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Nicolas: Musical Terms in Malay Literature NSC Working Paper No. 24
common during the Central Javanese period from the 8th to the 10th century, and slowly
disappeared during the East Javanese period beginning in the mid-10th-century (Nicolas
2007, 2009; Kunst 1968). Musical data embedded in these inscriptions are fairly accurate.
For example, inscriptions record historical events and royal edicts of reigning monarchs.
However, in literary writings, there is a tendency for writers and copyists to expand and
embellish texts.
In Malay classical literature, Sanskrit-derived musical terms appear in the form
of Old Javanese terms, mainly from the kakawin genre (such as the Rāmāyaṇa and
Mahābhārata epics), and in the form of Middle Javanese terms, mainly from the kiduṅ
genre of Pañji tales, as well as Javanese literature from the 16th century. The inclusion of
all the three types of Javanese musical terms did not occur at the same time, but probably
developed over time. The manuscripts that are extant today, which are mostly dated to
the 17th and 18th centuries, bear the marks of this long-term musical exchanges between
‘Jawa’ and ‘Melayu’: 70
mengigal-igal: igĕl, dance 71
beksan: baksa, to dance 72
gong: goṅ 73
tandak: taṇḍak, to dance 74
wayang: wayaṅ, shadow play 75
taboh: tabeh, drum 76
merakat: rakĕt, play 77
With the exception of rakĕt, all the other six terms are found in contemporary
musical practice in Java. The term bedaya is also current and had been known from at
least the beginning of the 17th century (Florida 1992:22–24). 78
The five texts dating from the late 14th century with musical references examined
here, viz. Hikayat Bayan Budiman, Hikayat Amir Hamzah, Hikayat Muhammad Hanafiah,
Hikayat Raja Pasai, and Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain, are contemporaneous with the
appearance of the Terengganu Stone Inscription. This inscription is dated February 22,
70 The spread of the Malay language in the coasts of Sumatra and Java bear witness to this exchange, and
several Malay literary genres have found their way into middle Javanese literature. These exchanges are still
current as we find that Javanese and Balinese settlers in West Malaysia have brought with them their musics
and dances and have become, by virtue of settlement and the acquisition of Malaysian citizenship, part of
the musical landscape of contemporary Malaysia. For a very detailed study of the term ‘Melayu’, see Andaya
2001.
71 OJED 669 [Hkt Bayan Budiman; Hkt Muhammad Hanafiyah; Hkt Pandawa Lima; Hkt Inderaputra;
Hikayat Hang Tuah].
72 OJED 192 [Hikayat Raja Pasai].
73 OJED 535 [Hikayat Raja Pasai].
74 OJED 1429 [Hikayat Raja Pasai].
75 OJED 2229 [Hikayat Raja Pasai].
76 OJED 1892 [Hkt Seri Rama; Hkt Inderapatra; Hkt Inderaputra].
77 OJED 1491 [Sejarah Melayu; Sulalatus-Salatin].
78 By tradition, the dance is attributed to the reign of Sultan Agung, Mataram’s third and mightiest king
(r. 1613– 46).
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