<strong>How</strong> <strong>Much</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>What</strong> <strong>Type</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Guidance</strong> <strong>is</strong> <strong>Optimal</strong>? 179surpr<strong>is</strong>ed to see you ins<strong>is</strong>t on the importance <strong>of</strong> immediate feedback in your definition<strong>of</strong> instructional guidance. In the ITS literature there appears to be some debatearound the merits <strong>of</strong> immediate feedback (see Mathan & Koedinger, 2003 <strong>and</strong> thed<strong>is</strong>cussion in our chapter). <strong>How</strong> do you view th<strong>is</strong> debate, <strong>and</strong> do you think it needsto be factored into your definition <strong>of</strong> instructional guidance somehow?0123456789012345678901234567890123456Reply: Clark. Evidence about feedback has not been the exclusive domain <strong>of</strong> ITSresearchers. It extends back at least a century <strong>and</strong> has been reconceptualized bymany researchers over the years. Mathan <strong>and</strong> Koedinger clearly state that delayedfeedback can sometimes result in the learning <strong>of</strong> incorrect in<strong>for</strong>mation. They alsodescribe a study where delayed feedback produced greater conceptual underst<strong>and</strong>ing<strong>and</strong> farther transfer but caution that the design <strong>of</strong> effective delayedfeedback <strong>is</strong> difficult. Their conclusion was similar to the advice provided byDruckman <strong>and</strong> Bjork (1994) in their review. Applying the conflicting evidenceabout the timing <strong>of</strong> feedback <strong>is</strong> r<strong>is</strong>ky <strong>and</strong> so I believe that the most secure prescription<strong>is</strong> that well- designed immediate feedback prevents the learning <strong>of</strong>incorrect knowledge that must later be corrected. I’ve seen little evidence thatdelayed feedback typically enhances conceptual learning or farther transfer orthat it <strong>is</strong> the only way to support adaptable learning—but I’m open to newevidence.ReferencesAckerman, P. L. (1988). Determinants <strong>of</strong> individual differences during skill acqu<strong>is</strong>ition:Cognitive abilities <strong>and</strong> in<strong>for</strong>mation processing. Journal <strong>of</strong> Experimental Psychology:General, 117, 288–318.Ackerman, P. L., & Kanfer, R. (1994). Kanfer- Ackerman air traffic controller task, CD- ROMdatabase, datacollection program, <strong>and</strong> playback program. Office <strong>of</strong> Naval Research, CognitiveScience Program.Anderson, J. R. (1983). The architecture <strong>of</strong> cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UniversityPress.Anderson, John R. (1996). ACT: A simple theory <strong>of</strong> complex cognition. American Psycholog<strong>is</strong>t,51(4), 355–365.Anderson, J. R., & Lebiere, C. (1998). The atomic components <strong>of</strong> thought. Mahwah, NJ:Erlbaum.Anderson, J. R., Reder, L. M., & Simon, H. A. (1996). Situated learning <strong>and</strong> education.Educational Researcher, 25, 5–11.Anderson, J. R., Reder, L. M., & Simon, H. A. (1997). Situative versus cognitive perspectives:Form versus substance. Educational Researcher, 26, 18–21.Barrows, H. S. (1986). A taxonomy <strong>of</strong> problem based learning methods. Medical Education,20, 481–486.Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1993). Surpassing ourselves: An inquiry into the nature <strong>and</strong>implications <strong>of</strong> expert<strong>is</strong>e. Chicago, IL: Open Court.Besnard, D. (2000). Expert error. The case <strong>of</strong> trouble- shooting in electronics. In Proceedings<strong>of</strong> the 19th International Conference SafeComp2000 (pp. 74–85). Rotterdam, TheNetherl<strong>and</strong>s.Besnard, D., & Bastien- Toniazzo, M. (1999). Expert error in trouble- shooting: An exploratorystudy in electronics. International Journal <strong>of</strong> Human- Computer Studies, 50, 391–405.
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