VERMEER CANA TURNER

Johannes Vermeer 

Girl Reading a Letter at an 

Open Window, 1657 

Oil on canvas, 83 x 64,5 cm 

Gemäldegalerie, Dresden 

Camille Pissarro 

The Road from Versailles at 

Louveciennes, 1870 

Oil on canvas, 100 x 81 cm 

Private collection 

Bernardo Bellotto 

Capriccio with the Colosseum 

1743‐44 

Oil on canvas 

Galleria Nazionale, Parma 

Théodore Gericault 

Evening: Landscape with an 

Aqueduct, 1818 

Oil on canvas, 250.2 x 219.7 cm 

The Metropolitan Museum, New York

Claude Monet 

Sunrise, 1872 


Musée Marmottan Monet, Paris 

Bernardo Bellotto 

Liechtenstein Garden Palace in Vienna. 

1759‐60 


Liechtenstein Museum, Vienna 


View of Delft, 1659‐60 


Mauritshuis, The Hague 

Pierre‐Auguste Renoir 

Dance in the Moulin de la 

Galette,1876 


Musée d'Orsay, Paris

How has Vermeer, 

Canaletto and Turner 

depicted the 

importance of sunlight 

in numerous

After careful research and consideration, I have narrowed my decision 

down to the theme of Sun for my museum exhibition. My reasoning’s 

behind this theme is because sun is projected in majority of mediums 

covering drawing, paintings, and architecture. It is a natural source that 

has been present since the beginning of time and used daily by 

everything. With the sun having such a strong impact on everything 

around us, including ourselves, I intend to investigate the use of this 

source and how it has influenced and been portrayed onto art 

throughout the centuries. 

In this investigation of analysis I will include a variety of art consisting 

the subject of Sun with the intentions of making an exhibition. 

To conclude my research I will keep a biography of the evidence behind 

the analysis, using primary sources as well as newspapers, museums, 

articles, documentaries, books, and the internet in general (avoiding 

unreliable sources). With this information, I could then develop a 

suitable poster helping with its visual appearance, targeted audience, 

and location for the exhibition. Further detail into this exhibition, I will 

discover how Johannes Vermeer, Canaletto and Turner depicted the 

importance of sunlight in numerous paintings. 

Beginning with Vermeer, he was present during the 

Dutch Golden Period. The Dutch Golden Age 

spanned the 17th century, in which 

Dutch trade, science, military, and art were among 

the most acclaimed in the world. In 1568, the Seven 

Provinces that later signed the Union of Utrecht, 

started a rebellion against Philip II of Spain that led 

to the Eighty Years' War. The War ended in 1648. 

The Golden Age continued during the Dutch 

Republic until the end of the century. 

Although Dutch painting comes in the general 

European period of Baroque painting, and shows 

many of its features that lacks the idealization and 

Baroque work. The period is best known for 

reflecting the traditions of realism which was 

inherited from Early Netherlandish painting.

Johannes Vermeer was a 17 th century 

Baroque, Flemish Dutch painter, born on 31st 

October 1632, in the southern part of the 

Netherlands, Delft. He was a son to Reijnier 

Janszoon and Digna Baltens, who were 

middle‐class innkeepers and silk weavers, but 

for an unknown reason they had changed his 

surname to Vermeer. His father associated 

with the Guild of St. Luke where he traded and 

sold various paintings. This is suggested where 

Vermeer’s art profession had begun. His early 

years, being apprenticed under artists like 

Leonart Bramer, Vermeer produced many 

biblical and mythological paintings but then 

gradually favouring everyday life scenes in his 

later works. Vermeer married Catherine, 

having 15 children in total. He supposedly died 

of a stroke on 16 th December 1675, leaving the 

family in debt. 

Delft during this period was an extremely 

traditional Catholic and Protestant province that 

was continuously being invaded by Spanish 

troops, affecting the economy and art market. 

This had added to Vermeer's debt as he only 

searched for local commissions which was 

unusual for an artist of this time. He focused on 

chiaroscuro, producing around 35 pieces of art, 

where he found patronage by a single Delft man 

named Pieter Van Ruijven. 

The Procuress (detail 

of a self portrait?) 


1656 

Oil on canvas, 143 x 

130 cm. 

Gemäldegalerie Alte 

Meister, Dresden

The term 'camera obscura' translates into 'dark chamber', 

as its most basic form was a dark room, windows 

shuttered, with a small hole on one wall. This method uses 

the sun to portray outlines onto a canvas to give accurate 

perspectives of what your trying to reveal. Once the light 

enters the room through the hole, the image outside is 

transposed invertedly onto the opposite wall. The light 

travels in a straight line also known as rectilinear 

propagation of light. The size of the hole influences the 

image as a small hole creates a sharp but dim image and a 

larger hole produces a brighter picture but less focused, 

with the sun only being clearly visible. 

It is suggested that Johannes Vermeer was 

the pioneer of a method called camera 

obscura. It is not certain that Vermeer used 

camera obscura but the evidence and 

layout of his composition has led many to 

believe that he used this technique in his 

later works as an aid for his painting. The 

camera obscura was the prototype of the 

photographic camera, but without the lightsensitive 

film or plate. 

Camera obscura changed around the mid‐ 

16th century after a man called Cardano 

replaced the pinhole with a lens, which was 

described in his book “De Substilitate Libri. 

This increased the brightness and image size. 

You could focus the image by moving the lens 

or the viewing surface.

A few convincing points were found in the visual qualities 

produced by Vermeer in his paintings to support the argument 

he used camera obscura. 

Variations principal planes of focus; 

precise diminution of ++; 

halation of highlights; 

precise treatment of reflections; 

closeness of the point of view to the window wall; 

precise convergence of parallel lines located in a plane 

perpendicular to the viewing axis; 

use of curtains to darken viewing room and control subject 

illumination; 

relative detail in still life portion versus figure detail; 

consistent proportions of the paintings (4‐5:5 or almost 

square); 

dimensional precision in rendering objects. 

It is suggested Vermeer used this method on the 

“View of Delft”. This oil painting was painted on 

canvas around 1659‐60, measuring 97cm x 116cm, 

which is now placed in Mauritshuis, The Hague. The 

painting was always labelled as his masterpiece and 

the most famous cityscape of the Dutch Golden Age, 

which covered majority of the 17th century. It was 

sold for the upmost amount of 200 guilders in the 

1696 auction of Dissius’s 21 Vermeer. The Mauritshuis 

bought it in 1822 for 2,900 guilders by the Dutch King, 

Willem I.

It is considered Vermeer painted the View of Delft 

in his home demonstrated on the image below. 

A photograph taken by Adelheid Rech of present day where 

Vermeer would have taken the painting. 

The painting has been divided into four horizontal 

groups: the quay, the water, the town, and the 

sky. He portrays an early morning with a blue sky 

along with a few dark clouds. The sky has just 

cleared up after a sudden bout of rain. Under 

these clouds, a shaft of sunlight touches the roofs 

of Vermeer’s landscape of Delft. The chiaroscuro 

of the buildings by one another creates a sense of 

depth as highlighted buildings creating shadowy 

surroundings.

About 15 figures are portrayed in this painting. The 

seven figures in the foreground signify Dutch society 

during the 17th century. Vermeer prided himself on 

portraying figures in their daily life as Delft was under 

Spanish rule so most paintings had to depict images of 

domesticity and the local surroundings with Christian 

morals and values. He portrays a mother with a child, 

men and two peasant women all wearing traditional 

clothing. They represent the idealism of Delft 

community during the peak of its working society. The 

three men where fashionable attire and the other 

figures wear peasant garment of black skirts and jackets 

with white collars. Vermeer had painted out a figure that 

stood to the right of the two‐peasant woman. 

Most of the town is shadowed apart from the 

central tower, the Nieuwe Kerk Church. The 

church has been emphasised by sunlight 

making it the cities symbolic core.

On the right of the painting, 

Vermeer depicts the Rotterdam 

Gate and above it is the main 

building with the barbican and 

twin towers. The building is 

shaded in front as the sun is 

coming from behind. Although, 

there are bright patches of sun, 

which is evidently above the 

gate. This identifies the light 

sourced and positioning of the 

clouds. The dramatic morning 

sky takes up over half of the 

picture which adds the illusion of 

a breezy climate. The patchiness 

of the shadows creates a 

baroque style which Vermeer 

was very fond of. 

In front is a double draw‐bridge shows a few 

small shipyards alongside the Schie canal. 

Smaller boats increased in the 17th century for 

the use of trade, specifically designed for the 

herring fishery. On these shipyards, faded 

figures are portrayed in the background and 

alongside the back wall.

This building is Schiedam Gate. 

Again, it had been shadowed using 

tints of white to highlight the 

corners to make the building seem 

three‐dimensional. The tiny clock 

shows it’s just past 7 o’clock, which 

gives the viewer a hint at the time 

of day it is. The buildings are made 

of red brick with a layer of 

limestone. The red brick was an 

affordable resource but the 

limestone was expensive and most 

likely imported. 

Behind the main gate building on the 

left, you can just about see the 

Armamentarium, also known as the 

weapons warehouse, that still stands 

today. This building was for storing 

large wooden material like planks, 

beams, grain mills on carts and 

battering rams, for warfare use.

This section of water is part of the River Schie that flows into the 

Rhine of Schiedam, near Rotterdam. This part of the river has a 

triangular form which had been in widened in 1614 that aided the 

harbour of Delft. Vermeer portrays a clear river with precise 

ripples on the water. The placing of light and shadow from these 

buildings above help predict the time this image was painted and 

helps define the cities distance. Thin strokes of brown‐grey and 

grey‐blue paint show reflection on the water and these are 

softened with a brush. Camera obscura has been used to show 

shimmering in the water to emphasize the shine so that each 

ripple could be depicted. 

Vermeer uses bold colours for his painting. The 

main colours used are lead white, yellow ochre, 

natural ultramarine, and madder lake. The sky is 

painted with a mild brown and yellow ochres to 

separate the clouds from the sunlight and other 

bold colours are used on the roof of the buildings 

and sunlit areas to create a deeper perspective. 

Vermeer mixed sand into the paint to create and 

uneven surface. The grainy effect gave the 

painting a three‐dimensional appearance. 

Vermeer used camera obscura in many of his oil 

paintings, like “The Milkmaid”, “Woman Holding 

her Balance”, and many more. The figures are 

placed in the exact same area with sunlight 

coming in from the left‐hand side. Vermeer has 

replaced a few objects and figure gestures, 

making the argument if he has used camera 

obscura or not, highly convincing.

Johannes Vermeer, 

Woman Holding a 

Balance 

1662‐63 

Oil on canvas, 42,5 x 38 

cm 

National Gallery of Art, 

Washington 

Without camera obscura, it wouldn’t be possible 

to create precise portraits of what you intend on 

revealing. A prime example of an artist from the 

17th century that didn’t use camera obscura is 

Louis de Caullery and you can see that the 

background of his painting is blurred. This is 

possibly because he was focusing on the two 

building in the front but it is still the view he 

intended on painting that would have come with 

great difficulty in making it accurate. 

Johannes Vermeer, 

The Milkmaid 

c. 1658 

Oil on canvas, 45,5 x 41 

cm 

Rijksmuseum, 

Amsterdam 

Louis de Caullery “A View of 

the Campidoglio, Rome” 17th 

century, oil on panel, 50 x 71 

cm. Private collection

Another suggest painting, along with the “View of Delft” that 

Vermeer most likely used camera obscura on was “Little 

Street”. Many locations for this image have been proposed, 

but the most suited location was the Vlamingstraat. 

Vlamingstraat was a narrow street that runs next to a canal 

in the centre of Delft, where Vermeer was born. 

The Little Street displays a mix of features, revealing painting 

on brick, wood, and glass, trees and sky, and portraying four 

figures of two women and two children. 

Vermeer supposedly sits in front of Old Woman’s and Old 

Man's Almshouse, which was directly across the street from 

Vermeer's home. The fact that the Delft almshouse was torn 

down in 1661 can be used to support the date assigned to 

this picture. 

A curator of 17th century paintings at the Rijksmuseum, 

Pieter Roelofs explains “The answer to the question as to the 

location of Vermeer’s The Little Street is of great significance, 

both for the way that we look at this one painting by 

Vermeer and for our image of Vermeer as an artist.” 


The Little Street 

1657–1661 

Oil on canvas 

54.3 x 44 cm 

Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam 

iVlamingstraat in Delft, at the 

point where the present‐day 

numbers 40 and 42 stand.

Vermeer uses thee clouds that 

are achieved with gentle but 

rapid diagonal brushstrokes of 

white with red ochre and blue 

azurite. Blue azurite was the 

most common blue found on 

the palette of 17th‐century 

Dutch painters, also used on 

the “View of Delft”. 

Grape vines are in a variety of 

Dutch cityscapes. However, 

Dutch grapes failed to produce 

drinkable wine because there 

was often little sunlight, so 

instead, used for a decorative 

effect. Vines have symbolized 

loyalty and marriage or 

domestic virtue but there is no 

evidence Vermeer made this 

link. 

He gives the illusion of a sunlit 

day. By adding clouds, he could 

emphasize on chiaroscuro 

within his portrait of the “Little 

Street”. 

Rows of worn cobblestones create a sense of depth. 

Soapy water streams down from the servants wash 

basin into a gutter, which runs along the wall 

dividing the properties of the doorways. The water 

then flowed into a canal below just out of view.

Vermeer depicted a house 

which dates from the late 

15th, or the beginning of the 

16th century. The house had 

tall ceilings, well‐lit rooms and 

unusual step‐gables making it 

one of the surviving medieval 

houses of the time. 

The house was saved by the 

Great Fire in 1536 which had 

destroyed a vast amount of 

Delft. It shows repainting and 

crack patches that may have 

been caused by another civic 

tragedy, which was the 

Thunderclap in 1654. 

Little Street remains the most naturalistic 

interpretations of a 17th‐century Dutch cityscape. 

The finished image shares topographic tradition of 

current landscape painting. 

The main building is unusually off‐centre and 

cropped off on the top, which encourages the 

sense of a close‐up, almost like a photograph, 

adding to the evidence of camera obscura. It is 

unlikely that it had been regarded as a memorial 

"portrait" of a specific house. 

Vermeer's signatureis 

imprinted above the 

rustic benches placed 

on the left of the 

canvas. 

An ammunitions magazine exploded killing hundreds of citizens 

and homes.

A fully‐clothed maid is portrayed 

washing laundry over a wooden 

barrel at the end of the private 

alleyway. 

A broom stands close to the 

figure. In the 17th century, 

sweeping and booms had strong 

relations with cleanliness and 

purity. The thought of domestic 

virtue was important to the 

Christendom and Dutch nation, 

hence why Vermeer painted the 

working life of citizens. 

Vermeer had initially painted a 

seated woman doing handiwork 

at the entrance of the alleyway. She was taken out as she was 

likely to be obstructing the passageway, effecting the three 

dimensionality. 

A boy and a girl are 

portrayed playing, facing 

away and dressed as 

miniature adults. By 

turning away from the 

viewer, Vermeer 

motivates us to explore 

the thoughts and 

emotions of his own 

childhood. 

The elderly woman is 

seen doing 

needlework, possibly 

sewing, judging by 

the large piece of 

clothe on her lap. 

Sewing was an 

attribute of domestic 

virtue of Biblical 

origin.

Vermeer was ahead of his time for his cityscapes from 

the help of the sun. The sun helped Vermeer to 

navigate the right proportions of buildings distances, 

layout, and figure proportions. It allowed Vermeer to 

use the sun to see where the reflections and shadows 

will fall, creating a three‐dimensional, dynamic 

illusion. 

Théophile Thoré‐Bürger 

Date taken – unknown, 

Author – unknown 

Many thought camera obscura wasn’t a talent as the 

picture was already there for you to paint, like 

tracing, but this technique had helped to advance in 

many aspects for things we use today. It has 

advanced portraiture and even make it come to ‘life’ 

through films. This all resulted with making him a 

master of Dutch painting and forever inspiring 

continuing artists like Théophile Thoré who aimed to 

rediscover Vermeer and the artist Giovanni Antonio 

Canal, better known as Canaletto. 

Antonio Visenti 

Portrait of Giovanni Antonio 

Canal, called Canaletto 

before 1735 

Engraving 

Royal Collection, Windsor

An 18 th century artist named Giovanni Antonio Canal, better known 

as Canaletto meaning “Little Canal”. He was a Rococo painter that 

was highly inspired by Vermeer and suggestively used the same 

technique as the Dutch master himself. Canaletto was born on 28 th 

October 1697 in Venice where he admired and depicted views of 

the city of Venice. He was a son to Bernardo Canal and Artemisia 

Barbieri. He began an occupation in his father’s steps as a theatrical 

scene painter. 

On his return from Rome in 1719, he began painting his well‐known 

topographical paintings which were said to be formed with the use 

of camera obscura for accuracy, under the training of the older Luca 

Carlevaris. Carlevaris was famous for his urban cityscapes. 

Canaletto's early artwork was painted 'from nature'. Majority of his 

later works tend to have distant figures, painted as blobs of colour. 

This was an effect formed by using a camera obscura because it 

blurred object further away. 

English collectors, on their Grand Tour, admired Canaletto’s artwork 

and often commissioned them through the agency of the merchant 

Joseph Smith. In 1739. Britain declared war on Spain and the 'War 

of Jenkins's Ear' began. This began after repeated depredations on 

British ships by Spanish 'guarda costas'. This was mainly a colonial 

war in Caribbean waters. It was named after a 

Captain Robert Jenkins. Britain declared war on 

Spain whose ear had been severed by the Spanish. 

The War lasted until 1748, but the war formed into 

a larger war called the Austrian Succession, which 

took place from October 1740 until October 1748. 

This war reduced Canaletto’s commissions greatly 

as it was too risky associating with the British. 

After his return to Venice, Canaletto was elected to 

the Venetian Academy in 1763. In his later works, 

he often worked from old sketches and continued 

painting until his death in 1768, successfully 

teaching his pupils; Bernardo Bellotto, Francesco 

Guardi, Michele Marieschi, Gabriele Bella, 

Giuseppe Moretti, and Giuseppe Bernardino Bison.

Canaletto often produced pictures that were above street level 

and not always portraying houses where they should be. Above 

ground level gives a clue as to how the views were found. The 

person commissioning a painting would have wanted a view from 

the main room of their house and that room was almost always on 

the first floor. 

Antonio Visenti 

Portrait of Giovanni 

Antonio Canal, called 

Canaletto 

before 1735 

Engraving 

Royal Collection, Windsor 

Cityscape painting of his is the “View of the Bacino di San Marco (St Mark’s Basin)”. 

Painted between 1730‐35. Oil on canvas 54cm x 71cm, placed in Pinacoteca di Brera, 

Milan 

Canaletto used the camera obscura method, the sun 

being the main resource. By putting curtains over the 

windows in front of the view of Bacino di San Marco, 

he would then make a small hole within one curtain. 

He then placed a lens or lenses in this hole. The 

sunlight then projected an upside‐down image onto a 

canvas or a sheet of paper, which Canaletto used a 

lot. This was a very similar method to Vermeer but 

Canaletto had access to a lens which made the made 

the image more precise and easier to form.

Canaletto produces a rococo approach to the layout of this scene, 

which was inherited from the Grand Tour from classical buildings and 

strong baroque shading. Every object observed from reality but 

arranged in an almost geometric sequence. The painting depicts a 

highly dynamical balance marked by a complex "choral" harmony 

which reveals its true nature. He did this by applying theoretical 

perspective to an object to simulate another, he rediscovered an 

object's natural perspective. He celebrates the height of Venice’s by 

portraying the working lives under a blue sky. 

completed in 1450. Canaletto manages to create a 

replica portraying smooth repetition and a 

harmonious design. In comparison to his English 

grey ground paintings, he uses soft traditional 

Venetian colours in the overall canvas, which were 

warm reds, orange, and tones of brown as you can 

see in the Palazzo Ducale. He creates Gothic, 

Moorish, and Renaissance architecture 

characteristics. 

Canaletto has portrayed a scene from Piazza San Marco, also known 

as St Mark’s Square. This building is Palazzo Ducale, or Doges Palace 

which was built in two parts. The eastern wing, which faces the Rio di 

Palazzo, was built between 1301 and 1340. The western wing, facing 

the Piazetta San Marco, took an additional 110 years to build and was 

First digital image by Roxane Sperber. Giovanni Antonio Canal 

(Canaletto), Cross‐section from an area of green trees on the horizon, 

Venice: the Piazzetta towards S. Giorgio Maggiore, ca. 1724, oil on 

canvas, 173.0 x 134.3 cm 

Second digital image by Roxane Sperber. Giovanni Antonio Canal 

(Canaletto), Cross‐section from area of water with wave, 

Westminster Bridge, with the Lord Mayor’s Procession on the, 

1747, oil on canvas, 95.9 x 127.6 cm, Yale Center for British Art, 

New Haven, Connecticut

The building is central‐right to the painting. Its structure consists of 

arches for doors and windows and smaller pillars holding the middle 

structure in the centre up. The pillars show a traditional 

Romanesque appearance, which was one of the main attributes to 

neoclassical paintings and artists on the Grand Tour. 

The fall of the shadows indicates that the San Marco view is shown 

in late morning light, while that of the Doge’s Palace is seen in the 

afternoon. The sun is supposedly beaming from the top left onto 

the building, creating shadows along the top of the building, right 

edge of the windows and darkness below in the arches to the doors. 

The use of chiaroscuro creates a sense of depth and liveliness to the 

urban surroundings and building, encouraging the image to come to 

life. 

In the centre, Canaletto portrays San Marco or 

translated into Saint Mark’s column. Placed to the left 

of Saint Mark is San Theodoro or other known as Saint 

Teodoro of Amasea, is hidden behind the building in 

this perspective. Saint Mark birth date is unknown. He 

was one of Christ's 70 disciples and the four 

evangelists, born in Cyrene, Libya. He travelled with 

Saint Barnabas and Saint Paul on religious missions, 

during which he founded the Church of Alexandria. He 

died in 68 A.D. 

In Alexandria, Egypt. His presence printed around 

Venice has become an iconic figure and the columns 

have become a gateway to the city. Until the mid‐ 

18th century, where Saint Mark and Saint Teodoro 

have become allegorical figures for justice as 

criminal executions were held at the piazetta. The 

two columns are painted red, signifying where public 

executions are held. Behind the columns and Doge’s 

Palace, you can see the back of the cathedral of St 

Mark's Basilica.

On the left of the painting, Canaletto 

has portrayed the bell tower of St 

Mark's Basilica, named the San Marco 

Campanile. It stands above all the 

other buildings, making it a symbolic 

mark for the cityscape. It is 98.6 

meters tall, making it the highest 

tower in Venice. It was completed in 

1152 by the Doge Domenico 

Morosini. 

Canaletto paints the tower one colour, matching the Doges Palace, 

creating an orange, yellow tint. A pyramidal top caps the tower. A 

golden weathervane in the form of an archangel Gabriel sits at the 

top of the point today but the point in Canaletto’s painting has been 

cropped out. The campanile reached its present form in 1514. The 

replica still stands after lightening and earthquakes has had its toll 

on the structure. It had been reconstructed in 1912 after its collapse 

in 1902, damaging its surroundings. 

Canaletto faces the Venetian lagoon which was 

completed in the early 15th century, though portions 

of it were rebuilt after a fire in 1574. He includes 

about ten figures in the foreground and many tiny 

figures in the background, supporting the case of 

Canaletto using camera obscura. 

The figure on the far left has been considered to 

Vermeer as he paints a portrait of the city. All the 

other figures seem to be transporting goods. Venice is 

famous for their canals and Gondolas which are flatbottomed, 

asymmetrical Venetian rowing boats. They 

are well suited to the conditions of the Venetian 

lagoon. They have similar features to a canoe, except 

it is narrower. Gondolas are handmade using 8 

different types of wood (fir, oak, cherry, walnut, elm, 

mahogany, larch, and lime) and are composed of 280 

pieces. The oars are made of beech wood.

For centuries, the gondola was the leading use of transportation and 

most common watercraft within Venice, having 8‐10,000 gondolas 

during the 17 th and 18 th century. Their primary role today is to carry 

tourists on rides at fixed rates, serving as traghetti (ferries) over the 

Grand Canal as public transportation. 

Canaletto created many paintings of Venice during his lifetime, some 

similar to “View of the Bacino di San Marco” but with slightly 

different perspectives. 

In this painting, he has produced a wider 

perspective, however with different colour tones 

creating a more sunny appearance. The sun is 

beaming directly onto the view, forming little 

contrast and resulting with fewer shadows from 

the buildings. Canaletto created many similar 

perspectives like “Palazzo Ducale and the Piazza di 

San Marco”, perhaps with different weather 

condition which was useful for propaganda and in 

perfecting the perfect view. 

Canaletto, 

Palazzo Ducale and the Piazza di San Marco 

c. 1755 


Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence

Canaletto painted Piazza San Marco from many different 

angles. This painting, which was originally in the collection of 

Prince of Liechtenstein, is now currently displayed in California. 

Piazza San Marco is the official centre of Venice 

where throughout the centuries, tourists all around 

the world come and celebrate and work in the 

offices of the state. Canaletto creates a sense of 

topographical detail into his composition with the 

sunlight coming from the right‐hand side. It shines 

onto the gothic architecture. 

Canaletto “View of Venice with St Mark’s” c.1735. Oil on canvas 46cm x 63cm. 

Displayed in Huntington Art Collection, San Marino, California, USA. 

He portrays Doges Palace in the background on the 

left with a geomantic, architectural structure, which 

is hidden behind the Basilica Byzantine Cathedral in 

the foreground of the image. Although, Canaletto 

manages to illuminate it with sunlight, still bringing 

it to the surface, making it central so it is still 

recognised and stands‐ out from the angle of the 

view.

The building on the left in the foreground dominates the image. This 

building is Basilica di San Marco, also known as Chiesa d’Oro (The 

Golden Church). This church was destroyed in 976 during a rebellion 

against Doge Pietro Candiano IV. A second church was built in 1063 but 

was not consecrated until 1094, after Saint Mark’s relics, which had 

been lost in the years following the destruction of the first church, 

were rediscovered. 

It has distinctive white and pale‐rose pigmented marble with opulent 

Byzantine decoration. The front of the structure displays five large 

round‐arches. He paints the gilded mosaic with bright strokes in 

comparison to the detailed building itself. Above every arch are four 

horses of St Mark, looted from the Hippodrome of Constantinople in 

1204. 

Canaletto portrays the Saint Teodoro of Amasea 

column vaguely, like in “View of the Bacino di 

San Marco (St Mark's Basin)” on the right in the 

background. However, this time he portrays 

Saint Teodoro and Saint Mark’s column together. 

The columns draw your attention to the 

background. It’s capped by a lion which was the 

Saints evangelistic symbol.

Past the columns you can just about see the island of San Giorgio 

Maggiore in the lagoon beyond. Adding the lagoon reminds and helps 

promotes Venice’s maritime history and watery location. Canaletto had 

a wide range of green earth colours in Venice ranging from deep forest 

greens to turquoise colours. He used green‐blue pigments to paint the 

water of the Venetian canals. In some of Canaletto’s paintings, he had 

recently introduced during his time in England, a blue pigment called 

blue verditer that had not been previously identified in his Venetian 

palette. This blue replaced the green earth pigments. 

Canaletto lightens the image with a clear blue sky 

and white clouds. The clouds and blue sky 

indicate a hot climate. He paints the clouds quite 

loosely, unlike in Vermeer’s painting which was at 

least a century earlier. Vermeer paints fluffy and 

bold clouds with a prominent dark cloud that 

partially covers the cityscape. Canaletto was 

famed for his use of light. He was influenced by 

Vermeer, who also includes a dark cloud which 

covers part of the city. 

Vermeer. “View of Delft” Detailed 

view of the clouds in comparison to 

Canaletto’s clouds. 

Canaletto “View of Venice with St 

Mark’s” Detailed view of the clouds in 

comparison to Vermeer’s clouds. 

This shadows and restricts the sunlight greatly as he 

paints a contract of light and shadow on the 

pavement. In comparison to the foreground, he 

emphasises the figures shadows where the sun is 

beaming onto them.

The long shadows stretch across the 

square, forming from the right to the left, 

suggests it is a late afternoon as the sun is 

about to go into sunset. 

Like Vermeer, Canaletto portrays the different social classes doing 

everyday responsibilities and general walking around the square. He 

differentiates the diverse classes by what they are wearing and what 

they are doing. Some figures are dressed down, with beige clothing 

which gives the viewer the impression of a less wealthy, social status 

and some are wearing all black with hats, almost like a uniform –just 

like the characters at the front in “View of Delft”. They give the 

impression of some sort of importance. 

Canaletto depicts the importance of the sun by using it as a powerful 

feature in creating depth in the painting. He uses a strong contrast 

with a high intensity of sunlight to create shadows and reflections of 

the architecture, objects and people onto the canal and pavement. 

Unlike Vermeer, he uses smooth brushstrokes to keep a flat surface, 

whereas Vermeer added sand to make it standout. 

The smooth appearance helps create a threedimensional 

appearance like a photograph with 

the help of realistic shadows and cutting off the 

painting like in “View of Venice with St Mark’s” on 

the right‐side, which was later used by artists like 

Edgar Degas. Canaletto’s use of sunlight was 

striking. He is announced for his precision with the 

suggested method of camera obscura. It has been 

considered that he left little clues as he did not 

want to be accused of potential witchcraft. 

Years on, Canaletto helped to influence many 

other artists in the progression of their careers 

still baffled by his accuracy. Joseph Mallord 

William Turner was one of the main artists 

inspired by Canaletto’s precisions. Although, 

Turner didn’t use camera obscura, but his 

paintings were also precise, including the sun in 

his oil paintings and other mediums of his art, 

helping the enhance the portraits.

Joseph Mallord William Turner 

Self‐Portrait 

c. 1799 


Tate Gallery, London 

Joseph Mallord William Turner was 

born April 1775, Maiden Lane, 

Covent Garden, London. His father, 

William Gay Turner moved to 

London around 1770 to follow his 

father’s trade, where he eventually 

became a barber and wig‐maker. His 

mother came from a line of 

prosperous London butchers and 

shopkeepers. 

Turner was sent to stay with uncles 

at Brentford in 1785 and 

Sunningwell in 1789, and to 

Margate in 1786 where he also 

attended school due to his mother, 

Mary Marshall, mental disturbance. 

At home his father encouraged his 

artistic talent. In December 1789, young Turner entered the Royal 

Academy Schools, where he progressed from the Plaister Academy, 

drawing from casts of ancient sculpture, to the life class in 1792. By 

1794, with his friend Thomas Girtin, he attended the evening ‘academy’ 

accommodated by Dr Thomas Monro at his house in the Adelphi, they 

both studied in copying works by other artists. 

Landscapes and antiquarian topography were 

popular during this period. In the following years he 

advanced in the styles of the Old Masters and made 

rapid progression in their techniques. He was 

favoured by many which led to big commissions by 

patrons like Richard Colt Hoare, William Beckford 

and Duke of Bridgewater. In 1819, Turner visited 

Italy. The first time he travelled to Venice, Rome and 

Naples where he was inspired by Canaletto. 

His father's death in 1829 affected him and his 

artwork, resulting with depression. His studies 

showed that he was a Romantic landscape painter, 

watercolourist and printmaker, which were said to 

have laid the foundation for Impressionism due to 

their careless brushstrokes in some of the paintings. 

He died in the house of his mistress Sophia Caroline 

Booth in Cheyne Walk, Chelsea on 19 December 

1851. He was recognised as "the painter of light“. 

His last words were suggested to be "The sun is 

God" before passing away.

Turner was present during a time where European politics, philosophy, 

science and communications were fundamentally reoriented. It was 

referred to as the “Age of Reason or the “Enlightenment”. The early 

Enlightment began in 1685 by natural philosophers of the Scientific 

Revolution, including Galileo, Kepler and Leibniz. The movement 

increased in the high Enlightment, lasting roughly until 1815. the high 

Enlightment was a time of religious faith being questioned among 

more rational lines and deists and materialists argued that the universe 

seemed to determine its own course without God’s intervention. The 

late Enlightment led to the French Revolution of 1789. This threw out 

the old authorities to remake society along rational lines. 

The Enlightenment produced numerous books, essays, inventions, 

scientific discoveries, laws, wars and revolutions. The American and 

French Revolutions were directly inspired by Enlightenment ideals. 

The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was 

the Encyclopaedia. This was published between 1751 and 1772 in 

thirty‐five volumes. The publication was compiled by Denis 

Diderot, Jean le Rond d'Alembert, and 150 scientists and philosophers 

who helped spread the ideas of the Enlightenment across Europe. 

The Enlightenment eventually resulted with the 19thcentury 

Romanticism. The term itself was invented in 

the 1840s, in England. However, the movement had 

been present since the late 18th century, primarily in 

Literature and Arts. 

In England, Wordsworth, Shelley, Keats, and Byron 

characterised Romanticism. Romanticists believed 

that the advances made by the Enlightenment were 

creating an cruel, and conformist society. They 

believed that science and rationality could never truly 

understand the world and the human personality. 

Romanticism conflicted with "classicism," where it 

portrays idealistic and the goodness of 

the natural. Romanticism shows logic and reason 

cannot explain everything. In the visual arts, 

Romanticism appeared in landscape painting from 

as early as the 1760s. British artists began to turn to 

introduce natural catastrophes and Gothic 

architecture.

Turner produced many Venetian paintings during his visit to Italy in the 

1830’s, which were influenced by Canaletto. Canaletto not only 

inspired the portraiture but also the technique. They both use 

squiggles, dashes and dots in their artwork. His lines are energic, fluid 

and subtle. He was also taught different styles from artists like Piranesi, 

Ducros,, Loutherbourgh, and Vernet. It is believed his intentions were 

to gather and transform foreign techniques to produce a unique style. 

The paint is thickly applied and masks the weave of 

the canvas. The base is white with layers of gray, 

beige and imprimatura. Glazes and scraps are craved 

creating light‐colored paint that create the luminous 

effect. The details of architecture and rigging are 

accomplished with very thin fluid paint occasionally 

reworked by scratching in with a blunt tool. At the 

1834 Royal Academy show, critics gave praise to the 

scene’s radiant, sparkling waters. 

Turner devised this Venetian cityscape as a symbolic 

salute to commerce. It was originally painted for 

Painted for Henry McConnel, The Polygon, Ardwick, 

Manchester but now lies with The National Gallery. 


Venice: The Dogana and San Giorgio Maggiore, 1834 

oil on canvas 

overall: 91.5 x 122 cm 

Widener Collection of The National Gallery of Art, Washington DC

The statue portrays two Atlases lifting a golden 

bronze sphere on the top of which is where Giuseppe 

Benoni's Fortune stands. By turning indicates the 

direction of the wind. The last renovation of the 

building was done by Alvise Pigazzi in 1838. 

On the right is the Punta della 

Dogana, topped by a statue of 

Fortune or Atlas. Punta della Dogana 

is located between the Grand and 

Giudecca Canals at the tip of an island 

in the Dorsoduro district. Adjacent 

to each other are the Dogana da Mar, Patriarchal Seminary, and Santa 

Maria della Salute. It is diagonal from the Piazza San Marco. This point 

was used for docking and customs as early as the beginning of the 15th 

century. The temporary structures built to store merchandise. The 

customs workers were replaced by the Punta della Dogana when it 

began construction in the 1670’s. 

The building continued to be a customs house, until 

the 1980s. After 20 years of abandonment, the 

Venice city council transformed it into a 

contemporary art space, designed by architect Tadao 

Ando. In June 2009, after 14 months of work, Punta 

della Dogana reopened to the public. Still today, the 

building has been presenting temporary exhibitions 

since.

Like in many of Canaletto’s Venice cityscapes, Turner copies the 

features of Canaletto’s paintings of granolas covering the cannels. He 

uses strong, bright natural light which creates long shadows from the 

west that helps to emphasise shadows, reflections of the objects and 

colours from objects. Shadows are boldly painted with the blue of the 

sky as it is reflected onto the surface, giving a sense of freshness and 

openness. 

Canaletto “View of 

Venice with St 

Mark’s” (Detailed) 

c.1735. Oil on 

canvas 46cm x 

63cm. Displayed in 

Huntington Art 

Collection, San 

Marino, California, 

USA 

Turner creates a much brighter image with fewer 

clouds. They appear as if they’ve been applied with a 

small pallet knife father than a brush. This creates a 

more three‐dimensional appearance, which both 

artists were good at portraying. One similar 

comparison is the shape of the clouds. They both 

create arches and shapes in the clouds to make them 

more realistic and not as blockish that can seem quite 

cartoon looking considering they both cut off the 

image, almost like a photograph. This will help with 

the importance of the sun coming through the clouds, 

making patches of shadows on the ground.

Although, Turner did enjoy the views of Italy, he also painted 

allegorical pieces which were more Romantic than the almost neoclassical 

looking images of Venice. Turner uses a completely different 

approach to “The Fighting Temeraire”. 

Turner did not necessarily use the importance of 

the sun as a tool to portray accurate landscapes 

like Vermeer and Canaletto, but with Canaletto’s 

influence, he used the sun as an allegoric 

message to the viewers of the 19 th century and 

onwards. 


The 'Fighting Temeraire' tugged to her Last Berth to be broken up 

1838‐39 


National Gallery, London

During a time of evolving adaptations to dated resources of 

transportation, Turners painting of “The Fighting Temeraire” depicts an 

accurate portrait of new machinery taking over. The 98‐gun ship 

'Temeraire' played a distinguished role in Nelson's victory at the Battle 

of Trafalgar in 1805, which is where the famous name of ‘Fighting 

Temeraire‘ was derived from. The ship remained in service until 1838. 

Temeraire was ordered from Chatham Dockyard on 9 December 1790, 

designed by Surveyor of the Navy Sir John Henslow and commissioned 

on 21 March 1799 under Captain Peter Puget. The ship was part 

of Neptune class, along with HMS Neptune and HMS Dreadnought. 

Turner has portrayed the ship being towed from 

Sheerness to Rotherhithe to be broken up. The 

is suggested to represent the decline of Britain's 

naval power. The Victory and Temeraire 

defeated Napoleon's forces with combined 

tactics. Ultimately it was the Temeraire what 

lead Britain to victory. The monumental ship is 

contrasted by the the new steam‐powered ship 

that is tugging the larger ship behind. 

The old war ship towers over the new 

Steam power tug, which is portrayed with 

little personality. He records the sad moment in 

his painting. 

It was suggest the ship was pulled by two tugboats 

not one, but for the sake of Turners depiction, he 

only shows one. The ship is being tugged 

ultimately to her death where it will soon be 

broken up for scraps. The replacement of the 

steam‐powered ship is smaller and more prosaic 

in comparison and could move a lot quicker due to 

it being powered by steam. 

Turner portrays the Temeraire with lack of 

vibrancy, using warm but pale colours, but quite 

translucent like it has been unfinished compared 

to the rest of the painting. This gives a ‘ghost ship’ 

appearance. 

A model of the HMS Temeraire (1798)

The first paddle tugs were steam powered which were first 

introduced to Britain. They were used to tow vessels up and down 

rivers, reducing the delays from having to wait for favourable tides 

and winds. The tug was the wooden hulled Monarch which was built 

by Edward Robson of South Shields in 1833. The tug was under 20m 

long and fitted with a 20HP single cylinder steam engine. 

The Monarch was acquired by John Watkins & William Ogilby in 1834 

and served the port of London until it was scrapped in 1876. 

It is portrayed a black and brown colour. This is not only the colour of 

the tug but it also depicts the colour of death in this case as it taking 

the Temeraire off. It has steam coming out showing the viewer it is a 

steam boat and it is pulling another ship. 

One of the attributes of a romantic painter is that they tend to use a 

triangular form, having the main feature at the point of the image. 

For this case, the Temeraire is the point of this triangular form. A 

white small craft farther down the river has been painted. However, 

the small boat and the third boat on the far‐right may seem like they 

have no purpose but it is helping to form the triangle and even out 

the image. Turner also uses a second triangular form, using a blue to 

frame around the three boats to broaden them the surface. This 

layout was also used by artists like Caspar David Fredrich. 

Caspar David Fredrich 

The Wanderer Above the Sea 

and Fog 

1818, oil on canvas 

98 ×74 cm 

Kunsthalle Hamburg

Turner uses warm tones on the Thames estuary which is at the river's 

eastern end. He portrays a lifeless surface with no ripples in the 

water, apart from around the stream boat where he uses a silver 

tone. The sun is behind the boats creating shadows to reflect in 

front. The background has been mostly devoid of objects to ensure 

the Termeraire is the focal point. 

“Light is therefore colour.” ‐ J. M. W. Turner 

This quote supports the importance of the sun to 

Turner. if there is so no light, there would be no 

colour to create a real life images. 

Turner uses pastel tones for the sky, with rapid brushstrokes. 

Although, he used oil paints, he applied paint with a palette knife, a 

tool usually reserved for mixing colours. Mixed with the paint he also 

used bees wax to lift the painting off the surface. This helped create 

a three‐dimensional look and allowed the canvas to catch light. As 

the sun sets above the estuary, its rays extend into the clouds above 

it, and across the surface of the water which create a warm yellow 

tone. The lighting in this piece was achieved through the emphasis of 

light and loose brushstrokes. The sun setting symbolises the end of 

an era in the history of the British Royal Navy and the 

commencement of the new, industrial era. 

It is suggested that the ship stands for Turner himself, with an 

accomplished past but now anticipating his mortality. Turner called 

The Fighting Temeraire his "darling", which may have been due to its 

beauty, or his identification with the subject. He intended to raise a 

sentimental and sad response from the viewer.

To conclude my research of the question how does Vermeer, 

Canaletto and Turner depict the importance of the sun in their 

artwork, we can easily see that it has developed over time and even 

used in various ways. 

One thing we know for sure is that the sun played a massive part to 

their artwork and their progress as Turner supposedly said before he 

died “The sun is God”. Without the sun, these artists wouldn’t have 

made as much as an impact on society, other artists and history for 

that matter. 

Vermeer depicted the importance as he used it generally in his 

paintings but he took advantage of the sun by using it in his artwork 

differently to how most people would imagine. In his later works, 

camera obscura was his saviour as he produced a lot of accurate 

panting's under this method. He found that the importance of the 

sun was what made his images and without it, there wouldn’t be as 

many treasures like the View of Delft or Little Street. 

Canaletto on the other hand, he also used the suns importance as a 

method of portraying his images like Vermeer. His were slightly more 

accurate as the lens soon came into the method. He also used it as a 

way of using strong chiaroscuro and reflecting the sun onto the 

lovely views of Venice which helped knowing what time of day it was. 

The sun was used as propaganda for his paintings 

to show everyone how wonderful it was in Venice 

so this was taken advantage of highly. 

Lastly, after Canaletto meeting Vermeer and 

Turner in the middle with his use of the sun, 

Turner used it completely differently to Vermeer. 

Turner was inspired by Canaletto so his use of sun 

was slightly similar. He didn’t use camera obscura 

but he did manage to get some lovely perspectives 

and sunshine of Venice. 

After Turners mother passing away, his images 

became a lot more meaningful where they were 

filled with emotion. He used the sun in many ways 

like displaying it in sunset painting to portray it’s 

natural beauty and colours or he used the 

importance as an allegorical message. Like in the 

Fighting Temeraire is setting which is suggesting it is 

setting on a new era. 

To conclude my question, they all show some link to 

each other and to the sun if it is visually there or 

somehow used to actually make the painting.

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https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/artists/johannes‐vermeer ‐ Last used on 1 st March 2017. 

Essential Vermeer 2.0. Published NA. “Vermeer's Painting in the Context of the Dutch Golden Age of Painting” (Online –last updated 

2017) Available on: http://www.essentialvermeer.com/dutch‐painters/context/context_03.html#.WLbOTjuLTIU –last used on 1 st March 

2017. 

Martin Bailey. Published 1995. “Vermeer” (Book –last updated 1995) Available from pages: 60 – 62. Last used on 8 th March 2017. 

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(Newspaper –last updated Thursday 9th October 2008) Available on: http://www.independent.co.uk/arts‐entertainment/art/greatworks/view‐of‐delft‐1660‐by‐johannes‐vermeer‐956444.html 

‐ last used on 13th March 2017. 

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http://www.wga.hu/html_m/c/canalett/4/canal410.html ‐ last used on 13th March 2017.

British Art Studies by Roxane Sperber and Jen Stenger. Published NA. “Canaletto's Colour: the inspiration and implications of changing 

grounds, pigments” (Article –last updated 2017) Available on: http://www.britishartstudies.ac.uk/issues/issue‐index/issue‐ 

2/canaletto‐colour ‐ last used 14th March 2017. 

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Available on: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Doges‐Palace ‐ last used 15th March 2017. 

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VERMEER CANA TURNER

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