The Politics of Water Governance in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna Basin
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NOVEMBER 2015<br />
ISSUE NO. 112<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Politics</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Governance</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Ganges</strong>-<strong>Brahmaputra</strong>-<strong>Meghna</strong> Bas<strong>in</strong><br />
PAULA HANASZ<br />
ABSTRACT Transboundary water politics <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Ganges</strong>-<strong>Brahmaputra</strong>-<strong>Meghna</strong> bas<strong>in</strong> are<br />
affected not only by <strong>in</strong>ter-government relations between India, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh,<br />
but also by dynamics on different scales, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> hydropolitics between Indian states<br />
with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> bas<strong>in</strong>. At <strong>the</strong> same time, <strong>the</strong> disputed issues, and <strong>the</strong> patterns <strong>of</strong> power dynamics<br />
between actors, are similar <strong>in</strong> transboundary <strong>in</strong>teractions <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> bas<strong>in</strong> as well as <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>ter-state<br />
<strong>in</strong>teractions with<strong>in</strong> India. Both transboundary water disputes and India's <strong>in</strong>ter-state ones are<br />
subject to <strong>in</strong>tense politick<strong>in</strong>g. With<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Indian polity, however, domestic water issues divert<br />
political attention away from transboundary ones. Indian states also have significant <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />
over transboundary water governance, and at times this is at odds with India's central<br />
government. This paper describes <strong>the</strong> parallels and <strong>in</strong>terdependencies between <strong>in</strong>ter-state water<br />
conflicts with<strong>in</strong> India, and <strong>the</strong> transboundary ones with India's neighbours.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is no dearth <strong>of</strong> literature on issues related to<br />
water security and water conflicts <strong>in</strong> India. Most<br />
studies, however, focus on <strong>in</strong>ter-state conflicts,<br />
<strong>the</strong> constitutional provisions for jurisdictions<br />
over water issues, or <strong>the</strong> legal aspects <strong>of</strong> India's<br />
water conflict tribunals. Absent is any analysis <strong>of</strong><br />
how hydropolitics between Indian states relate to<br />
water <strong>in</strong>teractions with Nepal, Bhutan and<br />
Bangladesh. This paper describes <strong>the</strong> parallels and<br />
<strong>in</strong>terdependencies between <strong>in</strong>ter-state water<br />
conflicts with<strong>in</strong> India, and <strong>the</strong> transboundary<br />
ones with <strong>the</strong> country's neighbours.<br />
Similarly, <strong>the</strong>re has been no assessment <strong>of</strong><br />
how <strong>the</strong> decentralised and fragmented approach<br />
to water governance with<strong>in</strong> India affects<br />
transboundary water governance. Although <strong>the</strong>re<br />
is an extensive body <strong>of</strong> literature on devolved<br />
federalism and its effect on different sectors such<br />
as land, law and order, and education <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest<br />
here is <strong>the</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> state-based water resource<br />
management on transbound ar y water<br />
governance.<br />
India is assumed, <strong>in</strong> relation to its neighbours,<br />
as a unitary, cohesive unit ra<strong>the</strong>r than an<br />
Observer Research Foundation (ORF) is a public policy th<strong>in</strong>k-tank that aims to <strong>in</strong>fluence formulation <strong>of</strong> policies for<br />
build<strong>in</strong>g a strong and prosperous India. ORF pursues <strong>the</strong>se goals by provid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>formed and productive <strong>in</strong>puts, <strong>in</strong>-depth<br />
research and stimulat<strong>in</strong>g discussions. <strong>The</strong> Foundation is supported <strong>in</strong> its mission by a cross-section <strong>of</strong> India’s lead<strong>in</strong>g<br />
public figures, academics and bus<strong>in</strong>ess leaders.<br />
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ORF scan this code<br />
ORF ISSUE BRIEF No. 112 • NOVEMBER 2015<br />
1
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Politics</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Governance</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Ganges</strong>-<strong>Brahmaputra</strong>-<strong>Meghna</strong> Bas<strong>in</strong><br />
aggregate <strong>of</strong> states, m<strong>in</strong>istries, and <strong>in</strong>terests that<br />
compete and sometimes conflict with each o<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
Tak<strong>in</strong>g a constructivist view <strong>of</strong> India's water<br />
governance, i.e., one that accounts for <strong>the</strong>se<br />
complexities, contradictions and conflicts <strong>in</strong><br />
water governance networks, allows for a more<br />
nuanced understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> transboundary<br />
water <strong>in</strong>teractions between India and its coriparians.<br />
This, <strong>in</strong> turn, allows for <strong>the</strong> exploration<br />
<strong>of</strong> a more flexible and appropriate transboundary<br />
water policy.<br />
This article exam<strong>in</strong>es state-level political<br />
dynamics that affect <strong>the</strong> water <strong>in</strong>teractions that<br />
India has with Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh.<strong>The</strong><br />
purpose <strong>of</strong> this analysis is to provide <strong>in</strong>sights <strong>in</strong>to<br />
an overlooked aspect <strong>of</strong> regional hydropolitics<br />
that may be <strong>of</strong> relevance to Indian hydrocrats as<br />
well as <strong>in</strong>ternational organisations engaged <strong>in</strong><br />
water resource policy-mak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> region (e.g.,<br />
<strong>the</strong> World Bank-led South Asia <strong>Water</strong> Initiative).<br />
Relations with Pakistan over <strong>the</strong> rivers <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Indus bas<strong>in</strong> are outside <strong>the</strong> scope <strong>of</strong> this paper as<br />
<strong>the</strong> political relationship between India and<br />
Pakistan is highly securitised and <strong>the</strong>ir water<br />
<strong>in</strong>teractions are largely governed by one<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational agreement, <strong>the</strong> Indus <strong>Water</strong>s<br />
Treaty.<br />
Understand<strong>in</strong>g how water resources are<br />
governed with<strong>in</strong> India should provide <strong>in</strong>sights<br />
<strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> management <strong>of</strong> transboundary waters.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are three reasons for this. First, water<br />
disputes with<strong>in</strong> India are more conflictual than<br />
transboundary <strong>in</strong>deed, hydropolitics between<br />
India, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh are highly<br />
cooperative <strong>in</strong> comparison to water <strong>in</strong>teractions<br />
1<br />
between some Indian states. This means that<br />
domestic disputes attract more political attention<br />
with<strong>in</strong> India than do <strong>in</strong>ternational ones. Second,<br />
Indian states have significant <strong>in</strong>fluence over<br />
transboundary water governance, and at times<br />
this is at odds with India's central government.<br />
Third, <strong>the</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>ciples that underp<strong>in</strong> domestic<br />
water governance and water conflict resolution<br />
between states are reflected <strong>in</strong> India's approach to<br />
transboundary water issues. <strong>The</strong>se <strong>the</strong>mes are<br />
extrapolated <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g sections.<br />
INTER-STATE VS. TRANSBOUNDARY<br />
WATER DISPUTES<br />
<strong>Governance</strong> <strong>of</strong> water issues <strong>in</strong> India is fragmented<br />
and decentralised. It is fragmented because <strong>the</strong>re<br />
are numerous bodies, authorities, departments<br />
and <strong>in</strong>stitutions that have responsibility over<br />
water, and many laws that create ambiguous and<br />
2<br />
complex regulations regard<strong>in</strong>g water resources.<br />
<strong>The</strong> governance <strong>of</strong> India's rivers is also<br />
decentralised as <strong>the</strong> states, ra<strong>the</strong>r than <strong>the</strong> central<br />
government, have primary jurisdiction over <strong>the</strong><br />
3<br />
management <strong>of</strong> water with<strong>in</strong> state borders. This<br />
means that <strong>the</strong> governments <strong>of</strong> Nepal, Bhutan<br />
and Bangladesh must negotiate (<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> broadest<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> word, mean<strong>in</strong>g formal and <strong>in</strong>formal<br />
discussions on a topic <strong>of</strong> mutual <strong>in</strong>terest) with<br />
Indian states <strong>in</strong> addition to <strong>the</strong> central<br />
government. This adds an extra layer <strong>of</strong> politics<br />
and difficulty to transboundar y water<br />
governance.<br />
<strong>The</strong> decentralised authority over India's rivers<br />
becomes <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly problematic as <strong>the</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
demand for water directly contributes to <strong>the</strong><br />
politics <strong>of</strong> federalism; <strong>the</strong> movement towards<br />
economic liberalisation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 2000s has<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased federalist competition, as each state has<br />
become more responsible for attract<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestment and fund<strong>in</strong>g its own development<br />
4<br />
efforts. Competition is thus one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> causes <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>ter-state water conflicts <strong>in</strong> India. <strong>The</strong> issue <strong>of</strong><br />
ownership is ano<strong>the</strong>r cause. As Lahiri-Dutt po<strong>in</strong>ts<br />
out, <strong>the</strong> question <strong>of</strong> ownership is posed at<br />
different scales: Between <strong>the</strong> state and<br />
communities <strong>in</strong> general, between <strong>the</strong> central<br />
government and respective states, and between<br />
5<br />
local and state governments . <strong>Water</strong> ownership,<br />
<strong>the</strong>n, is <strong>the</strong> source <strong>of</strong> disputes.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Indian Constitution does provide for <strong>the</strong><br />
establishment <strong>of</strong> tribunals for <strong>the</strong> resolution <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>ter-state river water disputes, but <strong>in</strong> practice<br />
this gives <strong>the</strong> central government no real<br />
advantage or manoeuvrability over <strong>the</strong> states, as<br />
it is still constricted by <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest<br />
6<br />
groups and voters. <strong>The</strong>se tribunals have been<br />
largely <strong>in</strong>effective <strong>in</strong> resolv<strong>in</strong>g disputes between<br />
2 ORF ISSUE BRIEF No. 112 • NOVEMBER 2015
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Politics</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Governance</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Ganges</strong>-<strong>Brahmaputra</strong>-<strong>Meghna</strong> Bas<strong>in</strong><br />
7<br />
<strong>the</strong> contest<strong>in</strong>g states . Without an effective<br />
oversight and arbitration mechanism, <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>terstate<br />
water disputes with<strong>in</strong> India are left <strong>in</strong> a<br />
similar position to transboundary water disputes<br />
which, because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> anarchic nature <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational law, cannot be adjudicated by a<br />
higher authority (especially not <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Ganges</strong>-<br />
<strong>Brahmaputra</strong>-<strong>Meghna</strong> bas<strong>in</strong>, where no River<br />
Bas<strong>in</strong> Organisation exists).<br />
Part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> problem <strong>of</strong> unresolved <strong>in</strong>ter-state<br />
water disputes is not so much <strong>the</strong> structure or<br />
mandate <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> tribunal <strong>the</strong>mselves, but ra<strong>the</strong>r<br />
that water disputes with<strong>in</strong> India are<br />
characterised by bitterness, tend to get<br />
enmeshed <strong>in</strong> party politics, and become<br />
8<br />
<strong>in</strong>tractable . <strong>The</strong> domestic politick<strong>in</strong>g over <strong>in</strong>terstate<br />
water disputes with<strong>in</strong> India distracts<br />
political attention from transboundary matters.<br />
This has significant implications for policies<br />
aim<strong>in</strong>g to improve water cooperation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Ganges</strong>-<strong>Brahmaputra</strong>-<strong>Meghna</strong> bas<strong>in</strong>. As Dash<br />
notes, Regional cooperation is a two-level<br />
process <strong>in</strong> which domestic support and regional<br />
barga<strong>in</strong>s and negotiations must overlap if<br />
9<br />
cooperation is to proceed . Domestic issues<br />
simply take precedence over regional cooperation.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> words <strong>of</strong> S. D<strong>in</strong>ar:<br />
In <strong>the</strong> GBM [<strong>Ganges</strong>-<strong>Brahmaputra</strong>-<strong>Meghna</strong>]<br />
Bas<strong>in</strong>, for example, domestic politics play a<br />
large role <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> hydropolitics between <strong>the</strong><br />
bas<strong>in</strong> riparians. Political factions that accuse<br />
<strong>the</strong> rul<strong>in</strong>g party <strong>of</strong> compromis<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
respective nation's sovereignty and national<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest <strong>of</strong>ten curtail cooperation between<br />
Bangladesh, Nepal, and India. Although<br />
hegemonic stability <strong>the</strong>ory tells us that a lack<br />
<strong>of</strong> regional cooperation is due to <strong>the</strong> desires <strong>of</strong><br />
India to prevent multilateral regional<br />
cooperation, domestic factors <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
political <strong>in</strong>stability and nationalist fervor<br />
<strong>in</strong>tensify <strong>the</strong> conflict and also prevent<br />
10<br />
collaboration .<br />
<strong>The</strong> nuances <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ter-state hydropolitics <strong>in</strong> India<br />
also illustrate that dispute resolution<br />
mechanisms and <strong>in</strong>stitutions alone are not<br />
immune to politics and that <strong>the</strong> political context<br />
must be considered when address<strong>in</strong>g water<br />
conflicts. <strong>The</strong> significance for transboundary<br />
MAP: THE GANGES-BRAHMAPUTRA-MEGHNA BASIN<br />
Source: Australian National University CartoGIS CAP<br />
ORF ISSUE BRIEF No. 112 • NOVEMBER 2015<br />
3
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Politics</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Governance</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Ganges</strong>-<strong>Brahmaputra</strong>-<strong>Meghna</strong> Bas<strong>in</strong><br />
water policy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tense politick<strong>in</strong>g between<br />
Indian states is that it creates an unhelpful<br />
impression: that if India cannot manage its own<br />
domestic water conflicts, it will not be able to<br />
11<br />
manage <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational ones. Also, <strong>the</strong>re is an<br />
assumption that conflict<strong>in</strong>g needs and <strong>in</strong>terests<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> different states must be reconciled<br />
domestically before any <strong>in</strong>ternational agreement<br />
12<br />
can be reached .<br />
Yet India's transboundary water relationships<br />
are better than <strong>the</strong> water <strong>in</strong>teractions between<br />
13<br />
Indian states. While <strong>the</strong>re is a degree <strong>of</strong> bas<strong>in</strong>wide<br />
coord<strong>in</strong>ation and <strong>in</strong>tegration between India<br />
and its neighbours, no such arrangements exist<br />
with<strong>in</strong> India; <strong>in</strong>deed, <strong>the</strong>re is a strong resistance<br />
to <strong>the</strong> idea <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> River Bas<strong>in</strong> Organisation on <strong>the</strong><br />
14<br />
part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> state governments. This poses a<br />
policy challenge to those with<strong>in</strong> and outside <strong>the</strong><br />
region who are work<strong>in</strong>g to build a River Bas<strong>in</strong><br />
Organisation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Ganges</strong>-<strong>Brahmaputra</strong>-<br />
<strong>Meghna</strong> bas<strong>in</strong>.<br />
Moreover, exist<strong>in</strong>g legal structures do not<br />
allow for <strong>the</strong> participation <strong>of</strong> non-state political<br />
actors <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> adjudication <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ter-state water<br />
15<br />
disputes. This is problematic because, as Iyer<br />
argues, any consultative, <strong>in</strong>teractive approach to<br />
conflict-resolution must also be <strong>in</strong>clusive: It<br />
must <strong>in</strong>clude and <strong>in</strong>volve those who have a vital<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> decision, namely <strong>the</strong> farmers,<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrial establishments, municipalities, and<br />
people <strong>in</strong> general because all <strong>of</strong> us are water-<br />
16<br />
users . He cont<strong>in</strong>ues that <strong>the</strong> present system <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>ter-state water dispute resolution is de facto an<br />
<strong>in</strong>ter-government system. As such it cannot be<br />
said to be one that focuses on water justice<br />
outcomes or procedural justice. Yet water justice is<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly an important issue <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> scholarly<br />
and policy discourse even though it is still<br />
grappl<strong>in</strong>g with how to apply a justice approach to<br />
17<br />
transboundary water governance.<br />
Mohan expla<strong>in</strong>s that <strong>the</strong> political boundaries<br />
<strong>of</strong> states <strong>of</strong>ten subsume issues that are humane,<br />
18<br />
common and social <strong>in</strong> nature , mean<strong>in</strong>g that<br />
<strong>the</strong>y are rarely addressed <strong>in</strong> state-centric water<br />
dispute mechanisms. This is also <strong>the</strong> case <strong>in</strong><br />
transboundary water governance <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Ganges</strong>-<br />
<strong>Brahmaputra</strong>-<strong>Meghna</strong> bas<strong>in</strong>. As Prasai and Surie<br />
po<strong>in</strong>t out:<br />
Consideration <strong>of</strong> broader stakeholder<br />
perspectives is vital to effective transboundary<br />
water governance <strong>in</strong> South Asia<br />
[but] <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> regional cooperation and <strong>the</strong><br />
absence <strong>of</strong> local and sub-national perspectives<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ue to prevent susta<strong>in</strong>able development<br />
and management <strong>of</strong> transboundary water<br />
resources for livelihood improvement, food<br />
security, poverty reduction, and effective<br />
19<br />
adaptation to climate change .<br />
Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, <strong>the</strong> relationship between India's<br />
state governments and <strong>the</strong> central government is<br />
largely a zero-sum game: <strong>the</strong> attitude prevails that<br />
20<br />
one side's ga<strong>in</strong> is <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r's loss. None<strong>the</strong>less, as<br />
Mohan argues, this need not be <strong>the</strong> case and that,<br />
<strong>in</strong> relation to <strong>the</strong> governance <strong>of</strong> transboundary<br />
rivers at least, Increas<strong>in</strong>g roles for Central<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutions does not necessarily mean a<br />
21<br />
whittl<strong>in</strong>g down <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> powers <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> states . This<br />
may become a necessary paradigm shift if or<br />
when India embarks <strong>in</strong> earnest on <strong>the</strong> Inter-<br />
L<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g Rivers Project. If it does, <strong>the</strong> Inter L<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Rivers Project will require India's central<br />
government to better coord<strong>in</strong>ate and control <strong>the</strong><br />
states on water issues because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> vast<br />
amounts <strong>of</strong> water that will be moved between <strong>the</strong><br />
states. <strong>The</strong> Centre will also have to take ownership<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> transboundary aspects <strong>of</strong> this ambitious<br />
22<br />
project, such as water flow <strong>in</strong>to Bangladesh.<br />
Thus an important challenge for policy is to<br />
establish material <strong>in</strong>centives and dis<strong>in</strong>centives<br />
that enable dynamics at <strong>the</strong> negotiation table<br />
based on positive-sum th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Under India's Constitution, <strong>the</strong> central<br />
government already has significant leeway to take<br />
charge <strong>of</strong> transboundary rivers and <strong>in</strong>ter-state<br />
ones too, should Parliament deem it <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
national <strong>in</strong>terest (for example, when one state's<br />
water management has harmful effects on<br />
ano<strong>the</strong>r). Yet, <strong>the</strong> Center has never exercised its<br />
powers and always allowed States to take <strong>the</strong><br />
larger responsibility. This wilful abdication by <strong>the</strong><br />
Center led to an understand<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>the</strong> States<br />
4 ORF ISSUE BRIEF No. 112 • NOVEMBER 2015
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Politics</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Governance</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Ganges</strong>-<strong>Brahmaputra</strong>-<strong>Meghna</strong> Bas<strong>in</strong><br />
have exclusive power to manage water<br />
23<br />
resources . This complicates water governance<br />
b e c ause states must b e consulte d <strong>in</strong><br />
transboundary water policy.<br />
STATES' INFLUENCE ON WATER<br />
INTERACTIONS WITH TRANSBOUNDARY<br />
NEIGHBOURS<br />
Indian states have significant <strong>in</strong>fluence over <strong>the</strong><br />
governance <strong>of</strong> transboundary rivers. States are, <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> words <strong>of</strong> an environmental lawyer, <strong>the</strong><br />
biggest stakeholders <strong>in</strong> transboundary water<br />
<strong>in</strong>teractions and must be part <strong>of</strong> discussions<br />
about how transboundary waters that flow with<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>ir boundaries should be managed though<br />
<strong>the</strong>re are numerous jo<strong>in</strong>t river commissions to<br />
which state representatives are <strong>in</strong>vited, but rarely<br />
2 4<br />
come. <strong>The</strong> governance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Ganges</strong>-<br />
<strong>Brahmaputra</strong>-<strong>Meghna</strong> bas<strong>in</strong> is largely dependent<br />
on how Indian states manage <strong>the</strong>ir water because<br />
most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se rivers flow through India: how<br />
much water is taken out or polluted with<strong>in</strong> Indian<br />
states, will have effects downstream, i.e., for<br />
25<br />
Bangladesh, and how much water Indian states<br />
claim <strong>the</strong>y need will enter water-shar<strong>in</strong>g<br />
negotiations with upstream Nepal and Bhutan.<br />
States are also <strong>in</strong>fluential over <strong>the</strong> central<br />
government, though this is not <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
26<br />
acknowledged. For example, Gujarat saw <strong>the</strong><br />
World Commission on Dams as a conspiracy<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st and a threat to <strong>the</strong> [Sardar Sarovar<br />
Project], and its perceptions had a strong<br />
<strong>in</strong>fluence on <strong>the</strong> government <strong>of</strong> India" that<br />
resulted <strong>in</strong> India reject<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
27<br />
Commission's report.<br />
In terms <strong>of</strong> transboundary water governance,<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> states is significant because<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational water-shar<strong>in</strong>g treaties cannot be<br />
reached with <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>put <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> central government<br />
alone; <strong>the</strong> support <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> relevant states is<br />
28<br />
crucial. <strong>The</strong> water <strong>in</strong>teractions between India<br />
and its co-riparians are complicated by <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>of</strong> several Indian states, such as<br />
29<br />
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal. For<br />
example, Sikkim was recently able to prevent a<br />
water-shar<strong>in</strong>g deal that <strong>the</strong> central government<br />
was negotiat<strong>in</strong>g with Bangladesh on <strong>the</strong> grounds<br />
that it did not allocate satisfactory amounts <strong>of</strong><br />
30<br />
water for Sikkim.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are o<strong>the</strong>r complicated issues <strong>in</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>astern<br />
India that affect transboundary water<br />
governance. Arunachal Pradesh, for <strong>in</strong>stance,<br />
holds enormous hydropower potential on <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Brahmaputra</strong> River, which is fast-flow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
state's mounta<strong>in</strong>ous terra<strong>in</strong>. <strong>The</strong>re are 160 dams<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g planned to harness this potential and boost<br />
economic development <strong>in</strong> Arunachal Pradesh, but<br />
<strong>the</strong> state is hav<strong>in</strong>g trouble reach<strong>in</strong>g an agreement<br />
with downstream Assam, which is concerned<br />
about flood<strong>in</strong>g and siltation. Assam could<br />
streng<strong>the</strong>n its case aga<strong>in</strong>st Arunachal Pradesh by<br />
engag<strong>in</strong>g directly with Bangladesh which is<br />
downstream <strong>of</strong> Assam and would likely also be<br />
affected by dams <strong>in</strong> Arunachal Pradesh. However,<br />
an ongo<strong>in</strong>g dispute between Assam and<br />
Bangladesh over compensation for Bangladeshi<br />
migrants stands <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> way <strong>of</strong> any such discussion<br />
31<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>stigated.<br />
Bangladesh has also been affected by <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> state <strong>of</strong> West Bengal. That state's<br />
Chief M<strong>in</strong>ister, Mamata Banerjee, refused to<br />
endorse <strong>the</strong> proposed agreement between India's<br />
central government and that <strong>of</strong> Bangladesh over<br />
32<br />
<strong>the</strong> Teesta River. <strong>The</strong> Modi government may be<br />
more successful <strong>in</strong> gett<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> agreement signed<br />
because it has a better relationship with <strong>the</strong><br />
government <strong>of</strong> West Bengal than did <strong>the</strong> previous<br />
central government. Aga<strong>in</strong>, domestic politics<br />
matter <strong>in</strong> transboundary hydropolitics, and must<br />
be factored <strong>in</strong>to policy-mak<strong>in</strong>g processes at <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational level.<br />
Similarly, Bihar cont<strong>in</strong>ues to resent <strong>the</strong><br />
central government for not be<strong>in</strong>g brought <strong>in</strong>to<br />
negotiations over <strong>the</strong> <strong>Ganges</strong> Treaty with<br />
33<br />
Bangladesh like <strong>the</strong> state <strong>of</strong> West Bengal was.<br />
This is important because <strong>the</strong> support <strong>of</strong> Bihar,<br />
and that <strong>of</strong> Uttar Pradesh, will be critical for any<br />
34<br />
agreements India negotiates with Nepal.<br />
Significantly for <strong>the</strong> negotiation process, Bihar<br />
ORF ISSUE BRIEF No. 112 • NOVEMBER 2015<br />
5
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Politics</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Governance</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Ganges</strong>-<strong>Brahmaputra</strong>-<strong>Meghna</strong> Bas<strong>in</strong><br />
does not have a great power asymmetry with<br />
35<br />
Nepal, unlike India as a whole.<br />
INTER-STATE AND TRANSBOUNDARY<br />
WATER GOVERNANCE: PARALLELS<br />
In addition to <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>of</strong> Indian states on<br />
transboundary water governance, <strong>the</strong>re are several<br />
parallels between <strong>the</strong> way water is governed with<strong>in</strong><br />
India and <strong>the</strong> way it is governed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> region.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se parallels illum<strong>in</strong>ate possible policy<br />
approaches for water governance; what works at<br />
one level may work on ano<strong>the</strong>r, and vice versa.<br />
First, <strong>in</strong>ter-state water disputes, as well as<br />
transboundary ones, are driven, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> words <strong>of</strong><br />
Iyer, by a competitive unsusta<strong>in</strong>able demand for<br />
water Supply creates demand and necessitates<br />
36<br />
more supply .<br />
Second, power asymmetry between actors,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> broader political context, matters<br />
significantly. <strong>The</strong> <strong>the</strong>oretical aspects <strong>of</strong> power <strong>in</strong><br />
relation to hydropolitics is well established (cf.<br />
37<br />
Zeitoun and Allan ). For <strong>the</strong> purposes <strong>of</strong> this<br />
article, however, a general understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
power asymmetry suffices. In o<strong>the</strong>r words, <strong>the</strong><br />
same political, military, economic and upstream<br />
power dynamics play out between Indian states as<br />
do between India and Nepal, Bhutan and<br />
Bangladesh. For example, Arunachal Pradesh<br />
opposes <strong>the</strong> restructur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Brahmaputra</strong><br />
Board (which consists <strong>of</strong> India's north-eastern<br />
states) because <strong>the</strong> new configuration may<br />
3 8<br />
underm<strong>in</strong>e its power position. India,<br />
meanwhile, is <strong>the</strong> undisputed hydro-hegemon <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Ganges</strong>-<strong>Brahmaputra</strong>-<strong>Meghna</strong> bas<strong>in</strong> despite<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g downstream <strong>of</strong> three co-riparians, namely,<br />
39<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a, Nepal and Bhutan. Likewise, <strong>the</strong> political<br />
context matters; negotiations over water are<br />
about 'horse trad<strong>in</strong>g' and <strong>the</strong> actors with <strong>the</strong> most<br />
issue power hold <strong>the</strong> upper hand.<br />
<strong>The</strong> third parallel between <strong>in</strong>ter-state and<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational water governance is <strong>the</strong> strong<br />
preference for bilateral, ra<strong>the</strong>r than multilateral,<br />
cooperation. Bilateral agreements tend to benefit<br />
<strong>the</strong> most powerful party, while multilateral ones<br />
40<br />
are more likely to benefit weaker parties, thus<br />
this preference relates to <strong>the</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> power<br />
asymmetry. For example, upstream Arunachal<br />
Pradesh favours strictly bilateral cooperation<br />
with downstream Assam <strong>in</strong>stead <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> River<br />
41<br />
Bas<strong>in</strong> Organisation that <strong>the</strong> latter is propos<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
At <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational level, India deals with Nepal,<br />
Bhutan and Bangladesh <strong>in</strong> an exclusively bilateral<br />
42<br />
way. Indeed, this approach is enshr<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong><br />
India's most recent National <strong>Water</strong> Policy,<br />
43<br />
published <strong>in</strong> 2012.<br />
<strong>The</strong> fourth parallel is that hydrological data<br />
are not readily shared between Indian states, nor<br />
between co-riparians <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Ganges</strong>-<strong>Brahmaputra</strong><br />
-<strong>Meghna</strong> bas<strong>in</strong>. As Mohan notes, <strong>in</strong>ter-state<br />
water shar<strong>in</strong>g and conflict resolution is<br />
constra<strong>in</strong>ed by <strong>in</strong>adequate availability <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>formation, as well as hardened regional<br />
identities and loyalties which stand <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> way <strong>of</strong><br />
44<br />
shar<strong>in</strong>g available data. At <strong>the</strong> transboundary<br />
level, <strong>the</strong>re is no bas<strong>in</strong>-wide knowledge base and<br />
data are surpris<strong>in</strong>gly scarce and difficult to<br />
45<br />
obta<strong>in</strong> . Moreover, a culture <strong>of</strong> secrecy and<br />
suspicion prevails across all governments <strong>in</strong><br />
South Asia, thus stifl<strong>in</strong>g any <strong>in</strong>cl<strong>in</strong>ation to<br />
46<br />
declassify or share data. Many transboundary<br />
hydropower projects, for example, are not known<br />
t h r o u g h g o v e r n m e n t - t o - g o v e r n m e n t<br />
communication, but through reports <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> mass<br />
47<br />
media. India's 2012 National <strong>Water</strong> Policy<br />
suggests that some water-related <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
48<br />
may be declassified (currently, all hydrological<br />
data relat<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>in</strong>ternational borders is classified<br />
49<br />
on <strong>the</strong> grounds <strong>of</strong> national security.)<br />
<strong>The</strong> fifth parallel is that a zero-sum attitude to<br />
water shar<strong>in</strong>g prevails. As Paranjpye shows, at<br />
<strong>in</strong>ter-state levels <strong>the</strong>re is a lack <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrative<br />
50<br />
th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g among all parties concerned . This is<br />
also a feature <strong>of</strong> transboundar y water<br />
<strong>in</strong>teractions <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Ganges</strong>-<strong>Brahmaputra</strong>-<strong>Meghna</strong><br />
bas<strong>in</strong>. As Wirs<strong>in</strong>g et. al. po<strong>in</strong>t out, A zero-sum<br />
water resource atmosphere is clearly build<strong>in</strong>g up<br />
51<br />
<strong>in</strong> Himalayan Asia .<br />
<strong>The</strong> sixth parallel is that water governance at<br />
all scales has been dom<strong>in</strong>ated by supply-side<br />
6 ORF ISSUE BRIEF No. 112 • NOVEMBER 2015
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Politics</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Governance</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Ganges</strong>-<strong>Brahmaputra</strong>-<strong>Meghna</strong> Bas<strong>in</strong><br />
concerns, and by <strong>the</strong> various discipl<strong>in</strong>es <strong>of</strong><br />
52<br />
eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g. <strong>The</strong> Inter-L<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g Rivers Project is<br />
53<br />
one prom<strong>in</strong>ent example <strong>of</strong> this with<strong>in</strong> India. In<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> transboundary water governance, it too<br />
has, accord<strong>in</strong>g to Prasai and Surie, long been<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ated by technical perspectives from civil<br />
54<br />
eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g, economics, and <strong>in</strong>ternational law .<br />
Moreover, state and non-state actors at both<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational and sub-national levels subscribe to<br />
and propagate a global discourse around<br />
hydropower as <strong>the</strong> 'green' and susta<strong>in</strong>able source<br />
<strong>of</strong> energy. This discourse, <strong>in</strong> turn, is used to<br />
streng<strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> argument for <strong>the</strong> construction <strong>of</strong><br />
more and larger dams <strong>in</strong> India's mounta<strong>in</strong>ous<br />
north-eastern states, as well as <strong>in</strong> Nepal and<br />
Bhutan. Huber and Joshi show that <strong>in</strong> Sikkim a<br />
'<strong>the</strong>re is no alternative' narrative is be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
constructed by state and commercial non-state<br />
actors (but not civil society) about <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>evitability<br />
and <strong>in</strong>herent worth <strong>of</strong> big hydropower dams. At<br />
<strong>the</strong> same time, <strong>the</strong>se dam narratives are used to<br />
re<strong>in</strong>force <strong>the</strong> image <strong>of</strong> Sikkim as a 'green state'. <strong>The</strong><br />
confluence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se narratives results <strong>in</strong> colored<br />
representations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cost benefit equation <strong>of</strong><br />
hydropower development, which tend to<br />
overestimate pay-<strong>of</strong>fs (e.g., low variable costs <strong>of</strong><br />
generation, employment, electrification, rural<br />
<strong>in</strong>frastructure, plentiful revenues) and<br />
u n d e r r e p o r t o n p o t e n t i a l n e g a t i v e<br />
55<br />
consequences . This is not unique to Sikkim but<br />
also can be said to be true at <strong>the</strong> transboundary<br />
level. Both Nepal and Bhutan are cultivat<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
'green' image while at <strong>the</strong> same time keen to<br />
exploit <strong>the</strong>ir hydropower potential for economic<br />
ga<strong>in</strong> and o<strong>the</strong>r benefits.<br />
CONCLUSION<br />
Understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> way <strong>in</strong> which water resources<br />
are governed <strong>in</strong> India, and how <strong>in</strong>ter-state water<br />
d i s p u t e s a r e n e g o t i a t e d , i l l u m i n a t e s<br />
transboundary water governance <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Ganges</strong>-<br />
<strong>Brahmaputra</strong>-<strong>Meghna</strong> bas<strong>in</strong>. India's domestic<br />
w a ter g o v e r n a n ce i s f ra g m e n te d a n d<br />
decentralised which, among o<strong>the</strong>r problems,<br />
creates ambiguity over water ownership and thus<br />
leads to <strong>in</strong>ter-state disputes. <strong>The</strong>se disputes<br />
could, under law, be arbitrated <strong>in</strong> special tribunals<br />
established specifically for resolv<strong>in</strong>g water issues<br />
between India's states. But <strong>the</strong> tribunals are<br />
largely <strong>in</strong>effective. Transboundary water issues,<br />
too, cannot be resolved by a higher authority such<br />
a s a R i ver B a s i n O r g a n i s ation. B o t h<br />
transboundary water disputes and India's <strong>in</strong>terstate<br />
ones are subject to <strong>in</strong>tense politick<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
With<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Indian polity, however, domestic<br />
water issues divert political attention away from<br />
transboundary ones. Indian states also have<br />
significant <strong>in</strong>fluence over transboundary water<br />
governance, and at times this is at odds with<br />
India's central government.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are various parallels between how water<br />
resources are managed <strong>in</strong> India and how <strong>the</strong>y are<br />
managed with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> broader <strong>Ganges</strong> -<br />
<strong>Brahmaputra</strong>-<strong>Meghna</strong> bas<strong>in</strong>. <strong>The</strong>y are both driven<br />
by grow<strong>in</strong>g demand for water which leads to<br />
supply-side solutions. <strong>The</strong>y are both constra<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
by power asymmetries between stakeholders, and<br />
are subject to complex political dynamics which<br />
must be taken <strong>in</strong>to consideration <strong>in</strong> any watershar<strong>in</strong>g<br />
negotiation. <strong>The</strong>re is a strong preference<br />
for bilateral, ra<strong>the</strong>r than multilateral,<br />
arrangements at both <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ter-state level and <strong>the</strong><br />
transboundary. Both are also hampered by <strong>the</strong> lack<br />
<strong>of</strong> adequate hydrological data, and <strong>the</strong> reluctant<br />
shar<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> what is available. Zero-sum attitudes<br />
toward water shar<strong>in</strong>g prevail both with<strong>in</strong> India and<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Ganges</strong>-<strong>Brahmaputra</strong>-<strong>Meghna</strong> bas<strong>in</strong> as a<br />
whole. Supply-side solutions and <strong>the</strong> global<br />
discourse about 'green' hydropower dom<strong>in</strong>ate and<br />
drive dam construction. <strong>The</strong>se parallels between<br />
water governance at <strong>the</strong> state scale and <strong>the</strong><br />
transboundary scale can be leveraged to ref<strong>in</strong>e<br />
policy approaches at both levels.<br />
<strong>The</strong> primary conclusion <strong>of</strong> this analysis is that<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>of</strong> Indian states <strong>in</strong> transboundary<br />
water negotiations cannot be ignored. Secondly,<br />
Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh must all deal with<br />
Indian states <strong>in</strong> addition to <strong>the</strong> central<br />
government. This adds an extra layer <strong>of</strong><br />
ORF ISSUE BRIEF No. 112 • NOVEMBER 2015<br />
7
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Politics</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Governance</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Ganges</strong>-<strong>Brahmaputra</strong>-<strong>Meghna</strong> Bas<strong>in</strong><br />
complexity and difficulty that may stall or prolong<br />
discussions.<br />
Domestic water disputes with<strong>in</strong> India take<br />
precedence over transboundary ones, and this<br />
affects <strong>the</strong> political will <strong>in</strong>vested <strong>in</strong> transboundary<br />
water policy. Similarly, <strong>the</strong> Indian states are, on<br />
<strong>the</strong> whole, opposed to <strong>the</strong> creation <strong>of</strong> a River Bas<strong>in</strong><br />
Organisation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Ganges</strong>-<strong>Brahmaputra</strong>-<br />
<strong>Meghna</strong> bas<strong>in</strong>, and this is a fur<strong>the</strong>r hurdle for<br />
policy-makers <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> this <strong>in</strong>stitutional<br />
approach to transboundary water governance.<br />
Lastly, zero-sum attitudes are deeply <strong>in</strong>gra<strong>in</strong>ed at<br />
both <strong>the</strong> transboundary and state scales, and<br />
policy-makers should focus on enabl<strong>in</strong>g positivesum<br />
negotiations <strong>in</strong> addition to tak<strong>in</strong>g a water<br />
justice approach.<br />
ABOUT THE AUTHOR<br />
Paula Hanasz is complet<strong>in</strong>g her PhD at <strong>the</strong> Australian National University, Crawford School <strong>of</strong> Public Policy. She was an ORF<br />
Visit<strong>in</strong>g Fellow <strong>in</strong> 2014.<br />
ENDNOTES:<br />
1. Iyer, Ramaswamy R. Towards <strong>Water</strong> Wisdom: Limits, Justice, Harmony. New Delhi: Sage, 2007, pp. 113-114<br />
2. Lahiri-Dutt, Kuntala. 'Introduction' <strong>in</strong> Lahiri-Dutt, Kuntala and Wasson, Robert J. (eds.) <strong>Water</strong> First: Issues and<br />
Challenges for Nations and Communities <strong>in</strong> South Asia. New Delhi: Sage, 2008, p. xxvii<br />
3. Cullet, Philippe. '<strong>Water</strong> Law <strong>in</strong> India: Overview <strong>of</strong> Exist<strong>in</strong>g Framework and Proposed Reforms' Work<strong>in</strong>g Paper 2007-<br />
01. Geneva: International Environmental Law Research Centre, 2007, p. 4<br />
4. Hill, Douglas. '<strong>The</strong> Regional <strong>Politics</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Water</strong> Shar<strong>in</strong>g: Contemporary Issues <strong>in</strong> South Asia' <strong>in</strong> Lahiri-Dutt, Kuntala,<br />
and Wasson, Robert J. (eds.) <strong>Water</strong> First: Issues and Challenges for Nations and Communities <strong>in</strong> South Asia. New Delhi:<br />
Sage, 2008, p. 62<br />
5. Lahiri-Dutt, Kuntala. 'Introduction' <strong>in</strong> Lahiri-Dutt, Kuntala and Wasson, Robert J. (eds.) <strong>Water</strong> First: Issues and<br />
Challenges for Nations and Communities <strong>in</strong> South Asia. New Delhi: Sage, 2008, p. xxvii<br />
6. Wood, John R. <strong>The</strong> <strong>Politics</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Water</strong> Resource Development <strong>in</strong> India: <strong>The</strong> Narmada Dams Controversy. New Delhi: Sage,<br />
2007, p. 40<br />
7. Mohan, N. Shantha, Routray, S., and Sashikumar, N. (eds.) River <strong>Water</strong> Shar<strong>in</strong>g: Transboundary Conflict and<br />
Cooperation <strong>in</strong> India. New Delhi: Routledge, 2010, p. ix<br />
8. Iyer, Ramaswamy R. Towards <strong>Water</strong> Wisdom: Limits, Justice, Harmony. New Delhi: Sage, 2007, p. 25<br />
9. Dash, Kishore C. Regionalism <strong>in</strong> South Asia: Negotiat<strong>in</strong>g cooperation, <strong>in</strong>stitutional structures, New York: Routledge,<br />
2008, p. 40<br />
10. D<strong>in</strong>ar, Shlomi. '<strong>Water</strong>, Security, Conflict and Cooperation' SAIS Review22:2 (2002), pp. 246-247<br />
11. Prasai, Sagar, and Surie, Mandak<strong>in</strong>i. Personal communication with author. New Delhi, 7 July 2014<br />
12. D<strong>in</strong>ar, Ariel, S. D<strong>in</strong>ar, S. McCaffrey, and D. McK<strong>in</strong>ney. Bridges Over <strong>Water</strong>: Understand<strong>in</strong>g Transboundary <strong>Water</strong><br />
Conflict, Negotiation and Cooperation. World Scientific Series on Energy and Resource Economics - Vol. 3. S<strong>in</strong>gapore:<br />
World Scientific Publish<strong>in</strong>g Co., 2007, p. 255<br />
13. Bhaduri, Amita, and Kaushal, Sabita. Personal communication with author. New Delhi, 25 July 2014<br />
14. Iyer, Ramaswamy R. Towards <strong>Water</strong> Wisdom: Limits, Justice, Harmony. New Delhi: Sage, 2007, pp. 113-114<br />
15. Chokkakula, Sr<strong>in</strong>ivas. Disputes, (de)Politicization and Democracy: Interstate <strong>Water</strong> Disputes <strong>in</strong> India, Work<strong>in</strong>g Paper<br />
No. 108, RULNR Work<strong>in</strong>g Paper No. 13, January 2012, Hyderabad: Centre For Economic And Social Studies,<br />
Research Unit For Livelihoods And Natural Resources, 2012, p. 12<br />
16. Iyer, Ramaswamy R., 'Resolv<strong>in</strong>g River <strong>Water</strong> Disputes <strong>in</strong> India: Reflections' <strong>in</strong> Mohan, N. Shantha, Routray, S., and<br />
Sashikumar, N. (eds.) River <strong>Water</strong> Shar<strong>in</strong>g: Transboundary Conflict and Cooperation <strong>in</strong> India. New Delhi: Routledge,<br />
2010, p. 76<br />
17. Zeitoun, Mark, Warner, J., Mirumachi, N., Mat<strong>the</strong>ws, N., McLaughl<strong>in</strong>, K., Woodhouse, M., Cascão, A., and Allan,<br />
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