CODE SWITCHING AND CODE MIXING AMONG IZON ENGLISH BILINGUALS A CASE STUDY OF NIGER DELTA UNIVERSITY STUDENTS.

CODE-SWITCHING AND CODE-MIXING AMONG IZON-
ENGLISH BILINGUALS: A CASE STUDY OF NIGER DELTA
UNIVERSITY STUDENTS.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
As a matter of fact, language has been in use from time immemorial by man and has
passed through various levels of evolution. Tamunobelema Isaac holds that language is “a
universal property of all human beings. Language is everywhere and every normal human
being possesses it…Language is the instrument of social existence…”(1). Similarly, to
Wardhaugh Ronald, “Language means a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human
communications” (9). A lot of issues have arisen over time concerning language use in
society, including code-switching and code-mixing. To this end, language scholars have paid
wholesome, uninterrupted attention to both concepts. Also, monolingualism, bilingualism and
multilingualism have been, and are still relevant topics of discourse.
Factually, one aspect of language study that attracts much attention today is
sociolinguistics. It examines the use of language by considering social parameters. It is a
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elatively wide discipline which encompasses various variables like age, sex, region,
educational qualification, religion and so on. Sociolinguistics takes an investigative look at
language in relation to the society. It is necessary to state that this research anchors on
sociolinguistics.
This research focuses on code-switching(CS) and code-mixing(CM) in relation to
bilingualism, bilingualism being a linguistic feature of certain language users. Tamunobelema
opines that a code is “a language, a variety of a language or a system used for communication
between participants in a discourse event” (123). Bilingualism is, according to The New
Webster’s Dictionary of the English Language, “the habitual use of two languages by an
individual or group of individuals” (96). These two languages, usually, include the mother
tongue (L1) of the individual(s) and for an Anglophone country like Nigeria, English
language (L2). Chuma-Udeh, N. and Echezona, I.E. record that “Nigeria, the most largest and
populated country in West Africa and even in Africa as a whole has an estimated population
of over 150 million (cf National Population Commission 2006). In such a large country, there
exist well over 450 different languages and dialect clusters. Nigeria as a nation is entirely
held together by the presence of English language. If this English language is removed, the
Nigerian nation will cease to exist” (184). CS and CM are examined in this research as a case
study of NDU Ịzọn-English bilinguals. Kquofi et al. note that “the Ijaw (also known by the
subgroups ‘Ijo’ or ‘Izọn’) ethnic group is the largest minority group in Nigeria” (79). The
Izọn language is spoken widely by the Ijaw populace as their main language and is thought to
be one of the oldest of the region. There are numerous diverse languages, all mutually
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intelligible, of which the most important are Gbanran, Ekpetiama and Kolokuma. Kolokuma
is the language of education and this is the case because it is the dialect of Izon with an
orthography developed to a satisfactory extent. The Ijaw population is estimated to be over
ten million people with two prominernt groupings of the Izon language. The first, termed
either Western or Central Izon (Ijaw) consists of Western Izon speakers: Ekeremor, Sagbama,
Bassan, Apoi, Arogbo, Bomo, Kabo, Ogboin, Tarakiri and Kolokuma-Opokuma. The Nembe,
Brass and Akassa dialects represent Southeast Izon. Biseni and Okordia dialects are
considered inland Izon. The other major linguistic group is Kalabari (Abonnema, Buguma,
Bakana, Degema, etc) which constitutes the Eastern Izon, alongside Okrika, Ibani (the natives
of Bonny, Finima and Opobo) and Nkoroo. Even though people from all these language
groups have similar experiences in their spoken English, the focus of this study is the speaker
of the Izon dialect of Ijo.
Since English language has been, and still is the official language and the Language
of Wider Communication (LWC) in Nigeria (the most populous nation in the West African
sub-region and on the African continent) as a nation and a second language (L2) to a vast
majority of Nigerians, especially those with some form of formal education, the rationale
behind the existence of Izọn-English bilinguals in the Ijaw society and in the Nigerian society
at large is not far-fetched, neither can it be over-emphasized.
Why then do we use two languages? In some countries, nearly everybody is bilingual
or multilingual. People may become bilingual either by acquiring two languages at the same
time in childhood or by learning a second language sometime after acquiring their first
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language. Many bilingual people grow up speaking two languages. As a matter of fact, there
are several reasons for the use of two languages by speakers. To the “why use two languages”
question, the obvious answer will be: to communicate with people of different language
backgrounds. A more elaborate and detailed answer is offered by Tamunobelema when he
says “In fact, in order to meet up their social, cultural, political and business demands, people
have turned multilinguals” (117). Bilinguals interact with other bilinguals, and opt to use
their different languages in a complex network of interaction that proves extremely difficult
to describe and explain. The choice of language will vary depending on the type of person
addressed (e.g. members of the family, course mates, colleagues, superiors, friends,
shopkeepers, officials, transport personnel, neighbours) and on the location or social setting
(e.g. a family may vary their language use depending on whether they are at home, in the
street, or in church; at the office, someone may talk to a colleague in language X, but over
lunch talk to the same person using language Y). Even more complex are the many cases
where a bilingual talks to another bilingual with the same language background, and yet
changes from one language to another in the course of the conversation.
Hudson Richard reveals clearly that code-switching is “the inevitable consequence of
bilingualism (or more generally, multilingualism) “(51). Code-mixing, on the other hand,
refers to “a change in language without any change at all in the situation” (53). CS and CM
are actually obtainable where an individual or society is bilingual or multilingual but then,
this study focuses on bilingualism alone and revolves around bilinguals. CS and CM are
linguistic occurrences that are seen in everyday communication among persons who speak
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two or more languages. They are important aspects of sociolinguistics given their use and
status in the society. They occur because the speaker is in control of, and has the ability to use
two or more languages and when he or she tries to communicate under varying
circumstances; the elements of the languages are mixed between sentences, clauses and
phrases. That is to say that an utterance may begin in one language and end in another
because the speaker is, as Tamunobelema puts it, “two-tongued” (116).
When a speaker comes in contact with more than one language, there is a very high
tendency that the speaker will begin use of both languages even if it might not be with equal
proficiency since in most instances, the speaker may not have achieved native-like fluency in
both languages. However, these languages affect one another and often lead to codeswitching
and code-mixing. It is obvious that students code-switch and code-mix, sometimes
in order to be admitted into some social situations amongst other numerous reasons; reasons
which are explored in this research. There are also negative and positive effects. It is
therefore pertinent that these concepts which are in direct communion with human society
and our educational system should be accorded adequate attention in order to enlighten the
general public.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Code-switching and code-mixing are linguistic phenomena that occur in various
situations and contexts and within or between various individuals who have varying speech
characteristics. They may occur among bilinguals who are basically users of two languages.
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They may also occur among multilingual persons who are users of more than two languages.
We could also have individual bilingualism/multilingualism where linguistic competence and
performance in two or more languages are seen in individuals and societal
bilingualism/multilingualism where linguistic competence and performance in two or more
languages are seen in the society at large. Specifically then, this research sets out to provide
valid findings or results about the mode of occurrence of code-switching and code-mixing not
just among any individual or society but among the Izọn-English bilingual population of
NDU undergraduates, giving relevant insight and answers to the factors that condition the
occurrence, their effects, the positive or negative nature of these effects and other relevant
details.
1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
This long essay hopes to, through a practical sociolinguistic study, establish the
indispensable place of CS and CM in everyday communication among NDU Izọn-English
bilinguals. It aims to provide relevant insight into the factors that condition these happenings,
whether negative or positive. Furthermore, the motivation or causes underlying the use of CS
and CM as well as the frequency of their occurrence and the effects are examined.
1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
This study actually covers a really large population of educated persons (Izon-English
bilinguals) but due to the limited time allowed for research, this work is limited to NDU
undergraduates who, specifically, are Izọn-English bilinguals. Therefore, forming the centre
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of this study. Niger Delta University is a multilingual institution which comprises students
from different linguistic backgrounds across the country. Most of the students are bilinguals
who can speak at least one indigenous language and English. The data to be used in this
research work is gathered from the undergraduates in their lecture halls, hostels, etc. The
research highlights instances of CS and CM in their various conversations and analyzes them.
1.5 JUSTIFICATION/SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Several scholars have looked into CS and CM in times past and, as a matter of fact, a
bulk of knowledge has emerged about both concepts. Nonetheless, a lot of it has bothered on
the linguistic aspect of both concepts like the grammatical items involved in CS and CM
taking place and level of proficiency / fluency in the usage of the languages possessed by the
speaker, whether “native-like” as Leonard Bloomfield calls it or not. Be that as it may, some
scholars have also considered the sociological aspect of the ideas but what sociological
factors affect the occurrence of CS and CM among Izon-English bilinguals on and around the
NDU campus environment and what could be the possible effects? This research work offers
valid materials concerning the topic in order to make up for any iota of want of information.
It lays bare the interaction of both linguistic patterns i.e. code-switching and code-mixing and
how they make or mar communication among students. It determines whether these issues
have a negative effect on the linguistic proficiency of speakers or a positive one, discouraging
the negative and giving firm encouragement to the positive. Different scholars have arrived at
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various conclusions why people code-switch and code-mix. Appel and Muysken (1987) who
used Jakobson’s (1960) and Halliday’s (1964) work as their basis opine that certain demands
or functions are motivating factors to CS and CM such as the referential, directive,
expressive, poetic functions and the change of the tone of the conversation. Another prolific
explanation for code change is proffered by Wardhaugh (2002). His approach to the
motivation for switching and mixing represents an essential factor in the code choice and that
“solidarity with listeners, choice of topic and perceived social and cultural distance all
together play an important role in the speaker’s choice” (103). The findings at the end of this
research provide additional knowledge to the field of sociolinguistics and are of great benefit
to bilinguals, students of language and the society at large.
1.6 METHODOLOGY OF DATA COLLECTION
Data for this research work is derived from the conversation of Izọn-English
bilinguals randomly selected from various faculties of Niger Delta University, Wilberforce
Island, Bayelsa State by means of live audio recording which is analyzed in order for this
research to find out all necessary information it sets out to ascertain. Journals, textbooks,
papers/ essays by renowned authors are consulted, personal interview with some respondents
conducted and the personal observation of the researcher are also of great significance.
1.7 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
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CS and CM could be studied through many different approaches that could yield more
or less productive results, depending on the context. However, the theoretical approach that is
applied to this study is the sociolinguistic approach as proffered by Auer Peter (1998:3). One
of the main questions regarding the patterns of CS and CM is why they occur in the first
place. What is the motivation or driving factor(s) behind bilingual language behaviour? For
the purpose of this study, the sociological approach is considered applying the Markedness
Model.
Proposed by Carol Myers-Scotton (1993), he notes therein that “a bilingual individual
has a sense of markedness with regard to the relationship with the interlocutor who
essentially is the one choosing the code in the conversation. In such situation, the speaker is
perceived as a rational actor who can make either the unmarked choice, the more secure and
the more expected choice, often used by the speakers, or the marked choice which is
generally unexpected in interaction” (75).
1.8 THESIS STATEMENT
Having explored briefly relevant concepts, it is revealed that code-switching(CS) and
code-mixing(CM) as linguistic occurrences are not just manifestations of/or the repercussions
of the possession of the knowledge of two languages by an individual (speaker) but are
actually offshoots of certain factors (sociological variables) such as educational background,
age, sex, situation/context amongst others.
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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 THE DYNAMICS OF LANGUAGE ALTERNATION
Developing communicative competence in two or more languages makes room for
communicative effectiveness; giving individuals opportunities to express their feelings,
thoughts and shape their identity. It also helps them satisfy their individual and social needs
in the different contexts of the languages used. Code-switching and code-mixing are well
known traits in the speech pattern of the average bilingual in any human society the world
over. The phenomena of code-switching and code-mixing of languages have long intrigued
scholars who have examined what triggers such occurrences. Lipski, as quoted in Obiamalu
and Mbagwu (2007), records that code-switching and code-mixing are known to be universal
phenomena among bilinguals. Not until recently, code-switching and code-mixing was seen
as evidence of “internal mental confusion, the inability to separate two languages sufficiently
to warrant the description of true bilingualism” (191). Studies have shown that codeswitching
is not a manifestation of mental confusion but rule-governed behavior among
bilinguals which is motivated by various socio-psychological, as well as linguistic factors.
Switching between languages is extremely common and takes many forms. A long narrative
may switch from one language to the other. Sentences may alternate. A sentence may begin
in one language and finish in another. Or phrases from both languages may succeed each
other in apparently random order. Sociolinguistics considers code-switching and code-mixing
as the by-products of bilingualism. Yul-Ifode Shirley brings to our notice that “both code-
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switching and code-mixing are sometimes called language switching” (188). Language
switching is not solely determined by the social situation. It can also be used by a speaker for
his own purpose; to influence or define the situation as he wishes, and to convey nuances of
meaning and personal intention (Trudgill 1974:126; Corder 1973: 56-61). Language
switching has been observed to be a great asset to people in the multilingual communities in
achieving communicative effectiveness. Communicative effectiveness can, therefore, only be
achieved if both the listener and speaker are fluent in the language(s) used; there is often a
breakdown when there is no common language.
2.2 CODE
A code, as Tamunobelema states, can loosely be described as “a language or a variety
of a language. It is any kind of system that people employ for communication, which may be
a group of persons or even an individual” (116). Whenever a man speaks, he is bound to
choose a code, be it a particular language, dialect, style, register or a variety. In
communication, a man may decide to use a particular code on a particular occasion due to
one reason or the other. He may also shift from one code to another, or even mix them up at
times. Obviously, there are factors that influence the choice of using a particular code.
Ayeomoni chooses to take code as “a verbal component that can be as small as a morpheme
or as comprehensive and complex as the entire system of language” (90). As such, the
English language is a code, as well as the Ịzọn language. So also are single morphemes of
either of/or both languages. A code is a system that is used by people to communicate with
each other. When people want to talk each other, they have to choose a particular code to
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express their feeling. According to Stockwell, a code is “a symbol of nationalism that is used
by people to speak or communicate in a particular language, or dialect, or register, or accent,
or style on different occasions and for different purposes” (8-9). Similarly, Wardhaugh also
maintains that a code can be defined as “a system used for communication between two or
more parties used on any occasions” (101). When two or more people communicate with
each other in speech, we can call the system of communication that they employ a code.
Therefore, people are usually required to select a particular code whenever they choose to
speak, and they may also decide to switch from one code to another. Switching is found only
in a balancedand stable bilingual.
2.3 CODE-SWITCHING
Code-switching refers to alternation between different varieties used by the
bilingual/bidialectal during the conversational interaction. It is the complete switching of the
speaker from one language to another. Yul-Ifode states that “it is a change from one language
to another, where the change is conditioned by the subject, persons, situation, according to
appropriate changes in speech situation in an unchanged situation. This kind of change is
certainly not within the same sentence” (189). Hudson asserts that CS is “the inevitable
consequence of bilingualism (or more generally, multilingualism)” (51). Obiamalu and
Mbagwu (2007) says that CS refers to the alternate use of constituents from two languages in
a single discourse. CS is a linguistic behaviour that arises as a result of languages coming into
contact. Hymes (1974) defines CS as “a common term for alternative use of two or more
languages, varieties of a language or even speech styles.” Bokamba (1989) defines CS as “the
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mixing of words, phrases and sentences from two distinct grammatical (sub) systems across
sentence boundaries within the same speech event; in other words, inter-sentential codeswitching”
(278). Kumar (1995) adds, “CS which is influenced by extra-linguistic factors
such as topic, interlocutors, setting, etc is the alternate use of lexical items, phrases, clauses
and sentences from the non-native language (L2) into the system of the native language (L1)”
(44).McGregor (2009) refers to code-switching as “the phenomenon common in bilingual
speech communities in which speakers switch from one language to another within the same
conversation” (168). Gal cited in Ronald (2000) says “code-switching is a conversational
strategy used to establish, cross or destroy group boundaries, to create, evoke or change
interpersonal relations with their rights and obligations”. Code-switching is also referred to as
language switching in order to accommodate other kinds of variety, dialects and registers.
In CS, anyone who speaks more than one language chooses between them according
to circumstances and according to the language comprehensive to the persons addressed, the
purpose is to get the right effect of communication. The phenomenon is evidently a complex
and subtle one, with speakers, as experts think, usually being totally unaware of the extent to
which they have been switching in a conversation. If interrupted, they may even be unable to
say which language they were using in their last sentence. When their attention is drawn to
this behaviour, most of them tend to apologize for it, condemn it and indicate disapproval of
mixing languages. Nonetheless, it is a natural and powerful communicative feature of
bilingual interaction, which presents linguists with one of their most intriguing analytical
challenges.
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2.3.1 TYPES OF CODE-SWITCHING
Poplack (1980:605) cited in Romaine (1989), identified three types of CS namely:
Tag, Inter-sentential and Intra-sentential switches. This categorization was echoed by Appel
and Muysken (1987) and Romaine (1989).
I. Tag Switching
This involves the insertion of a tag in one language into an utterance which is otherwise
entirely in the other language(s). For example, you know, I mean, etc to take some English
examples. These tags serve as an emblem of the bilingual’s character of an otherwise
monolingual sentence. Tags are subject to minimal syntactic restrictions, they may be
inserted easily at a number of points in a monolingual utterance. This is to say that the
insertion into the monolingual utterance does not violate syntactic rules. This implies that
inter-sentential and intra-sentential switching reflects higher language proficiency, unlike in
the case of tag switching.
II.
Inter-sentential Switching
It involves a switch at a clause or sentence boundary where each clause or sentence is in
one language or another. It may also occur between speaker turns. Inter-sentential switching
can be thought of as requiring fluency in both languages since major portions of the utterance
must conform to the rules of both languages. Myers-Scotton(1993) holds that Inter-sentential
switching “involves switches from one language to another between sentences: a whole
sentence (or more than one sentence) is produced entirely in one language before there is a
switch to the other language” (3).
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III.
Intra-sentential Switching
This involves a switch from one language to another with a clause or sentence boundary.
Intra-sentential switch does not seem to raise any linguistic problem. In the case of a bilingual
code-switching, the switch from one language to the other does not appear to violate the
grammatical rules of either language. Myers-Scotton also notes that Intra-sentential switching
occurs within the same sentence or sentence fragment” (4).
Olaoye (2002) also identifies two types of code-switching. Olaoye is not a sole loyalist to
this view as Hudson (1996) also documents these types. They are defined based on the
context of usage. The first is Situational code-switching and the other, Metaphorical codeswitching.
I. Situational Code-switching
This occurs as a result of change in situation or social context. It might also be as a result
of change in participant or interlocutors. Situational CS is driven by a particular situation
where a speaker uses one code for one situation and another code for another situation. As
Hudson puts it, “that is to say that the switches between languages always coincide with
changes from one external situation (for example, talking to members of the family) to
another (for example, talking to the neighbours)” (52). For instance, a lecturer who is
lecturing in English may change code in the middle of a conversation to Ịzọn or Ibibio,
depending on the tribe of the lecturer and that of the student being addressed. Such a lecturer
may do so because he wants to change his role from that of a boss or teacher or an authority
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figure to that of an ethnic brother especially when he realizes his student is of the same ethnic
group. The student may also change from English to Ịzọn or Ibibio as the case may be, in
order to appeal to the lecturer’s ethnic and linguistic solidarity.
II.
Metaphorical Code-switching
Given this heavy symbolic load that languages bear, it is entirely to be expected that
bilingual speakers will use their choice of language in order to define the situation, rather
than letting the situation define the choice of languages. In clear cases, we can tell what
situation we are in by just looking around us; for example, if we are in a lecture-room full of
people or having breakfast with our family, classifying the situation is easy and if language
choice varies with the situation, it is clearly the situation that decides the language, not the
other way round. But in some cases, the situation is less clear, either because it is ambiguous
or because the speaker decides to ignore the observable external situation and focus instead
on less observable characteristics of the people concerned. Such cases where it is the choice
of language that determines the situation are called metaphorical CS. (Blom and Gumperz
1971). Metaphorical CS is also occasioned by change of topic and subject matter; in the sense
that the topic is the driving factor in determination of which language will be used. The
situation may remain the same but the topic of discussion changes. Some topics lend
themselves readily to one language rather than the other. For instance, political based topics
take switch form one’s mother tongue to English. In like manner, there are other topics that
can best be discussed in one’s mother tongue i.e. a discussion in one’s native language (L1)
than in a second language (L2). Switch may also occur when one wants to introduce
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metaphors, proverbs, idioms and figurative expressions in one’s mother tongue to enrich the
discussion.
2.3.2 THE SOCIOLINGUISTIC FUNCTIONS OF/ REASONS FOR CODE-
SWITCHING
There are a number of possible reasons for the switching from one language and these
will now be considered, as presented by Crystal (1987), cited in Ngulube (2015). The first of
these is the notion that a speaker may not be able to express him/herself in one language, so
switches to the other to compensate for the deficiency. As a result, the speaker may be
triggered into speaking in the other language for a while. This tends to happen a great deal
when the speaker is upset, tired, or otherwise distracted. Again, this type of CS tends to occur
when an individual wishes to express solidarity with a particular social group. Rapport is
established between the speaker and the listener when the listener responds with a similar
switch. This type of switching may also be used to exclude others who do not speak the
second language from a conversation. An example of such a situation may be two people in
an elevator engaging in discourse using a language other than English. Others in the elevator
who do not speak the same language would be excluded from the conversation and a degree
of comfort would exist amongst the speakers in the knowledge that not all those present in the
elevator are listening to their conversation.
The final reason for the switching behavior presented by Crystal (1987) is the
alteration that occurs when the speaker wishes to convey his/her attitude to the listener-
friendly, irritated, distant, ironic, jocular and so on. Where monolingual speakers can
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communicate these attitudes by means of variation in the level of formality in their speech,
bilingual speakers can convey the same by CS. Crystal (1987) suggests that where two
bilingual speakers are accustomed to conversing in a particular language, switching to the
other is bound to create a special effect. These notions suggest that CS may be used as a
socio-linguistic tool by bilingual speakers. A common example is for a mother to tell her
child to do something in one language, and then, if the child fails to obey, to switch to
another language, thereby showing her stronger emphasis or displeasure. These are some of
the sociolinguistic functions that CS can perform.
From the above discussion, it may be concluded that CS is not language interference
on the basis that it supplements speech. Where it is used due to an inability of expression, CS
provides continuity in speech rather than presenting interference in language. The sociolinguistic
benefits have also been identified as a means of communicating solidarity, or
affiliation to a particular social group, whereby CS should be viewed from the perspective of
providing a linguistic advantage rather than an obstruction to communication. Furthermore,
CS allows a speaker to convey attitude and other emotions using a method available to those
who are bilingual and again serves to advantage the speaker, much like bolding or
underlining in a text document to emphasize points. Utilizing the L2, then, allows speakers to
increase the impact of their speech and use it in an effective manner.
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2.4 CODE-MIXING
Many linguists have tried to define code-mixing in their own way. Bokamba (1989)
notes “code-mixing is the embedding of various linguistic units such as affixes (bound
morphemes), words (unbound morphemes), phrases and clauses from two distinct
grammatical (sub) systems within the same sentence and speech event. That is, CM is an
intra-sentential switching” (278). For Hudson (1996), CM takes place “where a fluent
bilingual changes the language without any change at all in the situation” (53). Code mixing
is a mixing of two codes or languages, usually without a change of topic. Code mixing often
occurs within one sentence, one element is spoken in language A and the rest in language B.
In addition, Nababan (1993:32) said that code mixing is found mainly in informal
interactions. In formal situation, the speaker tends to mix it because there is no exact idiom in
that language, so it is necessary to use words or idioms from other language. Oloruntoba-oju
(1999) submits that code mixing occurs when elements of two or more linguistic systems are
randomly used. It may occur as a result of backlash (receding competence in a language or as
a result of the influence of L2 or reduced context of L1). It often occurs because the speaker
can either not find an appropriate word in his mother tongue or because he or she finds the
terms in the target language more convenient to use. Alabi (2007) asserts that code mixing is
often an unconscious illocutionary act in naturally occurring conversation.Though no norm
guides the level of code mixing, different communities and people maintain, consciously or
unconsciously, their levels of code mixing which is constrained by competence. In CM, a
fluent bilingual changes the language by using words from another language without any
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change at all in situation. It refers to the alternate use of constituents from two languages
within a sentence.
Code-mixing was first observed in West Africa and brought to attention by Ansre
(1971) in relation to English and West African languages. He described it informally as:
“inserting various chunks of English into the performance of West African languages in
trying to show the influence of English on West African languages”. The practice of CM,
which draws from competence in two languages at the same time, suggests that these
competences are not stored or processed separately. Wardhaugh (1986) opines that “today,
this phenomenon is referred to as code-mixing, a situation which people occasionally prefer
to use a code formed from two other codes by mixing the two” (86). Harding and Riley
(1986) also bring to our knowledge that “code-mixing can also be used to express emotion,
close personal relationships and solidarity and to exclude a third person from part of a
conversation” (57). Hudson (1996) goes ahead to say that the purpose of CM seems to be to
symbolize a somewhat ambiguous situation for which neither language on its own will be
quite right. To get the effect right, the speakers balance the two languages against each other
as a kind of linguistic cocktail- a few words of one language, then a few words of the other,
then back to the first for a few more words and so on.
From the assertion of the scholars above it is evident that code-mixing reflects a
situation where a speaker employs two languages alternatively in one utterance. This is often
manifesting at the lexical level that is in the word used. This does not mean that it does not
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manifest at syntactic and semantic level, but it does more at the lexical level. Code-mixing is
the random insertion of elements of one language into another. It is rapid, natural and not
deliberate as speakers hardly pause to examine the elements they are using.
2.4.1 TYPES OF CODE-MIXING
I. Intra-sentential Switching/ Code-mixing
This kind of code mixing occurs within a phrase, a clause or a sentence boundary, as
when a French-English bilingual says: “I started going like this. Y luegodecla (and then he
said), look at the smoke coming out my fingers.” Another example is from Wardhaugh
(1986:108) “Estabatraining parapelar”: “He was training to fight.”
II.
Intra-lexical Code-mixing
This kind of code mixing which occurs within a word boundary, such as in
Shoppã (English shop with the Panjabi plural ending) or kuenjoy(English enjoy with the
Swahili prefix ku, meaning ‘to’).
III.
Involving a Change of Pronunciation
This kind of code-mixing occurs at the phonological level, as when Indonesian people
say an English word but modify it to Indonesian phonological structure. For instance, the
word ‘strawberry’ is said to be ‘stroberi’ by Indonesian people.
21

2.4.2 REASONS FOR CODE-MIXING
Olaoye (2002) is of the point that, the same reason can motivate both code-mixing and
code-switching. Some of the reasons include:
I. Linguistic Motivation
Code-mixing is motivated by the speaker’s need for repetition for either stylistic effect or
for the purpose of emphasis. The repetition is meant to give more meaning to the utterances
made in one of the two bilingual languages. Code-mixing may also be used to qualify a
message or to reinforce it. Mixing is motivated by a desire to clarify and elaborate a point, to
exclaim or interject as a sign or surprise or excitement. It is also, motivated by the need to
introduce technical terms and expressions. Code is mixed to mark off quotation. One
speakers mix for direct quotation, which may be stereotypical imitation of speech in jokes or
even in learned citation.
II.
Sociolinguistic Motivation
Mixing is motivated by the desire to accommodate a third party .The speaker here
considers the following factors before switching: status of the interlocutors, age, education,
social role or relationship and ethnic affinity. Speakers code-mix to distance a listener or a
third party.
Psychological feelings of insecurity or insecurity can motivate a switch or mix. One feels
safer in one’s own language. In another way, it is also motivated by the need to show ethnic
or group identity or the purpose of showing solidarity. Miller (1984: 76) citing Pfaff (1979)
and Poplack (1982) maintains that speakers code-mix when speaking to other bilinguals with
22

similar background to theirs. This is done to create a desired rhetorical effect or because the
immediate subject being discussed in language ‘A’ at that point brings association to events,
persons, etc in language ‘B’ or for other reasons. Oloruntoba-Oju (1999) offers that codemixing
occurs because the speaker can either not find an appropriate word in his or her
mother tongue or because he or she finds the term in the target language more convenient to
use. It also occurs when the affected item is a technical usage.
2.5 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CS AND CM
Yul-Ifode (2001) opines that both processes of CS and CM are influenced by certain
factors. One of such factors is the fact that one of the participants may not share a common
language with the other. Another reason is that one’s proficiency in the language or
languages used may be limited in comparison with the others. Another factor which may
influence CS or CM results from the fact that one may wish to exclude certain facts from
others. Other people may simply mix codes or switch codes according to their moods.
Furthermore, the sudden realization that people have a common language (in most
cases, the mother tongue) can also promote CS or CM. If for instance, two or three people
were discussing in a formal or informal setting in English, and they suddenly discovered that
they are members of the same native language community, they are likely to bring in words
or phrases from that indigenous language as a demonstration of solidarity.
23

2.6 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CS AND CM
Actually, it is not easy to differentiate between CS and CM. However, we can find
some indicators related to the differences of these two sociolinguistics terms, code-switching
and code-mixing. First, in CM, bilingual speakers seem to apply some words or phrases from
foreign language (pieces of one language smaller than clause), while the other language
(code) functions as the base language. Second, bilingual speakers are said to mix codes when
there is no topic that changes, nor does the situation. (John Gumperz [1986], cited in Jendra
[2010:79] ).
A different view proposed to separate the two said that if it involves changing into a
foreign clause or a sentence, it should be defined as code-switching, but if it involves the use
of foreign phrases or group of words, it is identified as a code-mixing. Another view about
how to differentiate between CS and CM is related to the formality of the situation. Codemixing
is said to be found in the less formal situation while code-switching is possibly done
in a formal one. As the addition, the bilingual’s level of fluency in the languages (codes):
Usually, fluent bilinguals can perform mixing well, while the less skilled ones may only do
switching.
The table below presents summarizes differences between code-switching and codemixing
according to the several views described here:
24

Points of View Code-switching Code-mixing
Grammatical Items Involved Sentence and Clause Phrase, Word
Base Language Clear Sometimes Unclear
Topics May Change Maintained
Situations Formal and Informal More Likely Informal
Bilinguals Partial Absolute
25

CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN
The research design describes the major procedure or overall strategy to be followed
in carrying out the research in order to see that all components of the research piece are
assembled rightly, thereby ensuring that the research problem is adequately addressed and a
solution offered in the end which is the major research goal or objective which the researcher
is out to achieve.
Basically, this research work is designed with the sole aim of bringing to light the
mode of occurrence of code-switching (CS) and code-mixing (CM) between NDU Ịzọn-
English bilingual undergraduates.
Therefore, this research used Descriptive or Survey research as its research design
which entails the usage of a designed research instrument like live audio recording to
generate data and establish facts.
3.2 METHOD OF/OR PROCEDURE FOR DATA COLLECTION
This research work dished out data from primary, as well as secondary sources of
data. Live audio recording of respondents’ conversation (field data) and the personal
observation of the researcher constitute the primary source of data collection. On the other
26

hand, data drawn from textbooks, journals, the international network (INTERNET) and the
works of other researchers constitute the secondary source of data collection.
3.3 DESCRIPTION OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
The following are the research instruments and techniques used in the collection of
data for this research work:
3.3.1 LIVE AUDIO RECORDING
In course of executing this research work, the researcher had live audio recording
sessions with a number of Ịzọn-English bilingual undergraduates of the Niger Delta
University on the research topic and a bulk of relevant information was obtained from the
respondents.
3.3.2 OBSERVATION
The researcher was able to observe while actual conversation was in progress between
certain Ịzọn-English bilinguals on the NDU campus. This was aimed at spotting instances of
CS and CM in practical situations which also helped in ascertaining the likely causes and
effects of both linguistic occurrences.
27

3.3.3 THE TEXTUAL METHOD
This method comprises the secondary sources which include: textbooks, journals, the
international network (INTERNET) and information from the work of other researchers
carried out prior to this time.
3.4 VALIDATION AND RELIABILITY OF INSTRUMENTS
Clips of the officially approved instrument for this research work, the live audio
recording used as the primary source of data collection, were forwarded to the project
supervisor who listened attentively and critically to them and granted subsequent approval
after much consideration before the researcher proceeded to work with them.
3.5 POPULATION OF STUDY AREA
The target population of this research work is forty students in the Niger Delta
University who are directly involved in the use of Ịzọn and English as languages of social
interaction within the campus and its environs, from which twenty live audio recording clips
were derived as data for analysis.
3.6 SAMPLE AND SAMPLING PROCEDURE
The sampling procedure chosen for this research was simple random sampling which
involves the random selection of given elements in a population which stand to be
representative of the whole.
28

3.7 DATA ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
The research instruments were transferred into qualitative data following the number
of respondents who replied to particular questions or items so as to generate frequency data
which in the course of data presentation and analysis were painstakingly analyzed in simple
percentage.
29

CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
The conversations analyzed herein are the conversations of bilinguals who have
English as their L1 and Ịzọn as their L2. Twenty conversations are analyzed based on a fourcategory
division comprising five data each. They reveal several factors that condition CS
and CM among NDU undergraduates with reference to relevant sociological variables: age,
sex, educational background and situation/context. In course of the analysis, the utterances
that are code-switched and code-mixed are translated in English and are titled “Gloss” while
the utterances rendered in English are not since they have no need for interpretation.
Conversation analysis follows immediately after the presentation of each category.
4.1 Category A – Exclusion of an Interlocutor
4.1.1 Datum One Gloss
A The examination was too difficult.
B Exactly. I could barely fill up a page.
C I almost wept.
A Princess, ari mụ Dr. Kemepadei la ngi
Princess, I am going to Dr. Kemepadei.
do.
B Ari mu bisa kị mị la ngi da?
You are going to that man?
C What are you both saying?
30

A Nothing much. Bei to boụ ma kala to
boụ. Ara bibi mọ kpo inou bara kị firi
yemi. Oni ki bi be ni amomo ere ema ba
ongo di mo egbei mi. See you guys later.
Nothing much. This girl is a youngster. Her
mouth still leaks uncontrollably like a rotten
sore. I really need to be careful with her. See
you guys later.
4.1.2 Datum Two Gloss
A These days, I can hardly stay without a
man. It is becoming a disease.
B As for me, my poor boyfriend cannot
even satisfy me. All he cares about is
himself.
C Good evening my undergraduate school
mothers.
B (Laughs) Good evening my smallie.
A Welcome back daughter.
B Ine ton bara bi omini mu bisa seị tẹmẹ bi
I think you need deliverance.
Inongo bo mu seri ngi mo.
A I nein kị ebi dein ma?
(Laughs) Is your case any different?
31

4.1.3 Datum Three Gloss
A Tari, it will soon be 10am. Let’s leave
this library for the class before the
lecturer arrives.
B Emeka, I really need to finish reading this
chapter. Please, I will join you in the
class.
A But you can continue later.
C Emeka mu gha! Ịkịrịkị ara ifie wẹrị emi
Emeka go now! Or are you her time keeper?
kimi gha?
A What did you say?
B She said you can never do without me
around.
A Of course. She spoke the truth.
B Miebi, ari timiya ba Inongo bi eri emi
yebi keni kisi kisi, likai likai ki pangi mo
classi la da ba.
Miebi, I insist on staying back because I need
to change the sanitary pad I have on before
going to the class. It is already soaked.
32

4.1.4 Datum Four Gloss
A I have had several wet dream experiences
in just one week. It seems unusual.
B Are you bothered?
A Yes I am. It seems abnormal.
B Some people say it is caused by lack of
sexual intercourse or the presence of a
spiritual wife.
A God forbid. Do you mean…
C Ah! Good morning guys. So you are
seated here waiting to see the football
match as well?
A Yes.
B Good morning Amina.
A Ine gba emi bara bi bei ye mo kpo Ipa
meingi ma?
B Ari la gba gha.
Do you mean I will continue to have these
regular wet dream experiences?
I can’t tell.
4.1.5 Datum Five Gloss
A I need to study M.T Lamidi’s Aspects of
33

Chomskyan Grammar before next week.
Ebi please do you have a copy of the book?
B I’m yet to get a copy.
C Araụ Ikpe Imo. Nu bai dein bi ari ara
ekpeti bolou bo erị mo.
She is lying. I saw the book in her locker
last night.
A But I thought you bought a copy from the
courserep?
B Not at all. I only kept it safe for him. I have
returned it already.
C Bei okpo bi boloụ seịbi bein ki bein nimi.
A Barasin ye. Ari mu zini kimi bi ngi mi.
There is wickedness in this world.
Don’t worry my friend. I will ask someone
else.
In everyday communication between human beings, participants are involved and
they differ on individual basis. Proficiency in a certain language(s) may successfully bind two
participants; the opposite of which will bring about a separation. Here, the latter is the case as
deduced from a study of data 1-5. The conversations above contain instances of CS. The
switching of the codes was done so as to edge out one of the interlocutors by switching to a
linguistic system that was incomprehensible to one of the interlocutors.
Speakers A and B in datum 1 are both from the same linguistic background. So they
were able to converse successfully in one language that is both known to them (Ịzọn) and
34

were able to exclude speaker C because of her lack of knowledge in the language of
interaction. From the final utterance rendered by speaker A, it is clear that the sociological
motivation for this switch is the age factor. Hence,the need for secrecy. The same is the case
in datum 2 as speaker C is successfully excluded. Data 3 and 4 offer a different view of
exclusion as speakers A (male) and C (female) respectively are excluded using the CS tool in
a bid to achieve secrecy necessitated by the sex variable. The discussion of certain issues is
most reasonable and comfortable in the midst of only interlocutors who belong to the same
sex. At times when such topics arise, a switch of code is the last resort. The need for secrecy
in datum 5 is likewise the motivation behind the CS and subsequent exclusion of speaker B
from the conversation. The excluded speakers also do not have any educational background
as far as the Ịzọn language is concerned. This is also a factor.
4.2 Category B – Incompetence of Interlocutors
4.2.1 Datum Six Gloss
A Ari dion ko mu emo?
B Ari mu ini chemical samples mo ki koro
Where are you going?
I’m going to submit my chemical samples.
mo ngi do.
A Tuba kipi ngi do?
B Ine project supervisor bi.
To who?
My project supervisor.
35

C Ese fa.
Alright.
4.2.2 Datum Seven Gloss
A Tarila, ine testi bi tu bara ki pagha mo?
B Sei yagha.
A Ari dingi ifie ko departmental office o mu
emo?
B Ari bubai bo mụ mi.
A Ari notice boardi bo ye eri ma?
B Inyo. Exam timetable bi pa do.
A O! Umbana. Ari dein bai Ine eri ngimi.
Tarila, how was your test?
It was not bad.
When last did you visit the departmental
office?
I was there yesterday.
Did you find anything on the notice board?
Yes. The examination time table is out.
Oh! Thanks. Thanks. I will see you
tomorrow.
B Nado. Ese fagha.
Okay. No problem.
4.2.3 Datum Eight Gloss
A Good evening.
B Nua o Ebipa. Ine projecti bi dingi bara ki
lado?
Good evening, Ebipa. How is your project
going?
A Good. I am still working on it.
36

B Ine bino owei bi ma?
What of your brother?
A He is not yet back.
B Okay. Okule ni ebimo obo da ba.
Okay. My regards to him on his return.
A Okay.
4.2.4 Datum Nine Gloss
A Layefa, I heard you lost your laptop.
B Inyo. Hosteli ko ọpiri fụrụ mo.
A Dila ehn.God will provide another.
B Amen. Umbana koi do.
Yes. It was stolen in the hostel.
Sorry. God will provide another.
Amen. Thank you very much.
4.2.5 Datum Ten Gloss
A Arị bi sa secondary material bi eri da?
B Un-un o. Bei oku library mo emi bara ari
mo ton gha o.
A Nia wini mu gallery shelves anga bi di gha.
B Bisa ye bimo o pagha fangimo bimi moun
ki Ịkori yemo.
Have you seen that secondary material?
No. I don’t think it is available in this area
of the library.
Then, we have to check the gallery shelves.
That has to be later because I am hungry
now.
37

The interlocutors in the utterances above are good examples of bilinguals who lack
competence in their L1 (Ịzọn). They could not have the conversations in one language
without employing the use of words from another language. English (L2) words were inserted
into Ịzọn (L2) utterances as the interlocutors could not find an equivalent of these words in
their L1. So they take solace in their L2. We see instances of both CS and CM in this
category. Datum 6 shows instances of CM made by speaker Bwith words such as “chemical
samples” and “project supervisor.” The English words found within Ịzọn sentences in datum
7 include “test”, “departmental office”, “notice board” and “exam timetable.” In datum 8, we
see just one instance of CM with the word “project” and others are instances of CS
occasioned by the incompetence of speaker A who continues switching to English in reply to
the issues raised by speaker B who makes use of the Ịzọn language. Datum 9 shows the word
“hostel” used in CM as speaker B could not find an equivalent in the L1. We also see both
speakers code-switch at various times. CM is predominant in datum 10 with the introduction
of such words as “secondary material”, “library” and “gallery shelves.”
Educational background as a sociological variable that affects speech generally, and
particularly CS and CM, happens to be the motivation behind the language switches and
mixing in data 6-10. The incompetence of interlocutors shows that their L1 educational
background is not very solid, especially that of a speaker like speaker A in datum 8 and 9
respectively who make complete switches.
38

4.3 Category C – Admittance of an Interlocutor
4.3.1 Datum Eleven Gloss
A Ine fiyai mo enjoy ye me nị?
B Un-un o. Pepper mo Izon buo mo.
A Dila ehn.
I hope you are enjoying the meal?
Not really. Pepper is too much.
Sorry about that.
B I know it is Gift who made you add so much
pepper to the food.
C We don’t eat food that is not peppery in this
room. If you can’t manage it, check the next
room.
4.3.2 Datum Twelve Gloss
A Bebi sa wo tolụ mo ere ma gba ye bi ari
Do you understand what the lecturer said?
suo tu numu ni ebimo ma?
B Inyo. Ari ma?
A Ari suo tu numu kagha o.
Yes. Don’t you?
I don’t understand.
B She simply means every student must make
the expected minimum score in order to
pass the course.
39

C Ah! Is that what the lecturer meant by that
figurative statement?
B Yes.
C Thanks. I was confused until I heard you
say so.
B I noticed the look on your face. You’re
welcome my friend.
4.3.3 Datum Thirteen Gloss
A Ye mose dingi bara ki emi yo?
B Emiyo. Wini nua na woyengi kule mi.
A Ine sịlị mo ma?
B Ari tu wa igbe ngi mi.
How is everything?
Fine. We thank God.
What about my money?
I will pay you soon.
A Just try and give me the money today.
B You love money too much.
C I can’t believe you haven’t given Preye
the money till now. It is improper.
40

4.3.4 Datum Fourteen Gloss
A Wo posting na I.T. bo mu ngi mi listi bi
Our posting list for I.T. is out.
pa do.
B Gesi egberi?
A Inyo.
You don’t mean it.
I do.
B Victoria, have you heard any news about
I.T. posting?
C Yes. I even have a softcopy of the list.
4.3.5 Datum Fifteen Gloss
A Bein gbai fellowship bi dingi bara ki
How was fellowship today?
pamo?
B Imbele buo mi.Umbana.
A Ị teghe nị ịpịrị ma?
B Un-un. Pasi sei bolou kon kumo ari
It was fine. Thank you.
Did you pray for me?
No. Sorry I forgot.
barafa mi.
A I know it is Ejiro you had on your mind
all through the period of prayer which
made you forget me.
C Jealousy! She is not the prayer secretary
41

after all. If you want to be prayed for,
contact the prayer secretary.
The above conversations contain instances of CS and CM that were deliberate acts,
being motivated by the need to accommodate third parties who are not proficient in Ịzọn and
therefore cannot converse in it. The conversations were initiated in the bilinguals’ L1 but
later on in the conversation, they code-switched to their L2 (English).
In datum 11 as the conversation begins, we see instances of CM with words such as
“enjoy” and “pepper” fused alongside Ịzọn into the speech process. Later, there is a switch of
codes to accommodate speaker C. datum 12 and 13 show instances of CS with speakers A
and B as proficient speakers, switching to English to admit speaker C into the conversation.
Words like “posting”, “list” and “I.T.” (initials for intensive training) in datum 14 are
examples of CM. a switch is later effected to admit Victoria who happens to be speaker C.
“fellowship” in datum 15 occasions CM. Ejiro (speaker C) is later admitted in the event of
CS.
Just as it applied to 4.1 and 4.2 respectively, educational background is also a major
sociological factor here in 4.3 as the admitted interlocutor has no educational history with the
Ịzọn language, whereas the initial speakers in the conversation act do.
42

4.4 Category D – Introduction of Proverbs and Technical Terms
4.4.1 Datum Sixteen Gloss
A Why are you wearing a sleeveless blouse
to school again?
B But what is wrong with it?
A Didn’t you hear about the new dress code
yesterday?
B It is almost 4pm after all.
A Gba ye na bi ebi na kin a ikian kun dein ni
Obedience is better than sacrifice.
mi.
B I have heard you.
4.4.2 Datum Seventeen Gloss
A I believe by now, you should be done with
the map diagram assignments for the
semester?
B I’m still on the first one.
A You think this course is a joke?
B I’m trying my best my dear.
43

A This course is not like that of Dr. Ike,
mind you.
B Yes o! That’s true.
A Ine Ịgịna bini bou emi bara bi arị bisa bara
na bini bou gua o.
It is not the same way you drink water that
you drink pepper soup.
4.4.3 Datum Eighteen Gloss
A I just saw Karina leaving the premises.
Don’t tell me she is coming from your
room.
B Is there a problem? She’s now my friend.
A Obiri kpe keni aka kina wo owou mo zoru
emi. Bisa aka kina wo dioko otumo kpo
sụụ emi.
It is the same teeth with which the dog plays
with its babies that it uses against its
enemies.
4.4.4 Datum Nineteen Gloss
A I can’t believe you came along with
Jennifer to the party. Since when did she
become of our class?
44

B I just thought we could give her a chance.
A Ari kala obiri tobou mo zoru daba erị ine
ikein na okpo sẹ dia ngimi.
If you play with a puppy, it shows your
nakedness to the world.
4.4.5 Datum Twenty Gloss
A Chima is a hypocrite. I don’t think I can
ever forgive him.
B Don’t say that.
A Our relationship has obviously hit the
rocks.
B Imolou mo aka mo sụụ bara mo se keni la
bibi bolou do seri na fi pirigha.
No matter how much the tongue and the
teeth fight, no one will leave the mouth for
the other.
Some topics lend themselves readily to one language rather than the other. There are
topics that are best discussed in one’s MT. Switch may also occur when one wants to
introduce metaphors, proverbs, idioms and expressions in one’s MT to enrich the discussion.
Data 15-20 show examples of proverbs being used by speakers in interaction. In all
five instances, we see the occurrence of CS which makes it possible for the intended message
to be passed on to the respective hearers clothed in the garment that best suits it (the L1). The
45

interlocutors were communicating in English language but in a bid to clarify an issue,
admonish and caution, the other interlocutors switched to Ịzọn out rightly because that is the
language that can do the job of passing the message across. The proverbs or wise sayings that
were switched to was as a result of the interlocutors’ feeling that that was the best language in
which the proverbs could be said. There was a need to clarify a message, reinforce a message
or for the introduction of technical terms and expressions and so, there was a change
occasioned by the situation/context which is a sociological variable which motivates or
necessitates this language switch.
46

CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 SUMMARY
From the beginning, this research set out to investigate CS and CM as speech
characteristics that occur among the Ịzọn-English bilingual population of NDU
undergraduates. Going further, it aimed at ascertaining the conditions that influence their
occurrence and the effects of occurrence whether positive or negative while paying rapt
attention to certain sociological variables. The researcher began by defining the nature and
direction of this work and the contributions of some important authorities or scholars in the
field of CS and CM were reviewed. The researcher collected data primarily through live
audio recording which were presented and analyzed using the tabular method. An important
finding is that CS and CM among NDU Ịzọn-English bilingual undergraduates takes different
forms. This observation follows the prior confirmation that they actually code-switch and
code-mix. It was found that there are various causes underlying these occurrences which
include: the desire to exclude a third party in a conversation process, incompetence in the
usage of their L1, the desire to accommodate a third party into a conversation and the usage
of a proverb, wise saying or a technical term.
From the foregoing, one can firmly say that undergraduates of NDU have been
influenced by their bilingual environment and that the sociolinguistic view that CS and CM
usually result from bilingualism/multilingualism is not based on falsehood.
47

5.2 RECOMMENDATION
Nigeria is essentially a multilingual society which recognizes three of its indigenous
languages for official purposes like that of the National Assembly amongst others. These
indigenous languages are Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba. They co-exist with the English language.
The three major indigenous Nigerian languages are already in the curriculum of
primary and secondary schools and are even courses in higher institutions. I recommend that
other minor languages (of which Ịzọn is a part) should also be introduced at all levels of
education so as to avoid incompetence in the performance of these indigenous languages
among Nigerian undergraduates. The various local governments can partner with the state
governments on this for effective result. By so doing, language death will be avoided and
Nigerian students will have adequate mastery of the use of their second language as well as
their indigenous languages. The rate at which a good number of Nigerian undergraduates are
losing proficiency in their L1 is quite alarming. A Nigerian undergraduate can barely interact
with friends in his or her indigenous language without switching or mixing it with the
acquired L2. Even while the actual field work was being carried out for this research work,
the population of Ịzọn indigenes the researcher encountered who lack adequate knowledge of
their MT was jaw-dropping and this is not a healthy situation for the Ijaw nation and for
Nigeria at large seeing that we are drifting gradually towards a loss of our culture which, as a
matter of fact, is what makes us a people.
In respect of this, I recommend that Nigerian undergraduates do not belittle their
indigenous languages whenever these languages are introduced to them as courses.
48

Furthermore, Nigerian undergraduates studying these indigenous languages at the universities
or other higher institutions as disciplines should develop a right attitude towards them so as to
elevate the status of these languages. Students should be proud of their indigenous languages
because they constitute their linguistic heritage.
5.3 CONCLUSION
From the findings discussed earlier, this essay has answered the questions specified
under its aims and objectives of the study. It is now crystal clear that Ịzọn-English
undergraduates of NDU actually code-switch and code-mix and, of course, in different
categories.
It was observed that most of the undergraduates who switch from one code to another
or mix were not affected in the usage of their L2 (in this case, English) as any attempt made
at reading, writing or speaking English language as determined by the context turned out
successful.
In a nutshell, it can be said that CS is a display of the bilingual’s competence while
CM is a sign of vocabulary inadequacies in the L1. One can justifiably say that bilinguals
continue to fail in their quest to achieve absolute competence in their MT. Hence, they easily
code-mix to avoid the ideas they do not have words to express. In the event of the total
absence of an L2, speakers would have had no other option but to search for every needed
word in their L1 but since that is not the case, we see a large number of Ịzọn-English
bilinguals of NDU not making any further effort at finding the word equivalent in their L1.
49

Hence, absolute competence among these students is a rare disposition to encounter. This is a
major disadvantage of CS and CM. Despite this disadvantage amongst others, CS and CM are
still beneficial and indispensable in communication today for the variety of sociological
purposes which they serve. It is noteworthy to say that despite all issues surrounding or
influencing both concepts which this study has critically examined, CS and CM as linguistic
occurrences have come to stay and would continue to thrive as long as different human
beings from different backgrounds inter-relate and communicate and as long as individuals
and societies alike continue to possess the potentiality of bilingualism and/or multilingualism.
50

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