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How Much and What Type of Guidance is Optimal? 179surprised to see you insist on the importance of immediate feedback in your definitionof instructional guidance. In the ITS literature there appears to be some debatearound the merits of immediate feedback (see Mathan & Koedinger, 2003 and thediscussion in our chapter). How do you view this debate, and do you think it needsto be factored into your definition of instructional guidance somehow?0123456789012345678901234567890123456Reply: Clark. Evidence about feedback has not been the exclusive domain of ITSresearchers. It extends back at least a century and has been reconceptualized bymany researchers over the years. Mathan and Koedinger clearly state that delayedfeedback can sometimes result in the learning of incorrect information. They alsodescribe a study where delayed feedback produced greater conceptual understandingand farther transfer but caution that the design of effective delayedfeedback is difficult. Their conclusion was similar to the advice provided byDruckman and Bjork (1994) in their review. Applying the conflicting evidenceabout the timing of feedback is risky and so I believe that the most secure prescriptionis that well- designed immediate feedback prevents the learning ofincorrect knowledge that must later be corrected. I’ve seen little evidence thatdelayed feedback typically enhances conceptual learning or farther transfer orthat it is the only way to support adaptable learning—but I’m open to newevidence.ReferencesAckerman, P. L. (1988). Determinants of individual differences during skill acquisition:Cognitive abilities and information processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology:General, 117, 288–318.Ackerman, P. L., & Kanfer, R. (1994). Kanfer- Ackerman air traffic controller task, CD- ROMdatabase, datacollection program, and playback program. Office of Naval Research, CognitiveScience Program.Anderson, J. R. (1983). The architecture of cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UniversityPress.Anderson, John R. (1996). ACT: A simple theory of complex cognition. American Psychologist,51(4), 355–365.Anderson, J. R., & Lebiere, C. (1998). The atomic components of thought. Mahwah, NJ:Erlbaum.Anderson, J. R., Reder, L. M., & Simon, H. A. (1996). Situated learning and education.Educational Researcher, 25, 5–11.Anderson, J. R., Reder, L. M., & Simon, H. A. (1997). Situative versus cognitive perspectives:Form versus substance. Educational Researcher, 26, 18–21.Barrows, H. S. (1986). A taxonomy of problem based learning methods. Medical Education,20, 481–486.Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1993). Surpassing ourselves: An inquiry into the nature andimplications of expertise. Chicago, IL: Open Court.Besnard, D. (2000). Expert error. The case of trouble- shooting in electronics. In Proceedingsof the 19th International Conference SafeComp2000 (pp. 74–85). Rotterdam, TheNetherlands.Besnard, D., & Bastien- Toniazzo, M. (1999). Expert error in trouble- shooting: An exploratorystudy in electronics. International Journal of Human- Computer Studies, 50, 391–405.
180 R. E. ClarkBrown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning.Educational Researcher, 18(l), 32–42.Brown, J. S., & Duguid, P. (1991). Organizational learning and communities of practice:Toward a unified view of working, learning and innovation. Organizational Science,2(1), 40–57.Chao, C.-J., & Salvendy, G. (1994). Percentage of procedural knowledge acquired as afunction of the number of experts from whom knowledge is acquired for diagnosis,debugging and interpretation tasks. International Journal of Human- Computer Interaction,6, 221–233.Clark, R. E. (1982). Antagonism between achievement and enjoyment in ATI studies.Educational Psychologist, 17(2), 132–148.Clark, R. E. (1989). When teaching kills learning: Research on mathematics. In H. Mandl,E. De Corte, N. Bennett, & H. F. Friedrich (Eds.), Learning and instruction. Europeanresearch in an international context (Vol. 2 & 3, pp. 1–22). Oxford: Pergamon.Clark, R. E. (2001). Learning from media: arguments, analysis and evidence. Greenwich,CT: Information Age Publishing.Clark, R. E., & Blake, S. (1997). Analyzing cognitive structures and processes to deriveinstructional methods for the transfer of problem solving expertise. In S. Dijkstra & N.M. Seel (Eds.), Instructional design perspectives. Volume II, Solving instructional designproblems (pp. 183–214). Oxford: Pergamon.Clark, R. E., & Elen, J. (2006). When less is more: research and theory insights about instructionfor complex learning. In J. Elen & R. Clark (Eds.), Handling complexity in learningenvironments: Research and theory (pp. 283–297). Oxford: Elsevier Science Limited.Clark, R. E., & Estes, F. (1996). Cognitive task analysis, International Journal of EducationalResearch, 25, 403–417.Clark, R. E., Feldon, D., van Merriënboer, J., Yates, K., & Early, S. (2007). Cognitive taskanalysis. In J. M. Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. J. G. van Merriënboer, & M. P. Driscoll(Eds.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (3rd ed., pp.577–593). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Cohen, H. S., Bloomberg, J. J., & Mulavara, A. P. (2005). Obstacle avoidance in novelvisual environments improved by variable practice training. Perceptual and Motor Skills,101(3), 853–861.Cowen, N. (2001). The magical number 4 in short term memory: A reconsideration ofmental storage capacity. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 24, 87–114.Cronbach, L. J., & Snow, R. E. (1977). Aptitudes and instructional methods. New York:Irvington.De Corte, E. (2003). Transfer as the productive use of acquired knowledge, skills, andmotivations. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(4), 143–146.DeLeeuw, K. E., & Mayer, R. E. (2008). A comparison of three measures of cognitive load:Evidence for separable measures of intrinsic, extraneous and germane load. Journal ofEducational Psychology, 100(1), 223–234.Druckman, D., & Bjork, R. A. (1994). Learning, remembering and believing. WashingtonDC: National Academy Press.Druckman, D., & Swets, J. A. (Eds.). (1988). Enhancing human performance: Issues, theoriesand techniques. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.Duffy, T. M., & Jonassen, D. H. (Eds.). (1992). Constructivism and the technology ofinstruction, a conversation. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Feldon, D. F. (2004). Inaccuracies in expert self- report: Errors in the description of strategiesfor designing psychology experiments. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Rossier Schoolof Education, University of Southern California, USA.1234567891111111111222222222233333333334444444
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