arms jubilantly. By doing so, he missed out on finishing ina significantly better time. Astrophysicist Hans Eriksen and co-workersdetermined it could have been a possible 9.55 seconds!BOLTUsain Bolt of Jamaicawinning the 100 metresfinal. Beijing 2008© IOC64 65

CREDITSQatar Museums AuthorityH.E. Sheikha Al Mayassa BintHamad Bin Khalifa Al Thani,ChairpersonEdward Dolman, Executive DirectorMansoor Al Khater, CEOQMA Media CollectionsDepartmentNicholas Couts, Director (Acting)Nigel Russell, Head CuratorMaria Matta, Head of ConservationSylvie Van Roy, Head of DigitalCurationDr. Marcia De Franceschi Neto,Head of EducationContributions: Maryam IbrahimAbdulla, Waqas Farid, Randa FadlDaloul, Mahesh Kumar, PastorBinza, Rhex Nuico, Toshiko AbeQatar Olympic & SportsMuseumDr. Christian Wacker, DirectorHans-Dieter Gerber, DeputyDirector – Curatorial andCollectionsYousef Khacho, Head of ExhibitionsAnita Schulze, Head of MarketingHessa Al Ali, Senior GraphicDesignerContributions: Ali Salat, Amal AlMannai, Andreas Amendt, Eiman AlMaadhadi, Eman Alsofiany, HamdaAl Mohannadi, Luis HenriqueRolim Silva, Maha Al Awadi, MaiAl Nesf, Mayi Al Mohammadi,Mohamed Al Jaber, MohamedMubarak Al Eidan, MohammedFarid, Noof Ibrahim Hassan, RafiaAl Abdulla, Sahar HossnyTexts English: Hans-Dieter Gerber,Nicholas Couts, Nigel RussellTexts Arabic: Sahar Hossny, FatimaEisa, Yousef Khacho, Zeinab AbdelQaderLuke McKernan- Lead Curator,Moving Image, British LibraryBenedikt Wyss- Swiss SportsMuseumImages and FilmsGetty ImagesInternational Olympic Committeeonlinefootage TVBenaki Museum, Athens GreeceLampakis Family Archives, Athens,GreeceLibrary of Congress, Washington DCDesign and ProductionWRG QATAR LLCWith special thanks to allcolleagues from QatarMuseums Authority involved inthe project.66 67