Geophysical Monograph 85 The Polar Oceans and Their Role in ...

d Their Role in Shaping the
Global Environment
"---
The Nansen Centennial Volume
0. M. Johannessen
R. D. Muench
J. E. Overland
Editors

Geophysical Monograph Series
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3 Origin and Evolution of Sedimentary Basins and
Their Energy and Mineral Resources
Raymond A. Price (Ed.)
4 Slow Deformation and Transmission of Stress
in the Earth Steven C. Cohen and Petr Vanfeek (Eds.)
5 Deep Structure and Past Kinematics of Accreted
Terrances John W. Hillhouse (Ed.)
6 Properties and Processes of Earth's Lower Crust
Robert F. Mereu, Stephan Mueller, and David M. Fountain
(Eds.)
7 Understanding Climate Change Andre L. Berger,
Robert E. Dickinson, and J. Kidson (Eds.)
8 Evolution of Mid Ocean Ridges John M. Sinton (Ed.)
9 Variations in Earth Rotation Dennis D. McCarthy
and William E. Carter (Eds.)
10 Quo Vadimus Geophysics for the Next Generation
George D. Garland and John R. Apel (Eds.)
11 Sea Level Changes: Determinations and Effects
Philip L. Woodworth, David T. Pugh, John G.
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12 Dynamics of Earth's Deep Interior and Earth
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Jean-Louis Le Mouel, D.E. Smylie, and
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14 Evolution of the Earth and Planets E. Takahashi,
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The Legacy of Hann G. A. McBean and
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16 Relating Geophysical Structures and Processes:
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17 Gravimetry and Space Techniques Applied to
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18 Nonlinear Dynamics and Predictability of
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2 High Pressure Research in Mineral Physics
Murli H. Manghnani and Yasuhiko Syona (Eds.)
3 High Pressure Research: Application to Earth and
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Murli H. Manghnani (Eds.)

Geophysical Monograph 85
The Polar Oceans and Their Role in
Shaping the Global Environment
The Nansen Centennial Volume
0. M. Johannessen
R. D. Muench
J. E. Overland
Editors
,})•-,
NfEARs
1919-1994
AGU
American Geophysical Union
0

Published under the aegis of the AGU Books Board.
Cover photograph courtesy of Robert W. Fett.
Library of Congress Cataloging -in-Publication Data
The polar oceans and their role in shaping the global environment
the Nansen centennial volume / 0. M. Johannessen,
R. D. Muench, J. E. Overland, editors.
p. cm. — Geophysical monograph ; 85)
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 0-87590-042-9
1. Arctic Ocean—Congresses. 2. Antarctic Ocean—Congresses.
3. Climatic changes—Congresses. I. Nansen, Fridtjof, 1861-1930.
II. Johannessen, Ola M. III. Muench, Robin D. IV. Overland, James
E. V. Nansen Centennial Symposium (1993 : Solstrand, Norway)
VI. Series.
GC401.P637 1994
551.46'8—dc20 94-35047
CIP
ISSN 0065-8448
ISBN 0-87590-042-9
This book is printed on acid-free paper. es
Copyright 1994 by the American Geophysical Union, 2000 Florida Avenue, NW, Washington,
DC 20009, USA
Figures, tables, and short excerpts may be reprinted in scientific books and journals if the
source is properly cited.
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collective works or for resale. The reproduction of multiple copies and the use of full articles
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permission from AGU.
Printed in the United States of America.

Preface
0. M. Johannessen, R. Muench, and J. E. Overland xi
Fridtjof Nansen—Scientist, Diplomat and Humanist
T. Gjelsvik 1
The Arctic Ocean and Climate: A Perspective
K. Aagaard and E. C. Carmack 5
A Review of Coupled Ice -Ocean Models
G. L. Mellor and S. Hiikkinen 21
On the Intermediate Depth Waters of the Arctic Ocean
B. Rudels, E. P. Jones, L. G. Anderson, and G. Kattner 33
Nutrient-Based Tracers in the Western Arctic: A New Lower
Halocine Water Defined
D. K. Salmon and C. P. McRoy 47
The Potential of Barium as a Tracer of Arctic Water Masses
K. K. Falkner, R. W. Macdonald, E. C. Carmack, and T. Weingartner 63
The Northern Barents Sea: Water Mass Distribution and Modification
S. L. Pfirman, D. Bauch, and T. GammelsrOd 77
A Study on the Inflow of Atlantic Water to the GIN Sea
Using GEOSAT Altimeter Data
P. Samuel, J. A. Johannessen, and 0. M. Johannessen 95
Observation and Simulation of Ice Tongues and Vortex Pairs
in the Marginal Ice Zone
0. M. Johannessen, S. Sandven, W. P. Budge/l, J. A. Johannessen,
and R. A. Schuchman 109
The Arctic Ocean Tides
Z. KowaIlk and A. Y. Proshutinsky 137
Distribution of Water Masses on the Continental Shelf in the Southern Weddell Sea
T. GammelsrOd, A. Foldvik, 0. A. NOst, 0. Skagseth, L. G. Anderson, E. Fogelqvist,
K. Olsson, T. Tanhua, E. P. Jones, and S. Osterus 159
228Ra and 228Th in the Weddell Sea
M. M. Rutgers van der Loeff 177
Modelling the Extent of Sea Ice Ridging in the Weddell Sea
M. Harder and P. Lemke 187
Thermobaric Convection
R. W. Garwood, Jr., S. M. Isakari, and P. C. Gallacher 199
CONTENTS

Oceanic Convection in the Greenland Sea Odden Region
as Interpreted in Satellite Data
F. D. Carsey and A. T. Roach 211
Transport of Biogenic Particulate Matter to Depth Within
the Greenland Sea
T. 0. Manley and W. 0. Smith, Jr. 223
Modelling of Deep-Sea Gravity Currents Using an Integrated Plume Model
G. Alendal, H. Drange, and P. M. Haugan 237
Net Primary Production and Stratification in the Ocean
T. Platt, J. D. Woods, S. Sathyendranath, and W. Barkmann 247
Distribution of Dissolved Inorganic and Organic Carbon in the Eurasian Basin of the Arctic Ocean
L. G. Anderson, K. Olsson, and A. Skoog 255
Primary Productivity of a Phaeocystis Bloom in the Greenland Sea During Spring, 1989
W. 0. Smith 263
Air-Sea CO, Fluxes in the Southern Ocean Between 25° E and 85° E
A. Poisson, N. Metzl, X. Danet, F. Louanchi, C. Brunet, B. Schauer, B. Bres,
and D. Ruiz-Pino 273
Arctic Structural Evolution: Relationship to Paleoceanography
G. L. Johnson, J. Pogrebitsky, and R. Macnab 285
Mid-Pleistocene Climate Shift—The Nansen Connection
W. H. Berger and E. Jansen 295
Variability of the Atmospheric Energy Flux Across 70° N Computed from the GFDL Data Set
J. E. Overland and P. Turet 313
The Influence of Polar Oceans on Interannual Climate Variations
G. Alekseev 327
Sea Ice Thickness Changes and Their Relation to Climate
P. Wadhams 337
Variability in Sea-Ice Thickness Over the North Pole From 1958 to 1992
A. S. McLaren, R. H. Bourke, J. E. Walsh, and R. L. Weaver 363
On the Required Accuracy of Atmospheric Forcing Fields for
Driving Dynamic-Thermodynamic Sea Ice Models
H. Fischer and P. Lemke 373
On the Effect of Ocean Circulation on Arctic Ice-Margin Variations
W. D. Hibler, III and J. Zhang 383
CONTENTS

On the Surface Heat Fluxes in the Weddell Sea
J. Launiainen and T. Vihma 399
CONTENTS
Southern Ocean Wave Fields During the Austral Winters, 1985-1988, by GEOSAT Radar Altimeter
W. J. Campbell, E. G. Josberger, and N. M. Mognard 421
Factors Affecting Variations of Snow Surface Temperature and Air Temperature Over Sea Ice in
Winter
P. S. Guest and K. L. Davidson 435
Aircraft Measured Atmospheric Momentum, Heat and Radiation Fluxes Over Arctic Sea Ice
J. Hartmann, C. Kottmeier, C. Wamser, and E. Augestein 443
Opening and Closing of the "Husky 1" Lead Complex
R. W. Fett, K. L. Davidson, and J. E. Overland 455
Polynyas as a Possible Source for Enigmatic Bennett Island Atmospheric Plumes
D. Dethleff 475
Interannual Variability of the Thermohaline Structure in the Convective Gyre of the Greenland Sea
G. V. Alekseev, V. V. Ivanov, and A. A. Korablev 485
Microwave Remote Sensing of the Snow and Ice Cover: The Russian Experience
K. Y. Kondratyev and V. V. Melentyev 497
Short- and Long-Term Temporal Behavior of Polar Sea Ice Covers From Satellite
Passive-Microwave Observations
W. J. Campbell, P. Gloersen, and H. J. Zwally 505
Acoustic Remote Sensing
W. H. Munk 521
Closing Note: A Tribute to Fridtjof Nansen
N. Untersteiner 525

PREFACE
A Celebration of 100 Years of Polar Research
On June 24, 1993, one hundred years had passed since Fridtjof Nansen and
his companions set out on one of the most daring and exciting research expeditions
the world had ever seen. They allowed their vessel, the Fram, to be frozen into the
ice close to the New Siberian Islands, in the Arctic Ocean. Three years were to
elapse before the ice released its hold on the Franz and allowed her to return to
Norway via the strait between Greenland and Spitsbergen, which later came to be
known as Fram Strait. The research carried out during Fram's drift in the ice altered
forever our concept of the Arctic Basin.
Nansen discovered that the Arctic Ocean was deep, and he confirmed the existence
of the Transpolar Current. During the drift, it was also observed that Fran: and
the ice pack drifted to the right of the wind direction. Nansen interpreted this drift
as the effect of the Earth's rotation and formulated the concept of the Ekman Spiral,
the foundation for the modern wind-driven circulation model. The Franz drift set the
stage for research which, over the past century, has established that the polar oceans
interact vigorously with global climate. Moreover, these bodies of water, covered
with seasonally varying, dynamically and thermodynamically active ice covers,
condition the deep bottom waters of the global ocean, a topic Nansen pioneered later
in his career during investigations of the deep water formation and circulation in the
Greenland-Norwegian Sea. Again, Nansen laid the foundation for currently important
research in this region, where today's focus is on understanding the role of deep
water formation in the conveyor circulation and global climate.
This volume provides a comprehensive treatment of the major advances made
in the past decade in our understanding of the interactions between the polar oceans
and the global atmosphere and ocean system. Topics covered are polar ocean
circulation and dynamics, convective processes in the polar regions, polar ocean
carbon cycle chemistry and biology, paleoceanography and paleoclimate, polar ocean
and global climate interaction, and detection strategies for climate change in the
polar regions.
xi
0. M. Johannessen
Nansen Center
Bergen, Norway
R. D. Muench
SAIC
Bellevue, Washington
J. E. Overland
NOAA
Seattle, Washington
Editors

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The work presented here has been developed from contributions to the Nansen
Centennial Symposium, held June 21-25, 1993, near Bergen, Norway, to honor
Fridtjof Nansen and the pioneering drift of the FRAM a century earlier. The
Symposium was organized by the Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing
Center, Bergen, and the University of Bergen. The editors thank the International
Organizing Committee (0. M. Johannessen (Co-Chairman), Norway; R. Muench
(Co-Chairman), USA; G. V. Alekseev, Russia; L. Anderson, Sweden; J. C.
Gascard, France; A. L. Gordon, USA; K. Hasselmann, Germany; K. Ya.
Kondratyev, Russia; J. E. Overland, USA; T. Platt, Canada; R. A. Shuchman,
USA; T. Vorren, Norway; and J. D. Woods, UK) and acknowledge Bente Johannessen
for her spirit in handling the organizational details. The editors are indebted
to the reviewers for their diligence and to Ann Thomason for her tenacity as editor's
assistant for the volume.
The Symposium was sponsored by the International Association for the
Physical Sciences of the Ocean, the Norwegian Research Council, the Norwegian
Space Center, the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Rieber Shipping A/S, the
Office of Naval Research, the Commission of the European Communities, the European
Science Foundation, the European Space Agency, and the Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO.
This volume is dedicated to William (Bill) J. Campbell (1930-1992), a dear
friend and inspiring colleague.
0. M. Johannessen

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