PhD thesis Title Page Final _Richard Juma - Victoria University ...

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strategies 19 and achievement of sustainable livelihoods. The idea is not new. An earlier study by Gulliver (1955) established that in the pre- colonial period social relations among Turkana pastoralists were a critical part of the production system. Theoretically, the study seeks to investigate and explain two basic components of the adaptive phenomenon. First, the specific types of social networks 20 activated during the 2005-2006 drought and famine in the endeavour to survive 21. However, how to identify these relationships is a real challenge. Nomadism presents several problems for a standard network analysis approach (most network analysts have studied settled communities). It is not possible to delineate a herd owner’s total network of social relations since it would take a lifetime to come into contact with all the people who are part or potentially apart, of a nomadic social network. For example, in Turkana, a person’s residence frequently and irregularly changes. The qualities of an individual’s social ties vary both in number and temporarily through the course of the year, and throughout a lifetime. To overcome this problem, I place more emphasis on the quality of specific relationships rather than the quantity, and focus only on those social relations that emerged during the 2005-2006 droughts and famine, and allowed the Turkana people to implement their livelihood strategies to good effect, and hence towards the sustainability of their livelihood. Secondly, it is important to examine the social and economic determinants of adaptability 22. Toulmin (1986) has argued that people’s responses to food insecurity are often differentiated by socio-economic factors, and that this determines a range of coping options at a household’s disposal. This 19 Strategies are referred to here as thoughts, plans, or behaviours that Turkana people employ in their attempts to utilise scarce resources. 20 I use the concept ‘network’ because it allows me to focus on friendship ties of particular individuals who provide each other a type of resource security during environmentally stressful times. This will be key to the discussion in chapter 6. 21 I use the term ‘survive’ because, during difficult periods (i.e the dry season and especially drought) life in Turkana is oriented toward survival. 22 See chapter 7 for detailed discussion. 19
argument is supported by Pottier (1993) who observes that periodic or chronic food stress does not cause all members of a population to be similarly or equally affected. The dryland areas may share common characteristics and occupying populations may experience similar problems, but livelihood sustainability levels may differ greatly depending on the availability of socio-economic resources. It is argued here that for us to discuss the policy issues emanating from this study more meaningfully, we should not only address livelihood responses per se, but also the socio-economic factors which promote or impede local responses to drought and famine in the Turkana District. It is only with such knowledge that we can make intelligent and informed suggestions about what outsiders can do to help without undermining Turkana initiatives. The research undertaken in the preparation of this <strong>thesis</strong> was predicated on the idea that to make such a critical analysis and improve policy formulation, it was necessary to look at more than one community. The effects of the 2005-2006 droughts and famine were not the same in all areas of the Turkana District, but within the time and resource constraints placed on a <strong>PhD</strong> exercise, it was only possible to carry out research in two contrasting Turkana villages reportedly hardest hit by the 2005-2006 drought and famine. The two sites, Morulem (rural) and Lokichar (urban) were selected with an understanding that the data collected would enable me to document the response differences to drought and famine followed by each community (see the location of the two study areas in Figure 1). Data were obtained through documentary review, in-depth key informant interviews, household survey and case histories. A random sampling method was used. In Morulem, I interviewed 45 household 23 heads and 5 key informants while in Lokichar, I interviewed 35 household heads and 3 key informants. The success of this is reported in chapters 3, 6 and 7. 23 Refer to chapter 3 for a fuller discussion of the term ‘household’ 20
Page 1 and 2: Turkana livelihood strategies and a
Page 3 and 4: Abstract Drought and famine in Sub-
Page 5 and 6: Acknowledgement This work was carri
Page 7 and 8: Table of contents Abstract ........
Page 9 and 10: 4.7 demographic considerations ....
Page 11 and 12: CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF
Page 13 and 14: Figure 22 Percentage loss in livest
Page 16 and 17: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Historic
Page 18 and 19: settlers and indigenous farmers. Si
Page 20 and 21: esults in increased deterioration o
Page 22 and 23: prolonged droughts as herders 3 los
Page 24 and 25: disease infection as they became vi
Page 26 and 27: Figure 1: Map of Turkana the study
Page 28 and 29: temporary assistance to impoverishe
Page 30 and 31: local patterns of adjustment to dro
Page 32 and 33: stress (Soja 1968). The ability to
Page 36 and 37: Therefore, the main goal of this st
Page 38 and 39: Devereux and Naeraa (1996); Hussein
Page 40 and 41: neighbours, such as the Samburu, an
Page 42 and 43: occupation of the poor (Robinson 19
Page 44 and 45: are aimed to directly reduce pressu
Page 46 and 47: 1.6 Justification for the study. Th
Page 48 and 49: placed on the contribution of socia
Page 50 and 51: CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1
Page 52 and 53: 2.2 Emergence of the sustainable li
Page 54 and 55: livelihood to cope with and recover
Page 56 and 57: change and development. Here, it im
Page 58 and 59: Figure 3: A framework for micro-pol
Page 60 and 61: draw when pursuing different liveli
Page 62 and 63: 2.3 Symbolic interaction theory and
Page 64 and 65: egging, and the pawning of women an
Page 66 and 67: to stress, especially to rapid popu
Page 68 and 69: climate, and socio-economic conditi
Page 70 and 71: livelihood security and sustainabil
Page 72 and 73: somewhat overlooked by the liveliho
Page 74 and 75: and the degree of variations (or ho
Page 76 and 77: The reasons for choosing Morulem as
Page 78 and 79: Figure 5: Total households in each
Page 80 and 81: Sampling key informants: There was
Page 82 and 83: Library research was carried out at
Page 84 and 85:
Once I had found somewhere to live
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interviews (nine days for Morulem a
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constituted changes in response to
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interviewing the Turkana pastoralis
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directly and gave me the reasons wh
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a vehicle could bring to a rural pa
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with my 3 rd wife. Obviously, it wa
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interviews and/or interviewees. The
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in reciprocal claims and social net
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to thorough analysis to eliminate a
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me for a period of two years to ass
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CHAPTER 4 THE TURKANA REGION: HISTO
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4.2 Brief historical background of
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group rapidly expanded and migrated
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Pokot. East of the Pokot and in the
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The Turkana know their environment
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July. Precipitation is somewhat cor
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Figure 7 Population projections by
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normally get access to graze their
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and Suguta. According to Norconsult
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forming a canopy forest with little
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capital, and the material culture o
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Kenya and Sudan. There are shortfal
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secondary schools, as compared to b
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the medical services and end up dea
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stock, greatly depends on the avail
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Traditionally, livestock ownership
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The importance of livestock in the
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informants, relatives, neighbours a
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to pay bridewealth (Key Informant I
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For instance, Apthorpe (1986) estab
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the same clan, and to avoid giving
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Figure 13: Married Turkana women. 9
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Informants argued that when a widow
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has made visible efforts to develop
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people overtime. It is argued here
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stems from arguments raised by hist
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the history of the Turkana, drought
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also lead to conflict with other he
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5.2.2 History of Negative Policy En
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an ideological justification for co
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mobilisation of young men into well
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the British administration in Turka
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of northern West Kenya. The colonia
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fishing (Turkana Development Annual
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The project failed due to lack of s
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Similar problems hampered other dev
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influence of irregularly - and some
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uild shelters, the satellite camps
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neighbourhoods in an area of about
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As discussed previously, the Turkan
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Figure 17: Territorial sections in
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Each age-set has distinct character
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cutting of these species of trees f
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considerable period of time. He wou
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unsustainable costs. The Turkana lo
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CHAPTER 6 THE 2005-2006 DROUGHT IMP
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drought as compared to the 1979-198
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also foot and mouth disease which a
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informants explained that camels, u
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On the defence of pastures during p
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Crude computation of the data gives
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Figure 19: Interpretation of the ca
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ebellious warriors and their genera
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partly help to explain why not many
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interviews. It represented a consen
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asking for assistance is not only a
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able to maintain a fairly steady su
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limits. In 2006, the 10 public prim
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Number of students enrolled 90 80 7
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than group solidarity. 142 However,
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Table 11: Gifts exchanged by Turkan
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iii) Gift exchanges in Turkana duri
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Another respondent narrated how he
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when to give, sell or slaughter an
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that emerged during the 2005-2006 d
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passively, but ventured out creativ
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CHAPTER 7 FACTORS THAT IMPINGE ON A
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According to Table 14, the two stud
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To appreciate the analysis in Table
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estimating global income poverty fi
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it was clear that respondents were
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‘poor’ category though reduced
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Notes: • Households in each categ
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environment became quite marked. Ap
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Notes: I) The food sources were arr
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7.5 Chapter summary The major focus
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strategies in one approach. How pas
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the puzzling problem with numbers.
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The sustainable livelihood model ha
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that Turkana people are passive and
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nation is usually caught unaware of
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Baker, M. J., and Lovenbury, H. T.
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Chambers, R. (1995). Poverty and Li
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Dietz, A. J., and Salih, M. A. M. (
Page 274 and 275:
Goldschmidt, W. (1969). Kambuya's C
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Kabeer, N. (2000b). Resources, Agen
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McCabe, J. T. (1990). Success and F
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Pennings, J. M. E., and Smidts, A.
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Soja, E. (1968). The Geography of M
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Von Hohnel, L. (1894). Discovery of
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Appendices Appendix 1: Household Pr
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3………………………….. 1
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Appendix 3: Key Informants Schedule
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Appendix 5: Gender and the Division
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Appendix 7: Introductory Letter fro
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Appendix 9: Pre and Post the 2005-2
Page 298 and 299:
Appendix 10: Pre and Post the 2005-
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285
Page 302 and 303:
287
Page 304:
289
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