RADICAL TEFL

work; by the British philosopher Stephen Toulmin (1990); and the origins in the USA
are explored by Paul Croce (1995).
We find in these protests against claims to objectivity and to certainty (which James
and Dewey encapsulated in their 'pragmatic' description of enquiry) some essential
elements of some post-modern ideas about 'subjective' enquiry such as: (1) helpful
enquiry is local and context-bound; (2) enquiry as working from a standpoint,
eschewing the stance of a dispassionate and 'objective' spectator; and so (3) exploring
the potentialities of 'subjective enquiry'; (4) an approach to enquiry aimed at helping
individuals find knowledge-for-themselves through their own solutions to their own
problems. A focus on such subjective approaches to enquiry, starting from a particular
standpoint, is influential in much social and educational research now.
However, Dewey would have argued that exclusively subjective enquiry risks being
insecure, because subjective strategies can easily lack both a rationalist/reflective, and
a self-correcting (validating) component. Dewey's theory, arguing for the unity of
enquiry, implies that it is unnecessary to choose between a 'scientific / experimental'
and a 'subjective' approach to enquiry. Rather, his theory seems to open the way for
the dual approaches of, on the one hand, 'scientific'/ experimental (which are selfcorrecting)
and on the other hand, 'subjective' strategies (which respect the local) to be
combined, and so to reinforce each other. This could result in a reliable and selfcorrecting
understanding of problem-solving teacher enquiry, well-suited for local
situations, based on teacher and student experience, and where there is no ambition to
make claims beyond finding solutions to the difficulties, problems and failures of
one's students. The way to achieve this synthesis, Dewey argued (and to summarise
his theory) is by welding 'experimental / reflective' enquiry to a local standpoint and
to a local problematic situation.
Summary and link to a follow-up study I presented Dewey's understanding that
there is a unity to enquiry. I then explored implications of his theory for teacher
research. Dewey regarded learning, also, as enquiry (1910), and this insight could be
an entry point for an exploration of how his observations and arguments on enquiry
might be extrapolated to an understanding of how second-language learning takes
place. 45 A study in preparation will draw from Dewey's understanding of enquiry, as
introduced here, in a study of learning and failing to learn EFL, and will draw also
from literature in mathematics education on learning and student failure.
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E-version : November 2016 / 23 RES 100
(The e-version is the same as the print version, apart from some minor corrections and additions)
RADICAL TEFL 4, MARCH 2017
45 Learning as a process. In his Studies in Experimental Logic, (1916, EMEREO reprint, pp. 24, 43, 46 &
50).), Dewey understands the learning as a process which includes (paraphrased in bold, and in italics
for direct quotes): guessing; classification of new information; reflection against other data;
“running over various ideas; developing new suggestions; comparing with one another”, carrying
out “thought experiments”; experimentation and trial and error; hunting for insights and for
unifying principles; looking for analogy with what is already known; comparison; and
abandoning attachment to an idea.
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