May/June 2010 - Global Aquaculture Alliance

May/June 2010

THAT WHICH
SUSTAINS US
MUST ALSO BE
SUSTAINABLE.
Our business is dependent on the sustainability of the oceans’ resources as the most
efficient and environmentally sound way to feed a growing global population. We believe
that sustainability is as much about feeding people as it is about managing the world’s
natural resources. To that end, we work tirelessly with our global supply network to
ensure a consistent supply of the products our customers demand, while protecting
and replenishing our common resource: the ocean.
NO ONE ELSE.
SLADE GORTON & CO., INC • WWW.SLADEGORTON.COM
BOSTON 800-225-1573 • MIDWEST 800-524-8237
SOUTHEAST 877-885-5499 • WEST COAST 800-567-5002
may/june 2010
24 Biofloc Technology Expanding At White Shrimp Farms
Nyan Taw, Ph.D.
28 Microbial Flocs Spare Protein In White Shrimp Diets
Alberto J. P. Nunes, Ph.D.; Leandro Fonseca Castro, M.S.;
Hassan Sabry-Neto. M.S.
31 Bioreactor Technology For Tilapia Advances
In Latin America
Sergio Zimmermann
32 Water Temperature In Aquaculture
Claude E. Boyd, Ph.D.
35 Smoked Fish – Old Product With New Appeal
Offers Enhanced Taste, Shelf Life
George J. Flick, Jr., Ph.D.
38 New Zealand Addresses Social Factors
In Aquaculture Development
Wendy Banta
40 GESIT Tilapia: Indonesia’s Genetic Supermales
Ratu Siti Aliah, Komar Sumantadinata, Maskur,
Sidrotun Naim
42 Chile’s Salmon Industry Addresses Health Crises
Adolfo Alvial
45 Varied Feed Additives Improve Gut, Animal Health
Pedro Encarnação
48 Fish Vaccines In Aquaculture – Proactive Treatment
Protects Salmon, Catfish, Other Fish
Dr. Julia W. Pridgeon, Dr. Phillip H. Klesius
51 Managing Tilapia Health In Complex Culture Systems
Neil Wendover, B.S.
54 Disease Factors For Shrimp Production In Brazil
Victoria Alday-Sanz, Ph.D.; Ana C. Guerrelhas, B.S.;
João L. Rocha, Ph.D.
58 Fish Farming Supports Ecological Efficiency
Neil Anthony Sims
60 Consumer Attitudes Toward Aquaculture –
Spanish Study Correlates Knowledge, Opinions
José Fernandez-Polanco, Ph.D.; Ladislao Luna, Ph.D.;
Ignacio Llorente
62 Farmed Or Wild? Both Types Of Salmon Taste Good
And Are Good For You
Pamela D. Tom; Paul G. Olin, Ph.D.
65 Bangladesh Seeks Export Markets For Striped Catfish
Dr. Peter Edwards, Md. Sazzad Hossain
69 Shrimp Problems In Indonesia? Imports From Ecuador
Continue Strong As White Conversion Continues;
Norwegian, U.K. Salmon Fillets Jump As Chile
Recovers From Earthquake;
Fresh Tilapia Fillet Prices Spike After Lent,
Frozen Imports Set Monthly Record
Paul Brown, Jr.; Janice Brown; Angel Rubio
72 Life Cycle Assessment In Aquaculture – ‘Not A Single
Event, But A Combination Of Processes’
William Davies
DEPARTMENTS
From The President 2
From The Editor 3
GAA Activities 6
Advocate Advertisers 92
On the cover:
Ongoing advances in tilapia breeding have resulted in lines of fastgrowing
fish that have helped make tilapia the world’s second mostproduced
fish species.
page 58
Sustainably farmed fish
may represent 60 times
more efficient use of
baitfish than wild fish.
Farmed fish have more
efficient life cycles, trophic
transfer and by-catch.
75 Biofloc: Novel Sustainable Ingredient For Shrimp Feed
David D. Kuhn, Ph.D.; George J. Flick, Jr., Ph.D.;
Gregory D. Boardman, Ph.D.; Addison L. Lawrence, Ph.D.
78 Two-Stage Selection Key For Fast Shrimp
Growth In Mexico
Héctor Castillo-Juárez, Ph.D.; Hugo H. Montaldo, Ph.D.;
Gabriel R. Campos-Montes, Ph.D.
80 SPF Shrimp Breeding In Brazil – Genetic, Phenotypic
Trends After Generation Of Selection
João L. Rocha, Ph.D.; Ana C. Guerrelhas; Ana K. Teixeira;
Flávio A. Farias; Ana P. Teixeira
83 Seafood Chilling, Preservation With Ice Slurry
Ming-Jian Wang, Ph.D.
85 Ultrasound Helps Stage Sturgeons For Caviar Production
Brian C. Donahower, Ph.D.; Steve DuMond; Leo Ray;
Linda Lemmon; Gary Fornshell; Terry Patterson; Jodi Rockett;
Madison S. Powell; Wendy M. Sealy
87 The True Cost Of Thai Shrimp
Robins McIntosh
page 24
Biofloc technology provides
high productivity, low feedconversion
ratios and a
stable culture environment
that delivers sustainable
production at lower cost.
ii May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 1
the
The Global Magazine for Farmed Seafood
global aquaculture
January/February 2009

GLOBAL AQUACULTURE
ALLIANCE
The Global Aquaculture Al li ance is an international
non-profit, non-gov ernmental
association whose mission is to further en viron
men tally responsible aqua culture to meet
world food needs. Our members are producers,
pro cessors, marketers and retailers of seafood
prod ucts worldwide. All aqua culturists
in all sectors are welcome in the organization.
OFFICERS
George Chamberlain, President
Bill Herzig, Vice President
Ole Norgaard, Secretary
Lee Bloom, Treasurer
Wally Stevens, Executive Director
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
Bert Bachmann
Lee Bloom
Rittirong Boonmechote
George Chamberlain
Shah Faiez
John Galiher
Bill Herzig
Ray Jones
Alex Ko
Jordan Mazzetta
Sergio Nates
Ole Norgaard
John Peppel
Antonio Pino
John Schramm
Iain Shone
Wally Stevens
EDITOR
DARRYL JORY
editorgaadvocate@aol.com
PRODUCTION STAFF
ASSISTANT EDITOR
DAVID WOLFE
davidw@gaalliance.org
MARKETING/ADVERTISING
SALLY KRUEGER
sallyk@gaalliance.org
GRAPHIC DESIGNER
LORRAINE JENNEMANN
lorrainej@gaalliance.org
HOME OFFICE
5661 Telegraph Road, Suite 3A
St. Louis, Missouri 63129 USA
Telephone: +1-314-293-5500
FAX: +1-314-293-5525
E-mail: homeoffice@gaalliance.org
Website: http://www.gaalliance.org
All contents copyright © 2010
Global Aquaculture Alliance.
Global Aquaculture Advocate
is printed in the USA.
ISSN 1540-8906
from the president
Past The
Tipping Point
Three years ago, I wrote that the Global Aquaculture
Alliance seemed to be approaching a tipping point.
A tipping point is the threshold before which
small changes have little or no effect, but after which
further small changes “tip” the system, resulting in a
large effect. The term originated in the field of epidemiology,
where it is used to describe the point at
which an infectious disease reaches the outbreak
stage. It has also been used to describe the point at
which global warming stops ocean currents, leading
to major climatic change. Some have even used it to
describe the phenomena by which products or individuals rise from anonymity to popular
demand or celebrity status.
GAA’s tipping point involves Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) certification. For nearly
a decade, we steadily pursued BAP’s principles, which resulted in incremental advances in
the program’s circle of supporters and overall reach. Three years ago BAP certification, then
based only on shrimp, was adopted by Wal-Mart and Darden Restaurants, and progress
began accelerating. A critical mass of support developed through unexpected new linkages
and synergies. Soon, the tipping point threshold was reached – and surpassed.
Now, the BAP certification program has been adopted by most major retailers in the
United States and is gaining traction in the United Kingdom and elsewhere. Over
500,000 mt of seafood from BAP-certified facilities enter the global market annually,
and GAA has become the world’s leading
aquaculture standard-setting organization.
Many exciting developments are under
way. The BAP standards have broadened to
include channel catfish and tilapia. New
standards for feed mills, Pangasius farms and
salmon farms are expected soon, and a technical
committee for mussel farm standards is
forming. The United States Food and Drug
Administration pilot study on food safety
verification has been completed, and the Global Food Safety Initiative is expected to
benchmark the BAP processing plant standards in a few weeks.
To help the BAP program meet the challenges of mainstream certification, GAA is
reorganizing its structure to integrate functions, expand outreach and improve efficiency.
It has formed a charitable organization called the Responsible Aquaculture
Foundation (RAF), which will house the BAP Standards Oversight Committee, technical
committees and training, research and development functions. One of the first
international missions of the newly formed RAF will be a cooperative program with
Malaysia’s Department of Fisheries and Ministry of Health to help train aquaculture
producers in environmental, social and food safety excellence.
We are especially pleased with the strong response from sister aquaculture associations
around the world to our reciprocal membership program. This will help improve
communication and coordination at many levels.
Thank you for throwing your weight behind the BAP effort to tip the scales toward
a brighter and more sustainable future for aquaculture. It is thrilling to see the ongoing
progress being achieved at so many levels. This could not have been realized without
your dedicated support.
Sincerely,
George W. Chamberlain
George W.
Chamberlain, Ph.D.
President
Global Aquaculture Alliance
georgec@gaalliance.org
Thank you for throwing
your weight behind the
BAP effort to tip the scales
toward a brighter
and more sustainable
future for aquaculture.
from the editor
Readers Respond
To Digital Advocate
Feedback received by me and other members
of the Global Aquaculture Alliance staff has indicated
that the exciting change we introduced to
the Global Aquaculture Advocate magazine in its last
issue – a digital edition – has been well received.
This is very encouraging to us.
Like its print-based Advocate “sister,” the new
digital Advocate continues to include the up-todate,
factual industry information that is our
trademark, but makes it available online in forms
that are easily downloaded and stored electronically. This content will remain permanently
available on our website or in your electronic storage.
Our goal in distributing the Advocate electronically is to further GAA’s mission
of “feeding the world through responsible
aquaculture” by focusing attention on the
Best Aquaculture Practices program and
certified facilities around the world, on
sustainability developments in the marketplace
and on new technologies that
improve production efficiency and sustainability.
The digital Advocate is available free
at www.gaalliance.org.
Going forward, we will continue our
coverage of the entire seafood production
value chain, keeping an eye on the rapid
expansion of the aquaculture industry
driven by increasing global seafood
demand. Through this coverage, we will pay particular attention to potential
impacts, life cycle assessments and long-term sustainability issues.
Another change we are introducing with this issue is our further effort to
become more environmentally responsible. This magazine is printed on paper stock
with at least 10% post-consumer recycled content. In addition, the masthead
includes the logo of the Sustainable Forestry Initiative certification system for
responsible forestry practices.
The Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI) standard addresses issues like worker
health and safety, civil rights, anti-discrimination and fair wages. The SFI mark is a
sign that wood and paper products are bought from a responsible source, backed by
a rigorous, third-party certification audit.
As always, we encourage your suggestions for current topics you would like us to
cover, as well as your contributions of short articles that are aligned with our mission
to support responsible aquaculture. Please contact me at your convenience for
details about our article submission guidelines.
Through the years, your critical comments have significantly improved our magazine,
and I urge you to continue sending us your comments on how we can best
represent and serve our industry.
Thank you for your continuing support.
2 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 3
Sincerely,
Darryl E. Jory
Darryl E. Jory, Ph.D.
Editor
Global Aquaculture Advocate
editorgaadvocate@aol.com
FOUNDING MEMBERS
Agribrands International Inc.
Agromarina de Panama, S.A.
Alicorp S.A. – Nicovita
Aqualma – Unima Group
Aquatec/Camanor
Asociación Nacional de Acuicultores de Colombia
Asociación Nacional de Acuicultores de Honduras
Associação Brasileira de Criadores de Camarão
Bangladesh Chapter – Global Aquaculture Alliance
Belize Aquaculture, Ltd.
Bluecadia Aquaculture Group, LLC
Bluepoints Co., Inc.
Cámara Nacional de Acuacultura
Camaronera de Cocle, S.A.
Cargill Animal Nutrition
Continental Grain Co.
C.P. Aquaculture Business Group
Darden Restaurants
Deli Group, Ecuador
Deli Group, Honduras
Diamante del Mar S.A.
Eastern Fish Co.
El Rosario, S.A.
Empacadora Nacional, C.A.
Empress International, Ltd.
Expack Seafood, Inc.
Expalsa – Exportadora de Almientos S.A.
FCE Agricultural Research
and Management, Inc.
Fishery Products International
India Chapter – Global Aquaculture Alliance
Indian Ocean Aquaculture Group
INVE Aquaculture, N.V.
King & Prince Seafood Corp.
Long John Silver’s, Inc.
Lu-Mar Lobster & Shrimp Co.
Lyons Seafoods Ltd.
Maritech S.A. de C.V.
Meridian Aquatic Technology Systems, LLC
Monsanto
Morrison International, S.A.
National Food Institute
National Prawn Co.
Ocean Garden Products, Inc.
Overseas Seafood Operations, SAM
Preferred Freezer Services
Productora Semillal, S.A.
Promarisco, S.A.
Red Chamber Co.
Rich-SeaPak Corp.
Sahlman Seafoods of Nicaragua, S.A.
Sanders Brine Shrimp Co., L.C.
Sea Farms Group
Seprofin Mexico
Shrimp News International
Sociedad Nacional de Galapagos
Standard Seafood de Venezuela C.A.
Super Shrimp Group
Tampa Maid Foods, Inc.
U.S. Foodservice
Zeigler Brothers, Inc.

JOIN THE wORLD’S LEADING
AQUACULTURE ORGANIzATION
Aquaculture is the future of the world’s seafood supply.
Be part of it by joining the Global Aquaculture Alliance,
the leading standards-setting organization for farmed
seafood.
Access science-based information on efficient aquaculture
management. Connect with other responsible
companies and reach your social responsibility goals.
global aquaculture
Improve sales by adopting GAA’s Best Aquaculture
Practices certification for aquaculture facilities.
Annual dues start at U.S. $150 and include a subscription
to the Global Aquaculture Advocate magazine,
GAA e-newsletters, event discounts and other benefits.
Visit www.gaalliance.org or contact the GAA office
for details.
Global Aquaculture Alliance
Feeding the World Through Responsible Aquaculture
St. Louis, Missouri, USA – www.gaalliance.org – +1-314-293-5500
®
Breaded Mussels • Mussel Meat • Mussels in the Shell • Gourmet Salmon Portions • Langostino Lobster Tails
GOVERNING MEMBERS
AIS Aqua Foods, Inc.
Al Fulk National Co., Ltd.
Alicorp S.A. – Nicovita
Alfesca
American Seafoods Group
Aqua Bounty Technologies
Aquamarina de la Costa, C.A.
Blue Archipelago
Camanor Produtos Marinhos, Ltda.
Capitol Risk Concepts, Ltd.
Cargill
Chang International, Inc.
Darden Restaurants
Delta Blue Aquaculture, LLC
Eastern Fish Co.
Empress International, Ltd.
Fishery Products International, Inc.
Global Food Technologies
Grobest USA Inc.
Harbor Seafood
Imaex Seafoods
Inspectorate America Corp.
International Associates Corp.
King & Prince Seafood Corp.
Lyons Seafoods Ltd.
Maloney Seafood Corp.
Mazzetta Co., LLC
Morey’s Seafood International
National Fish and Seafood, Inc.
National Prawn Co.
Preferred Freezer Services
Promarisco, S.A.
P.T. Central Proteinaprima, TBK
QVD
Red Chamber Co.
Rich Product Corp.
Sahlman Seafoods of Nicaragua, S.A.
Sea Port Products Corp.
Seafood Exchange of Florida
Seajoy
Suram Trading Co.
Thai Union Group
Trace Register
Tropical Aquaculture Products, Inc.
Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
Zeigler Brothers, Inc.
SUSTAINING MEMBERS
Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld LLP
Alltech
Amanda Foods
Ammon International Inc.
Anova Food, Inc.
Aqua Star
Australis Aquaculture
Beaver Street Fisheries, Inc.
Binh An Seafood Joint Stock Co.
Black Tiger Aquaculture Sdn. Bhd.
Blue Ridge Aquaculture
Camanchaca
C.P. Products
Contessa Food Products, Inc.
Cooke Aquaculture Inc.
Cumbrian Seafoods Ltd.
Devcorp International
Diamond V Mills
DSM
Findus Group
Fortune Fish Co.
Genomar A.S.
Gradient Aquaculture
Hanwa American Corp.
Harvest Select Catfish
H & N Foods International, Inc.
H.Q. Sustainable Maritime Industries Inc.
Inland Seafood
International Marketing Specialists
Intervet/Schering-Plough Animal Health
Ipswich Shellfish Co.
Maritime Products International
Mida Trade Ventures International, Inc.
Mirasco, Inc.
North Coast Seafoods
Novozymes
Novus International
Orca Bay Seafoods
Orion Seafood International
Pacific Aqua Farms, Inc.
Pacific Asset Funding
Pacific Seafood Group
Pacific Supreme Co.
ProFish Americas
P.T. Fega Marikultura
Seattle Fish Co.
Seattle Fish Co. of N.M.
Slade Gorton & Co., Inc.
Solae, LLC
Starfish Foods, Inc.
Stavis Seafoods, Inc.
Sysco of Detroit
The Fishin’ Company
The Plitt Co.
Trans-Pac Foods, Ltd.
Trident Seafoods, Inc.
TÜV SÜD PSB Corp. Pte. Ltd.
ASSOCIATION MEMBERS
All China Federation of Industry
and Commerce Aquatic Production
Chamber of Commerce
American Feed Industry Association
Associação Brasileira de Criadoresde Camarão
Bangladesh Shrimp and Fish Foundation
Cámara Nacional de Acuacultura
Fats and Proteins Research Foundation, Inc.
International Fishmeal and
Fish Oil Organisation
National Fisheries Institute
National Renderers Association
Oceanic Institute
Prince Edward Island Seafood
Processors Association
Salmon of the Americas
Seafood Importers and Processors Alliance
U.S. Soybean Export Council
World Aquaculture Society
Mussel Meat in Butter Garlic Sauce
Serving Suggestion
Camanchaca Inc. • 7200 N.W. 19th Street • Suite 410 • Miami, FL USA 33126
Call 800.335.7553 • www.camanchacainc.com
Pesquera Camanchaca S.A. • El Golf 99-Piso 11 • Las Condes, Santiago, Chile • www.camanchaca.cl
4 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 5
Memorable Meals
Made in Minutes

Although Bowen had many business interests, his “crowning achievement” in aquaculture
was Belize Aquaculture Ltd.
Sir Barry Bowen: The Belizean
Who Changed Shrimp Farming
Robins McIntosh
Senior Vice President
Charoen Pokphand Foods Public Co.
C.P. Tower 27 Floor
313 Silom Road, Bangrak
Bangkok, 10500, Thailand
robmc101@yahoo.com
Not everyone has an opportunity to work
with a legend. As a past employee of Sir
Barry Bowen, I did.
On February 26, my old employer
and still friend Sir Barry Bowen died in a
plane he was piloting. Upon receiving
this news in Bangkok, my mind raced as
to what this man had meant to me personally
and then to what he had meant to
Belize and to the world community of
shrimp farmers.
Barry had so many times in the past
picked me up from the shrimp farm in his
modified Cessna 208 to take me to
Ambergris Caye for a weekend. A weekend
where he would discuss his dreams
and, more importantly, how to make those
dreams reality.
Barry Bowen had been flying planes
like most of us drive a car for 43 years.
He made that flight daily to his home in
Ambergris Caye. He was meticulous
about the plane’s maintenance, and every
time I entered the cockpit with him, he
would spend time going over his check
list before takeoff. He would arrive home
in the late afternoon, but always before
sunset. Barry was a risk taker, but he was
careful and always meticulous in everything
he did.
Belize First
Generally when one writes about
Barry Bowen, you begin by describing
him as one of the wealthiest individuals
in Belize – and that he was. But that simple
description does not give this man his
true merit.
He was first a Belizean, a man who
lived for his beloved Belize. He was a very
proud seventh-generation Belizean, and
always let me know that any investing he
did would always be in Belize.
Barry did not believe in paper assets.
He invested in hard assets, projects that
would be good for the Belizean economy.
And as he told me more than once: “I am
not a passive investor. I take an active
part in any investment I make.”
That is the Barry Bowen I remember
– the man who was ankle deep in a
muddy sump installing a seawater pump.
A man stooped over the hood of a truck
as the final layout of ponds was decided.
A man in the farm warehouse taking
apart a paddlewheel aerator so he could
Barry Bowen was knighted
by Queen Elizabeth
in 2008 for his many
contributions to Belize.
find ways to improve the gearing mechanism.
From Beer To Belize
Aquaculture
In the beginning, I must admit I was a
bit mystified by Barry, a dreamer and
visionary of the first order. Barry did
dream, but it was a calculated dreaming he
knew how to make a reality.
There was never a better person at
putting together a project from scratch
than Barry Bowen, especially projects
that others said just could not be done.
He enjoyed sitting me down and telling
me the story of Belikin Beer, for example.
After obtaining an engineering degree
from Cornell University, Barry returned
to Belize to work with his father in the
family-owned Coca-Cola bottling business.
For a dreamer and young man with
entrepreneurship in his veins, this would
not last long. He dreamed of a beer brewery
in Belize.
He asked his father to invest but was
quickly told, “Barry, Belize does not have
the population to support a brewery.” So
Barry took his life savings, a couple of
thousand dollars, to Miami and looked
up a retired German brewmaster living
there. Could the man develop a business
plan for a brewery in Belize?
Belize Aquaculture was a pioneer in the use of pond liners and regular aeration. The
shrimp farm’s sloped embankments were covered with fabric mesh sprigged with grass
to control erosion.
The brewmaster repeated Barry’s
father’s advice, but Barry insisted that
even though Belize had a small population
and one with the lowest beer consumption
in Central America, he could
make it work. He also told the brewmaster
he would give him his savings to help.
And so Barry Bowen got a business plan
for developing a brewery in Belize.
Then he figured he needed to learn
the business, and so off for the summer
went Barry to see a family friend who
owned Cerveceria Hondurena in Honduras.
He left for Honduras and volunteered
his work in the brewery to learn
more about beer.
After a couple of months, Barry scheduled
an appointment with the owner and
asked him if he would like to invest in a
brewery in Belize. As Barry would tell it,
the owner just about laughed him out of
the office. “I bet you don’t even have a
business plan,” the owner said. Barry
smiled and presented him with his business
plan. A bit shocked, the owner told
Barry to come back in a week after he
studied the document.
Upon his return, the owner told
Barry, “I will financially back your plan,
provided you promise that you will personally
work in this brewery business for
five years.” And with that, Barry Bowen
had found a backer and the technical support
for his first brewery.
It is said that Barry personally helped
lay the bricks for the foundation of the
Belikin Brewery, and as Barry was all too
proud to tell, “I turned a profit in my second
year, two years ahead of the plan.” In
not too long a period, Belize went from
last place in Central American beer consumption
to first place. And, of course,
that was not the end of the story.
With profits from the brewery, Barry
bought out his father’s shares in the
Coca-Cola bottling company, establishing
the cash flow that would fund his
future dreams. These included buying
Belize Estates, a company that held title
to over 400,000 ha of land or 20% of
Belize; the world-class jungle ecotourism
resort Chan Chich Resort on his Gallon
Jug Estate Lands; a livestock farm that
produced hybrid cattle with the best-tasting,
most tender beef in all of Central
America; a 1,200-ha organic coffee plantation;
the private Island Academy school
on Ambergris Caye; and what I consider
his crowning achievement, Belize Aquaculture
Ltd. (BAL).
Barry Bowen thought shrimp aquaculture
was good for Belize. He worried
about the citrus and banana industries
remaining competitive as the world
moved to a global economy. Shrimp, on
the other hand, was a high-value commodity
that Belize could cultivate competitively.
He envisioned being close to the
North American markets, providing
shrimp that were grown in “environmentally
friendly systems.” His greatest dream
was the delivery of newly harvested
shrimp by air directly from the farm to
Bowen’s Belize farm consistently produced
greater volumes of larger shrimp than were typical
of the time.
the major markets of the United States.
Breaking Rules
I first met Barry Bowen through Russ
Allen. I was not sold on working in
Belize. Before I went to meet Barry, an
owner of a major farm in Ecuador had
advised: “Don’t do it. Shrimp cannot be
cultured profitably in Belize. There are
no wild brooders or postlarvae there.”
With that in the back of my mind, I sat
down to talk with Barry Bowen, and we
had the conversation he loves to tell and
retell. This is my version of the story.
It was May 1996, and we were on a
porch outside his home on Ambergris
Caye, drinking, of course, Belikin Beer.
He told me he had studied the shrimp
business and was about to invest in it
back in 1992, when disease hit farms in
Central America. He decided there was
too much risk in the way shrimp were
being cultivated in large ponds using lots
of water exchange and wild shrimp. So he
studied some more.
After a visit to the Waddell Center in
South Carolina, USA, Barry decided that
the future was in smaller ponds using little
if any water exchange, closed systems
that would not pollute the waters outside
the farm and using domesticated shrimp
lines that were known to be free of any
diseases. Then he told me the goal of his
farm would be 11 mt/ha/crop with three
crops yearly.
I am sure I looked pretty stunned,
having come from Guatemala, where the
best I had ever accomplished was 7.7 mt/
ha in a couple of ponds. But in the end, I
was on board, and we were going to give
it the best try that technology would
allow – even if it meant breaking all the
rules of shrimp culture that were accepted
in 1996.
Barry made it clear he would invest
U.S. $10 million without losing any
6 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 7

sleep, understanding it was risk money
doing a project that was somewhat
untested. It would be research and development.
He loved the term “R & D.” But
the way Barry thought, to do a project in
typical shrimp farm fashion would have
no long-term future.
Industry Status: 1996
Shrimp farming in Central America
during 1996 was dominated by large 10-
to 20-ha ponds stocked at 10-30/m 2 densities
and producing 2,000-3,000 mt/ha.
All stocking was done with postlarvae
derived directly from the wild or from wild
broodstock.
Taura syndrome was having a major
impact on shrimp survivorship, and if
that was not a serious-enough problem,
postlarvae just did not grow into large
shrimp. A harvest at 15-g size would
have been considered large due to what at
the time was known as dry season slow
growth syndrome.
Pond management centered on managing
phytoplankton populations that
would periodically crash if water exchange
rates were not great enough. The more
water you flowed, the higher your pond
yields. Ponds were therefore always sited
at low elevations so that high-volume,
low-head pumps could be used.
During most harvests, crabs, fish and
wild shrimp would also come out with
the cultured shrimp. Postlarvae were
judged by price. Guatemala had superior
seed because the cost was less than U.S.
$1 per thousand. Only wild seed was
acceptable, because seed from a domesticated
source would be so weak they
would die in a pond.
Shrimp genetics were unheard of, and
no one ever talked about pedigree or
source of broodstock. Every white shrimp
was equivalent to every other white
shrimp. Bacterial ecology was never
talked about, and the only bacteria were
the pathogenic variety.
Pond bottom preparation, however,
was a major topic of discussion. You had
to dry, till and lime the bottoms between
crops. This limited most farms to no
more than two cycles per year.
BAL Contributions
Against this background, consider the
contributions that Barry Bowen made to
shrimp farming through his vision and
development of Belize Aquaculture Ltd.:
• A farm designed to produce 11 mt/
ha. In fact, his first harvest on February
3, 1998, yielded 14 mt/ha
with a survivorship of 92%. On that
night, Barry had a smile of great
satisfaction.
I remember Barry took some of those
first shrimp back to his farm house and
Dixie, his wife, cooked them up for an
after-harvest celebration. The shrimp,
grown in pure seawater and on plastic
with no water exchange, were so very
tasty.
The first harvest was not a fluke. For
the next three years, the farm averaged
over 15.2 mt/ha with shrimp sizes as
large as 24 g. No dry season syndrome on
the BAL farm.
• A farm constructed on land with an
elevation greater than 12 m because
he was a firm believer in being
above the hurricane zone. Because
of this head requirement, ponds
were built to operate on little water
exchange. In fact, the phrase “zero
Belize Aquaculture distributed feed by mechanical blower. Heavy foam on the surface
of the pond indicates incomplete transition to a bacterially dominated pond community.
water exchange” was coined to
describe pond management there.
There were no high-volume, low-head
pumps at BAL. And the term “biofloc”
came from the bacterial communities that
developed in zero-water-exchange ponds.
There were brown flocs, black flocs and
green flocs.
• A farm that would practice “green”
aquaculture. Since the farm was in
an environmentally sensitive area,
Barry insisted on settling and treatment
ponds to receive harvest
drainage water. This water then
could be recycled at a lower cost in
pumping and reduced the chance of
pumping in an infection.
• A farm that was built for biosecure
management. Before any other
shrimp farm owner I knew in the
Americas even knew the word or
concept, Barry had ideas on biosecurity.
He knew disease could literally
kill his project.
A sign stating “Biosecurity Zone” was
on prominent display at the farm entrance.
Visitors were discouraged, not because of
keeping secrets, but for fear of bringing in
disease. No one was ever allowed to bring a
“foreign” shrimp or crab onto the farm site.
A major feature of biosecurity is the
ability to screen carriers and competitors
out of the water before it enters ponds.
Barry designed a filter system that
allowed us to completely filter all pond
water down to 200 µ – unheard of at the
time. But harvests at BAL were always
clean, with never a fish, crab or wild
shrimp.
• A farm based on the use of specific
pathogen-free (SPF) domesticated
shrimp. Barry was not the first
farmer in the Americas to use
Hawaiian SPF shrimp, but he was
the first to use SPF shrimp after the
initial failed introduction to Ecuador
and, more importantly, the first
to show the importance of SPF
shrimp in large-scale commercial
farming outside the boundaries of
the United States. The success that
BAL demonstrated with SPF
shrimp provided the base for SPF
acceptance in other locations
throughout the world.
• A farm that used high-density polyethylene
(HDPE) liners. BAL was
one of the first farms to demonstrate
the merits of lining ponds
with HDPE plastic. A few ponds
had been lined previously, but no
farm had actually understood or
demonstrated the benefits of lining.
Barry Bowen was a proud Belizean who actively participated in his “hard asset”
investments.
BAL clearly showed that HDPE
allowed quick pond turnaround times,
increasing the number of harvest cycles
per year. HDPE also protected the freshwater
aquifers from saltwater intrusion.
Monitor wells proved this out. But more
than one expert told Barry that he could
not grow shrimp on plastic.
• A farm that mechanized as much as
possible. Both feeding and harvesting
activities were mechanized to
reduce the amount of labor
required. Production of 900 mt of
shrimp was accomplished with
three individuals. Typically, farms
would employ many pond feeders
to manually apply feed and clean
screens. This was not the case at
BAL.
• A modular hatchery and maturation
system that operated continuously
for the five years I was present. It
never required the scripted dryouts
that were part of so many hatchery
protocols. By building a modularized
hatchery, the operation could
be operated efficiently 12 months
per year.
The project was not without problems.
But every time a problem developed,
Barry Bowen was steady and
focused. Barry did not allocate blame, it
was R & D. And so we learned and continued
to refine the concept of BAL. The
results spoke for themselves, and further
improvements were made in stocking,
water management and operation of the
settling basins and recycling systems.
Practical Environmentalist
On occasion, Barry Bowen was
attacked for his “environmentalism.”
Barry was a practical environmentalist.
He funded naturalists at his Gallon Jug
Estate and personally loved to hike
though the jungle and watch birds and
other wildlife. He donated 110,000 ha of
jungle land, which became the Rio Bravo
Conservation and Management Area,
ensuring a natural heritage for future
generations of Belizeans.
Barry was consistent in his belief that
shrimp farming could be and should be
done with the environment in mind. And
he made Belize Aquaculture a testament
to that belief. But as he told me once: “I
lose patience with those people who
think environmentalism is not to develop
an economy. Developed economies are
required for people to lead better and
happier lives. I bet each of the environmentalists
from the so-called developed
world lives with a yard full of grass that
used to have a virgin forest on it. Their
ancestors did what we in Belize must now
do to develop, and for that we are criticized.”
Father Of Modern Shrimp
Farming
Let me conclude by saying that in my
mind, shrimp farming was changed by
Barry Bowen, changed for the better. He
is my “father of modern shrimp farming.”
He changed ideas that resulted in a more
sustainable model that produces shrimp
with predictability, in quantities never
thought possible and at lower costs that
continually make shrimp more available
to more and more consumers.
Today, shrimp farmers and those
involved in researching shrimp culture
technology routinely talk about biofloc,
limited water exchange, the pedigrees of
shrimp, biosecurity, pushing production
envelopes, developing new markets based
on freshness and green technologies.
Barry Bowen dreamed of these ideas
before any of us, and he had the boldness
to act on his dreams and the skill to make
them happen.
Thank You
I was privileged to work for Barry
Bowen, and for that privilege, I have
become a better shrimp culturist, a culturist
who is no longer bound by limits
set by industrial thinking. Thank you, Sir
Barry Bowen.
A legend is someone about whom
everyone you meet has a story to tell, and
generally a story larger than life itself.
This was Barry Bowen. Anyone in Belize,
on the mention of the name Barry
Bowen, had a story to tell.
Barry, you were a living legend in
Belize. And Belize will never see another
like you.
Sir Barry Bowen
Barry Bowen was knighted by
Queen Elizabeth in 2008 for his
many contributions to Belize.
Thereafter he became Sir Barry
Bowen.
Sir Barry Bowen was given an
official state funeral that attracted
thousands of people to pay
respects as the official motorcade
traveled from the funeral service to
his internment in Cayo.
Prime Minister Dean Barrow
said the following about Barry
Bowen during the interment:
“He was obviously one of the
greatest modern-day Belizeans,
one of the greatest Belizeans of his
generation. It’s not just that he
was so immensely successful as a
businessman, it was the fact that
he was always prepared to take
risks, that he was always prepared
to diversify, even when it meant
that he would get into new areas
that were far from certain in terms
of offering the kinds of returns
that businessmen and entrepreneurs
would normally look for.
That is what I found most outstanding
about him – that he had
a mindset that suggested that he
could get anything out of the
Belizean earth.”
8 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate
global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 9

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New GAA Directors Consider Integration
At March Board Meeting
During the Boston board meeting, Wally Stevens reviewed
the growing status of the BAP program expressed on the “BAP
at Work” signage displayed at the GAA trade show booth.
The March 14 Global Aquaculture Alliance board of directors
meeting began with a moment of silence in honor of Sir
Barry Bowen, a distinguished founding supporter of GAA who
died in a February plane crash. The meeting in Boston, Massachusets,
USA, was well attended by GAA members from
Europe, South America, Asia and the United States.
New Directors
Two new members have joined the GAA board. The slate of
nominees for the GAA board presented by the Nominating
Committee included replacements for Rick Martin and Erwin
Sutanto, two exiting directors.
The following were elected (or re-elected) to serve on the
GAA board of directors:
Lee Bloom, Eastern Fish Co.
George Chamberlain, Global Aquaculture Alliance
Shah Faiez, Blue Archipelago (new nominee)
John Galiher, Preferred Freezer Services
Bill Herzig, Darden Restaurants
Ole Norgaard, Alfesca (new nominee)
Antonio Pino, Promarisco, S.A.
Iain Shone, Lyons Seafoods Ltd.
Bert Bachmann, Rittirong Boonmechote, Ray Jones, Alex
Ko, Jordan Mazzetta, Sergio Nates, John Peppel, John Schramm
and Wally Stevens will continue their terms as GAA directors.
The following officers were approved at the meeting:
Wally Stevens – Executive Director
George Chamberlain – President
Bill Herzig – Vice President
Ole Norgaard – Secretary
Lee Bloom – Treasurer
The Nominating Committee also recommended expansion
of the GAA Executive Committee from four members plus the
executive director to six, plus the executive director. Modification
of the GAA bylaws to accommodate the change was
approved.
Integration
GAA Executive Director Wally Stevens reported that the
success of the Best Aquaculture Practices program – as evidenced
by new standards, more certified facilities and further
penetration into the retail arena – is driving changes that will
bring the Global Aquaculture Alliance, Aquaculture Certification
Council (ACC) and new Responsible Aquaculture Foundation
(RAF) into a tighter trinity.
Since site inspections for Best Aquaculture Practices certification
– formerly the responsibility of ACC – have passed to
independent ISO-65-accredited certification bodies, the previously
required definitive separation of GAA and ACC is no longer
necessary. Closer cooperation between the two entities would
make administration of the BAP program more efficient
through the sharing of support services. The pending charitable
status of the RAF can help subsidize the BAP standard-setting
and training activities through foundation funding.
In the integration, which has been approved by the GAA
and ACC boards to phase in later this year, the Aquaculture
Certification Council will be renamed BAP Certification Management.
As administrative and logistical manager for BAP certification,
it will coordinate inspections, maintain records, monitor
traceability and food safety data, and manage the use of the
BAP mark on retail packaging for companies that participate in
the program.
The Responsible Aquaculture Foundation is expecting to
receive charitable tax status – designated 501(c)(3) by the U.S.
Internal Revenue Service – and begin operations soon. It will
house the BAP Standards Oversight Committee that oversees
the standards development process and the technical committees
that develop individual standards. It will also assume primary
responsibility for the training of BAP auditors and educational
outreach to governments, trade associations, companies and
individuals now carried out by ACC.
Budgets
Stevens said the projected budgets for GAA and ACC reflect
the strong growth achieved by both organizations over the last
decade. The current budgets do not adequately cover three areas
tagged for growth in 2010: Standards Oversight Committee
technical committee work, BAP marketplace expansion and
media coverage.
Further budgets for primary project areas, as well as the need
to establish minimum requirements for contingency funds
retained for emergency reserve, will be reviewed by the GAA
and RAF boards during GOAL 2010 in October.
Strategic Planning
Directors Peppel and Norgaard put forth the need to develop
strategic plans for the next one, two and five years that outline
annual goals for GAA. In examining the aspirations, resources
and risks related to GAA’s execution of its mission, limiting factors
can be identified and plans to address them can more effectively
be formulated. Through strategic planning, the ultimate
question is, how should GAA fit into the global aquaculture seafood
community in five years?
10 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 11

BANGLADESH
BAP-Certified Plants Species Affiliated Farms
Apex Foods Ltd. 2
Bagerhat Seafood Industries Ltd.
Gemini SeaFood Ltd.
Rupsha Fish & Allied Industries Ltd.
SAR & Co., Ltd.
Best Aquaculture Practices At Work
BAP Processing Plants By Country
CHINA
BAP-Certified Plants Species Affiliated Farms
Allied Pacific Aquatic Product (Zhangjiang) Co., Ltd. 1
Allied Pacific Food (Dalian) Co., Ltd.
Asian Seafoods (Zhanjiang) Co., Ltd.
Beihai Beilian Foods Industrial Co., Ltd. 1
Beihai Evergreen Aquatic Product Science
and Technology Co., Ltd.
Foshan City Shunde District Yang Sei
Seafoods Co., Ltd.
Fuqing Yihua Aquatic Food Co., Ltd.
Gallant Ocean (Nanhai) Ltd.
Gaoyao City Evergreen Aquatic Product Science
and Technology Co., Ltd.
Guangdong Jinhang Foods Co., Ltd.
Guangxi Nanning Baiyang Food Co., Ltd.
Guangzhou Luxe Seafood Enterprise, Ltd.
Hainan Allied Pacific Biotech Co., Ltd
Hainan Brich Aquatic Products Co., Ltd.
Hainan Evernew Foods Co.
Hainan Golden Spring Foods Co., Ltd.
Hainan Sky-Blue Ocean Foods Co., Ltd.
Hainan Xiangtai Fishery Co., Ltd.
H.Q. Sustainable Maritime Industries –
Hainan Quebec Ocean Fishing Co., Ltd.
Luye Fisheries Guangzhou Co., Ltd.
Maoming Changxing Foods Co., Ltd. 4
Sanya Dongji Aquatic Products Co., Ltd.
Savvy Seafood Inc.
Shanwei Cathay Food Freezing
and Processing Co., Ltd.
Shenzhen Allied Aquatic Produce Development, Ltd 1
Tongwei Hainan Aquatic Products Co., Ltd.
XIHE Food Co., Ltd.
Yelin Hoitat Quick Frozen Seafood Co., Ltd.
Allied Pacific Aquatic Product (Zhangjiang) Co., Ltd. 1
Zhanjiang Evergreen Aquatic Product Science
and Technology Co., Ltd.
Zhanjiang Go-Harvest Aquatic Products Co., Ltd.
Zhangjiang Guolian Aquatic Products Co., Ltd. 2
Zhangjiang Join Wealth Aquatic Products Co., Ltd.
Zhenye Aquatic (Huilong) Ltd.
Zhong Shan Metro Frozen Food Co., Ltd.
INDIA
BAP-Certified Plants Species Affiliated Farms
Apex Exports
®
Avanti Feeds Ltd.
Devi Sea Foods Ltd.
Devi Sea Foods Ltd.
Falcon Marine Exports, Ltd.
Kader Exports Private Ltd.
Nekkanti Sea Foods Ltd. – Ravulapalem
Sandhya Aqua Exports Pvt. Ltd. 1
Satya Seafood Pvt. Ltd.
Star Agro Marine Exports Pvt. Ltd.
1
1
8
2
1
INDONESIA
BAP-Certified Plants Species Affiliated Farms
P.T. Bumi Menara Internusa 1
P.T. Bumi Menara Internusa-Surabaya 1
P.T. Centralpertiwi Bahari Process Plant 1
P.T. Centralpertiwi Bahari Process Plant 2
P.T. Central Proteniaprima 2
P.T. Kelola Mina Laut 1
P.T. Mega Marine Pride 1
P.T. Mitra Kartika Sejati
P.T. Panca Mitra Multi Perdana 1
P.T. Royal Fisheries Indonesia
P.T. Surya Alam Tunggal
P.T. Winaros Kawula Bahari
MALAYSIA
BAP-Certified Plants Species Affiliated Farms
Asia Aquaculture (M) Sdn. Bhd.
Eastern Global (M) Sdn. Bhd. 1
Gropoint Seafood Industries, Sdn. Bhd. 1
SHRIMP
TILAPIA
CATFISH
THAILAND
BAP-Certified Plants Species Affiliated Farms
Andaman Seafood Co., Ltd. 5
Asia Pacific (Thailand) Co. Ltd. 9
Asian Seafoods Coldstorage Public Co. Ltd. 1
Chanthaburi Frozen Food Co., Ltd. 14
Chanthaburi Seafoods Co., Ltd. 14
Charoen Pokphand Foods Public Co., Ltd.
Crystal Frozen Foods Co., Ltd.
Good Fortune Cold Storage Co., Ltd.
Good Luck Product Co., Ltd. 38
Grobest Frozen Foods Co., Ltd.
Inter Pacific Marine Products Co., Ltd. 38
Kingfisher Holdings Ltd.
Kitchens of the Oceans (Thailand) Ltd.
Kongphop Frozen Foods Co., Ltd.
Marine Gold Products, Ltd. 15
May Ao Foods Co., Ltd. 2
Narong Seafood Co., Ltd. 38
Okeanos Co. Ltd. 9
Okeanos Food Co., Ltd.
Ongkorn Cold Storage Co., Ltd.
Phatthana Frozen Food Co., Ltd.
Phatthana Seafood Co., Ltd.
Sea Wealth Frozen Food Co., Ltd.
Seafresh Industry Public Co., Ltd. 1
The Siam Union Frozen Foods Co., Ltd.
Tey Seng Cold Storage Co., Ltd.
Thai I-Mei Frozen Foods Co., Ltd. 2
Thai Royal Frozen Food Co., Ltd. 25
Thai Union Frozen Products Public Co., Ltd. 33
Thai Union Seafood Co., Ltd.
Thailand Fisheries Cold Storage Public Co., Ltd.
The Union Frozen Products Co., Ltd. 4
Xian-Ning Seafood Co., Ltd.
VIETNAM
BAP-Certified Plants Species AffiliatedFarms
Amanda Foods 1
Cadovimex – Nam Long Seafood Export
Processing Factory (Dragon Vietnam)
Camau Frozen (Camimex)
Grobest and I-Mei Industrial Co., Ltd.
Investment Commerce Fisheries Corp.
Minh Phu Seafood Corp. 1
Nhatrang Seaproducts Co. 1
Phuong Nam Seafood Factory 1
Saota Foods Joint Stock Co.
Growing Best Aquaculture Practices Program
Captures Retailer Attention, Support
Best Aquaculture Practices certification continues to drive
industry improvements via high standards that deliver significant
benefits through responsible facility management. Hundreds
of aquaculture facilities certified to the BAP standards
in Asia, Latin America and other parts of the world are positively
addressing biodiversity protection, effluent limits,
worker safety, controls on chemical use and many other issues.
They are truly making a difference.
See the “Best Aquaculture Practices At Work” listings of
certified processing plants to left and above. These, as well as
BAP-certified tilapia, shrimp and channel catfish farms, are
also listed online.
The Best Aquaculture Practices program is also making
Ahold USA
Asda
Busch Gardens
Channel Processing Co. Inc.
COOP
Cumbrian Seafoods Ltd.
Darden Restaurants
Disney
Eastern Fish Co.
Empress International, Ltd.
Expack Seafood, Inc.
Export Packers Company Ltd.
Foodvest
Gorton’s Seafood
Great American Seafood Imports Co.
H & N Foods International
Hai Yang International, Inc.
HighLiner Foods USA Inc.
International Marketing Specialists, Inc.
Lyons Seafoods, Ltd.
Maloney Seafood Corp.
Mazzetta Company, LLC
Meridian Products
Morrisons
National Fish & Seafood Inc.
Odyssey Enterprises, Inc.
OFI Markesa International
Ore-Cal Corp.
Orion Seafood International, Inc.
Pacific Supreme Co.
further inroads into the global
seafood marketplace. BAP certification
has been adopted by
major companies at both the
®
wholesale and retail levels. Walmart
Stores, Darden Restaurants
and Lyons Seafoods, for example, have specified Best
Aquaculture Practices certification for their shrimp suppliers.
Additional companies in the United States, Canada and
other countries support BAP in various ways. These BAP
market endorsers source their seafood from processing plants
that have been certified to BAP standards.
PanaPesca USA Corp.
Quirch Foods
Rubicon Resources
Sam’s Club
SeaPak Shrimp Co.
Sea Port Products Corp.
Slade Gorton & Co. Inc.
Sobeys
Sodexo
Tampa Bay Fisheries
Target
Topco Associates, LLC
U.S. Foodservice
Walmart
Walmart Canada
12 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 13
Seaprodex Minh Hai
Stapimex Joint Stock Co. – Tan Long-Phat Dat 1
Tac Cau Shrimp Processing Plant –
BIM Seafood Joint Stock Co.
Truc An Co., Ltd.
Vietnam Fish One Co., Ltd.
EUROPE
BAP-Certified Plants Species Affiliated Farms
Italy
Friulittica, Societa Cooperativa Agricola*
United Kingdom
Cumbrian Seafoods Ltd. Seaham*
Lyons Seafoods Ltd.*
* Reprocessing Plant
1
WESTERN HEMISPHERE
BAP-Certified Plants Species Affiliated Farms
Ecuador
Aquamar, S.A. 1
Negocios Industriales Real, S.A.
Omarsa S.A. 2
Produmar, S.A. 1
Promarisco, S.A. 2
El Salvador
Aquacorporacion de El Salvador, S.A. de C.V. 1
Guatemala
Novaguatemala, S.A.
Honduras
Empacadora Deli, S.A. 3
Nicaragua
Camarones de Nicaragua, S.A. 6
United States
Beaver Street Fisheries, Inc.*
Consolidated Catfish Producers, LLC 2
Consolidated Catfish Producers, LLC*
Harvest Select Catfish 3
High Liner Foods (USA) Inc.*
King and Prince Seafood Corp.*
SouthFresh Catfish Processors of Alabama
Tampa Bay Fisheries, Inc.*
*Reprocessing Plant
BAP Market Endorsers

Nandeesha Joins BAP Standards Oversight Committee
Dr. Mudnakudu Nandeesha
has recently joined the
Best Aquaculture Practices
Standards Oversight Committee.
He replaces Dr.
Claude Boyd, who will continue
to assist the BAP
techincal committees.
Nandeesha currently serves
as an advisor to the Centre for
Aquaculture Research and
Development being established
Dr. Mudnakudu Nandee- under the St. Xavier’s Bishramsha
has more than 25 years ganj in Tripura, India. He has
experience in teaching and more than 25 years of experi-
research on aquaculture. ence in teaching and researching
aquaculture in India, Cambodia
and Bangladesh.
He is a former professor of aquaculture at the College of
Fisheries under the Central Agricultural University in Tripura
and worked for a decade in the Department of Aquaculture at
Acknowledging his ongoing
work to advance the Best
Aquaculture Practices (BAP)
certification program,
IntraFish Media named
Global Aquaculture Alliance
President George Chamberlain
one of six nominees for
2010 Person of the Year.
“Chamberlain has made
the right moves to put GAA
George Chamberlain: and its BAP ecocertification
“Mr. Aquaculture”
into the forefront of the aquaculture
sustainability arena,”
IntraFish said.
After a strong 2009, IntraFish said, GAA “solidified its spot at the
top of the aquaculture ecocertification world, moving forward in both
the expansion of certification standards and the development of an
infrastructure within GAA to further grow its ecolabeling program.”
Hundreds of aquaculture facilities in Asia, Central America,
Europe and the United States are certified to GAA’s Best Aquaculture
Practices standards. Adding to the current standards for
processing plants and tilapia, channel catfish and shrimp farms,
BAP certification will extend to feed mills and Pangasius farms
later this year.
GAA Vice President of Development Peter Redmond has
successfully carried the BAP message to top retailers. Dozens of
major grocers, retailers and foodservice companies around the
world have joined Walmart Stores in support of BAP certification.
IntraFish called Chamberlain “Mr. Aquaculture.” He has served
as GAA president since the organization’s founding over a decade
ago. Chamberlain said his nomination symbolizes the strides the
organization has made in advocating responsible aquaculture.
The IntraFish Person of the Year award goes to a seafood
industry leader who clearly influences the direction of the global
the University of Agricultural Sciences in Kartaka, India.
Nandeesha also spent nearly a decade on grass-roots aquaculture
projects supported by Oxfam International, the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, World Bank and
Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific.
Nandeesha has a doctorate degree in aquaculture nutrition.
Through the publication of two books and over 100 papers and
articles, he had contributed to the fields of fish nutrition, fish
reproduction, developing aquaculture technologies for small
farmers, gender issues in aquaculture and fisheries education.
He served on the World Aquaculture Society board of directors
from 2006 to 2009. He is also a co-chairman of Aquaculture
without Frontiers.
Nandeesha has been recognized through a number of awards,
including the Sahameitrei Award from the government of Cambodia
for his contributions to the aquaculture and human
resource development of that country. He also received the Professor
H. P. C. Shetty and Gold Medal Awards from the Asian
Fisheries Society. The International Research Foundation, Sweden,
presented Nandeesha the Jubilee Award in 2002 for his
efforts in the field of fish nutrition.
Chamberlain Nominated For IntraFish Person Of Year
industry. The recipient of the award is decided by the votes of
IntraFish readers. The winner was to be announced at the European
Seafood Exposition in Brussels, Belgium, in late April.
Advocate Goes Green(er)
The Global Aquaculture Advocate is getting greener. After
reducing the number of annual print issues while maintaining
six issues via digital delivery, GAA’s bimonthly magazine is
making further changes to lessen its environmental impacts.
Beginning with this May/June issue, the Advocate will be
printed on paper stock with at least 10% post-consumer
recycled content. The masthead will also bear the logo of the
Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI) chain-of-custody certification
system for responsible forestry practices.
GAA’s publication printing partner – St. Louis, Missouri,
USA-based Mulligan Printing – is handling the transition
to the greener Advocate.
After working with GAA in the move to fewer printed
issues, Mulligan proposed the current changes as additional
ways to decrease the magazine’s overall footprint. Mulligan
Printing also participates in AmerenUE’s PurePower clean
air program utilizing renewable energy.
“This is definitely a case where less is more,” GAA
Assistant Director Sally Krueger said. “We appreciate the
input we receive from Mulligan and will consider further
changes in the future.”
The non-profit Sustainable Forestry Initiative maintains
the largest single forest standard in the world. SFI addresses
such issues as worker health and safety, fair labor practices,
civil rights, anti-discrimination and fair wages. Although the
SFI program certifies lands only in the United States and
Canada, program participants must show that paper fiber
they buy offshore is from responsible and legal sources.
BAP Standards Oversight Committee Approves Feed Standards,
Considers IOMs For Small Farms
Wally Stevens said market demand is driving an increase
in farm certifications.
Continued progress in standards development and market
reach was reported at the Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP)
Standards Oversight Committee (SOC) meeting held March 14
in Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
In his introduction, GAA Executive Director Stevens summarized
the overall progress of the BAP program. He referred to
large posters and said market demand for “two-star” product
from BAP-certified farms and processing plants is driving an
increase in farm certification, particularly at tilapia facilities.
Additional processors are becoming engaged in anticipation of
the BAP salmon farm standards.
Stevens also described the proposed new organizational
structure that would integrate the Aquaculture Certification
Council (ACC) with GAA to manage the BAP certification
process using ISO-accredited inspection bodies to conduct facility
audits. Under the plan, the SOC would become part of the
Responsible Aquaculture Foundation, a new body with charitable
status. Within the foundation, Jeffrey Peterson would direct
BAP’s education and training program.
Integrated Operating Modules
ACC President Jim Heerin joined Vice President Bill More
and Peterson in providing an update on the Integrated Operating
Module (IOM) program for multiple small shrimp farms.
In IOMs, a number of farms with similar production methods
and combined total annual production not exceeding 4,000
mt can be grouped together. All undergo full inspections and
participate in traceability, but modified administrative arrangements
allow the farms to save on certification costs. Each IOM
must have a written quality management system defining how
the group is managed to meet BAP standards criteria.
Feed Standards
The BAP feed mill standards were approved for release
pending final changes and review. Requested changes included a
requirement that sources for all fishmeal and fish oil be certified
to the International Fishmeal and Fish Oil Organisation (IFFO)
Global Standard for Responsible Supply or Marine Stewardship
Council program within three years. Until that time, feed mills
are required to develop a plan for transition to sustainable fishmeal
sources.
Tilapia, Salmon Standards
Review of the BAP standards for tilapia farms saw a request
to begin collecting fuel and energy use data so figures for direct
energy use can be calculated. The SOC recommended the establishment
of a minimum mean annual survival rate as an indicator
of fish welfare. It was also suggested that the guidelines for predator
control should be further strengthened and defined.
Progress continues to be made on the BAP standards for
salmon farms. Jon Bryan of the Tasmanian Conservation Trust
was approved to join the Salmon Farm Technical Committee.
As at tilapia facilities, fuel and energy use data will be recorded.
In the future, such topics as greenhouse gases, acidification,
biotic resource utilization, accumulated energy and eutrophication
potential may be addressed in the standards.
Introduced Species
The BAP standards require documented proof that it is legal
to farm a species in a particular place. To strengthen this, the
applicability of the International Council for the Exploration of
the Sea (ICES) Code of Practice on the Introductions and
Transfers of Marine Organisms 2005 was considered.
The code outlines requirements for member countries to
consider ecological, genetic, disease and economic impacts prior
to introducing a marine species. However, ICES only has 20
member countries, with no tropical or developing countries. It
was concluded that the BAP program is functionally equivalent
to the World Wildlife Fund tilapia standards regarding introduced
species.
Social Accountability
Various options were discussed as to how to strengthen social
accountability in the BAP standards. They could include a specific
anti-discrimination clause and bans on forced or bonded
labor. Interviews with workers could be conducted off site to
allow more freedom in responses.
Collaboration between BAP and Fair Trade certification –
which channels price premiums back to producers for social
projects and community benefits – may be considered. In a presentation,
Maya Spaull of TransFair explained that Fair Trade
certification does not aim to duplicate BAP. The program
addresses economic and social criteria in the production and
trade of agricultural products, and wants to address environmental
issues, but not through its own standards.
Audit Formatting
BAP’s shift to ISO-65-accredited certification bodies for
inspections saw a corresponding shift in the audit documents.
BAP’s original audit forms included critical and scored questions,
while the new processing plant audit has eliminated all
scored questions in favor of the yes/no responses typical of
GFSI-compliant standards.
To make the program more consistent across facility types,
possible solutions include converting scored questions “up” to
critical or “down” to recommendations in the guidelines.
Another option is to keep the scoring system, but identify persistent
problem areas and then modify the standards accordingly.
No decision on how to address the situation was made.
14 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 15

GAA Actively Involved In Aquaculture 2010
Peter Redmond Presents Keynote
The population of Kuala Lumpur Redmond represents said a that multicultural truly responsible collection certification of Malays, standards
Chinese and Indians. Sikhs and like those Eurasians of the also Best Aquaculture contribute to Practices the harmonious (BAP) program
blend of culture and traditions.
need
In
to
a
comprehensively
mix of old and new,
cover
the
environmental
varied groups
and social
–
issues,
as well as food safety and traceability from pond to processed lot.
each influenced by the others – reflect uniquely contrasting food, music, art
Redmond also reviewed GAA’s transparent BAP standards
and fashion.
development process, in which major stakeholders are represented
at the beginning and the end. There are regular reviews of
standards in a process that is not open to interpretation or undue
influence from coalitions. If a standard cannot be reviewed, Redmond
said, it is not worth the time taken to write it.
From a technical perspective, standards writing should begin
with a small group of technically qualified people. Science, not
Peter Redmond said certification is shifting from a matter
emotion or even history should be the backbone of any standard.
of corporate responsibility toward a concern for consumers.
There should be a clear separation of those who generate initial
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drafts from the larger standard-writing group, as well as a period
The Global Aquaculture Alliance actively participated in
of open public comment.
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Aquaculture 2010, the largest aquaculture trade show and con-
Redmond discussed market endorsement of certification and
ference in the world. Held March 1-5 in San Diego, California,
various current programs, noting that GAA’s BAP program is
USA, it included the annual meetings of the World Aquaculture
growing 25% annually. BAP covers all streams of the supply
Society and many other groups.
chain and combines food safety and environmental platforms
Peter Redmond, GAA vice president of development, was with clear governance and cost structures, but awareness of BAP
Visas
the keynote speaker at the event’s opening session. GAA also is limited at the consumer level, he said.
took part in the technical sessions with presentations by GAA Redmond concluded by stating that for now, certification is a
Visit www.kln.gov.my to determine if you need a visa to attend GOAL 2010 in Malaysia. If necessary, the GAA
President George Chamberlain, Best Aquaculture Practices corporate social responsibility issue, but it will become a consumer
home office will assist with letters of invitation. E-mail homeoffice@gaalliance.org
(BAP) Standards Coordinator Daniel Lee and Dr. Darryl Jory, issue within two to three
for
years.
assistance.
“Savvy retailers are making these
editor and development manager. In addition, GAA had a booth decisions today as a point of difference,” Redmond said. “But the
in the Register trade show area. Now for This Exclusive Event! debate is out of kilter between the industry, NGOs and retailers.”
Redmond opened his talk on “The Importance of Certifica- He said it is time for all NGOs to come together for a comtion”
by GOAL reminding 2010 the is a audience by-invitation that over meeting. 80% of All the registrations U.S. sea- will mon be reviewed solution, because by the there conference is no dire committee need for new before standards
food supply approval. is imported (Due to from the over nature 150 of countries. the conference Since regula- content, registration and the associated for media proliferation will be limited of supplier to selected and farm ser- expenses
tory frameworks vices.) On-site and enforcement registration, can if be available, inconsistent, will be how limited. can that could result. In the current state of play, more players may
we assure consumers that seafood is wholesome and responsibly be left out in the cold, which is the opposite of what is needed.
produced?
Register
The answer:
by August
certification.
27 to enjoy early-bird discounts. GAA corporate members receive additional discounts.
Join GAA while you register for GOAL 2010 or visit our “Join GAA” page at www.gaalliance.org/joingaa.php
for membership details.
New Governing Members Join Global Aquaculture Alliance
Corporate support for the Global Aquaculture Alliance is con- New member QVD is a leader in producing Pangasius, barratinuing
to grow with the addition of severeal new Governing mundi and other seafood products from Vietnam. QVD partners
Members.
with fish farms throughout the Mekong Delta region to ensure
New member Alfesca is one of Europe’s leading producers of quality from farming and processing to packaging and delivery.
convenience and fine food. Its wide range of products includes QVD was established in 1999 as a small factory in Can Tho.
smoked salmon and other fish, prawns and shellfish, duck and Today, it operates its primary headquarters in the United States
other items.
with a dedicated team to support a global customer base. The
Alfesca runs 15 factories in Europe that export products to Vietnam operations now include a 7,000-m
more than 40 countries around the world. Over the last few
years, Alfesca has placed great emphasis on incorporating sustainable
development into its overall strategy. With the recent
election of Ole Norgaard to the GAA board of directors, the
company is now taking a leadership role in GAA.
Blue Archipelago is another new GAA Governing Member.
The shrimp aquaculture company is dedicated to the production
of premium-quality seafood for the global market. It is a subsidiary
of Khazanah Nasional Berhad, the strategic investment arm
of the government of Malaysia.
Blue Archipelago operates the third-largest shrimp farm in
Malaysia. Its integrated shrimp aquaculture operations are on
track to receive Best Aquaculture Practices certification.
2 Global Aquaculture Alliance
GOAL 2010 is organized by the Global Aquaculture Alliance, an international non-profit trade association dedicated
to advancing responsible aquaculture. Through its Global Aquaculture Advocate magazine, website, meetings
and Best Aquaculture Practices standards, GAA helps aquaculturists raise wholesome and healthy seafood products.
GAA also represents aquaculture by promoting effective, coordinated regulatory and trade policies.
Malaysia Department of Fisheries
factory and a 5,400-
The Malaysia Department of Fisheries plays a leading role in the mt development cold storage and facility. implementation A second fish of modernization
factory is under construc-
strategies for the fisheries sector in Malaysia. Its mission is to develop
tion.
and manage the country’s fisheries sector
in a dynamic, competitive and sustainable manner based on scientific research and quality services.
Morey’s Seafood International upgraded its membership
from Sustaining to Governing Member status. Morey’s specializes
in the manufacture, marketing and distribution of highquality
seafood products to retail and foodservice clientele across
global aquaculture
the United States.
Products now under the Morey’s label include marinated
wild and farm-raised salmon, tilapia and mahi mahi, and smoked
5661 Telegraph Road, Suite 3A • St. Louis, Missouri 63129 USA salmon portions and smoked fish. The company works closely
Phone: +1-314-293-5500 • Fax: +1-314-293-5525
with industry groups and agencies to help assure a consistent and
Web: www.gaalliance.org • E-mail: homeoffice@gaalliance.org renewable source of species as well as other important environmental
interests.
16 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate
After 5:00, Petaling Street becomes a lively night market. For other evening fun,
try one of the city’s karaoke lounges or discos.
GOAL 2010
October 17-20, 2010
Shangri-La Hotel • Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Building Trust
Through Engagement
®
global aquaculture
Co-hosted by Malaysia Department of Fisheries
Global Outlook for Aquaculture Leadership 2010
Join the Global Aquaculture Alliance and fellow seafood leaders
for GAA’s annual aquaculture seafood marketing meeting.

Link Up At GOAL 2010
Whatever sector of aquaculture and seafood you represent, plan to link into
the global seafood value chain at GOAL 2010. Organized by the Global
Aquaculture Alliance, the leading aquaculture standardssetting
organization, GOAL 2010 combines strategic
information on aquaculture production and marketing with
unequaled opportunities to network and expand your business
horizons.
Supply, demand, industry successes and solutions
for emerging issues are just a few of the takeaways for
your business consideration. Over 300 of the top players
in aquaculture and seafood are expected to attend.
To register for this important by-invitation meeting, return the enclosed
registration form. To be recognized as a leader in sustainable aquaculture,
consider GOAL 2010 sponsorship, too.
Malaysia: Model for Responsible Seafood
Malaysia’s annual aquaculture production is expected to top 500,000 mt this year. The proactive approach of
its government to address sustainability in its aquaculture sector is part of what takes GOAL 2010 to Malaysia.
GAA is working with government and industry representatives in establishing training and programs
for Best Aquaculture Practices certification. One “goal” of this conference is to demonstrate to the global
marketplace the ability of producers to address market demands for food safety and sustainability.
18 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate
Fish and Shrimp
GOAL 2010 provides business leaders with information on the farmed
seafood value chain. Targeted half-day sessions deliver:
• Summarized global supply data for shrimp and fish
• Concise reviews of leading international markets
• Pricing trends for 2010 and beyond
• Solutions to seafood issues and business concerns.
GOAL 2010 presentations cover major aquaculture species, including:
• Salmonids • White Shrimp
• Tilapia • Black Tiger, Other Shrimp
• Channel Catfish • Mussels
• Pangasius
Advancing Responsible Aquaculture
The mission of GAA – to advance responsible aquaculture to meet growing food needs – starts by engaging
stakeholders and building trust. In addition to addressing key production and market information, buyers, producers
and marketers at GOAL 2010 examine sustainability through environmentally, socially and economically
sound means.
Attend GOAL 2010 and examine where aquaculture is now – and where it will be in the future. Panel discussions
lend perspective to greater interaction across the global sphere of aquaculture.
GOAL 2010 Schedule
• October 17 – Registration, Welcome Reception
• October 18 – Production Sessions
• October 19 – Marketing Sessions, Gala Reception
• October 20 – Issues and Answers
Enjoy the variety of local seafood and the company of fellow seafood professionals from around the world and
across the value chain. Following GOAL 2010’s half-day sessions, registrants will have time to network and
do business.
Take time to explore the sights and sounds of Kuala Lumpur. Informative visits to local aquaculture and seafood
processing facilities, and registration for the social receptions are available for guests and spouses of GOAL 2010
attendees.
Shangri-La Hotel, Kuala Lumpur
The newly renovated Shangri-La Hotel, Kuala Lumpur is located minutes from
business and shopping areas amid lush gardens in the heart of Malaysia’s
capital city. It features well-appointed rooms and panoramic views of the city
gardens, modern amenities and quality service. The Shangr-La also offers:
• Free breakfast and high-speed Internet (group rate only)
• Nine restaurants and lounges with international
selections
• Shopping arcade
• Full-service business center (interpretation available)
• Full health club with jacuzzi and sauna
• Outdoor swimming pools and tennis court
• Concierge desk
• Horizon Club privileges available.
Each guest room is furnished with a minibar, cable television
with in-house movie channels and a large work desk.
Enjoy special reduced room rates at the Shangri-La Hotel, Kuala Lumpur, for
GOAL participants by visiting the hotel website at www.shangri-la.com/reservations/
booking/en/index.aspx?hid=SLKL&group_code=GAA161010 or calling
+603-2032-2388. If necessary, click the “Group” rate button and enter code
“GAA161010.” To ensure your accommodations, contact the hotel by October 3.
Kuala Lumpur – Kaleidoscope of Cultures
Kuala Lumpur is a thriving city that combines modern architecture and conveniences with
traditional charm. Its spectacular Petronas Twin Towers are the tallest twin structures in the
world. Other contemporary skyscrapers frame the cityscape. Visitors can enjoy entertainment
opportunities from shopping megamalls to sophisticated international restaurants.
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Kuala Lumpur retains its local color in historical buildings,
tranquil green areas and a warm cultural heritage. Colonial
buildings remain at its center. Thousands of endangered
and indigenous trees and plants at the 20-ha K.L. City
Centre Park present a refreshing break from the urbanized
city. The colorful Chinatown is deeply immersed in Oriental
culture and history.

Visas
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Global Aquaculture Alliance
GOAL 2010 is organized by the Global Aquaculture Alliance, an international non-profit trade association dedicated
to advancing responsible aquaculture. Through its Global Aquaculture Advocate magazine, website, meetings
and Best Aquaculture Practices standards, GAA helps aquaculturists raise wholesome and healthy seafood products.
GAA also represents aquaculture by promoting effective, coordinated regulatory and trade policies.
Malaysia Department of Fisheries
The Malaysia Department of Fisheries plays a leading role in the development and implementation of modernization
strategies for the fisheries sector in Malaysia. Its mission is to develop and manage the country’s fisheries sector
in a dynamic, competitive and sustainable manner based on scientific research and quality services.
5661 Telegraph Road, Suite 3A • St. Louis, Missouri 63129 USA
Phone: +1-314-293-5500 • Fax: +1-314-293-5525
Web: www.gaalliance.org • E-mail: homeoffice@gaalliance.org
18 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate
After 5:00, Petaling Street becomes a lively night market. For other evening
fun, try one of the city’s karaoke lounges or discos.
The population of Kuala Lumpur represents a multicultural collection of Malays,
Chinese and Indians. Sikhs and Eurasians also contribute to the harmonious
blend of culture and traditions. In a mix of old and new, the varied groups –
each influenced by the others – reflect uniquely contrasting food, music, art
and fashion.
www.bigphoto.com
Visit www.kln.gov.my to determine if you need a visa to attend GOAL 2010 in Malaysia. If necessary, the GAA
home office will assist with letters of invitation. E-mail homeoffice@gaalliance.org for assistance.
Register Now for This Exclusive Event!
www.bigphoto.com
GOAL 2010 is a by-invitation meeting. All registrations will be reviewed by the conference committee before
approval. (Due to the nature of the conference content, registration for media will be limited to selected services.)
On-site registration, if available, will be limited.
Register by August 27 to enjoy early-bird discounts. GAA corporate members receive additional discounts.
Join GAA while you register for GOAL 2010 or visit our “Join GAA” page at www.gaalliance.org/joingaa.php
for membership details.
global aquaculture
Please print your name as you want it to appear on your
conference name badge.
Name ______ ________________________________________________
GOAL 2010
SHANGRI-LA HOTEL
October 17-20, 2010
Shangri-La REGISTRATION Hotel • Kuala Lumpur, FORM
Malaysia
Building Trust
Through Engagement
Company _ _____________________________________________________
Country _ ________________________________________________
If you bring a spouse or guest, he or she may attend both social
receptions with you. Please print name below.
Guest Name _____________________________________________________
Country _ _____________________________________________________________
Registration, GAA Association Member q $1,600 q $1,800
Spouse/Guest Fee Admission to both Welcome Reception and Gala global Reception aquacultureq
$200 q $300
I am paying by:
®
Co-hosted by Malaysia Department of Fisheries
q Wire Transfer (GAA will e-mail invoice with banking details) q Check, drawn on U.S. bank and payable to Global Aquaculture Alliance
Global Outlook for Aquaculture Leadership 2010
q MasterCard q Visa q Discover q American Express
GOAL 2010 – October 17-20
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
BUSINESS DETAILS
Your Title/Department ___________________________ __________
Business Address ____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
City _________________ State _ ___________________________________
Country ___________________ Zip/Postal Code _ ________________
Phone _______________________ Fax _ ______________________
E-Mail Address _ ______________________________________________________
GAA Membership Level _ _____________________________________
(Please consider joining or renewing your GAA
membership while registering for GOAL 2010).
Primary Aquaculture Relationship (Please choose one):
q Restaurant q Processor q Aquaculture – Farm
q Food Service q Distributor q Aquaculture – Feed
q Supermarket q Importer q Aquaculture – Hatchery
q Seafood Market q Exporter q Aquaculture – Other
q Fishing Company q Broker / Trader
q Research / Education / Government ____________________________________
Before August 27 After August 27
Conference Registration, Delegate
Includes all program sessions and materials, coffee breaks, welcome
reception, Gala Dinner and access to all post-conference program materials.
q $1,800 q $2,000
Registration, GAA Governing Member q $1,200 q $1,500
Registration, GAA Sustaining Member q $1,500 q $1,700
Total ____________________________________
Join the Global Aquaculture Alliance and fellow seafood leaders
for GAA’s annual aquaculture seafood marketing meeting.
Account Number _______________________________________________________ Expiration Date _____________ Security Code* _______
(* Find three-digit security code on back of MasterCard, Visa and Discover after account number, four-digit code on front of American Express)
Cardholder Name ________________________________________________ Signature ___________________________________________
Cancellations must be received in writing by September 1 to qualify for refund of fees (minus a 20% processing fee), issued after the event.
Reserve your hotel room online before September 27 directly with the Shangri-La Hotel, Kuala Lumpur, at www.shangri-la.com/
reservations/booking/en/index.aspx?hid=SLKL&group_code=GAA161010 or telephone +60-3-2032-2388.
Return completed form and payment to Global Aquaculture Alliance / 5661 Telegraph Road, Suite 3A / St. Louis, MO 63129 USA
Telephone: +1-314-293-5500 / Fax: +1-314-293-5525 / E-mail: homeoffice@gaalliance.org / Website: www.gaalliance.org/GOAL

GOAL 2010 Sponsor Benefits
PLATINUM GOLD SILVER
SPONSOR SPONSOR SPONSOR
$30,000 $15,000 $7,500
GOAL 2010 conference registrations 5 2 1
Complimentary spouse/guest social events registration ✔ ✔ ✔
Company logo on conference banner * ✔ ✔ –
Company logo at Welcome Reception and Gala Reception * ✔ ✔ ✔
Company logo on coffee break signage * ✔ ✔ ✔
Company logo in conference brochure * ✔ ✔ ✔
Company logo on flash drive program * ✔ ✔ ✔
Company logo on GAA website * ✔ ✔ ✔
Ad in Advocate magazine, print and digital Full Page Full Page Half Page
Company profile in Advocate magazine * ✔ – –
Ad in conference brochure * Full Page Full Page Half Page
Insert promotional material in conference bags ✔ ✔ ✔
Participation in Sampling Event ✔ ✔ –
* Deadline for logo and ad artwork: August 10
GOAL 2010
Global Outlook for Aquaculture Leadership
October 17-20 – Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
SPONSORSHIPS AVAILABLE
Lead by example among the world’s fish and shrimp marketers – sponsor GOAL 2010! Sponsorships feature
companies through event signage and related material, and GAA’s magazine and website.
Review the many benefits of sponsorship below, and return the following form to the Global Aquaculture Alliance office.
GAA corporate members receive a 5-20% discount on GOAL 2010 sponsorships!
To arrange your sponsorship, return the form or call Sally Krueger
at +1-314-780-1444 for assistance.
Complete Name _ ______________________________________________
Abbreviation/
Acronym _________________________________________________________
Contact Name _ ________________________________________________
GOAL 2010 – October 17-20
SHANGRI-LA HOTEL
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
SPONSORSHIP FORM
Please print your company or organization name as you would like it to appear on your sponsorship materials.
Business Address ______ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
City __________________________________________________ State ________________ _________________________________________________________
Country _____________________________________________ Zip/Postal Code _ ___________________________________________________________________________
Phone ______________________________________________ Fax _______________________________________________________________________
E-Mail Address _ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
GAA Membership Level ______ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________
SPONSORSHIP PROCESS
Sponsor benefits are listed on reverse side. Complete this form and return to GAA office. All payments and artwork for sponsor
logos and advertising must be received by August 10. Submit early to ensure maximum sponsorship benefits. To learn about
membership in GAA, contact the GAA office.
We wish to sponsor GOAL 2009 at the following level:
Platinum (Provide the names of 5 Participants and Spouse/Guest) q $30,000
Gold (Provide the names of 2 Participants and Spouse/Guest) q $15,000
Silver (Provide the names of 1 Participant and Spouse/Guest) q $7,500
I am paying by:
q Wire Transfer (GAA will e-mail invoice with banking details) q Check, drawn on U.S. bank and payable to Global Aquaculture Alliance
q MasterCard q Visa q Discover q American Express
DISCOUNTS FOR GAA MEMBERS
Governing Members, deduct 20% – $ _____________
Sustaining Members, deduct 10% – $ _____________
Association Members, deduct 5% – $ _____________
Total $__________________
Account Number _______________________________________________________ Expiration Date _____________ Security Code* _______
(* Find three-digit security code on back of MasterCard, Visa and Discover after account number, four-digit code on front of American Express)
Cardholder Name ________________________________________________ Signature __________________________________________
Return completed form and payment to Global Aquaculture Alliance / 5661 Telegraph Road, Suite 3A / St. Louis, MO 63129 USA
Telephone: +1-314-293-5500 / Fax: +1-314-293-5525 / E-mail: homeoffice@gaalliance.org / Website: www.gaalliance.org/GOAL

production
Large-scale shrimp operations in China with fully-lined, plastic-covered ponds are ideal for biofloc technology.
Biofloc Technology Expanding
At White Shrimp Farms
Biofloc Systems Deliver High Productivity With Sustainability
Summary:
Biofloc technology provides high
productivity, low feed-conversion
ratios and a stable culture environment.
Also, with viral problems
and rising costs for energy, biofloc
technology can help deliver sustainable
production at lower cost.
The basic requirements for biofloc
system operation include high
stocking density, high aeration
and lined ponds. Pelleted grain
and molasses are added to the
culture water. A crucial factor is
biofloc control during operation.
Biofloc technology has become a popular
technology in the farming of Pacific
white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei. The
basic technology was developed by Dr.
Yoram Avnimelech in Israel and initially
implemented commercially in Belize by
Belize Aquaculture. It also has been
Nyan Taw, Ph.D.
General Manager
Senior Technical Advisor
Blue Archipelago BDH
T3-9, KPMG Tower, 8 First Avenue
Persiaran Bandar Utama, 47800
Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
nyan.taw@bluearchipelago.com
applied with success in shrimp farming in
Indonesia and Australia. The combination
of two technologies, partial harvesting
and biofloc, has been studied in
northern Sumatra, Indonesia.
Biofloc Technology
Biofloc is defined as macroaggregates
composed of diatoms, macroalgae, fecal
pellets, exoskeleton, remains of dead
organisms, bacteria and invertebrates. It
is possible this microbial protein has a
higher availability than feed protein.
The basic requirements for biofloc
system operation include high stocking
density with 130-150 PL10/m 2 and high
aeration of 28 to 32 hp/ha with correct
paddlewheel position in ponds. Ponds
must be lined with concrete or highdensity
polyethylene (HDPE), and pelleted
grain and molasses are added to
the culture water. Shrimp production of
20-25 mt/ha/crop is normal for biofloc
systems. A maximum production of
nearly 50 mt/ha was achieved in small
ponds in Indonesia.
A crucial factor in the system is the
control of bioflocs in ponds during operation.
In raceways, settable solids wastes
are removed outside the raceway. However,
in large ponds, paddlewheel aerators
need to be positioned to concentrate solid
waste at the pond center for draining or
other area for siphoning out. The suspended
bioflocs are maintained at less
than 15 mL/L during operation. The
carbon:nitrogen ratio is controlled and
kept over 15:1 by adjusting molasses,
grain and feed inputs.
Smaller, concrete-lined ponds apply biofloc technology in Bali, Indonesia.
Commercial Interest
Commercial interest in biofloc technology
is threefold, for bioflocs provide
high productivity, low feed-conversion
ratios (FCRs) and a stable culture environment.
Also, with emerging viral problems
and rising costs for energy, biofloc
technology appears to be an answer for
sustainable production at lower cost.
The technology has not only been
applied at commercial shrimp growout
farms, but also in super-intensive raceways
to produce more than 9 kg shrimp/
m 3 . The raceway applications have supported
nursery and growout to shrimp
broodstock rearing and selection of family
lines. Presently, a number of studies by
major universities and private companies
are using biofloc as a protein source in
shrimp and fish feeds.
Applications
The number of shrimp farms currently
using biofloc technology is not
known, but some prominent examples are
Belize Aquaculture, Ltd., in Belize and
P.T. Central Pertiwi Bahari in Indonesia.
The success or failure of the technology is
mainly due to the degree of understanding
of basic concepts of the technology in
commercial application.
Belize Aquaculture was the first commercial
farm to use biofloc technology
successfully. Its production of 13.5 mt
shrimp/ha was quite an achievement at
the time. The Belize technology was
applied initially in Indonesia at C.P.
Indonesia (now P.T. Central Pertiwi
Bahari, C.P. Indonesia), which achieved
average production over 20 mt/ha in
commercial 0.5-ha lined ponds. Research
trials reached 50 mt/ha.
The technology combined with partial
harvest was repeated in Medan, Indonesia,
with better results. During 2008
and 2009, biofloc technology was used in
Java and Bali successfully. In Indonesia,
biosecurity protocols were incorporated
within the technology.
Most Indonesian shrimp farmers are
interested in biofloc technology, but with
some reservations, as a number of projects
have failed due to incomplete understanding
of the technology. For example,
the correct number and position of paddlewheel
aerators used in ponds are
essential.
The main objectives for paddlewheel
aerators are to keep bioflocs in suspension.
This can be achieved with informal aeration,
but with no mechanism to concentrate
solid waste for removal, high levels of
suspended biofloc biomass can lead to
deterioration of pond water quality. Even-
Karang Asem Singaraja
Pond A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3 B4 B4
Pond size
Stocking density
Days of culture
Survival (%)
Average body weight
Feed-conversion ratio
Harvest/pond
Harvest/ha
24 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 25
2,600 m 2
129/m 2
125
91
20.57
1.3
6.23 mt
23.97 mt
2,500 m 2
134/m 2
125
84
20.12
1.42
5.69 mt
22.78 mt
Shrimp Production (kg/ha)
60,000
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
Figure 1. Shrimp production levels at various farms implementing biofloc technology.
Table 1. Performance of shrimp farms in Bali, Indonesia, using biofloc technology.
2,000 m 2
167/m 2
126
93
18.18
1.36
5.64 mt
28.22 mt
Belize Lampung, Medan, Java, Bali,
Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia
2000 2003-05 2008 2008 2009
Commercial Output Maximum Record
2,000 m 2
167/m 2
91*
62
12.19
1.45
2.49 mt
12.46 mt
2,000 m 2
167/m 2
125
85
18.55
1.44
5.25 mt
26.23 mt
600 m 2
152/m 2
147
92
24.15
1.61
2.02 mt
33.64 mt
600 m 2
152/m 2
135
89
21.14
1.52
1.72 mt
28.75 mt
600 m 2
152/m 2
147
91
24.27
1.58
1.94 mt
32.36 mt
2,500 m 2
152/m 2
147
85
24.39
1.63
6.30 mt
25.21 mt
2,500 m 2
152/m 2
147
81
24.39
1.59
6.00 mt
24.02 mt

GOAL
2010
October 2010 –
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Plan Now To Attend
Network with aquaculture production and market
leaders, and examine issues and solutions at GOAL 2010.
Kuala Lumpur offers a casual tropical atmosphere with
easy access and affordable accommodations.
Additional information will follow with invitations to GAA
members and past GOAL participants.
Co-hosted by the Malaysia Department of Fisheries
26 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate
®
global aquaculture
tually, this results in premature harvests, if not total crop failure.
Advantages, Disadvantages
The advantages of biofloc technology include very high biosecurity.
To date, white spot syndrome virus has not been a factor
in the systems. Production and carrying capacity are typically 5
to 10% higher than in typical culture systems, with zero water
exchange. Shrimp grow larger and reflect feed-conversion
rations between 1.0 to 1.3. Production costs can be 15 to 20%
lower.
The disadvantages include high energy inputs for aerators.
Power failures over an hour in duration can be critical. Biofloc
ponds must be lined. The more advanced technology also
demands a greater need to properly train technicians.
Growing Interest
Due to success stories in Indonesia and the United States,
many shrimp farmers are interested in biofloc technology. The
Indonesia Department of Fisheries and shrimp associations are
arranging a three-day training workshop on biofloc in Indonesia.
Dr. Yoram Avnimelech was invited to lead the workshop in April.
In China, a number of shrimp farmers are also interested.
Their fully HDPE-lined, plastic-covered shrimp growout ponds
with high-density culture are ideal for the technology. The
author is currently advising shrimp farms with HDPE-lined
intensive culture ponds in Central America on biofloc systems.
A group from Brazil is running commercial biofloc trials.
Malaysia is currently initiating a 1,000-ha integrated intensive
shrimp-farming project at Setiu, Terengganu by Blue
Archipelago. The company also plans to use the technology.
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production
Microbial Flocs Spare Protein
In White Shrimp Diets
Each rearing tank was covered with nets and equipped with four aeration stones
and two floating airlifts for vertical water circulation.
Summary:
The authors conducted a study
to determine how reducing the
protein content of a diet would affect
the growth performance of L.
vannamei reared in an experimental
microbial floc culture system.
Shrimp given feed with less than
25% crude protein performed
similarly to shrimp raised under
regular intensive culture with a
37%-protein diet. The biofloc system
also delivered more consistent
survival rates, especially at higher
density.
The Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus
vannamei, is the most widely farmed
shrimp worldwide today. Much of this
achievement can be accredited to its predominant
omnivorous feeding habit,
which can spare expensive nutrients in
commercial feeds.
Protein ingredients make up the bulk
of the formula costs in shrimp diets.
Although feeds with less than 25% crude
protein can be used at densities of 10 animals/m
2 or less in growout, protein levels
can rise as high as 40% under higher
stocking densities.
Since microbial floc production systems
are rapidly emerging in the commercial
culture of L. vannamei, it
becomes crucial to evaluate the role of
high-protein diets under these conditions.
Bioflocs, or microbial detritus, are
rich in several essential nutrients that
support and enhance the growth of L.
vannamei under intensive culture.
Experimental Design
The authors conducted a study to
determine how reducing the protein content
of a diet would affect the growth performance
of L. vannamei reared in an
experimental microbial floc culture system.
Thirty circular tanks of 1,000-L volume
were used for the study. Each tank
was covered with nets and equipped with
four aeration stones 15 cm from the tank
Alberto J. P. Nunes, Ph.D.
Instituto de Ciências do Mar
Av. da Abolição, 3207 – Meireles
Fortaleza, Ceará 60165-081 Brazil
albertojpn@uol.com.br
Leandro Fonseca Castro, M.S.
Hassan Sabry-Neto, M.S.
Instituto de Ciências do Mar
bottom. In addition, two floating PVC
airlifts were placed in each tank for vertical
water circulation.
Juvenile L. vannamei weighing 3.53 ±
0.77 g each were stocked in rearing tanks
at 50, 75 and 100 shrimp/m 2 . Five replicate
tanks were assigned for each stocking
density, totaling 15 tanks under microbial
floc culture (MFC) and 15 under regular
intensive culture (RIC).
Two diets were prepared. Diet RIC
consisted of a commercial shrimp diet
with 36.9% crude protein and 5.5% lipids
that was ground, cooked and repelleted
with lab manufacturing equipment. The
MFC diet was formulated to contain less
than 25% crude protein and a final
carbon:nitrogen (C:N) ratio of 12:1. This
lab-made diet was a combination of the
RIC diet mixed with a low-fiber commercial
poultry feed, dried molasses and a
synthetic binder (Table 1).
Shrimp were daily fed to satiation
from feeding trays at 7 a.m. and 4 p.m.
Animals under RIC received the commercial
diet alone, whereas for MFC,
dried molasses mixed with seawater was
added once daily based on feed consumption
and a targeted C:N ratio of 20:1 for
the culture water.
Water Preparation
Prior to shrimp stocking, clean seawater
in each rearing tank was fertilized
with sodium nitrate, sodium silicate and
monoammonium phosphate. To boost
phytoplankton growth, greenwater from
six nursery tanks was collected, mixed
and inoculated at 20 L/m 3 . Rearing water
was aerated for three more days before
the shrimp were stocked. At the start of
the trial period, only tanks intended to
operate under the production of microbial
flocs were treated with a commercial
microbial mixture.
No water exchange took place during
culture in any of the tanks, but the tanks
were filled whenever necessary with seawater
lost due to evaporation. No other
attempts to correct water quality were
made during 76 days of culture, which
included four days of acclimation. Biofloc
formation was measured every three days
from all tanks.
Results
Water salinity and temperature
reached means of 36 ± 2.6 ppt and 31.6 ±
0.93° C, respectively. No significant variation
was observed for these parameters
between culture systems or among stocking
densities used (P > 0.05). In both
types of systems, water pH decreased
from over 8 at the onset of the study to
less than 7 close to harvest.
Within each system, pH also varied
as a function of stocking density, particularly
when culture water with 50 and 100
shrimp/m 2 under regular intensive culture
were compared (7.7 ± 0.51 and 7.4 ±
0.55, respectively). Daily oxygen measurements
taken at 3 a.m., 4 p.m. and 11
p.m. never fell below 2.23 mg/L, with a
mean value of 3.53 ± 0.77 mg/L.
Despite the reduction in feed protein
content, shrimp had very similar performance
under both microbial floc culture
and regular intensive culture. Some
parameters varied as a function of stocking
density and/or culture system. Final
shrimp survival did not differ between
the MFC and RIC treatments, but only
the MFC system was able to support 100
shrimp/m 2 without a deleterious effect on
survival (P > 0.05).
Shrimp survival in the RIC system
decreased progressively as higher densities
were adopted, whereas the MFC
showed more consistent survival rates.
This suggested that without water
exchange, the RIC system was not able to
support a high shrimp biomass, either
due to insufficient dissolved-oxygen levels
or a failure in recycling excess nutrients
from feed remains and shrimp feces.
Shrimp weekly growth, final body
weight and yield showed no differences
between culture systems. Under both
conditions, growth was acceptable and
always above 1.3 g/week, but there was a
trend toward slower growth and lower
body weights at harvest with increasing
stocking density. This became more pronounced
under the MFC system, particularly
when 50 shrimp/m 2 was compared
with 75 and 100 shrimp/m 2 (P < 0.05).
Shrimp yield for RIC did not surpass the
0.8 kg/m 2 threshold, whereas for the
MFC, it reached as high as 1.0 kg/m 2 .
Microbial Flocs
Microbial floc material was formed in
28 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 29

Poultry feed 1
Shrimp feed 2
Molasses 3
Synthetic binder
Crude Protein
Fat
Fiber
Ash
Moisture
Table 1. Ingredient composition and proximate analysis
of experimental diet used for microbial floc culture.
Ingredient Content (g/kg)
both the RIC and MFC systems,
although molasses was not added to the
540.3
407.3
50.0
2.4
Proximate Analysis Content (g/kg)
1 147.3 g/kg crude protein, 37.1 g/kg fat, 61.1 g/kg fiber, 65.3 g/kg ash
2 368.9 g/kg, 55.0 g/kg fat, 28.0 g/kg fiber, 100.6 g/kg ash
3 53.4 g/kg, 0.4 g/kg fat, 1.8 g/kg fiber, 191.6 g/kg ash
235.2
425.0
43.8
98.8
79.9
Table 2. Performance of L. vannamei farmed at different densities
under microbial floc culture (MFC) or regular intensive culture (RIC).
Lowercase and capital superscripts indicate significant
differences among densities in each system (α = 0.05)
Performance
Variables System
Initial body weight (g)
Final body weight (g)
Weekly growth (g)
Final survival (%)
Final yield (g/m 2 )
50 Shrimp/
m 2
Shrimp Stocking Density
75 Shrimp/
m 2
100 Shrimp/
m 2
P
Value
RIC 3.99 ± 0.35 a 3.28 ± 0.22 b 3.58 ± 0.14 ab < 0.05
MFC 3.70 ± 0.36 A 3.26 ± 0.75 B 3.31 ± 0.25 B N.S.
RIC 21.22 ± 1.10 a 18.57 ± 1.26 b 17.27 ± 1.29 b < 0.05
MFC 20.22 ± 0.43 A 17.99 ± 1.67 B 16.95 ± 0.35 B < 0.05
RIC 1.68 ± 0.12 a 1.49 ± 0.11 ab 1.33 ± 0.12 c < 0.05
MFC 1.61 ± 0.04 A 1.33 ± 0.05 B 1.48 ± 0.16 B < 0.05
RIC 92.8 ± 7.6 a 72.7 ± 10.7 ab 67.2 ± 21.7 b < 0.05
MFC 81.6 ± 15.6 85.1 ± 10.4 80.0 ± 15.7 N.S.
RIC 771 ± 116 751 ± 158 766 ± 308 N.S.
MFC 629 ± 167 A 883 ± 152 AB 1.002 ± 225 B < 0.05
RIC tanks to control C:N rations in the
water. Tanks with 75 and 100 shrimp/m 2
With higher stocking densities, biofloc
production continued to increase until
shrimp harvest.
under MFC increased the amounts of
floc material in the water throughout the
culture period. However, a biofloc plateau
seemed to be reached at five to six weeks
of culture in tanks with 50 shrimp/m2 and in all stocking densities operating
under RIC conditions. Under MFC conditions
with 75 and 100 shrimp/m2 under MFC increased the amounts of
, biofloc
production continued to increase
until shrimp harvest.
Data collected in this study presented
strong evidence that the biological performance
of L. vannamei was not lost
when lower-protein diets were used
under intensive floc conditions. If these
results can be replicated within a commercial
culture setting, the method can
give a significant competitive advantage
to those operating or shifting to microbial
floc systems.
production
Bioreactor Technology For Tilapia
Advances In Latin America
The construction of V-shaped commercial bioreactors inside plastic tunnel greenhouses
began in 2000.
Summary:
Continued research and development
on tilapia culture is leading
to further advances in production
technology. Early biofloc-based
culture systems in tanks in Brazil
have given way to commercialscale
bioreactors housed in greenhouses
that utilize water fertilization
regimes, high-protein feeds
and salinity controls. Survival
and feed conversion have been
excellent, although growth rates
are less consistent than in more
traditional systems.
The first experiments with tilapia bioflocs
in subtropical southern Brazil were
conducted in September 1998 using procedures
similar to those the Oceanic
Institute concept of mesocosms, aquatic
controlled (MAC), applied to Litopenaeus
vannamei shrimp.
The first experimental units were 20
200-L plastic indoor tanks with aeration,
into which Oreochromis niloticus larvae
were stocked at densities of 1-10/L. An
objective was to overwinter them in commercial
units at low cost.
The survival and feed-conversion
ratios for fish at all densities were exceptionally
good compared to the performance
achieved using previously available
techniques. However, growth was low,
especially compared to shrimp produced
in similar bacteria-based systems in
Hawaii, USA, and Belize.
Greenhouse Bioreactors
The preliminary results motivated in
early 2000 the construction of commercial
1,000-m 3 V-shaped bioreactors inside two
800-m 2 plastic tunnel greenhouses. The
aim of the units was to overwinter 300,000
1-g tilapia fry purchased inexpensively at
the end of the growout season in late May
and sell large juveniles of up to 20 g at top
prices in September, just before the breeding
season.
The results of this first commercial
trial quickly changed when the fish grew
to the targeted 20-g size in the first 40
days, so it was impossible to sell them as
juveniles 90 days later. The fish were kept
growing with 25% of the forecasted feed
in order to check the carrying capacity of
the reactors and the growth curve up to
market size.
The fish attained commercial size in
150 days with an average feed-conversion
ratio of 0.77 and survival of 92%. However,
the size variation was very large, and
some fish grew 500 g in less than four
months. While external temperatures
averaged 5 to 10° C, water temperatures
inside the greenhouses were never below
28° C, and the floc was very stable and
always dark green.
The major changes to the MAC environment
in these initial floc trials was the
Sergio Zimmermann
Akvaforsk Genetics Center A.S.
N-6600 Sunndalsøra, Norway
sergio.zimmermann@afgc.no
higher water temperatures and the presence
of plankton influenced by the sunlight
in the greenhouse.
Expansion, Invention
By 2004, the project had 21 tilapia
bioreactors and 16 commercial growout
facilities in southern Brazil. One facility
in Colombia was dedicated to mesocosm
culture of first-feeding carnivorous larvae.
Several in Ecuador and Angola handled
nursery-phase tilapia juveniles.
Over the years, several protocols were
developed. A water fertilization regime
aimed at proper balancing of carbon,
nitrogen and phosphorus levels to favor
chlorophytes and avoid cyanophyte
blooms. High-protein feeds were used to
achieve excellent feed conversion. Salinity
controls that favor inland polyculture
with white shrimp were established to
improve the taste of both tilapia and
shrimp.
Recently, Storvik and Akvaforsk
Genetics Center A.S. tested the effects
of liquid oxygen at the FishSul facilities
with promising results. The commercialization
of tilapia culture in bioreactors is
becoming a marketing success, with no
diseases or water exchange reported over
the last 10 years.
Biofloc technology is an integral part of
the ongoing development.
30 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 31

production
Water Temperature
In Aquaculture
Aquaculture ponds should not be deeper than about 2.0 m to minimize the probability
of thermal stratification.
Summary:
Water temperature is a key water
quality variable in aquaculture
because it influences other variables,
defines growing seasons
and dictates what species can be
grown at a particular location. It
also influences the occurrence of
infectious diseases and animals’
immune functions. The surface
of water heats much faster than
deeper layers, which can cause
thermal stratification. Shallow
pond design and aeration can
reduce stratification issues.
Water temperature is a key water
quality variable because it influences all
other water quality variables and aquatic
organisms, as well. Air temperature is
controlled mainly by solar radiation, and
it varies more or less predictably with season
and time of day. Water in ponds and
other outdoor aquaculture systems also
receive direct insolation.
However, water warms more slowly
than air because of its great specific heat
of 1 calorie/g/° C. On sunny or partly
cloudy days, pond water has its lowest
temperature in the early morning and its
highest temperature in the early afternoon
– as does the air.
Water can store considerable heat
because of its high specific heat. Heat
stored in pond water is lost to the air
when the air is cooler than the water.
Because water releases heat rather slowly,
brief periods of unseasonably cool
weather do not cause drastic changes in
water temperature in ponds. Nevertheless,
if cool conditions persist for a few
days, pond water temperature will equilibrate
with the air temperature. When
considered over periods longer than several
days, water temperature closely tracks
air temperature.
Water temperature influences the
length of the growing season and the species
that can be grown at a particular location.
For example, tilapia, a tropical species,
will die during winter in the temperate
zone. Channel catfish, a warmwater, temperate
zone species, can survive year-round
in the temperate zone, but will not feed and
grow during winter. Coldwater species do
not survive well at temperatures above
about 20° C, and warmwater species do not
occur in cold climates.
Thermal Stratification
Light adsorption and heating of water
Claude E. Boyd, Ph.D.
Department of Fisheries
and Allied Aquacultures
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36849 USA
boydce1@auburn.edu
are magnified by the presence of suspended
particles, especially plankton and
other organic matter. Light penetration
into water declines exponentially with
depth, so the surface layer heats much
faster than deeper layers.
Warm water is less dense than cooler
water and floats on top of it in the absence
of strong mixing forces. In lakes and even
small bodies of water greater than 1.5 or
2.0 m in depth, the warmer surface layer
can increase enough in density that winds
are not strong enough to mix it with
deeper, cooler and denser water during the
warmer parts of the year. This phenomenon
results in thermal stratification.
When air temperatures decline in the
cooler seasons, surface water cools until
its density is low enough that wind can
mix it with deeper water. Thermal
destratification also can occur in the summer
in response to unseasonable cool
spells, heavy rains or strong winds.
Thermal stratification obviously can
occur in tropical waters. Small tropical
water bodies typically stratify and destratify
annually. Destratification may not be
caused by falling air temperature, but as a
result of stronger winds or heavy rains
during the wet season. Rain water is
cooler and denser than warm pond water
and sinks, causing upwelling and destratification.
Large, deep tropical lakes stratify
but tend not to destratify annually. Most
destratify on an irregular basis as a result
of weather conditions.
The surface layer of a stratified water
body is called the epilimnion. The deeper,
cooler layer is known as the hypolimnion,
and the transitional layer of rapidly changing
water temperature between the two is
known as the thermocline.
Epilimnion
Wind-Driven Water Circulation Uniformly
Warm Water
Thermocline
Hypolimnion
Because warm water is less dense than cold, it floats on top until mixed into the underlying
transitional layer by wind or other mechanical means. In deep ponds, the mixing
process is limited.
Water Quality Deterioration
Because the hypolimnion does not
receive enough light for photosynthesis,
and organic particles settle into it, its
water quality often becomes impaired by
dissolved oxygen depletion and high concentrations
of organic matter and other
reduced substances during stratification.
Sudden destratification mixes epilimnetic
water with hypolimnetic water, which can
result in water quality deterioration
throughout the water column and mortality
of culture animals.
Destratification of lakes containing
cage culture operations can be especially
disastrous. Low dissolved-oxygen concentrations
following sudden destratification
have caused complete mortality of
fish in cages. The likelihood of sudden
destratification and its possible consequences
on culture should be carefully
assessed in selecting sites for cage farms.
Aeration Mixing
Aquaculture ponds should not be
deeper than 2.0 m to minimize the probability
of thermal stratification. Shallow
ponds may stratify during the day, but
destratification will break up at night.
Ponds also should be oriented with their
long axes parallel to the prevailing winds
to encourage wind mixing.
Mechanical aeration mixes ponds, but
surface aeration may not prevent stratification
of deep ponds. Two mechanical
methods are available for avoiding
destratification in small, deep water bodies.
Vertical, axial-flow devices can be
used to propel surface water downward to
blend with deeper water and prevent layers
of different densities from developing.
Air diffusers placed in deep water induce
upwelling and also prevent stratification.
Seasonality
Temperature has a pronounced effect
on chemical reaction rates, the ability of
water to hold dissolved oxygen and other
gases, and growth and other physiological
processes. According to Van Hoff’s law, a
10° C increase in temperature will
roughly double the rate of chemical reactions,
including physiological processes
and growth. The actual factor of increase
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32 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 33
Uniformly
Cold Water
wind
0
1
2
3
4
Depth (m)
TM Aquaculture
Feeds Division
www.rangen.com
(800) 657-6446 Idaho (800) 272-6436 Texas
(208) 543-4698 Fax (979) 849-6943 Fax

water Temperature (° C)
30
20
10
0
Guayaquil, Ecuador
Auburn, Alabama, USA
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Match
in a process caused by a 10° C temperature
is called the Q . To illustrate, if fish
10
grow 1.8 times faster at 30° than at 20° C,
Q is 1.8.
10
Water temperatures at most locations
vary between seasons, even in the tropics.
This phenomenon is illustrated in Figure
1 with data from Auburn, Alabama,
USA, at 32° 36’ N latitude and for Guayaquil,
Ecuador, at 2° 9’ S latitude.
A small difference in temperature can
appreciably affect shrimp growth rate.
Suppose shrimp grow at 1.20 g/week
during a period when water temperature
averages 27° C. Assuming Q = 2 for
10
shrimp growth, an increase in temperature
to 29° C should increase growth rate
to 1.44 g/week. Of course, plants and
animals have a range of temperature tolerance,
and Van Hoff’s law does not
apply outside the temperature range for
optimum growth. In the example above,
if 29° C is above the optimum temperature
for shrimp growth, there would be a
Figure 1. Water temperatures
at a temperate
and tropical location.
decrease in growth at the higher temperature.
A study in Poland revealed that a
difference in 1° C from the mean seasonal
temperature can alter common carp production
in intensive systems by 1,000 kg/
ha.
Animal Health, Reproduction
Water temperature has an indirect
role in the health of aquatic animals
because it influences the occurrence and
outcome of infectious disease. The
immune systems of aquatic animals generally
function most efficiently within the
temperature range for optimum growth.
At higher or lower temperatures, the
immune systems are less effective in preventing
disease.
Rapid temperature changes also
impair immune function. Each pathogen
has an optimal temperature range. For
example, the bacterium that causes
enteric septicemia in channel catfish is
most virulent at water temperatures of 22
to 28° C. This temperature range in the
major catfish-farming area of the United
States occurs in spring and autumn, so
these are the times that major outbreaks
of the disease occur.
Water temperature plays an important
role in determining the rate of ovulation
and milt production in fish under natural
and induced situations. Timing of this
physiological response is related to a
degree-hour response – water temperature
multiplied by the number of hours from
the onset of ovary maturation or dosing
when inducing ovulation until ovulation.
Ovulation in common carp, for example,
requires 240 to 290 degree-hours.
Water Quality
Water temperature greatly influences
water quality because the growth and
metabolism of phytoplankton, bacteria
and other microorganisms increase with
increasing temperature. Moreover, water
holds less oxygen at higher temperatures.
Dissolved-oxygen depletion is much
more likely to occur during hot weather
than during cooler periods.
Rates of chemical processes such as
ionization, mineral dissolution, adsorption
and ion exchange also increase in
response to greater water temperature.
The onset of potentially harmful water
quality events is faster in warmer weather.
Aquaculture managers should be especially
vigilant regarding water quality
during the warmest months and periods
of unusually high temperature.
production
Smoked seafood like this smoked trout continues to grow in popularity. The golden
color is due to the interaction of carbonyls with amino components on the flesh surface.
Smoked Fish
Old Product With New Appeal
Offers Enhanced Taste, Shelf Life
Summary:
Aquaculture has enabled many fish species to be produced
affordably, which makes more product available
for “specialty” processing like smoking. The objectives
of the smoking process are to uniformly impart
the desired sensory characteristics to the product,
extend shelf life and avoid the deposition of harmful
compounds. The flavor and aroma of smoked fish
are primarily due to the presence of phenols. Smoked
methods do not adversely affect the protein quality or
fatty acid profile of fish flesh.
Smoked fish, arguably one of the oldest of all processed fish
products, continues to increase in popularity. Traditional
smoked favorites include chub, whitefish, haddock, cod and kippers,
but new species, including many from aquaculture, are now
available in the marketplace.
Some of the new finfish species include eel, salmon, trout,
dogfish, sturgeon, mackerel and shark. Recently, oysters, clams,
mussels and scallops have also become available in smoked form.
New value-added products featuring smoked fish or shellfish
have been enthusiastically received by consumers. The list includes
George J. Flick, Jr., Ph.D.
Food Science
And Technology Department
Virginia Tech/Virginia Sea Grant (0418)
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 USA
flickg@vt.edu
pâtés, dips, spreads, salads and snacks.
Smoked fish have also been marketed with
pepper coatings, herbed seasonings (especially
dill) and honey glazing, and infused
with various other flavorings.
Aquaculture has had a significant
impact on the availability of smoked
products. In prior years, smoked products
were considered a luxury or specialty ethnic food due to their
high cost. However, aquaculture has enabled many fish species
to be produced affordably, which makes more product available
for “specialty” processing and keeps consumer costs low. Recent
fishery statistics show that some of the newer value-added products
on the market are gaining rapidly on some of the more traditional
fresh and frozen market forms.
Aquaculture has enabled many fish
species to be produced affordably,
which makes more product available
for “specialty” processing.
Fish Preservation
The smoking process provides fish and other smoked products
some protection against spoilage when compared to fresh
products. Modern smoked products need to be stored at temperatures
between 0 and 3° C to reduce spoilage and prevent the
growth of toxin-producing microorganisms. When smoked
products are properly stored, they should have shelf lives that
range from one to four weeks. Products that have been heavily
smoked may not require refrigeration.
The preservation of fish and shellfish through smoking is achieved
through several steps that are considered as a single unit process:
• Drying. Surface drying provides a physical barrier to the
penetration of bacteria and does not create an acceptable
growth environment.
• Salting. Salting reduces water activity, which inhibits the
growth of many pathogenic microorganisms. However, for
salting to be completely effective, it may be necessary to
34 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 35

apply approximately 5% salt, which makes most products
too salty for consumers.
• Deposition of phenolic antioxidant compounds, which
delay lipid oxidation.
• Deposition of antimicrobial substances, such as phenols,
nitrites and formaldehyde.
Lactic Acid Bacteria
Recent research has shown that the incorporation of lactic
acid bacteria (LAB) can serve as a biopreservation method.
These bacteria are generally recognized as safe, and do not present
a human health hazard. The food-grade products produce
some antimicrobial metabolites and are readily accepted by consumers
due to their probiotic associations. As subjects of significant
research over the years, their physical and biochemical
effects on foods are well understood.
LAB produce bacteriocins, proteins or peptides that inhibit the
growth of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms. In general, lactic
acid bacteria do not affect the taste or aroma of foods and do not
contribute to spoilage. The bacteriocins are not considered a health
risk, since they are destroyed by enzymes in the stomach.
The greatest use of LAB has been in the inhibition of the
human pathogens Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus
and Clostridium botulinum. Strict control of L. monocytogenes is
necessary, since many countries have established a zero-defect
action level in ready-to-eat products.
Carnobacterium piscicola has emerged as the major microorganism
to control L. monocytogenes, since it is routinely isolated
from many seafood products, including smoked fish. However,
not all C. piscicola produce bacteriocins; only certain cultivars
exhibit this trait.
The inhibitory spectrum of bacteriocins is generally restricted
to Gram-negative bacteria. Other bacteria, such as Lactobacillus,
Leuconostoc, Pediococcus and Enterococcus faecium, also produce
bacteriocins. Bacteriocins do not work efficiently when used as
“stand-alone” preservatives in refrigerated foods. However, they
can work synergistically when used in a multiple-barrier preservation
system.
Additional research may be required before bacteriocin-producing
bacteria can be widely used as a form of biological control.
Today, nisin, a compound produced by LAB, is the only
bacteriocin approved as a food preservative in more than 50
countries.
Smoke Production
Smoke can be produced with logs, wood chips or sawdust.
Logs produce a hotter fire with less smoke unless the process is
carefully controlled. Sawdust smolders easily and produces more
smoke that can be applied to the product. The lower temperatures
required when using sawdust provide a smoke that has
greater preservative and flavor compounds. Smoking at higher
temperatures oxidizes these preservative and flavoring compounds
to form carbon dioxide and water.
It is important to carefully select wood since prior exposure to
pesticides or industrial chemicals could result in the presence of
human toxicants. Hardwood is preferred because it imparts a milder
flavor, while softwoods such as pine and fir impart a more resinous
flavor. The preferred smoking woods are maple, oak, hickory, mesquite,
cherry, apple and beech. While some firms claim one type of
wood as superior to another with respect to taste, only the most discriminating
consumer can truly detect the difference.
Smoking Process
Since most of the smoke components found in smoked fish
36 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate
While some firms claim one type
of wood as superior to another
with respect to taste, only the most
discriminating consumer can truly
detect the difference.
are absorbed by the surface and interstitial water of the fish muscle,
it is important that the fish remains moist, at least for part of
the smoking process. It has been reported that the rate of
absorption of phenolic compounds in predried fish is only 5% of
that absorbed by wet fish. The objectives of a modern smoking
process should be to uniformly impart the desired sensory characteristics
to the product, extend product shelf life and avoid the
deposition of known carcinogens.
The characteristic golden color of smoked seafood products
is due to the interaction of carbonyls with amino components on
the flesh surface. It has also been found that as fish spoils, amine
compounds become increasingly important in determining the
extent of browning.
For a standard smoking process, the condition and extent of
spoilage of the raw material can affect the extent of color formation.
Nitroso substances in smoke produce a pink color in the
flesh of smoked fish. It has been suggested that the nitroso substances
are also capable of forming carcinogenic N-nitrosamines
by reaction with amines in the fish muscle.
Smoked seafood can contain up to 0.5 g of smoke constituents
per 100 g of tissue. Some of the volatile compounds may be
carcinogenic. The most prominent of these is benzopyrene, the
concentration of which can decrease during storage. The most
benzopyrene is absorbed during the final, hottest stage of smoking.
Eight to nine times more benzopyrene is absorbed during
hot smoking than during cold smoking.
The flavor and aroma of smoked fish are primarily due to the
presence of phenols. Hot and cold smoking processes produce
different phenolics in smoked products. The compounds in
smoke with lower molecular weight are responsible for the desirable
flavor of the smoked product. The higher-molecular-weight
compounds are generally regarded as imparting a “burned” or
harsh phenolic sensory characteristic.
Studies have concluded that traditional smoked processing
methods do not adversely affect the protein quality or fatty acid
profile of the flesh. However, if the product is severely overheated,
some of the amino acids may be reduced in availability.
None of the modern processes utilize processing temperatures
that high.
Editor’s Note: This article should have preceded, as part I, George
Flick’s article in the March/April Global Aquaculture Advocate:
“Smoked Fish – Part II. Proper Salting, Drying Procedures Essential.”
Studies have concluded that traditional
smoked processing methods do not
adversely affect the protein quality
or fatty acid profile of the flesh.
Cocktail hour
Eastern Fish style.
We propose a toast: Here’s to our customers the world over who rely on us for the
freshest shrimp and seafoods available. We salute your discriminating taste, your
insistence on quality, and your unwavering zeal for freshness. So here’s to you for
helping make Eastern Fish Company one of the largest shrimp and seafood providers
in the world. Bottoms up!
global aquaculture
f o u n d i n g m e m b e r
Eastern Fish Company
Glenpointe Centre East
300 Frank W. Burr Blvd.
Teaneck, New Jersey 07666
1-800-526-9066
Tel: 201-801-0800
Fax: 201-801-0802
easternfish.com
®

production
New Zealand Addresses Social Factors
In Aquaculture Development
Aquaculture development ideally reaches a balance that provides for social needs
while maximizing economic efficiency and environmental sustainability.
Summary:
The regulatory system for aquaculture
in New Zealand address-
es social and cultural factors
through legislation and policies
that strongly utilize public consultation.
The indigenous Mäori
people, for example, play an integral
role in aquaculture development.
The goal is to find an ideal
balance that provides for social
needs while maximizing economic
efficiency and environmental sustainability.
However, the extensive
consideration of social interests
can slow industry growth.
As the global aquaculture industry
continues to develop, there is wide recognition
that environmental effects need to
be managed to ensure sustainable growth
of the sector. However, social and cultural
aspects of aquaculture development
are becoming increasingly important to
the success of the industry.
Seafood certification programs, evolving
consumer expectations and international
standards consistent with the Food
and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations Code of Conduct for
Responsible Fisheries will demand that
aquaculture products are sourced responsibly
and produced in ways that not only
minimize ecological effects, but also meet
obligations to ensure the well-being of
local communities and indigenous people.
Regulatory bodies and aquaculture producers
alike have an important role in
ensuring the long-term viability of the
industry by helping to meet these
demands.
The regulatory system for aquaculture
in New Zealand provides an interesting
example of how social and cultural factors
can be addressed through legislation and
policies.
Wendy Banta
Nelson, New Zealand
wendy.banta@fish.govt.nz
New Zealand Aquaculture
New Zealand aquaculture, currently
valued at about N.Z. $400 million (U.S.
$280 million) annually, is largely based
on mussel, salmon and oyster farming.
The New Zealand government supports
its aquaculture industry’s goal to become
a N.Z. $1 billion business by 2025, to
which end it has created several regional
projects and funds to support the industry’s
growth. However, this growth must
be sustainable, and consideration must be
given to existing users of proposed aquaculture
areas, including boaters, local residents,
indigenous Mäori people and
commercial and recreational fishers.
Competition for space with other
users is not an issue unique to the New
Zealand industry. Marine farming
requires the use of a common property
resource, and there is a limited supply of
high-quality, accessible water space. The
goal is to find an ideal balance that provides
for social and cultural needs while
maximizing economic efficiency and
environmental sustainability.
The New Zealand management
framework for marine farming provides a
strong element of public consultation.
Several opportunities are available for
stakeholders’ views to be heard, in addition
to appeals processes following decisions.
These steps in the permit approval
process allow stakeholders and the public
to influence decisions about where aquaculture
activities are (and aren’t) appropriate
according to the wishes of communities
and existing users.
Marlborough Sounds Study
A 2006 study of consent decisions on
aquaculture applications in the Marlborough
Sounds, a major marine farming
region in New Zealand, examined the
reasons for declines of consent applications.
About 25% of applications were
declined during the study period. Most
The results showed that
95% of the declined
applications studied cited
adverse social effects as
at least part of the reason
for refusal.
consent decisions named multiple reasons
for refusal.
The results showed that 95% of the
declined applications studied cited adverse
social effects as at least part of the reason
for refusal. These included effects on natural
character, landscape and amenity values;
loss of access or perceived alienation
of public space; navigational or anchorage
interference; interruption of recreational
use; and visual and noise pollution.
Other reasons for the refusal of consents
included environmental/ecological
factors (48%), cumulative effects (34%),
cultural factors (15%) and economic factors
(11%). “Other” factors, which
included concerns for the safety and security
of the proposed physical structures,
the location of the proposed sites in
option areas that could become marine
reserves and discrepancies involving other
parties over previously granted consents,
were cited in 19% of the declined applications
studied.
The results of the study demonstrated
that social and community concerns were
duly considered in the aquaculture permitting
process, and these considerations
can often affect the outcomes. Expansion
of the industry in New Zealand will
depend to some extent on how much
marine farming is perceived to interfere
with or detract from social values.
Cultural Legislative
Framework
Cultural factors are also a high priority
in the New Zealand regulatory system for
aquaculture. Mäori are recognized as
important to the growth and future success
of aquaculture in New Zealand. They have
a natural inherent interest in aquaculture,
as they have strong cultural connections to
the mar2 37ine and freshwater environment
and seafood. Mäori own up to half
of the national aquaculture industry, and
they are involved in many aspects of its
development.
Mäori are more than just stakeholders.
The 1840 Treaty of Waitangi gave
governorship of New Zealand to the
Queen of England; guaranteed Mäori
exclusive possession of their lands, forests,
fisheries and other treasures; and
extended the royal protection given to
British subjects to Mäori.
The legislative and regulatory framework
recognizes Mäori fishing rights and
gives effect to the Treaty of Waitangi
through the Deed of Settlement, the
Treaty of Waitangi (Fisheries Claims)
Settlement Act 1992 and the Mäori Fisheries
Act 2004. Provisions for Mäori participation
in fisheries management, sustainability
decisions and tribal planning
were also made in government acts. They
require consultation with Mäori for various
activities related to the use of natural
resources.
Significantly, 2004 legislation dictated
that rights to 20% of all aquaculture space
be provided to Mäori as settlement of
their commercial aquaculture interests.
This space can be allocated from new
marine farming space as it is approved,
from the willing sale of existing space or
via financial settlement of equivalent
value. Implementation of this agreement
is currently under way, with substantial
progress made recently with an early
financial settlement worth N.Z. $97 million
provided to tribes in the South Island
and Hauraki.
Mäori have formed joint ventures in
applications for some of the largest
marine farming areas in the country.
Aquaculture has the potential to provide
for both commercial and customary
Mäori interests, and can be consistent
with their traditional practice of “kaitiakitanga”
(guardianship according to Mäori
custom) over natural resources, including
fisheries. Traditional Mäori values, principles
and cultural history are recognized
in legislation and aquaculture decisionmaking
processes.
Challenges
Based on the above, it could be
argued that New Zealand is a good example
of integrating social and cultural
needs into the regulatory regime for
aquaculture development. However, there
are still challenges to be addressed.
The extensive consideration of social
interests can come at the cost of an efficient
and decisive system that allows
faster growth of a valuable and legitimate
industry. Consultation and appeals processes
limit efficiency and timely approval
of new farming space.
No new farming space has been created
under the current legislative regime that
came into effect in January 2005, although
new space continues to be approved under
the previous regime through previously submitted
applications. Government is cur-
New Zealand’s indigenous Mäori
people have a traditional stake in
aquaculture that is formally recognized
through legislation and other means.
rently looking at options for reform to
address these issues, with a new law
expected sometime in 2010.
Fulfilling cultural obligations guaranteed
through the Treaty of Waitangi and
resulting legislation and regulations requires
genuine commitment from the Crown and
must be effectively planned and implemented.
This continues to be a long and
complex process, often hindered by the
political environment of the day, as well as
economic conditions. The challenge also
remains to complete the Mäori commercial
aquaculture settlement in all regions.
Significantly, 2004 legislation
dictated that rights
to 20% of all aquaculture
space be provided
to Mäori as settlement
of their commercial
aquaculture interests.
38 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 39

production
GESIT Tilapia: Indonesia’s
Genetic Supermales
Two-month-old all-male tilapia exhibit faster growth
performance than that of mixed populations.
Summary:
Tilapia quickly reach sexual maturity in culture, and unless
controlled, the fish reproduce, and offspring compete for
food. All-male culture of tilapia is preferred because of
males’ fast growth and larger average size. Research on
developing genetically male tilapia has been conducted
on Nile tilapia in Indonesia since 2001. The GESIT line,
released in 2006, grows faster than other lines and boosts
harvest volume with excellent feed conversion.
Tilapia are a paradox in terms of reproduction. The relative
fecundity of the Oreochromis genus is low, at 6,000-13,000 eggs/
kg/spawn. But this is compensated for by the high survival of fry
due to their large size at hatching, their large yolk reserves, the
mouth-brooding maternal care given until the fry are 10mm or
larger and frequent spawning.
Tilapia present some challenges to fish culturists. Most Oreochromis
species reach sexual maturity within six to eight months
of hatching at sizes often less than 100 g. Under some conditions,
they mature in less than five months at 20 to 30 g.
Unless controlled, the fish continue to reproduce, and offspring
compete with the initial stock for food, often resulting in
stunted growth and unmarketable fish. Therefore, all-male
monosex culture of tilapia is preferred because of males’ fast
growth and larger average size.
All-Male Methods
Several techniques have been adopted to produce all-male
tilapia, including manual sexing, hybridization, genetic manipulation
and sex reversal through sex hormone administration.
Human error in manual sexing can be high, and the method also
Ratu Siti Aliah
Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology
Jalan MH.Thamrin 8
Jakarta 10340 Indonesia
r_sitialiah@yahoo.com
Komar Sumantadinata
Bogor Agricultural University
Bogor, Jawa Barat, Indonesia
Maskur
Research Center for Freshwater Aquaculture Development
Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries
Jakarta, Indonesia
Sidrotun Naim
School of Life Sciences and Technology
Bandung Institute of Technology
Bangdung, Indonesia
wastes the females. The problems with hybridization are the difficulties
in maintaining the pure parental stocks that consistently
produce 100% male offspring and reduction in egg fertilization.
The use of hormones to produce monosex fish has been limited
or prohibited in some countries over market and/or environmental
concerns.
Therefore, the production of genetically “supermale” tilapia
YY has been suggested as the safest, most efficient and effective
technology. When crossed with normal female (XX) fish, YY tilapia
produce 98 to 100% male tilapia (XY) or genetically male tilapia
(GMT). All-male tilapia result in more uniform culture populations
and faster growth compared to mixed sex populations.
The adoption of GESIT tilapia has reportedly led
to double-size harvests.
Time Activity Result
July-December 2001
Feminization through feeding diet containing estradiol from 10 days
post-hatch for 30 days
120 females
January-June 2002
July-November 2002
December 2002-June 2003
June 2003-November 2004
December 2003-July 2005
August 2004-October 2005
December 2004-October 2005
July 2005-October 2006
July 2006-October 2006
Feminized fish grow out
Progeny test preparation to produce XY female
Progeny test I – XY female crossed with XY male
XY female crossed with XY male to produce YY male; only YY
and XY males selected for further steps
Indonesian Tilapia Research
In Indonesia, Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, are considered
an important culture species by the Indonesian Ministry of Marine
Affairs and Fisheries. They have high economic value and are
popular with local fish farmers, who find them easy to farm in
well-established culture technology. There is high demand for
tilapia, both for export and domestic markets. In addition, the
species holds high potential for large-scale production.
Considering the significance of tilapia, research on developing
genetically male tilapia has been conducted on Nile tilapia in Indonesia
since 2001. As outlined in Table 1, treatment with hormone
resulted in XY females, which were then crossed with XY males to
produce YY males. Further crossing and hormone teatment generated
YY females and mass production of all-male YY fish.
GESIT Tilapia
Genetically supermale Indonesian tilapia (GESIT) were officially
released on December 15, 2006, through the Indonesian
Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries. Over 100,000 GESIT
fish were distributed to 22 provinces by 2008.
Based on reports from Cianjur, West Java, GESIT reach a
size of 6 to 8 cm size 15 days faster than earlier tilapia lines.
Other culturists reported that 100 kg of GESIT fingerlings
resulted in 1,300 kg at harvest – double the regular harvest.
In Situbondo, East Java, the monosex fish have been cultured
in abandoned shrimp ponds with 12 ppt salinity. At a density of
10 fish/m 2 with 1- to 2-cm fish, GESIT reach 300 g after 120
days with 60% survival and a feed-conversion ratio (FCR) of 0.8.
In Subang, West Java, GESIT fry demand 30% higher prices than
local fry. It takes 60 days for them to reach 10-g size with FCR of
1.1 to 1.2, compared to 75 days for local fry with 1.4 FCR.
GESIT Crosses
Further research has been conducted to measure the survival
and growth performance of fry from GESIT crossed with normal
Table 1. Development of YY male tilapia in Indonesia.
XY female crossed with XY male; resulting fish then given feed containing
estradiol to produce YY female
Progeny test II – XY crossed with YY male from XY to produce YY male
Progeny test III – YY, XY and XX females crossed with XY (normal male)
to produce YY female
Progeny test III for female – YY, XY and XX
Multiplication of YY males through crossing YY male and YY female
from progeny test
Mass production of YY male; YY male crossed with YY female
female tilapia (JICA strain) in hapa nets in 300-m 2 concrete ponds
with aeration. The densities were 250 fish/hapa net with three
replicates. The temperature was maintained between 23.6 and
25.4º C, and dissolved-oxygen levels were 2.8 to 4.8 ppm. pH varied
6.5 to 8.3, and ammonia content ranged 0.04 to 0.24 ppm.
After 70 days, GESIT x JICA reached 11.46 g ± 1.20% compared
to JICA x JICA at 5.38 g ± 1.51%. Figure 1 shows the
growth curve. The FCR for GESIT x JICA was 2.11 – lower than
JICA x JICA’s 3.04 after 70 days. Survival for GESIT x JICA was
82.8 ± 1.1%, compared to JICA x JICA at 89.1 ± 5.7%.
The GESIT x JICA cross resulted in 93.8% males, compared
to 59.5% males for JICA x JICA.
40 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 41
Relative Growth (%)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
YY x JICA
JICA x JICA
59 females
47 females
3 XY females
421 YY males + 28 XY males
129 XX, XY and YY females
19 YY males –
9, 100% male, 10, ≥ 96% male
2 females
2 YY females
663 fish
All-male tilapia
0
0 14 28 42 56 70
Days
Figure 1. Relative growth of YY male x JICA female
and JICA male x JICA female crosses.

production
Chile’s Salmon Industry Addresses
Health Crises
New Controls, Regulations Drive Recovery Trend
In combination with new regulations, salmon farmers’ modified production practices
are helping Chile’s aquaculture industry recover.
Summary:
Environmental and fish health
problems have affected Chile’s
salmon farmers since 2004. As
production ramped up, 2006 saw
an increase in sea lice that reduced
output. In 2007, infectious salmon
anemia spread across the farming
region and quickly cut production.
The sea lice are now under
control, and fish biomass has been
decreased. New regulations and
voluntary control measures are promoting
a new production model in
the industry.
After more than two decades of
impressive growth, the Chilean aquaculture
industry is facing a crisis due to the
effects of infectious salmon anemia (ISA)
on its Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar. Since
the second quarter of 2007, ISA has
caused an estimated production drop of
around 50%.
Number of Sites
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Adolfo Alvial
Asesorias S.A
Casilla 1003
Puerto Varas, Chile
adolfoalvial@gmail.com
ISA is just the last in a series of environmental
and fish health problems that
have affected salmon farmers in Chile
since 2004. During that period, biomass
rose, particularly in some coastal areas of
the 10th region, such as east of Chiloé
Island, where around 40% of the total
salmon production concentrated.
The end of 2006 saw an increase in
sea lice, Caligus rogercresseyii, probably
due to a combination of factors, such as
higher water salinity and farm concentration,
and poorer fish health. The parasitic
sea lice spread rapidly through the 10th
region and then the 11th, reaching levels
of infestation that reached 30-50 parasites/fish
in some cases.
Treatment with emamectine benzoate
proved ineffective due to the development
of resistance. Many fish were
stressed, immunologically depressed and
externally injured, which allowed rapid
penetration of opportunistic pathogens.
Q3 2007 Q4 2007 Q1 2008 Q2 2008 Q3 2008 Q4 2008 Q1 2009 Q2 2009
Stocked Sites Sites With ISA
Figure 1. Comparison of salmon site concentration and detection of ISA since 2007
(Atlantic salmon). Source: Author research based on official information.
ISA was confirmed at a central Chiloé
site in July 2007. Since then, the ISA
virus has dispersed in the 10th, 11th
and 12th regions (circled area).
In July 2007, in the middle of the
efforts to control the sea lice, the finding
by Marine Harvest Chile of salmon with
ISA at a central Chiloé site was confirmed
by local and foreign reference laboratories.
Only a few days later, other
sites reported ISA outbreaks, and since
then, the ISA virus has dispersed in the
10th, 11th and 12th regions, despite contingency
measures rapidly enacted by the
government and the voluntary measures
employed by the farm companies.
ISA Study
An epidemiologic study developed
from the beginning of the ISA problem
by Marine Harvest along with the Chilean
lab Biovac and Dr. Fred Kibenge’s
lab on Prince Edward Island recently
showed that the Chilean ISA virus is
genetically unique, although close to a
virus reported in 1996 in Norway. Using
the Backtrack program, it was estimated
that the virus presented in Chile as early
as 1996 (± 2 years) and would exhibit a
strong diversification around 2005.
The virus found in Marine Harvest
Chile’s first reported case in 2007 was not
the oldest strain among the types
detected in Chile. This suggested that the
virus was present in the Chilean environment
for several years at relatively low
prevalence and load, and caused mortalities
that could not be associated with
known diseases.
Effective Controls
At present, the sea lice are under control
due to a successful control plan. Also,
the susceptible fish biomass in the sea has
decreased dramatically (Figure 1). In
addition, a number of new regulations
and voluntary measures require zone
management programs, strict egg import
control, complete biosecurity and other
changes that are promoting a new production
model in the industry. Although
biological improvements are becoming
evident, further regulation and company
investment will be needed.
The crisis will be controlled, and the
production trend started to change during
the second half of 2009. Stocking reactivation
will start in 2010.
Perspectives
The new industry will have new regulations,
a new enforcement system, new
voluntary measures and, at the end, a new
production model reflecting profound
changes that will allow Chile to again be
an industry leader, not only in quantitative
terms but also qualitative.
Knowledge of the dynamic environment
and its carrying capacity will be fundamental
for the new industry success.
Without these elements, Chile will not be
able to manage its sanitary contingencies
in the long term and will face the risk of
new crises as profound as the present one.
42 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 43

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our outstanding quality.
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info@harborseafood.com
production
Varied Feed Additives Improve Gut,
Animal Health
Probiotic
Enterocyte
Gut wall
Pathogenic bacteria compete with probiotics for attachment sites (top). The probiotics
limit the sites available for pathogens in the intestine.
Summary:
There is increasing evidence that
natural feed additives can have
beneficial effects on aquaculture
animals by supporting wellbalanced
gut microflora and
improving gut health. Prebiotics,
probiotics, immunostimulants
and other products represent
more sustainable alternatives to
the widespread use of antibiotics
and offer preventive measures to
reduce pathogenic loads and manage
gut health and performance.
The aquatic environment is rich in
microorganisms, with hosts and microorganisms
sharing the same ecosystem.
Thus, much more than terrestrial animals,
aquatic farmed animals are surrounded by
an environment that supports their pathogens
independently of the host animals.
As such, opportunistic pathogens can
reach high densities around the animals.
Surrounding bacteria are continuously
ingested with feed or when the host is
Pathogen
drinking, causing a natural interaction
between the microbiota of the ambient
environment and the gut environment. If
the bacterial challenge exceeds a certain
level, the health of the animal can be
endangered.
Gut Management
During the last decade, greater understanding
has been gained on the importance
of intestinal microbiota in fish.
There is increasing evidence that the
complex microbial ecology of the intestinal
tract provides both nutritional benefit
and protection against pathogens, and it
is vital in modulating interactions with
the environment and the development of
beneficial immune responses.
Several studies have shown that different
feed ingredients and changes in
diet composition can affect gut structure
and microbiota balance, influencing
digestive and absorptive functions. Management
of the gut flora is therefore an
important issue to achieve good feed efficiency,
animal growth and animal health.
Effective management includes selection
of beneficial strains, control of their num-
Pedro Encarnação
Biomine Singapore Pte. Ltd.
3791 Jalan Bukit Merah #08-08
Singapore 159471
pedro.encarnacao@biomin.net
bers and minimizing negative or potentially
pathogenic strains.
Treatment Strategies
Different strategies have been used to
face bacterial and viral threats. Chemotherapy
using antibiotics and other chemical
products has been the most used
approach. However, this should not be a
routine method in fish and shrimp culture
due to risks resulting from the
potential for pathogens’ increased resistance
to antimicrobials, its cost and environmental
pollution risks.
Nowadays, we have learned more sustainable
ways to manage gut microflora
and fish performance using nutriceuticals
or functional foods to modulate the
health of farmed animals. The options
available to regulate fish gut environments
include the use of probiotics,
prebiotics, immunostimulants,
phycophytic and phytogenic substances,
and organic acids and their respective
salts, commonly known as acidifiers.
Probiotics
Probiotics are live microbial feed supplements
that beneficially affect the host
animal by improving its intestinal microbial
balance. Studies have shown that
probiotics provide protection against
pathogenic microorganisms present in
water and the guts of animals by competition
with pathogenic bacteria for space
and nutrients. They also produce antimicrobial
substances such as lactoferrin,
lysozyme and bacteriocins; and can
change environmental conditions in the
intestine by lowering pH through
increased production of volatile fatty
acids and lactic acid.
Disease due to luminous bacteria, such
as Vibrio harveyi, is one of the major problems
of the shrimp industry. Several studies
have shown that luminous vibrios can
global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 45

e eliminated from the water column and
sediment of ponds when probiotic strains
selected for their direct inhibitory effect
and water ecology management are used.
A 2006 study reported by Kidchakan
Supamattaya et al. showed that the use of
probiotics in feed was effective in reducing
the load of vibrio bacteria in the
shrimp gut and hepatopancreas, which
can reduce the risk of infection. A
Biomin trial at Prince of Songkla University,
Thailand, showed that probiotic
treatment reduced Vibrio species in
shrimp digestive tracts after feeding diets
containing a single probiotic strain,
essential oils or a multistrain probiotic
mixture (Table 1).
Prebiotics
Prebiotics are non-digestible food
ingredients such as inulin and fructo-oligosaccharides
that beneficially affect the host
by selectively stimulating the growth of
and/or activating the metabolism of beneficial
bacteria in the intestinal tract, particularly
bifido bacteria and lactobacilli – thus
improving the host’s intestinal balance.
Studies conducted by Einar Ringo et
al. with Artic char in 2006 showed that
inclusion of inulin changed the microbial
community, increasing the number of
Gram-positive bacteria like Streptococcus,
Carnobacterium and Bacillus.
Phytogenics
A relatively young class of feed additives,
phytogenics are still rather fragmented
in terms of knowledge regarding
their mode of action and application
strategies. They are plant-derived products
added to feed to improve performance
in agricultural livestock.
Phytogenic feed additives are an
extremely heterogeneous group that originates
from leaves, roots, tubers or fruits
of herbs, spices or other plants. They are
available in solid, dried or ground forms,
or as extracts or essential oils. Within
phytogenic feed additives, the content of
Control
Treatment 1
Treatment 2
Treatment 3
46 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate
active substances in products can vary
widely, depending upon the plant part
used, harvesting season and geographical
origin.
Phytogenics can have antioxidative
and/or antimicrobial activity. Additionally,
some phytogenics are used to increase the
palatiblity of diets, which could lead to
higher growth rates in animals.
Essential Oils
Essential oils are odoriferous secondary
plant products that contain most of
the plants’ active compounds, such as
alcohol, aldehydes, ketones and phenolic
compounds. Processing by cold expression,
steam distillation or extraction with
non-aqueous solvents modifies the active
substances and associated compounds
within the final products.
The plant family of Labiatae has
received the most interest, with thyme,
oregano and sage the most popular representatives.
The antimicrobial mode of
action is considered to arise mainly from
the potential of hydrophobic essential oils
to intrude into bacterial cell membranes,
disintegrate membrane structures and
cause ion leakage.
A recent field trial conducted in Vietnam
under practical production conditions
confirmed that essential oils had
positive effects on the growth perfor-
Table 1. Total Vibrio and Enterococcus species
in shrimp digestive tract after feeding diets containing
a single probiotic strain (Enterococcus, Treatment 1),
essential oils (Treatment 2) or a probiotic mixture
(Bacilus and Enterococcus, Treatment 3) for six weeks.
Colony-Forming Units/g
Hepatopancreas Intestine
Vibrio Species
(x 104 )
68.8 ± 19.5a 1.2 ± 0.6b 34.4 ± 12.1a 1.7 ± 0.9b Enterococcus
(x 106 )
–
39.5 ± 10.2ns –
56.5 ± 23.2
Vibrio Species
(x 106 )
94.1 ± 68.2
32.5 ± 28.7
86.8 ± 35.3
29.5 ± 19.4
Probiotics
are live
microbes
that improve
the microbial
balance
in hosts’
intestines.
Enterococcus
(x 108 )
–
9.6 ± 6.5ns –
7.8 ± 5.7
Prebiotics are
non-digestible
food ingredients
that
selectively
stimulate
beneficial
bacteria in
the intestinal
tract.
mance of Pangasius hypothalamus. When
included in a commercial feed at levels of
150 g/mt, fish showed a 14% higher
growth rate.
Immunostimulants
Immunostimulant substances have
been recognized as promising supplements
that potentially assist in disease
prevention in fish and shrimp. They
increase disease resistance by regulating
host defense mechanisms against opportunistic
pathogens that are always present
in the environment surrounding the fish.
Immunostimulants increase resistance
to infectious disease not by enhancing specific
immune responses, but by enhancing
non-specific mechanisms. Therefore, there
is no memory component, and the
response is likely to be of short duration.
Many agents are currently in use in the
aquaculture industry, such as cell wall fragments,
beta-glucans, peptidoglycans,
lipopolysaccharides and nucleotides.
Organic Acids
Dietary acidification by the addition
of organic acids is another possible alternative
to improve gut health and performance.
The pH-decreasing action of
organic acids contributes to an improved
activity of digestive enzymes and creates
an impaired environment for pathogens.
A combination of organic acids and
their salts are commonly used to modulate
the gut microflora of intensively
farmed animals. This is achieved by causing
a shift in the dominant hierarchies of
bacteria through the lysing of Gram-negative
bacteria.
The action of organic acids in the
intestinal tract involves two modes. On
one hand, they reduce the pH level in the
stomach and particularly the small intestine.
On the other hand, they inhibit the
growth of Gram-negative bacteria
through dissociation of the acids and production
of anions in the bacterial cells.
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production
Fish Vaccines In Aquaculture
Proactive Treatment Protects Salmon, Catfish, Other Fish
Vaccination against ESC has led to better growth and higher survival in catfish.
Vaccinations of farmed salmon have greatly reduced antibiotic use in that industry.
Summary:
Vaccination is a proven, costeffective
method to prevent infectious
diseases in animals. Current
fish vaccines can be categorized
as killed fish vaccines or modified
live vaccines. The major advantage
of live vaccines is their ability
to stimulate both cell-mediated
and humoral immune responses
for a long duration. Killed vaccines
may be safer for the environment.
Different vaccination
methods also offer advantages
and disadvantages.
With the continued growth of aquaculture,
hundreds of thousands of fish are
raised in confined spaces and in close
proximity to each other. As a result,
infectious fish diseases are spreading
faster than ever before.
All aquaculture facilities are vulnerable
to disease outbreaks because many
opportunistic disease-causing bacteria,
viruses, fungi and parasites are present in
the environment or may be found on
some fish that are not showing signs of
disease. Vaccination is a proven, costeffective
method to prevent infectious
diseases in animals.
Fish Vaccines
Fish vaccines work by exposing the
immune system of fish to part of a pathogen
or the entire pathogen (antigen) and
then allowing time for the immune system
to develop a response. Vaccines also
help fish build up a memory to accelerate
this response in later infections by the
targeted disease-causing organism.
There are many types of fish vaccines,
and new kinds are continuously under
development. All fish vaccines currently
in use can be roughly divided into two
major categories: killed fish vaccines and
modified live vaccines.
Killed fish vaccines are comprised of
killed, formerly pathogenic bacteria -- for
example, bacterins. Killed fish vaccines
work by stimulating the humoral antibody-related
system of the immune
response.
Modified live vaccines are comprised
of live microorganisms that have been
Dr. Julia W. Pridgeon
Aquatic Animal Health
Research Laboratory
Agriculture Research Service
U. S. Department of Agriculture
990 Wire Road
Auburn, Alabama 36830 USA
julia.pridgeon@ars.usda.gov
Dr. Phillip H. Klesius
Aquatic Animal Health
Research Laboratory
Agriculture Research Service
U. S. Department of Agriculture
grown in culture and no longer have the
properties that cause significant disease.
Live attenuated vaccines work by stimulating
both cell-mediated and humoral
immune responses.
The advantages and disadvantages of
live and killed vaccines are listed in Table
1. The major advantage of modified live
vaccines is their ability to stimulate both
immunity responses since they survive
and replicate within the host, resulting in
strong cellular immune responses that
confer protection for a long duration.
However, live vaccines do raise concerns
regarding their safety to the environment.
Experimental Vaccines
Other types of fish vaccines are still
under development, including subunit
vaccines made from a small portion of a
microorganism rather than the entire
organism. They stimulate an immune
response to the entire organism.
Recombinant vector vaccines combine
parts of disease-causing microorganisms
with those of weakened microorganisms.
These vaccines work by allowing a weak
pathogen to produce antigen of the disease-causing
microorganism.
DNA vaccines, which are composed
of a portion of the genetic material of the
microorganism, work by producing a particular
immune-stimulating portion of
the pathogen if they are expressed in the
fish, thus providing an internal source of
vaccine material. Other vaccine strategies
are also undergoing research and development.
Vaccine Advantage Disadvantage
Killed No concern it might revert
to a virulent strain in the future
Safe for the environment
Vaccine Delivery
Vaccines are delivered to fish either
by mouth, immersion or injection. Each
approach has advantages and disadvantages
(Table 2). The most effective way
to deliver fish vaccine depends on the
pathogen and its natural route of infection,
the life stage of the fish, production
techniques and other logistical considerations.
A specific route of administration
or even multiple routes may be necessary
for adequate protection.
Applications
Vaccines have been used in food fish,
particularly salmon, for approximately 30
years. They are believed to be one of the
main reasons that salmon production has
been so successful. Vaccination also
dropped the industry’s use of antibiotics
to a mere fraction of its original use. In
1987, approximately 50,000 kg of antibiotics
were used in Norway to control diseases
in salmon. By 1997, when an efficacious
oil-adjuvant vaccine was extensively
used, antibiotic usage had dropped to less
than 2,000 kg, concurrent with a three-
More than one dose may be needed
for initial response, and protection duration
is shorter than modified live vaccines
Typically need to be administrated
by injection, requires labor
Typically need adjuvant to increase efficacy,
which can increase costs
Might revert or change to a virulent strain
years later
Might cause unknown concern to the
environment
fold increase in fish production.
Another example of successful fish
vaccine use has been vaccination against
enteric septicemia of catfish (ESC),
caused by the Gram-negative bacterium
Edwardsiella ictaluri. Fish with ESC
show loss of appetite, restlessness, small
lesions, inflammation of the skin and
erratic swimming. Since 2002, an ESC
vaccine has protected more than 900 million
fish against the disease and provided
13% higher fish survival for producers.
Farm data has also indicated the vaccinated
fish grew faster and had better feed
conversion.
48 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 49
Modified
live
Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages
of killed and modified live vaccines.
Easy immersion administration,
which needs less labor
No adjuvant is needed, which
can reduce costs
Typically high efficacy with only
one treatment, and protection
lasts longer
Table 2. Advantages and disadvantages
of different vaccine deliveries.
Vaccine Advantage Disadvantage
Oral The easiest method because feeding
is a normal part of production
Stress on fish is minimal
Immersion Relatively easy to perform with
minimal interruption to production
schedule
Stress on fish is minimal
Injection Effective for many disease pathogens
Much longer protection duration
Every fish is treated, providing
more assurance to the producer
A coating agent is often needed to avoid
breakdown in fish digestive system
Conveys relatively short immunity,
may require additional vaccination
Smaller, younger fish may have immature
immune systems that require a second
vaccination
May not convey protection as effective
as injection for some pathogens
Requires more time and skilled personnel
Fish under 10 g may not respond well
Causes the most stress on fish
The most effective way to
deliver fish vaccine
depends on the pathogen
and its route of infection,
life stage of the fish,
and other logistical
considerations.

production
Managing Tilapia Health
In Complex Culture Systems
Summary:
The effective control of diseases on fish farms depends
on integrated health management that considers all
factors that affect fish health, including the fish species,
the environment, pathogens present and farm management
practices. Integrated management incorporates
preventive techniques such as the use of vaccines, as
well as the responsible use of drugs when disease outbreaks
occur. Health monitoring and record keeping
make it easier to devise tailored solutions.
Tilapia is currently the second-most-produced fish in the
world, and production of this species is increasing. In fact, the
popularity of tilapia is skyrocketing. In 2010, Intrafish predicted,
the global value of tilapia will be U.S. $4 billion.
In many areas, tilapia production is already extensive and likely
to intensify. Intensified production, however, will undoubtedly
lead to challenges, including sourcing quality seed, maintaining
fish quality, controlling disease and ensuring food safety.
At intensive operations, disease is virtually inevitable, in part
because the farming environment is artificial and stressful compared
to natural habitat. Effective prevention and control of disease
requires an integrated approach to health management that
takes into account all the aspects of fish farming that impact the
health of the fish population.
Disease Expression
The expression of disease at any fish farm involves four controllable
factors: the species, farm management, environment
and pathogens present. No one factor dominates, but the type
and severity of the disease will depend on the complex relationship
among them all.
Neil Wendover, B.S.
Technical Services Manager,
Asia Pacific
Intervet/Schering-Plough
Animal Health
neil.wendover@sp.intervet.com
Poor farm management, a suboptimal
environment and/or the presence of pathogens
result in fish stress. Stress is a product
of the trauma that fish suffer and the length
of time they are exposed. Disease develops
when a combination of factors raise the
stress level of the fish population to a point
that that is detrimental to the immune system.
Farm Management
There is great diversity in the hus-
bandry systems used at tilapia farms around
the globe. There is also correspondingly
large variation in tilapia strains and hybrids,
allowing farmers to select for different traits
An effective health management program that includes appropriate disease prevention to suit local conditions. This ensures good
and control produces healthy, high-quality fish with good market value.
growth in systems ranging from clear, clear,
open-water open-water cages or green-water green-water ponds to
closed, recirculating raceways and tanks.
No matter what system is employed, there are important issues
to address before its full production potential can be realized.
Quality Seedstock
A primary concern is identifying a consistent source of goodquality
seedstock. Hatchery-produced fish are recommended
because they are often genetically selected or improved, monitored
for diseases and given an optimal diet. This results in a
more uniform starting point for the farmer, which results in
more reliable and reproducible results.
Suboptimal feeding or other environmental stressors, such as
poor water quality, will result in poor-quality, weak fish and
increased susceptibility to opportunistic pathogens. The smaller fish
are, the lower the reserves they have, and stress will put more strain
on their tolerance limit.
With consistent, disease-free quality seedstock, emphasis
should be placed on biosecurity to prevent or limit the transfer of
pathogens to the site. This requires minimizing the possible transfer
vectors, which include humans, animals, equipment, water and
machinery. Defined or physical barriers that minimize the spread
of disease will play an ever-increasing role in aquaculture.
Sanitary Measures
Although some vector movement among production units
within farms is unavoidable, correct sanitary measures are a necessity,
for poor hygiene measures are often the root cause of disease.
There are three important steps in the sanitary process for
any situation. The first is cleaning, which entails the removal of
unwanted substrate. The next is disinfection, designed to eliminate
unwanted organisms with the appropriate choice of products
and methodology. Finally rinsing removes the remnants of
potentially toxic disinfectant chemicals. To control the transmission
of fish pathogens, it is vital that this sequence be followed
global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 51

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Production of
high-quality
seedstock is one
of the major
health challenges
faced by the
tilapia industry
worldwide.
for all surfaces with direct or indirect contact with fish.
Good sanitation can control or even eliminate disease outbreaks,
but implementation can be a limiting factor. Employees
must be proactive and experienced in applying well-defined protocols
to meet clear goals. The aim is to ensure that fish welfare
is the top priority, and any adverse event is reported and dealt
with quickly.
Record Keeping
Another factor that correlates farm management to disease
outbreaks is production recording. If recorded data is relevant,
clear and precise, it can help in the early recognition of disease.
Disease triggers are multifactorial and often complex, but timedata
records enable comparisons of historical situations and often
reveal repetitive disease trends.
Typical patterns may include fluctuations in environmental
parameters, changing characteristics in fish behavior and/or or
the severity and onset of mortality within a population. Recognizing
these triggers through good production records can go a
long way in improving disease management.
Culture Conditions
The environment plays a crucial role in the expression of disease.
For example, most diseases in tilapia thrive in certain temperature
and salinity ranges. This adds to the complexity of tilapia
farming, but such knowledge is a useful tool in disease
control since, in many cases, temperature and salinity can be
manipulated.
Greenhouses, for example, are now common throughout
aquaculture in China. They help prevent suboptimal growth and
coldwater diseases. In addition, the use of saltwater, if readily
available, can help control parasitic or saline-dependent bacterial
outbreaks.
Pathogens
Tilapia are susceptible to both non-infectious and infectious
diseases. An infectious disease occurs when a pathogen is present.
While identifying the pathogen is a good start, that does not
prove it is the cause of reduced performance, morbidity or mortality.
To accurately diagnose the cause of disease, field sampling
and diagnostic techniques must be performed.
It is crucial that the correct samples are sent for analysis. Moribund
fish should be sampled, since common environmental bacteria
contaminate dead fish quickly and can mask identification of
the pathogens that caused the disease. Furthermore, it is of no
value to investigate fish with clinical signs that do not represent
those of the greater diseased population.
To really understand the cause of disease, it is essential to
implement long-term, routine field sampling and disease epidemiology.
Correct sampling techniques will identify the specific
pathogens present and screen for anything new entering the sys-
tem. Once established in the farm management system, this
information, combined with knowledge about disease triggers,
allows effective identification and resolution of problems.
Major Bacterial Diseases
For the last eight years, Intervet/Schering-Plough Animal
Health has conducted extensive sampling and epidemiological
investigations throughout Asia-Pacific, Africa and Latin
America. Four major bacterial disease pathogens have been
found – Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus iniae, Flavobacterium
columnare and RLO, which stands for rickettsia-like
organism, recently identified as a species of Francisella. One
viral disease, iridovirus, was identified, along with several
important external protozoal and monogenetic parasites, such
as the commonly foundTrichodina and Gyrodactylus species.
Treatment And Prevention
An integrated health management plan encompasses all
factors that affect fish health. Key components of the plan are
two complementary strategies aimed at dealing with infectious
diseases. One is reactive pathogen exclusion, and the other is
proactive pathogen prevention. Given time and understanding,
the reactive strategy may develop into an optimized
metaphilactic treatment given just before the fish get sick.
Therapeutic medicines used in food animals, particularly
antibiotics, have resulted in controversial discussions in the
press recently. Environmentalists want assurances that natural
ecosystems won’t be damaged, and consumers want to know
that any antibiotic treatment used will not contribute to antibiotic
resistance in people and that the foods they eat do not
contain antibiotic residues. There has also been discussion
about the presence of prohibited antibiotics in food animals.
In light of these pressures and to ensure the sustainability
of the aquaculture industry, it is imperative that reactive, therapeutic
disease management be conducted responsibly. The
first step is correct identification of the etiological disease
agent and corresponding treatments. Treatment with an antibiotic
may be indicated for an outbreak of bacterial infection,
but cannot be used to treat parasites.
Therapeutic drugs must be administered in strict compliance
with manufacturers’ label recommendations regarding
dose, duration and withdrawal times. Disease treatments
should be supervised by fish health professionals to ensure that
fish receive appropriate therapy, but it is fish farmers’ responsibility
to adhere to specified withdrawal periods for antibiotics.
It is also fundamental that any chemical administered has regulatory
approval for use in fish in the local country.
Perspectives
History has taught us there will always be new diseases.
But responsible therapeutic management can minimize the
short-term impacts of disease and help allay fears among
environmentalists and consumers. However, drug treatment
should never be considered a long-term solution, since the
root of disease problems must be identified and proactively
addressed through integrated health management.
Preventive disease strategies should aim at reducing stress
in fish through good husbandry practices, the use of immunomodulators
to boost the immune system and the use of
vaccines. Remember that vaccines target specific diseases,
and cross-protection rarely occurs.
52 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 53

production
Disease Risk Factors For
Shrimp Production In Brazil
Good management practices can help farms avoid disease problems.
Summary:
For two years of data, the effects
of management, season, stocking
density and salinity on the incidence
of disease in northeastern
Brazil’s shrimp farms were found
highly significant. Growout facilities
with management problems
had 8.6% more IMN outbreaks
than well-managed farms. The
hot summer season had fewer disease
outbreaks than winter. Low
salinity reduced IMN incidences.
Stocking density also affected
IMN and NHP outbreaks. Nurseries
presented higher risk than
direct stocking.
It is rather extraordinary to find data
that relate environmental and culture
practices to disease outbreaks for a wide
geographic area. One of these rare occasions
has been made possible by Aquatec,
a leading commercial shrimp hatchery in
Brazil.
As Aquatec representatives provide
post-sales assistance through the growout
phases to customers on Brazil’s northeastern
coast, they collect information on
stocking density, salinity and other water
quality parameters, disease outbreaks,
feed consumption and harvest yields. The
authors analyzed information for 2,768
commercial shrimp growout cycles collected
over two years.
Data Analysis
Disease incidence data were subjected
to mixed linear model analyses, including
covariates and fixed effects for stocking
density, average salinity, rough level of
management, growout days, geographic
region, season and random effects of farm
and commercial feed utilized. The effects
of the level of management, season,
stocking density and average salinity level
on the incidence of disease were found
highly significant.
Victoria Alday-Sanz, Ph.D.
Gran Via 658, 4-1 08010
Barcelona, Spain
victoria_alday@yahoo.com
Ana C. Guerrelhas, B.S.
João L. Rocha, Ph.D.
Aquatec Industrial Pecuária
Barra do Cunhaú
Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil
Disease reporting was mainly limited
to infectious myonecrosis (IMN), necrotizing
hepatopancreatitis (NHP) and
vibriosis with a single report of infectious
hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis
(IHHN). IMN and IHHN are of viral
etiology, and the two other diseases are of
bacterial etiology. For the field data collected
in 2008 and 2009, 10.2% of the
growouts tracked experienced IMN outbreaks,
2.5% reported NHP and 2.0%
reported vibriosis outbreaks.
Management
Level of management was a crude way
of accounting for the differences in management
skills or inputs among growout
operations. These were divided into two
categories: those with good management
and no apparent problems, and those
with inadequate management, be it poor
water quality, problems in bottom soil
condition, predators or biomass competitors,
aeration problems, low oxygen or
algae problems.
Even in this crude manner, this effect
was highly significant and with clear and
meaningful biological impacts on all relevant
traits studied, including IMN incidence
levels. Growout facilities with management
problems had, on average, an
8.6% higher incidence of IMN outbreaks
than those with good management.
Seasonality
The northeastern coast of Brazil has
four seasons. Summer, which lasts from
December through March harvests, is hot
and usually dry. Temperatures in March,
in the Family
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54 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 55

Disease Incidence (%)
Disease Incidence (%)
Disease Incidence (%)
NHP Incidence (%)
16
12
8
4
0
18
12
6
0
24
18
12
6
0
5
4
3
2
1
0
IMN NHP Vibrio
Summer April-June Winter October-December
IMN NHP Vibrio
< 10 ppt 10-20 ppt 20-32 ppt > 32 ppt
IMN NHP

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Ecological Efficiency
Aquaculture diets are increasingly utilizing sustainable ingredients that lessen reliance
on marine resources while maintaining nutritional values. Kona Blue Water Farms has
cultured its Almaco jacks on diets yielding under 2:1 wet fish in, wet fish out, with tank
trials approaching 1:1 or less.
Summary:
There is a widely promoted
misconception that eating wildcaught
fish is better for the
oceans than eating farmed seafood.
On a global basis, however,
sustainably farmed fish may represent
60 times more efficient use
of anchovies and other baitfish
resources than wild fish. Farmed
fish have more efficient life cycles,
more efficient trophic transfer
and more efficient by-catch.
Many anti-aquaculture activists would
have you believe that eating wild-caught
fish is better for the oceans than eating
farmed fish. An examination of some
fundamentals of ecological efficiencies,
however, suggests that, in fact, the converse
might hold true. Eating farmed fish
is almost as good as eating anchovies –
the lowest fish on the food chain. Indeed,
it may be better!
Eat Low?
Marine scientists are all of one mind:
The best way to take care of our oceans is
to eat at the base of the marine food
chain. Our seas would be more sustainably
managed if everyone ate anchovies or
similar small “clupeiform” fish like herrings,
sardines, menhaden and the like.
But part of the tragedy of the oceans
is that most humans love to eat the larger
fish – tuna, swordfish, cod, Chilean seabass
and the like. We crave these fish
because they offer big, thick fillets, and
they taste great. Many are also, alas, the
same species that now totter on the edge
of economic extinction.
We must therefore objectively examine
the true environmental cost – in terms
of anchovy inputs – of wild-caught fish
versus sustainably farmed fish. There are
three primary considerations.
Farmed Efficiencies
Firstly, farmed fish have it easy. They
don’t have to hunt for food, flee for their
lives or reproduce. Farmed fish are also
usually harvested at a younger age, so
Neil Anthony Sims
President
Kona Blue Water Farms, LLC
P. O. Box 4239
Kailua-Kona, Hawaii 96745 USA
neil@kona-blue.com
most of their diet goes into fast, efficient
growth. Larger wild fish must expend
energy sustaining their biomass, staying
alive and seeking a spawning mate. A
farmed fish’s life cycle might therefore be
three to 10 times more efficient than that
of a wild fish.
Secondly, aquafarmers can increasingly
use sustainable substitutes in fish diets to
lessen reliance on marine resources. Fish
feed formulations are now including more
alternative proteins and oils, and moving
toward a point where the efficiency of protein
conversion can approach 1:1 with no
net loss of marine protein.
By contrast, wild fish are subject to
the laws of trophic transfer, where only
10% of their prey’s food value is transferred
up each step of the food chain. If a
swordfish eats a mackerel that earlier ate
an anchovy, then there are two such
steps, compounding the costs. A swordfish
may therefore need to eat 100 kg of
“anchovy equivalents” to increase its
weight by 1 kg.
Finally, farmed fish don’t have bycatch.
Farmers only harvest the fish in
their pens. Anchovy fisheries also rarely
have any extraneous take, as they target
pelagic schools of one species of baitfish.
Other wild fisheries, however, use trawling,
dredging or similar indiscriminate
methods that take all the fish caught in the
net or haul up whatever is on the hook.
Unwanted fish – either unsalable,
undersize or over the quota – are usually
thrown back dead. Experts estimate that
around 28% of global wild harvest is discarded
as by-catch. That’s a lot of wasted
anchovy equivalents.
Compounded Costs
So if an 0.5-kg platter of sashimi is
sourced from a fish farm using sustainable
diets, then the environmental input required
could be close to 0.5 kg of Peruvian anchovies.
For an 0.5-kg platter of wild-caught
tuna, however, the cumulative cost could
range from 2 to 5,500 kg of anchovies. See
Table 1, which shows the compounded cost
in terms of anchovy equivalents for
farmed and wild-caught fish.
Sustainability farmed fish may therefore
be up to 11,000 times more ecologically
efficient than wild-caught. The best
estimate for a global efficiency differential
between wild and farmed fish is around
60 times.
Life cycle efficiency 1
Trophic transfer efficiency 2
By-catch efficiency
Compounded cost
Farmed Fish wild-Caught Fish Global Mean
58 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 59
Low
Estimate
1
1
1
1
High
Estimate
1
8
1
8
Based on this, which has more wanton
waste – farmed or wild? And if you
are an ocean-conscious consumer, which
should you have on your plate?
Table 1. Relative ecological efficiencies
of farmed and wild-caught fish.
Low
Estimate
3
10
1
30
High
Estimate
10
100
11
11,000
Ratio of Wild
To Farmed
6
7.3
1.33 57
1. There are no published estimates of the relative life cycle efficiencies of farmed and wild fish. However,
fish that reach reproductive age in captivity can see feed-conversion ratios increase by factors
or 5 or 10 over juvenile and sub-adult fish. Natural mortality and the nutritional cost of maintenance
of basal metabolic processes during periods of food deprivation also increase the “economic” feedconversion
ratio for wild fish populations.
2. In 1997, feed-conversion efficiencies (FCEs) for farmed marine fish and farmed salmon were reportedly
around 5:1 and 3:1, respectively. By 2010, however, FCEs are projected to reach 1.5:1 for
farmed marine fish and as low as 1.2:1 for farmed salmon.
3. In 2005, J. M. Harrington and co-authors reported a “nationwide discard to landings ratio” of 0.28.
However, for highly selective fishing methods, such as harpooning, by-catch is effectively zero.
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marketplace
Consumer Attitudes Toward Aquaculture
Spanish Study Correlates Knowledge, Opinions
This supermarket signage shows an “unbeatable price” for farmed seabass. Labeling
at traditional seafood markets does not always identify the sources of seafood.
Summary:
Consumer beliefs about the safety
and sustainability of aquaculture
are statistically related concepts
that allow their reduction into a
single attitude index. As consumers
further identify safety and sustainability
in the aquaculture, their
opinions about farmed seafood
tend to become more favorable.
The industry can benefit by assuring
that both conditions are
satisfied in their operations and
communicating them in an understandable
language for all segments.
Following the bovine food crisis in
the last decade of the 20th century, consumers’
awareness and attitudes toward
food-harvesting methods increased in
importance in purchase decisions. Attitudes
toward technology related to the
consumers’ predisposition to purchase
new products and the expectation of possible
risks.
Perceived risk in food technology is
also consistent with consumers’ social
environment opinions, which include cultural
habits, media and relatives. Input
from the social environment can be
stronger than other personal factors in
decisions regarding food innovations.
Pre-existing Prejudice?
Despite being the only harvesting
method that can guarantee full traceability
in seafood markets, aquaculture is perceived
by conservative consumers as an
unnatural and less authentic way to provide
markets with seafood. This is especially
the case in regions such as the
Mediterranean countries, which have
deep-rooted culinary traditions and
plenty of seafood in the common diet.
A survey funded by the Spanish Ministry
of Fisheries and conducted yearly
from 2003 to 2007 revealed that in Spain,
a majority of seafood consumers assessed
cultured species as of less quality and
more unsafe than their wild equivalents.
This showed some sort of prejudice
among these consumers. This study provided
the data used to arrive at the results
presented here.
José Fernández-Polanco,
Ph.D.
Faculty of Business and Economics
Universidad de Cantabria
Avda. de los Castros E-39005
Santander, Cantabria, Spain
polancoj@unican.es
Ladislao Luna, Ph.D.
Ignacio Llorente
University of Cantabria
Attitudes Affect Purchasing
Consumers’ attitudes toward seafoodharvesting
methods and their effects on
purchase decisions are as important as
attitudes toward the products themselves.
Knowledge of production methods
informs consumers about aspects that
usually need external assistance to be
assessed.
It provides extrinsic keys to make
expectations of quality, safety conditions
and possible impacts on the environment
and surrounding communities, which in
turn are associated with the likelihood of
purchase. Studies have shown that consumers
value, and are also willing to pay
for, extrinsic attributes that guarantee
seafood safety and the use of sustainable
fishing practices.
After discussions with groups of producers,
consumers and retailers, a set of
scales attempting to measure consumer
beliefs about the safety and sustainability
of aquaculture methods and products was
used with the questionnaires collected
between 2005 and 2007 (Table 1).
Although the means of the scales for all
three years were over 3 based on a scoring
range of 1 to 5, variances of each measure
indicated a polarized behavior among
respondents, who were divided into
favorable and unfavorable segments.
Factor reduction was applied to
obtain an attitude index from the scales,
with successful results that explained an
average 60% of the total variance of the
five scales in the three years, indicating a
strong level of association between consumer
beliefs about safety and sustainability
issues of aquaculture. According to
Some consumers who shop at traditional fish markets may be less aware
of the beneifts of aquaculture.
the mean values near 3 obtained in the
scales, the equivalent factor mean would
indicate an indifferent position toward
aquaculture among consumers. Using this
mean to divide the samples, favorable and
unfavorable segments were quantified
(Table 2).
The effects of the attitudes on consumers’
beliefs and assessments of different
cultured species were studied using
structural equation models, and their
results were presented at several international
conferences.
The models indicated that the more
favorable the attitude, as reflected in
higher scores provided by respondents on
the physical quality and safety of cultured
species, the higher disposition to pay for
them. These results were confirmed with
seabream, seabass, turbot and trout.
Industry Communications
Based on the above results, industry
may be interested in improving consumers’
attitudes towards aquaculture. Assuming
that industry can assure seafood safety and
sustainability, consumer perceptions can
vary depending on the amount and quality
of the information they receive and their
capability to understand it.
Information about aquaculture can
come from many different sources. Generic
institutional advertising and information
provided at the point of purchase were two
sources studied within this research.
It was found that higher credibility of
the institutional source led to a more
favorable attitude towards aquaculture.
Different levels of application of regulations
on labeling also resulted in different
levels of attitude.
While at large supermarkets, labeling
for all species included the harvesting
method, as required by law, this information
was not always available in traditional
stores. As a result, attitudes toward aquaculture
were more favorable at self-service
stores than at traditional fish markets and
fishmongers.
Finally, the capability to understand the
information received by consumers was
affected by several personal variables. Age
and education level were two such factors.
Respondents between 30 to 64 years old
from all samples had better attitudes toward
aquaculture than the other two segments,
which were unfavorable among older consumers.
Also, attitudes improved as the
respondents’ education level increased,
while unfavorable attitudes were frequent in
Table 1. Yearly mean values (based on a 1-5 scale)
obtained for consumer beliefs about aquaculture.
Aquaculture produces safe foods
Aquaculture produces quality foods
Consumption of cultured species contributes to health care
Consumption of cultured species contributes to the preservation
of marine resources
I would recommend consumption of cultured species
2005 2006 2007
less-educated respondents.
This last result suggested the need to
diversify communication channels and
messages to assure favorable beliefs across
all market segments. Existing communications
appeared to fail in transmitting positive
information to the less-educated segments,
who perhaps found difficulties in
understanding technical information and
experienced confusion and prejudices.
60 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 61
3.52
3.50
3.10
3.51
3.22
3.60
3.55
3.43
3.86
3.37
3.41
3.40
3.18
3.56
3.51
Table 2. General attitudes
of Spanish consumers
toward aquaculture.
Favorable
Unfavorable
2005 2006 2007
53.4%
46.6%
51.4%
48.6%
global aquaculture
52.8%
47.2%
e som thing
n w
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marketplace
Farmed Or Wild?
Both Types Of Salmon Taste Good And Are Good For You
Farm-raised Atlantic salmon are raised and harvested under
controlled conditions that provide a year-round supply of fish.
Photo courtesy of the British Columbia Salmon Farmers
Association.
Summary:
Whether farmed or wild, salmon are tasty fish and a
healthy protein choice. They look and taste nearly the
same. Wild Pacific salmon are harvested by fishing,
mostly in the north Pacific from June through September.
Frozen or canned wild salmon are available outside
this period. Farmed Atlantic salmon are hatched,
raised and harvested under controlled conditions, and
available fresh year-round, usually at lower prices than
wild-caught fish.
Salmon is the second most-popular fish consumed in the
United States. It tastes savory and earthy, yet slightly sweet, and
is among the richest sources of long-chain omega-3 fats. It is
also full of high-quality protein, vitamins and minerals.
Research shows that eating fish like salmon promotes healthy
hearts and brain development. All types of commercial salmon
are healthful to eat. The most readily available kinds in the U.S.
are wild Pacific and farmed Atlantic salmon. Farmed and wild
salmon are very similar in many ways.
Salmon FAQs
How do farmed and wild salmon differ?
Farmed and wild salmon are usually different species of fish.
Most farmed salmon are Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar. Wild
populations of Atlantic salmon are generally at very low levels,
Pamela D. Tom
University of California – Davis
Sea Grant Extension Program
Food Science and Technology Department
1 Shields Avenue
Davis, California 95616 USA
pdtom@ucdavis.edu
Paul G. Olin
University of California
Cooperative Extension
Sea Grant Extension Program
Santa Rosa, California, USA 95403
and their commercial harvest is limited. Farm-raised fish are
hatched, raised and harvested under controlled conditions comparable
to other farmed animals. Farmed Atlantic salmon are
available year-round in fresh or frozen forms.
Most wild-caught salmon are one of five species of Pacific
salmon. They are harvested by fishing with a variety of gear
types, mostly in the north Pacific from June through September.
Fresh wild Pacific salmon are available during this time. The rest
of the year, frozen or canned wild salmon are available.
How are farmed and wild salmon similar?
Farmed and wild salmon have very similar nutrients. Atlantic
salmon and Pacific salmon look similar on the outside. But
between species and even within the same species, each type of
salmon can have different flavors, textures and flesh color. How
the fish is processed and handled can also dramatically influence
these characteristics.
In taste tests between farmed and wild salmon, sometimes
farmed salmon is preferred. Sometimes taste panels prefer wild
fish. However, these taste tests often compare farmed and wild
salmon of different species and are not really designed to tell the
differences between the tastes of the farmed and wild versions of
the same type of salmon.
Often, wild salmon is priced higher than farmed salmon.
Especially when buying fish fillets, it can be hard to tell the difference
between how farmed and wild salmon look. It may take
DNA analysis to confirm the identity of the species. Species substitutions
sometimes occur, either accidentally or through business
practices that mislead consumers. Consumers should buy salmon
from trustworthy retailers and restaurants with good reputations.
What do salmon eat?
For survival and growth, both farmed and wild salmon need
a well-balanced diet of protein, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins,
minerals and pigments. In the wild, salmon eat zooplankton and
fish. About 4.50 kg of prey is needed to make 0.45 kg of wild
salmon. This means wild salmon have a feed-conversion ratio
(FCR) around 10:1.
Farmed salmon need the same well-balanced diet to live and
grow. They are fed a combination of fishmeal, fish oil and other
Table 1. USDA nutrition information for 100 g of farmed and wild salmon cooked under dry heat.
Calories Protein (g) Fat (g) Saturated Fat (g) Sodium (mg) Cholesterol (mg) Omega 3 (g)*
land-based protein sources. The FCR is around 1:1. However, it
should be noted that the water content in live prey items is much
higher than in feed.
Some nutrients in prey and feed are considered essential
because fish are unable to make them, so they must come from
the diet. One such nutrient is the orange pigment astaxanthin,
which is in the same family of nutrients as vitamin A. It is a powerful
antioxidant that is thought to be involved in the ovarian
development, hatching, survival, growth and respiration of
salmon. Astaxanthin is also what causes the reddish-orange color
of salmon flesh.
The color of wild and farmed salmon can vary widely from red
to orange-red, rose, pink and even white. The color depends
mostly on the amount of astaxanthin in the diet. Wild salmon get
natural astaxanthin from the prey they eat. Farmed salmon get
natural or added astaxanthin from the feed they eat.
How does eating farmed and wild salmon make people healthier?
Both farmed and wild salmon are healthful choices that are low
in total fat and high in protein (Table 1). Both are rich in vitamins,
minerals and omega-3s. In recent years, research has linked eating
seafood to many health benefits throughout life.
Babies of moms who eat fish during pregnancy have the best
possible brain and eye development. Adults who eat fish twice a
week have up to 40% lower risk of dying from a heart attack. And
a seafood-rich diet can help prevent depression and dementia as
people age.
Is salmon safe to eat?
Most foods contain traces of substances other than nutrients.
Scientists have compared concerns with eating fish to concerns
with limiting or avoiding fish. They found that the biggest risk is
limiting or avoiding fish, which results in thousands of extra heart
disease deaths per year and less than optimal brain development
in children.
The essential nutrient astaxanthin, which causes the red-orange
coloration of salmon, is also involved in growth and reproduction.
Wild fish get astaxanthin from their prey, while farmed
fish receive it in their feed. Photo courtesy of Camanchaca, Inc.
62 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 63
Farmed
Atlantic
Coho
wild
Chinook
Sockeye
Coho
Pink
Chum
206
178
231
216
139
149
154
22.1
24.3
25.7
27.3
23.4
25.5
25.8
12.3
8.2
13.3
10.9
4.3
4.4
4.8
2.5
1.9
3.2
1.9
1.0
0.7
1.0
* Omega-3 values equal the sum of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid.
61
52
60
66
58
86
64
63
63
85
87
55
67
95
2.1
1.2
1.7
1.2
1.0
1.3
0.8

Both wild and farmed salmon are healthful choices that
are low in total fat and high in protein, vitamins, minerals
and omega-3s. Photo courtesy of the California Salmon
Council.
• Mercury, PCBs
Methylmercury, an organic form of mercury, and polychlorinated
biphyenyls (PCBs) are not a health concern associated
with eating farmed or wild salmon.
Minute quantities of mercury are detectable in air, water,
soil and all living matter. The Institute of Medicine reported
that salmon, whether farmed or wild, is one of the species
lowest in mercury levels and highest in omega-3 fatty acids. A
2008 study by Barry Kelly and co-authors found mercury in all
salmon samples ranged from 0.03 to 0.10 ppm. This was well
below the action level of 1.0 ppm enforced by the U.S. Food
and Drug Administration (FDA). Negligible differences in
mercury concentrations were observed between the various
species of farmed and wild salmon.
Until the late 1970s, PCBs were manufactured globally
and used in many electronic products. Health concerns about
PCBs led to a ban on their use, and since then, the levels of
PCBs in food products and the environment have declined
significantly.
Currently, over 90% of PCBs that remain in Americans’
foods comes from sources other than seafood. PCB levels in
farmed and wild salmon are low and generally range from 5 to
60 ppb. This is less than 3.1% of the FDA tolerance level of
2,000 ppb.
• Antibiotics
In the U.S., the FDA regulates antibiotics, which are used
to treat ill farm-raised animals including fish, swine, cattle and
chickens – except in certified organic animal culture. Veterinarians
oversee the way antibiotics are used when they are needed.
Farmers must follow U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency and FDA regulations that monitor antibiotic use and
environmental impacts. These regulations also make sure antibiotics
are used for the shortest time possible, so residual
traces do not go above the FDA level of concern.
• Hormones
No hormones are used in salmon farming or added to
salmon diets. So, hormones are not a concern when eating
farmed or wild salmon.
Commercial
Salmon Facts
Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, are more closely related to
brown trout than to the Pacific salmon of the genus Onchorhynchus.
Atlantic salmon have been domesticated and selectively
bred for many generations. The primary species used
in fish farming, they are grown in net pens in nearshore
coastal waters and are typically harvested at a weight of 3.6
to 4.5 kg and length of 71 to 76 cm.
Greatly reduced populations of wild Atlantic salmon still
spawn in rivers on both sides of the Atlantic. Although historically
of great commercial importance, today less than 1% of
commercially available Atlantic salmon come from the wild.
Chinook salmon, Onchorhynchus tshawytscha, also known as
king salmon, live from California, USA, to Japan, with
successful new populations in the Great Lakes and New
Zealand. Chinook is the largest and least abundant of the
Pacific salmon species. Their average weight is about 9 kg,
and they range from 76 to 100 cm in length. Small quantities
of farmed Chinook salmon can be found in the marketplace.
Sockeye salmon, Oncorhynchus nerka, also known as red
salmon, are an important commercial species in British
Columbia, Canada, and Alaska, USA. Their bright red
flesh is prized for canning and for fresh and frozen products.
The average size of fish in the market is approximately
2.7 kg and 91 cm in length.
Coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch, also known as silver
salmon, range from northern Baja California to Korea. The
average weight is 4.5 kg, and they range from 63 to 89 cm
in length. Only small quantities of coho salmon are
farmed.
Pink salmon, Onchorhynchus gorbuscha, are also known
as humpback salmon because of the large hump males
develop during spawning season. Pinks are the smallest
but most abundant Pacific salmon, generally weighing
0.9 to 1.4 kg at a length of 76 cm. They live from Puget
Sound to Russia. Most pinks are canned and tend to
cost less than other types of salmon.
Chum salmon, Onchorhyncus keta, are also known as silverbright,
keta or dog salmon. The average weight is 3.6 kg,
and they can grow to 68 cm long. They are relatively easy
to farm, and large hatchery programs in Japan and southeast
Alaska complement wild populations. Chum are harvested
commercially in large numbers when they return to
their release sites. Like the pink salmon, chums tend to
cost less than other types of salmon. They are sold canned,
smoked, fresh and frozen.
marketplace
Bangladesh Seeks Export Markets
For Striped Catfish
Fish typically receive pelleted feed at larger farms. Smaller
operators may use lower-quality feeds.
Summary:
Striped catfish have become an important fish for
national food security in Bangladesh, especially for
poor consumers. The catfish-farming industry in the
country is dominated by relatively small-scale farms
that produce fish primarily for local markets. Due to
potential overproduction, large-scale producers will
likely need to process and export about 25% of the
current production to survive in the long term.
Commercial farming of striped catfish, Pangasianodon hypophthalmus
(Pangasius), introduced from Thailand started about
1998 and expanded rapidly after 2000 in Mymensingh, Bangladesh.
As production is almost entirely for the local domestic
market, overproduction led to a recent market glut that
depressed farm gate prices below production costs. For largescale
producers to survive in the long term, there is a need to
process and export about 25% of the current farmed production.
Industry Structure
According to the Fish Culturists Association of Bangladesh,
there are about 3,500 commercial farms exceeding 1.2 ha in
Mymensingh and many thousands more smaller-scale farms.
About 70% of the commercial farms are less than 5 ha in
area, 20% cover 5 to 10 ha, and only 10% are larger than 10 ha.
Thus the industry is dominated by relatively small-scale farms,
but only about 30% of the total production is of sufficiently high
Dr. Peter Edwards
Emeritus Professor and Consultant
Asian Institute of Technology
593 Lat Prao Soi 64
Bangkok 10310, Thailand
pedwards1943@gmail.com
Md. Sazzad Hossain
Director, Shushama Feed Ltd.
Gulshan, Dhaka, Bangladesh
quality for export. Most of the production is marketed locally at
a relatively low price.
Development
When commercial farming of striped catfish started, the
profit was very high, as the public initially confused the species
with the scarce native catfish Pangasius pangasius, which today
retails for U.S. $4-6/kg. In 1994, the production cost of striped
catfish was only $0.44/kg compared to a farm gate price of
$1.76/kg, which was a major factor in the initial expansion of
catfish farming in the country. Unfortunately, attempts to
develop commercial culture of the native river catfish have been
unsuccessful to date.
Total production of striped catfish reached 300,000 mt in
2008, which caused a market glut. The farm gate prices fell to
U.S. $0.66-0.68/kg – below the $0.74/kg cost of production –
and about 30% of farmers stopped raising the fish. When the
production in 2009 fell to 200,000-250,000 mt, the farm prices
rose once more to a profitable $0.88-0.96/kg toward the end of
2009.
Local Benefits
Striped catfish have become an important fish for national
food security, especially for poor consumers because of its relatively
low price compared to the major Indian carp rohu, Labeo
rohita, which retails for about twice as much. Rohu grow well
only in large ponds and take a much longer two years to attain a
marketable size of 1.5 kg.
Relatively poor farmers get in and out of striped catfish farming,
reverting back to rice farming depending on the profitability
of the fish and rice. Poor rice farmers who are unable or unwilling
to farm fish can benefit from leasing or selling their land to
fish farmers or be employed at large fish farms, which require
several full-time workers per ha.
Farming System
The catfish ponds are shallow with a depth of only 1.5 m. As
they are constructed in low-lying rice land, they could not be deeper
since draining would not be possible. Large commercial farms are
filled with groundwater pumped from 100-m-deep tube wells.
Although there are no government regulations concerning
the use of groundwater, its level has remained unchanged after
more than a decade’s pumping. One-third of the pond water
64 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 65

At larger farms, water quality is maintained by regular
water exchange.
volume is changed every 10-15 days to maintain water quality.
The ponds have low dikes and so may flood during the monsoon
season, but striped catfish, unlike other farmed species, remain
in flooded ponds.
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66 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate
Nursed 50-g fingerlings are stocked at 4-5/m 2 and fed commercial
pelleted feed for feed-conversion ratios of 1.7 to 1.8. The
average production is 60-70 mt/ha of 1.0- to 1.2-kg fish in 10
months, including limited growth during the cool season. Production
on small-scale farms is typically about 40 mt/ha.
Most smaller farms do not exchange water and give fish
poorer-quality feed from cottage factories or farm-made feeds
with low stability. These two factors cause poor water quality that
can lead to lesser-quality fish suitable only for the local market.
Export Potential
Large-scale striped catfish farms must export fish to survive
in the future because of unstable local market prices and the
large investment required to lease land for 10 years and construct
ponds and deep tube wells. However, the 15 to 20% return on
investment with current prices is attractive.
Striped catfish production in Vietnam, the current major
exporter of the species, is much higher at 300-400 mt/ha. But
there the ponds are 4 to 6 m deep, and the water is changed
much more frequently, entailing a higher unit production cost
than that in Bangladesh. Furthermore, both land rental and
labor costs are lower in Bangladesh than in Vietnam.
The flesh color of catfish farmed in Bangladesh is yellowish,
so the fish could only be marketed in Eastern Europe, but trials
are under way to see if flesh quality could be improved by reducing
the maize content of the feed. A fish-processing plant also
needs to be built in Mymensingh, as current plants, which process
shrimp, are mainly located in the south of the country.
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marketplace
Shrimp Problems In Indonesia? Imports From Ecuador
Continue Strong As White Conversion Continues
U.S. imports of cooked shrimp were off in January,
while breaded imports rose.
Summary:
January saw a shortage of large shrimp, especially black
tigers. Continuing production problems in Indonesia
may affect future U.S. shrimp imports from this main
supplier. More white shrimp production will be an
interesting dynamic in 2010. Fresh and frozen whole
salmon imports continued to see YTD increases in January,
while fillets began 2010 lower. Norway was the top
source for fresh fillets. In January, total tilapia imports
to the U.S. increased over December 2009. Fresh fillets
registered a more than modest increase, while frozen fillets
recorded a monthly record high.
In January, imports of shrimp to the United States began the
year down a slight 1.8% from levels a year ago (Table 1). However,
there were some noticeable trends in imports that may
indicate future supplies.
Production
Most importantly, import volume from Indonesia was down
sharply the last two months in a row. When added to anecdotal
Form
Shell-on
Peeled
Cooked
Breaded
Total
January 2010
(1,000 lb)
34,008
29,673
18,289
9,209
92,755
Sources: U.S. Census, Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
information, this fact appeared to indicate continuing production
problems that may affect supplies going forward for the number
2 supplier to the U.S. market. In addition, Bangladesh imports
continued their downward trend from 2009 with reports that
much of their production was destined for Russia.
Imports from Thailand were only slightly lower in January,
and for the last several years have been very steady. After an
increase in 2009, Ecuador’s shrimp exports to the U.S. continue
strong. Imports from China for the first month of the year were
also higher with an increase in breaded imports. Vietnam product
– lower in 2009 – also begin the year slightly lower. Imports
from Malaysia, after an off year in 2009, were sharply higher for
January, while those from Mexico were lower.
Total headless, shell-on imports were up slightly in January,
with white imports up and black tiger imports lower. Peeled
shrimp and cooked shrimp imports were lower. Led by China,
breaded imports were higher.
Shrimp Market
The most glaring market condition in January was that large
shrimp in all categories were short, especially large black tiger
shrimp. This situation may be exacerbated by an improving
demand until new season production is available in late spring.
Large white shrimp, which had lagged behind the black tiger
market, also saw improving buying interest for 21-25 count and
larger shrimp. The market was generally firm.
Medium and smaller white shrimp have recently been mostly
steady. The market has now begun to seasonally strengthen. The
market tone, although recently firm, remains somewhat unsettled
as sellers evaluate demand in relation to the supply.
A continuing trend that will be an interesting dynamic this
year is the addition of white shrimp production in India and a
further move to white production in many other producing
countries.
Table 1. Snapshot of U.S. shrimp imports, January 2010.
December 2009
(1,000 lb)
40,489
36,044
21,853
8,110
108,186
Change
(Month)
-16.0%
-17.7%
-16.3%
13.6%
-14.3%
Paul Brown, Jr.
pbrownjr@urnerbarry.com
Janice Brown
Angel Rubio
Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
P. O. Box 389
Toms River, New Jersey 08754 USA
January 2009
(1,000 lb)
32,320
32,070
20,804
7,226
94,491
Change
(Year)
5.2%
-7.5%
-12.1%
27.4%
-1.8%
YTD 2010
(1,000 lb)
34,008
29,673
18,289
9,209
92,755
YTD 2009
(1,000 lb)
32,320
32,070
20,804
7,226
94,491
Change
(Year)
5.2%
-7.5%
-12.1%
27.4%
-1.8%
global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 69

Norwegian, U.K. Salmon Fillets Jump
As Chile Recovers From Earthquake
Although lower than in January 2009, import levels
of salmon fillets rose at the start of 2010.
January year-to-date (YTD) imports of salmon to the U.S.
began 7.3% lower than year-ago levels (Table 2). Frozen whole
fish imports continued to see YTD increases and were 36.0%
higher YTD than in January 2009. Fresh whole fish also experienced
an increase of 6.7%. Fresh fillets and frozen salmon fillets,
on the other hand, began 2010 24.5% and 5.1% lower, respectively,
than 2009 YTD levels. Total month-to-month data
showed a 3.8% increase.
Whole Fish
YTD figures for fresh whole fish showed beginning-of-theyear
increases 6.7% over January 2009 YTD. Month-to-month
data for December 2009 to January also showed an increase, up
3.9%. Salmon imports from Canada began 2010 6.3% lower
YTD. Month-to-month imports, however, increased 10.3%
from December 2009 to January.
Pricing in the Northeast was full steady to firm throughout
the month of March in the heart of Lent. Supplies were ade-
Form
Fresh whole fish
Frozen whole fish
Fresh fillets
Frozen fillets
Total
January 2010
(lb)
18,040,493
416,329
12,307,019
12,360,249
43,124,090
Sources: U.S. Census, Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
quate for a moderate to active demand. All sizes continued well
above the three-year averages.
The West Coast whole fish market, similar to the Northeast,
was full steady to firm for the month of March. Supplies ranged
adequate to barely adequate for a moderate to active demand.
Pricing for West Coast fish also continued the year trending well
above the three-year average for all sizes of fish.
Fillets
Salmon imports to the U.S. began 2010 with Norway leading
as the top source for fresh fillets. During January, 4.9 million lbs
were imported from Norway, while Chile sent 4.3 million lbs.
Overall, January YTD levels were 23.3% lower than year-ago
levels. On the other hand, import volume rose 8.9% since
December 2009.
Norwegian fillets began 2010 669.1% higher than last year at
the same time. Chilean fillets, in contrast, were 68.9% lower
than 2009 YTD figures. Canada and the United Kingdom also
started 2010 with strong exports to the U.S. at 85.9% and
317.4% higher than YTD levels, respectively. Each sent over 1
million lbs in January.
Month-to-month data for Norway was up 24.6% from
December 2009, while Chile showed a decrease of 6.0% for the
same time period.
The Norwegian fillet market firmed at the beginning of
March and remained steady for most of the month. At the
beginning of March, the country of Chile experienced a massive
earthquake that affected transportation and logistics in the country.
Salmon exports resumed fairly quickly, though, and pricing
trended higher. Current pricing for the Chilean fillet market is
about steady. The undertone is somewhat unsettled with both
higher and lower offerings noted.
Table 2. Snapshot of U.S. salmon imports, January 2010.
December 2009
(lb)
17,369,542
839,814
11,405,146
11,942,936
41,557,438
Change
(Month)
3.9%
-50.4%
7.9%
3.5%
3.8%
January 2010
(lb)
16,906,368
306,191
16,308,602
13,018,728
46,539,889
Change
(Year)
6.7%
36.0%
-24.5%
-5.1%
-7.3%
YTD 2010
(lb)
18,040,493
416,329
12,307,019
12,360,249
43,124,090
Fresh Tilapia Fillet Prices Spike After Lent,
Frozen Imports Set Monthly Record
In January, total tilapia imports to the U.S. increased when
compared to the previous month (Table 3). Fresh fillets registered
a more than modest increase, while frozen fillets recorded a
monthly record high. Imports of whole fish also increased during
the first month of 2010.
Whole Fish
Although imports of whole tilapia increased when compared
to the previous month, January imports decreased when com-
YTD 2009
(lb)
16,906,368
306,191
16,308,602
13,018,728
45,539,889
Change
(Year)
6.7%
36.0%
-24.5%
-5.1%
-7.3%
pared to the same month in previous years. This is relevant, as
this month has historically shown a large influx of product as
importers prepare inventories for Lent.
Fresh Fillets
January imports of fresh fillets increased when compared to
the previous month as well as surpassing the monthly average for
2009. However, when compared to the same month in previous
years, January marked the lowest level of imports since 2006.
January imports of fresh fillets surpassed the monthly average
for 2009, but when compared to the same month in previous
years, marked the lowest level since 2006.
Due to falling prices and diminished margins in the past couple
of months, volumes have been adjusting lower as supply and
demand find a balance in the market. That said, prices started
adjusting slightly higher prior to the beginning of Lent, as
Sources: U.S. Census, Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
demand was noted stronger.
However, a sudden shortfall of product in the U.S. caused
prices to spike rapidly during the weeks after Lent started. Availability
has improved somewhat, easing some of the upward pricing
pressure. The market is currently rated full steady to steady.
Frozen Fillets
Imports of frozen tilapia fillets surpassed the 31 million lbs
mark in January, registering a monthly record. Inventories in the
U.S. were more than adequate amid a soft demand. After the
Chinese year-end festivities ended, replacement costs started to
rise, making some importers raise their asking prices. As a result,
the market in the U.S. firmed slightly, but not to the extent
replacement offerings did. The current undertone is steady at
listed levels.
The fresh market is showing some signs of recovery after a
sudden shortage of product, but the pricing undertone remains full
steady to steady. The frozen market, on the other hand, is steady
at listed levels. But many traders expect higher prices in the
upcoming weeks as replacement offerings have gone up more than
asking prices in the U.S., mainly due to adequate inventories.
70 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 71
Form
Frozen whole fish
Fresh fillets
Frozen fillets
Total
GOAL
2010
January 2010
(lb)
7,407,378
4,691,395
31,004,989
43,103,762
December 2009
(lb)
7,047,451
4,298,379
30,102,848
41,448,678
October 2010 –
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Change
(Month)
5.11%
9.14%
3.00%
3.99%
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Additional information will follow with invitations to GAA
members and past GOAL participants.
Co-hosted by the Malaysia Department of Fisheries
Table 3. Snapshot of U.S. tilapia imports, January 2010.
®
global aquaculture
January 2010
(lb)
9,261,653
5,014,463
29,465,689
43,741,805
Change
(Year)
-20.02%
-6.44%
5.22%
-1.46%
Make
Smarter
Choices.
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Market Prices,
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for the
Food Industry
YTD 2010
(lb)
7,407,378
4,691,395
31,004,989
43,103,762
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for a FREE trial
YTD 2009
(lb)
9,261,653
5,014,463
29,465,689
43,741,805
www.urnerbarry.com
Change
(Year)
-20.02%
-6.44%
5.22%
-1.46%

innovation
Life Cycle Assessment In Aquaculture
‘Not A Single Event, But A Combination Of Processes’
Life cycle assessment considers product inputs and impacts from raw materials to disposal.
Processing and packaging are involved, as well as transportation for distribution.
Summary:
Life cycle assessment studies the
environmental and other potential
impacts throughout a product’s
life, starting at raw material
and following it through production,
use and disposal. LCA can
help identify ways to mitigate
environmental impacts and generate
cost savings. LCA can also
assist in risk management and
support purchasing, design and
waste management decisions for
companies.
The food industry is likely to come
under greater scrutiny over coming years
as world population rises put pressure on
food stocks and prices with inevitable
strain on the environment. There is also
significant pressure on energy resources,
in which the production of food using
carbon-intensive fuels is linked to accelerating
global climate change.
The policies of governments and nongovernmental
organizations on food are
therefore moving to a more holistic
approach of environmental impact assessment,
of which life cycle assessment
(LCA) is a part. LCA is also becoming
more important in the world of corporate
social responsibility, for consumers
increasingly consider sustainability as
they make seafood purchases.
Life Cycle Assessment
Life cycle assessment studies the environmental
and other potential impacts of
a product throughout its life, starting at
raw material and following it through
production, use and disposal. LCA can
also be used to assess the environmental
impacts of a process or service from
design to disposal, across the entire life
cycle.
The general categories of environmental
impacts considered include
resources used and ecological consequences.
Governed by the ISO 14040
and 14044 standards, LCA requires the
gathering and appraisal of data on the
inputs and outputs of material, energy
and waste flows of a product.
LCA consists of four complementary
elements:
• Goal definition and scoping. This
includes a full description of the
product, process or activity. Why
the assessment is required should be
established, as well as the boundaries
and environmental effects to be
identified and reviewed.
• Inventory analysis. Energy, water
and materials usage and environ-
William Davies
Humber Seafood Institute
Grimsby Institute of Further
and Higher Education
Grimsby DN37 9TZ
United Kingdom
daviesw@grimsby.ac.uk
mental releases need to be determined.
• Impact assessment. This is examination
of potential human impacts, the
effects of energy, water and material
usage, and the environmental
releases identified in the inventory
analysis.
• Interpretation. The evaluation of the
results from the inventory analysis
assessment is tailored to the product,
process or service. It must reflect
clear understanding of the boundaries
and assumptions used to generate
the results.
LCA can help identify ways to mitigate
environmental impacts and generate
cost savings. It can also be used for assess-
ing risks to improve systems, such as in
risk management. In addition, LCA can
support decision making for companies,
such as purchasing, product design, process
selection and waste management
strategies.
Stages Of LCA
The use of energy at different stages
during production requires an assessment
of the overall impact on the environment.
This is not dependent on a single event,
but a combination of all the processes.
LCA considers inputs from the raw
material extractions until disposal. During
the transformation, manufacturing
and packaging are involved, as well as
transportation for distribution.
For the entire life cycle in the production
of food, the agricultural inputs are
the seeds, fertilizers and water. The produce
is then harvested and transported to
factories for processing. Energy use is
associated with this process, and fossil
fuel inputs release greenhouse gases during
cultivation, conversion and distribution,
hence contributing to the environ-
mental footprint. The results of operating
procedures need to be compared to other
standards to establish the impacts on the
environment.
Aquaculture Assessment
In aquaculture, feed is the most significant
input, but larvae or fingerlings,
fuel and occasional medicinal treatments
are also required. These key inputs are
being measured more closely than in the
past and are even published in annual
corporate sustainability reports.
A primary measurement related to the
productivity of feed is the feed-conversion
ratio (FCR). The FCR measures the
volume of feed input against the weight
of harvested seafood. Salmon production
has rather low FCRs, making it competitive
in feed use against other proteins and
less affected by high feed prices than pork
or beef farming. On the basis of fish protein,
current salmon production techniques
can achieve FCR values below 1,
making the industry a net provider of fish
protein to the human diet.
Advances in feed technology continually
lower the environmental footprint of
salmon farming, both as a user of wild
fish in feed and in carbon emissions.
Shrimp feed needs high protein content
as well as lipids, fiber and other essential
nutrients. A wide variety of ingredients,
from algae to poultry trimmings, are
being investigated as replacements for the
traditional fishmeal protein base in
shrimp diets.
Low-Impact Species
Of worthy mention due to their low
impacts on carbon emissions during
aquaculture are tilapia, carp, oysters and
mussels (Table 1). Tilapia and carp can
both be grown in aquaponics with horticulture,
living in recirculation systems
with very little feed inputs needed, as the
plants and fish feed off each others’
waste. Seen as a promising sustainable
food production method for the future,
this approach is also known as integrated
multitrophic aquaculture.
FCRs in carp culture are commonly as
low as 0.3. Fishmeal ratios are on a downward
trend, and from a fish sustainability
stance, can be 1 in fish in:fish out ratios.
Fishing makes up a major part of the
aquaculture fishmeal supply, with wildcapture
marine protein added to feed, as
well as trimmings from fish processing.
Mollusks such as oysters and mussels
are grown with only natural feed inputs
from the nutrients in the water in which
they are raised. This means their feed
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72 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 73

global aquaculture
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e som thing
n w
NOW... read each issue
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And it’s free!
Most aquaculture exhibits LCA assessments lower than those for other farm-raised
protein industries.
Table 1. Carbon emission values for common aquaculture species.
Salmon
Shrimp
Product
Tilapia
Carp in RAS
Mussels
kg Carbon
Dioxide/kg
3.40
11.10
1.67
0.80
0.01
Country Product
Denmark
Belgium
Sweden
Denmark
Belgium
Sweden
Denmark
Belgium
Sweden
Belgium
United Kingdom
United Kingdom
Beef
Beef
Beef
Pork
Pork
Pork
Chicken
Chicken
Chicken
Lamb
Seafood (average of 10 products)
Farmed salmon
inputs are zero, so the species have minimal
carbon emissions from their growing
and harvesting.
Protein Comparisons
Carbon footprint assessments of various
farmed seafood compare well to those
of other protein sources. In Sweden,
Skretting found that beef production
“cost” about 14 kg carbon dioxide per kg
of edible meat. Pork came in with a rating
of about 4.8 kg carbon dioxide/kg.
Chicken rated 1.9 kg – just below the 2.0
Standard
Deviation Source
1.1
3.3
0
0
0
Ayer and Tyedmers, 2009
Mungkung and Gheewala, 2007
Friend of the Sea, Seafish
Mungkung, 2005
Sun, 2009
Friend of the Sea
Troell et al., 2004
Friend of the Sea
Thane
Table 2. Carbon emission values for protein
sources in different countries.
*Swedish Institute for Food and Biotechnology
kg Carbon
Dioxide/ kg Source
22.50
34.00
14.00
3.98
11.00
5.00
3.10
7.00
1.80
50.00
6.10
1.70
Weidema, 2003
Nemry et al., 2001
SIK*
Weidema
Nemry
SIK*
Weidema
Nemry
SIK*
Nemry
Davies, 2009
Davies, 2009
kg carbon dioxide/kg meat mark for
salmon.
Both Denmark and Belgium have
studied the impacts of their meat industries,
as shown in Table 2. The average
carbon dioxide footprint of the top 10
retail seafood species in the United Kingdom
is included for comparison. Aquaculture
is generally much more efficient
than beef and lamb production, and
modern salmon farming, rated better
than even chicken farming, has the lowest
carbon value.
innovation
Biofloc: Novel Sustainable
Ingredient For Shrimp Feed
A researcher at Virginia Tech investigates the condition of a shrimp during
an experimental trial.
Summary:
Recent research is demonstrating
that biofloc-based proteins are
suitable replacements for fishmeal
in aquaculture diets. Since
bioflocs can be produced while
treating aquaculture effluents, a
waste product can be converted
into a valuable resource. Work
by the authors found that shrimp
fed diets with bioflocs grew faster
than similar shrimp fed fishmealbased
feed. Potential also exists
for the production of bioflocs
with targeted nutrient levels by
manipulating production factors.
Shrimp farming has traditionally
relied on fishmeal for the formulation of
nutritionally complete diets. However,
fishmeal is becoming more expensive,
and natural fisheries are being overexploited
due to an increase in demand as
the global human population continues to
grow. This is prompting the aquaculture
industry to investigate and implement
alternative sources of protein to replace
less-sustainable protein ingredients for
aquaculture feeds.
Traditional alternative proteins, such
as soybean meal, are derived from plants.
Recent developments in research are demonstrating
that yeast-based and bioflocbased
proteins are also suitable replacements
for fishmeal in aquaculture diets.
Since bioflocs can be produced while
treating aquaculture effluents, bioflocs
may have an additional advantage over
plant-based proteins. This is because a
waste is effectively converted into a valuable
resource for the industry.
Producing Bioflocs
Effluents from aquaculture facilities
can be treated by implementing suspended-growth
biological reactors. These
bioreactors remove nutrients like nitrogen
from the effluent water as bioflocs are
produced. The water is essentially
“cleaned” as bioflocs are produced.
Two major types of bioreactors have
been studied in the authors’ laboratories
for treating aquacultural effluents:
sequencing batch reactors (SBR) and
membrane batch reactors (MBR). A
more detailed description of these pro-
David D. Kuhn, Ph.D.
Civil and Environmental Engineer
Food Science and Technology
Department
FST Building (0418)
Virginia Tech
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
davekuhn@vt.edu
George J. Flick, Jr., Ph.D.
Gregory D. Boardman, Ph.D.
Food Science and Technology
Department
Virginia Tech
Addison L. Lawrence, Ph.D.
Texas A & M University -
Corpus Christi
Corpus Christi, Texas, USA
cesses is provided in “Suspended-Growth
Biological Processes Clean RAS Wastewater”
in the January/February Global
Aquaculture Advocate.
Nutritional Composition
Biofloc nutritional composition can
vary extensively, but is based on factors
such as effluent characteristics and how a
bioreactor is operated. For example, if two
bioreactors were operated in the same way,
but one received effluent with a high
nitrogen load and the other received effluent
with a low nitrogen load, the bioreactor
receiving the higher load would likely
produce a biofloc with higher levels of
protein than the other bioreactor.
Research evaluating factors that influence
nutritional properties are currently
under way to optimize the nutritional
value (levels of essential amino acids, fatty
acids, proteins and crude fat) of the biofloc
produced.
In studies with SBR and MBR reactors,
the following ranges of dry-matter
nutritional values have been observed:
crude protein, 35 to 49%; carbohydrates,
22 to 36%; crude fiber, 13 to 18%; total
ash, 12 to 28%; and crude fat, 0 to 1%.
In reference to amino acids, nonessential
amino acids can be synthesized
by shrimp. However, the essential or
indispensible amino acids cannot be synthesized
by shrimp. The essential amino
acids in a high-quality shrimp feed and
biofloc typical in the authors’ studies are
compared in Figure 1.
Overall, the levels of essential amino
acids for shrimp compare well, but there is
a notable difference (≥ 0.5%, dry-weight
basis) in the compositions of leucine, lysine
74 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 75

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and isoleucine. The biofloc protein level can
be increased to about 65%, and the quality
of the essential amino acids profile in biofloc
can be further optimized by changing
the effluent used, bioreactor methodology
and/or carbon source and level.
Feeding Trials
Two feeding trials were conducted to
determine if biofloc can be used to
replace fishmeal and/or soybean protein
in shrimp diets. Each five-week trial was
conducted in recirculating aquaculture
systems with optimal water quality conditions
for shrimp culture.
The bioflocs were dried and incorporated
into experimental diets formulated
to be equivalent for crude protein (35%)
and total fat (8%). The biofloc diets were
compared against high-quality control
diets by replacing fishmeal and/or soy
Composition (% dry-matter basis)
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
Leucine
Lysine
Arginine
Valine
Isoleucine
protein. In the first trial, only SBR bioflocs
were tested. Both SBR and MBR
bioflocs were used in the second trial at
twice the inclusion rate of the first trial.
The weight gain of shrimp in the trials is
presented in Figure 2.
Shrimp fed biofloc diets during the
first trial outgrew shrimp given the control
diet by an average of 49%. During
the second trial, shrimp on biofloc diets
outgrew the control shrimp by approximately
10%.
Regardless of the inclusion rate of
total diet (0 to 30%), amount of fishmeal
replaced (0 to 67%) or soy protein
replaced (0 to 100%), shrimp fed biofloc
diets grew slightly or significantly faster.
These data suggested that bioflocs can be
a suitable, if not superior, ingredient for
shrimp feed.
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Biofloc
Typical Feed
Methionine
Histidine
Tryptophan
Figure 1. Essential amino acid profiles of a representative biofloc ingredient versus typical
high-quality shrimp feed.
Average weight Gain (g)
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Trial 1 Trial 2
Control
SBR 8%
SBR 16%
Control
SBR 10%
SBR 15%
SBR 21%
MBR 10%
MBR 15%
MBR 21%
MBR 30%
Figure 2. Weight gain of shrimp fed diets with bioflocs from a sequencing batch reactor
(SBR) or membrane batch reactor (MBR) over five weeks.
WE BRING THE SOURCE
TO OUR CUSTOMERS
BEST AQUACULTURE PRACTICES
CERTIFIED
Pescanova is committed to providing our clients the highest quality aquaculture products while
ensuring social and environmental responsibility, food safety and traceability.
• Best Aquaculture Practices & Traceability
• ACC-Certified Production Centers
• Vertically Integrated Production & Distribution
If you would like to learn more about Pescanova USA representing your products, contact us today 800-990-6292 x 7020
or via e-mail- sales@pescanovausa.com. Visit us online at pescanovausa.com
76 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 77
GUYANA PINKS

innovation
Two -Stage Selection Key
For Fast Shrimp Growth In Mexico
Larval Growth
300 Families
(2 Replicates)
Low Inbreeding
Mating
Broodstock
Growth,
Maturation
6 Families
(Commercial Line)
Figure 1. Two-stage breeding program at Maricultura del Pacífico.
Héctor Castillo-Juárez, Ph.D.
Mejoramiento Genético Animal y Biometría
Departamento de Producción Agrícola y Animal
Universidad Autónoma
Metropolitana, Unidad Xochimilco
Calzada del Hueso 1100
México 04960 D.F. México
hcjuarez@correo.xoc.uam.m
Hugo. H. Montaldo, Ph.D.
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
Gabriel R. Campos-Montes, Ph.D.
Maricultura del Pacífico, S.A. de C.V.
Mazatlán, Sinaloa, México
Genetic
Evaluation at
28 Days
Crosses,
Mass
Selection
Summary:
The largest shrimp hatchery in Mexico has implemented
a two-stage selection program based on body weight at
28 days of age and and body weight at 130 days. This
approach increases the genetic gain for growth at harvesting
age, since body weight at 28 days is highly correlated
with body weight at 130 days. After successive
family selections, the top 5 to 10% of the shrimp produce
a new generation of 300 families for the next year.
Growth In Cages
150 Families
within-Family
Selection
70 Families
Growth
Growth
Until
Tagging
Genetic
Evaluation at
130 Days
Ranking
(BVs)
COMMERCIAL
PRODUCTION
Selection Of
Broodstock
(Commercial)
Mexican shrimp producers face growing international competition
and hence have improved their management practices
over time. They demand healthy, high-quality, fast-growing
shrimp postlarvae for their commercial ponds. Mexican hatcheries
therefore face challenges to design better breeding programs
for the shrimp industry.
At Maricultura del Pacífico, the largest shrimp hatchery in
Mexico, recent changes for better breeding included the implementation
of a two-stage selection program based on body
weight at 28 days of age and growth and body weight at 130
days of age. This two-step approach increases the genetic gain
for growth at harvesting age, since body weight at 28 days is
highly correlated with body weight at 130 days of age.
The possibility of increasing the number of shrimp families
to be tested in selection experiments for growth performance at
early ages allows the selection of the best 150 families out of 300
at each cycle. Although at this early stage, the family selection
emphasis is based on growth and predicted breeding values, families
with relatively low survival PVBs are discarded.
Initial Selection
Selection of body weight at 28 days is based on an animal
model and best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) methodology.
BLUP is a method of statistical analysis in which numerical
scores are given to traits and compiled as predictions for future
use. The model includes random environmental and animal
effects, plus the fixed effects associated with the hatchery production
process, such as position in the larvae production area.
Once the 150 families are selected, the two family tank replicates
are mixed. When they reach approximately 2-g body
weight, 450 postlarvae (PL) from every family are marked with
elastomer tags in order to be identified in the pond performance
tests, while the rest of the postlarvae are kept under environmentally
controlled conditions with maximized sanitation at the
genetic nucleus of the hatchery.
Elastomerized postlarvae from the selected families are then
seeded in three ponds with different management representing
three common management systems found in Mexico. Densities
of 10 and 30 PL/m 2 are used in sandy soil, while 180 PL/m 2 are
used with concrete bottoms. A performance test for body weight
after 90 days is carried out, and hence, at approximately 130 days
of age, each shrimp of every family is individually weighed.
Data Analysis
Data from this process is then analyzed for body weight and
survival using a model that includes the animal effect, maternal
effect and fixed effects of pond management and age at harvesting
as a covariate, since small age differences between families associated
with the production process in the hatchery need to be adjusted.
Again, BLUP is used as the evaluation method. At this second
stage, a selection index that includes body weight (8/9) and
survival (1/9) is used to select the best 70 families out of the 150
that entered the experiment.
In the meantime, the full siblings of the 150 families kept in
the genetic nucleus have passed through an additional mass
within-family selection process that keeps approximately the top
30% of each family. This additional step guarantees that only the
best animals within family are chosen based on growth, and the
best families are selected.
After the best 70 families are selected, the top 5 to 10% of
these shrimp are selected in another mass selection. These animals
will produce the new generation of 300 families for the next
year. This process repeats year after year.
The annual generation of the 300 families minimizes
inbreeding by controlling the mating process using artificial
insemination with two females per male. It is also based on the
relationships between potential mates from the pedigree. The
actual inbreeding average of the population in the genetic
nucleus is 3.31%
Commercial, Conservation Lines
The best four to six families from this second stage are also
used to establish the commercial line of the hatchery. This process
consists of mating two sets of families with the lowest additive
relationship, ideally a family ranked first with a family
ranked fourth, and a family ranked second with a family ranked
third.
Animals from these two crosses are mass selected using the
top 10%, and the two lines are then crossed to yield the commercial
line. Figure 1 summarizes the breeding program of Maricultura
del Pacífico.
The hatchery also has a second line to preserve genetic variation.
The selection index in this line gives a relatively higher
weight to survival (1/5) compared to the growth line (1/9). The
line started in 2007, and some experiments within it regarding
the effects of inbreeding on growth and survival are in the process
of being analyzed. Families from this conservation line will
likely be considered for growth to restore lost genetic variation
when necessary in the future.
78 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 79

innovation
SPF Shrimp Breeding In Brazil
Genetic, Phenotypic Trends After Generation Of Selection
Technicians weighed test shrimp at this work station.
João L. Rocha, Ph.D.
Genearch Aquacultura Lda.
Praia de Pititinga
RN, CEP 59578 Brazil
johnrocha@genearch.com.br
Ana C. Guerrelhas
Ana K. Teixeira
Flávio A. Farias
Ana P. Teixeira
Genearch Aquacultura Lda.
Summary:
Through a genetic selection program started in 2006,
significant advances have been achieved in the development
of a specific pathogen-fee L. vannamei line in
Brazil. These shrimp have performed well under high
densities in intensive production systems. In tests, some
animals stocked at 167.5 shrimp/m 2 had average weekly
growth of 1.516 g and harvested biomass of 2.64 kg/m 2 .
This research represents significant support for Brazil’s
shrimp-farming industry.
Genearch Aquacultura, a Brazilian shrimp-breeding company
associated with Aquatec, the leading commercial hatchery
in the country, initiated the specific pathogen-free (SPF) era in
Brazil with SPF Litopenaeus vannamei imports in 2006. After a
series of comprehensive commercial field
tests in ponds under local conditions, the
genetic format to be adopted by the
incipient breeding program was defined,
and a program was initiated.
Genetic Improvement
From the series of four preliminary
field tests, it was concluded that the best
course for the Genearch SPF genetic
improvement program would be the constitution
of a synthetic/composite SPF
population bringing together contributions
from all six SPF founder populations.
The founders have been separately
perpetuated and maintained alongside the
main breeding and selection program for
purposes of genetic variability preservation.
One genetic batch of 60 full-sib families
is produced every three months with a
total of 240 full-sib families produced every
year. Some 500 to 600 tagged animals are
stocked per family in the genetic nucleus
(G.N.) performance tests, and 150 animals/family
are stocked in a pond field test conducted with every
batch. The field tests are managed under commercial conditions
that reflect the prevailing shrimp production realities in Brazil.
The selection program includes family selection based on a
selection index combining G.N. and field test genetic merit estimates
for growth and survival. Within-family selection for
growth in the G.N. tests in the breeding center – in a biofloc
system at stocking densities of 100-150 shrimp/m2 mals/family are stocked in a pond field test conducted with every
– are also
considered.
Family identification is through elastomer tagging when animals
reach the 2-g juvenile stage. Best linear unbiased prediction
(BLUP) methods are used to statistically examine random effects
in linear mixed models.
Results
The first genetic batch was produced in 2007. The first three
batches were first-generation batches derived from crosses among
the different SPF founder populations. Batches 2 and 3 were considered
to belong to generation 1.5 in Figures 3 to 6, and batches
4 through 7 were second-generation, already reflecting one generation
of family and within-family selection for growth and survival.
Batches 6 and 7 belong to generation 2.5 in Figures 3 to 6.
The performance tests for batch 7 were recently evaluated.
After one generation and four batches of index selection
combining G.N. and field test genetic merit estimates for
growth and survival, it became clear that moderately strong
genetic/environment interactions between the G.N. and field
test environments played an important and unfortunate role, as
well as mildly antagonistic correlations between growth and survival
in the field test environment.
Both realities negatively impacted expected genetic improvement
rates, especially for the field test environment. The establishment
of two separate breeding lines was therefore recommended.
One line targeted the current commercial environment in
Brazil: low stocking densities under 40 shrimp/m 2 and reduced
levels of management in usually large ponds. The other line targeted
more intensive systems stocked at densities of 100-200
shrimp/m 2 under higher levels of management. The latter systems
are scarce in Brazil, but could become more important in
the future.
Trends
Genetic and phenotypic trends registered for the G.N. environment
traits in the SPF breeding program after four batches
and one generation of selection are shown in Figures 1 to 6. Due
to the previously mentioned genetic and environmental (G x E)
interactions between the G.N. and field test environments, the
BLUP estimates for the first-generation average genetic gain
rates obtained for the G.N. growth traits were lower than
expected (Figure 1 – 5.3 and 6.6% of the mean harvest weight
and weekly growth, respectively). However, the situation will be
corrected with the establishment of two separate lines, each targeting
one of the two different environments.
This conclusion was validated by the reasonable genetic gain
rates obtained in the second-generation batch 6, derived from the
family selections implemented in batch 2 (Figures 1 and 2). By
chance, it was not possible to conduct a field test for batch 2, so its
family selections were not impacted by G x E interactions. Batch 2
family selections reflected the G.N. performance test results.
The genetic gains obtained for the G.N. growth traits in
batch 6 were fairly good (8.6 and 10.4% of the mean harvest
weight and weekly growth, respectively), and very close to the
theoretical expectations for a program with the characteristics
and scale of Genearch’s breeding program. The G x E interactions
were mainly responsible for the low average genetic gain
Figure 1. Genetic trend: Weekly growth of seven batches of shrimp.
80 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 81
Growth (g/week)
0.10
0.06
0.02
-0.02
-0.06
-0.10
0.010
0.005
0
-0.005
-0.010
Generation 1 Generation 2
Batches 1-4 Batches 1-5 Batches 2-6 Batches 3-7
Generation 1 Generation 2
Batches 1-4 Batches 1-5 Batches 2-6 Batches 3-7
Figure 2. Genetic trend: Survival of seven batches of shrimp.

Growth (g/week)
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Generation
Figure 3. Phenotypic trend: Weekly growth of shrimp.
weight (kg/m 2 )
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Generation
Figure 4. Phenotypic trend: Biomass of shrimp.
rates obtained for the G.N. growth traits during the first generation
of selection.
Perspectives
The phenotypic trends observed in the SPF breeding program
for the G.N. testing environment traits were very encouraging,
reflecting the genetic improvement made (Figures 1 and
2), but also other factors. Batch 7, whose performance tests were
recently evaluated, registered all-time records in the G.N. testing
Growth (g/week)
Figure 5. Phenotypic trend: Weekly growth, best families.
Growth (g/week)
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
Generation
0.9
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Generation
Figure 6. Phenotypic trend: Weekly growth, worst families.
environment with an average weekly growth rate of 1.513 g and
a total harvested biomass of 2.64 kg/m 2 for a stocking density of
167.5 shrimp/m 2 .
These results bear witness to the potential of selected animals
to excel under well-managed intensive production systems
stocked at high densities. It is expected that the genetic improvement
program, now unhindered by G x E interactions, will further
accentuate the potential for establishing a line suitable for
the actual commercial conditions prevailing in Brazil.
innovation
Seafood Chilling, Preservation
With Ice Slurry
Prince Edward Aqua Farms uses slurry ice to pack mussels being shipped across North
America. The fluid ice flows around the mussels to fill voids and quickly chill the product.
Ming-Jian Wang, Ph.D.
Sunwell Technologies Inc.
180 Caster Avenue
Woodbridge, Ontario L4L 5Y7, Canada
wang@sunwell.com
Summary:
Microbiological, biochemical and sensory analyses have
concluded that rapid cooling with ice slurry is a promising
technology to achieve good quality and yield for a
wide range of fish species. The challenges are to identify
the optimal cooling and storage conditions for each fish
product and design a system that can accurately deliver
ice with the ideal temperature and salinity for each
application.
Rapid cooling of seafood immediately after harvest is key to
ensuring quality in aquaculture operations. Typical cooling
methods include layering ice with product and ice water baths.
Ice slurry began receiving attention from the marine scientific
community 25 years ago for its ability to maximize the chilling
speed of fish. Between 1984 and 1988, the Department of Fisheries
and Oceans of Nova Scotia, Canada, conducted a systematic study
of ice slurry and published a series of reports on the workability,
physical characteristics and cooling effects of ice slurry on fish.
Subsequently, fishery institutions around the world – including
the Sea Fish Industry Authority of the United Kingdom,
Icelandic Fisheries Laboratories and, recently, the Institute for
Marine Research of Spain – have conducted
further analysis and trials on ice
slurry for various fish species.
Today, over 700 slurry systems are
installed worldwide. Successful results
have been reported for almost all major
seafood species, from sardines and
salmon to shrimp and lobsters.
Fish Quality, Yield
Recent reports of microbiological,
biochemical and sensorial analyses have
concluded that ice slurry is a promising
technology to achieve good quality and
yield for a wide range of fish species.
While the spoilage rate of fish is considerably
slowed when stored in ice slurry,
some fish species like seabream are
reported to exhibit cloudy eyes when held
in a brine-based slurry, which negatively
affects the appearance and perceived quality
of the fish. This is probably due to the
precipitation of an eye component when stored at sub-zero temperatures,
at which many current ice slurry systems operate.
Ice slurry produced from seawater can also lead to the problem
of salt uptake during extended storage of some fish species
like pelagic fish. The challenges are to identify the optimal cooling
and storage conditions for each fish product, and then design
a system that can accurately control both the temperature and
salinity of ice slurry to the ideal level for each application.
Variable-State System
Systems like the variable-state ice slurry system developed by
Sunwell Technologies Inc. can control both the ice fraction and
salinity of the discharged ice slurry to ensure the ideal preservation
mix is delivered.
Brine or seawater is fed by the circulation pump to the slurry
ice generator, where salt-free crystals are formed. Ice slurry is
then pumped to an ice storage silo where, due to buoyancy, ice
crystals separate from the brine and float to the top, forming a
porous ice bed. The brine solution in the lower portion of the
silo remains in the ice system and is recirculated through the ice
generator.
When ice delivery is required, a rotating stainless steel ice
“harvester” removes ice crystals from the top of the ice bed and
sends them down the delivery chute to a container for dry crystals.
Ice can also be discharged to a mixing tank, which blends
the ice crystals with water to form pumpable ice slurry for fish
cooling and preservation.
Yellow Tail Processing
Burimy is one of the most successful fish-farming/processing
companies in Japan. It processes about 1,500 mt of fish a year,
including yellowtail, amberjack, red seabream, hardtail and Japanese
horse mackerel.
82 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 83

Burimy installed a variable slurry ice system to provide constant,
low-temperature cooling throughout the harvesting and
processing cycle, ensuring the preservation of its fillets and
dressed products. The system uses 20° C seawater to produce as
much as 6.6 mt of dry ice crystals or 18.5 mt of slurry ice daily.
Burimy wanted to improve quality and improve working efficiency.
The slurry system allowed the company to maintain a
consistent fish product temperature at just below 0° C from harvesting
all the way to shipping.
Before installing the system, Burimy used a crushed ice and
seawater mixture for bleeding fish at the farm and chilling in the
processing plant. Early in the morning, two employees stirred ice
and water in the bleeding tanks for two hours. They then moved
the tanks to the dock and loaded them on the boat that would carry
them to the offshore fish cages 15 minutes away.
With the ice slurry system, the process is as simple as pressing
a button to pump the ice from the insulated storage tank next to
the processing plant to the tanks on the dock, about 180 m away.
The ice is delivered with a temperature of -1.7° C.
The fish are loaded onto the operating boat at the farm and
killed quickly with a bleeding machine. When initially placed in
the onboard tank, the fish have a temperature of 16° C.The load
is then placed into tanks on the dock containing slurry with a 25
to 30% ice fraction.
The holding tanks are delivered to the processing plant,
where the fish cool for an additional hour to 4° C. Even with the
fish in the tank, the temperature of the ice remains at -1.5° C.
The fish are processed, cleaned and once again placed in
slurry ice for an additional 30 minutes to bring the fish temperature
down to 0° C. The fillets and ready-to-cook fish are dried
off, packed and shipped.
Variable-state ice slurry systems can generate product of varied
consistency by controling both the ice fraction and salinity of
the discharged slurry.
Mussel Processing
Other applications of slurry ice extend from shrimp and
salmon to mussel cooling and packing operations. In late 2005,
Prince Edward Aqua Farms Inc. joined other mussel packers on
Prince Edward Island and integrated a slurry system into its
existing processing facilities. Slurry ice is used to pack the mussels
and ship them fresh to markets across North America.
Jerry Bidgood, general manager of Price Edward Aqua Farms,
said: “We wanted an ice system that was fast-cooling, slow-melting
and more efficient than our flake ice system. Our goal was to
reduce drip loss and increase shelf life by maintaining a colder
core temperature, especially during the mussel-spawning season
in June and July.”
The system at Price Edward Aqua Farms uses seawater to
produce as much as 10 mt of dry ice or almost 20 mt of slurry ice
per day. Slurry with an ice fraction of 50 to 60% is automatically
pumped to four locations at the facility.
At the first two locations, slurry ice is discharged into bulk
containers holding 360 to 410 kg of mussels packaged in mesh
bags. The mussels are cooled to just above 0° C. Bidgood said the
earlier flake ice system required a lot of manual labor, as ice had
to be shoveled into every box and vat.
“The (slurry) system gave us an automatic method for icing
that got in between every mussel in every bag, ensuring fast cooling
of the entire product,” Bidgwood said. “Comments from our
customers are extremely positive, and they don’t wish to go back
to flake ice.”
A third discharge location is a chill room used for packing
mussels in waxed boxes in 50-, 25- or 10-lb (22.6-, 11.3- or 4.5kg)
configurations. Mesh bags of mussels are placed into the
boxes, and ice slurry is discharged over the bags, flowing into
every space to provide ultimate contact cooling. The final discharge
station is also located in the chill room, over 45 m away
from the ice generators. It is used for packing the bulk containers
and waxed boxes, and as a re-icing station to maintain mussels
packed on non-shipping days.
“Our customers tell us they can get 10 to 12 days shelf life
with our mussels in (slurry) ice,” Bidgwood said. “They say they
can only get seven days from our competitor’s product that uses
other types of ice.”
innovation
Ultrasound Helps Stage
Sturgeons For Caviar
Production
Caviar eggs removed
from the abdomen of
a mature female white
sturgeon.
Summary:
Biopsies and polarization index
measurements of mature sturgeons
are highly variable and not
always accurate in indicating egg
maturity. Ultrasonic imaging
offers a simple, less time-consuming
and reliable alternative
for evaluating sturgeons’ sex and
oocyte maturity. Research by the
authors found ultrasound an accurate,
non-invasive method for
sexing sturgeons and assessing
egg ripeness.
Currently, the only means of sexing
sturgeons and measuring oocyte maturity
involves biopsying the reproductive tissue
of mature sturgeons and measuring its
oocyte polarization index (P.I.). P.I. is
the measure of the position of the germinal
vesicle (nucleus) relative to the animal
pole. Initial P.I. measurements are used
to determine when during the year the
eggs will reach spawning readiness. Generally,
optimal caviar yield and quality are
reached when the P.I. is 0.10 to 0.12.
Biopsying requires anesthetizing the
sturgeons. It is a labor-intensive and
invasive procedure in which a 1-cm inci-
sion is made along the abdominal wall,
and gonad tissue is aspirated. Consequently,
this procedure stresses the fish
and results in scarring and other undesirable
effects.
Due to the time-consuming nature of
these procedures, biopsy and P.I. measurements
are generally only performed
once in the fall to predict the timing of
oocyte harvest the following winter and
spring. However, P.I. measurements are
highly variable among mature females
and are not always an accurate predictor
of egg maturity, often resulting in
improper timing of harvests, decreasing
caviar yield and quality, and increasing
rates of resorption of eggs.
Additional methods of staging oocyte
ripeness are necessary. These methods
should be more reliable, non-invasive
and, if possible, less time-consuming.
Ultrasound
For many years, ultrasound has been a
valuable tool in the medical field and terrestrial
animal agriculture for non-invasively
assessing soft tissue within live animals.
Ultrasound is a cyclic sound
pressure with a frequency of roughly 20
kHz or greater. As the wave energy
passes through tissues, energy is scattered,
absorbed or reflected back to the
Brian C. Donahower, Ph.D.
University of Idaho
Hagerman Fish Culture Experiment
Station
3059F National Fish Hatchery Road
Hagerman, Idaho 83332 USA
donahower@uidaho.edu
Steve DuMond
Leo Ray
Linda Lemmon
Gary Fornshell
Terry Patterson
Jodi Rockett
Madison S. Powell
Wendy M. Sealey
transducer depending on the properties
of the tissue and the relative changes of
those properties between tissues.
Ultrasound is most commonly used as
a medical diagnostic tool to visualize internal
body tissues, such as muscles, tendons
and organs. Additionally, ultrasonic imaging
(sonography) is a valuable technique
for determining gestational age and fetal
viability. Ultrasonic imaging offers advantages
over magnetic resonance imaging
and computed tomography scans that
include relative portability, straightforward
operation and lower costs.
Oocyte Study
In a study, the authors assessed the
utilization of ultrasound in determining
both the sex and oocyte maturity in adult
white sturgeons. To accomplish this, a
portable, waterproof ultrasound machine
was used. Transverse and sagittal ultrasonic
images were captured at multiple
sections along the left and right abdominal
walls between the pectoral and pelvic
fins of 54 adult female white sturgeons
and four adult male white sturgeons.
Among the female fish, 30 were identified
as having a distinct, mature egg mass
in both the transverse and sagittal planes.
These findings were confirmed by biopsy.
Furthermore, egg size from each mature
female sturgeon was calculated using the
measuring tool on the ultrasound device
and compared to measurements taken following
biopsy, leading to mixed results.
The female sturgeons that did not display
clear signs of a mature egg mass were
found to have immature or atretic eggs,
which was also confirmed by biopsy.
84 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 85

Abdominal
wall
Ovarian
Follicle
Intestine
Transverse
Cross-Section
This ultrasonic image of a mature female white sturgeon
identifies the ovaries.
Gonad Comparison
A secondary aspect of this study was
to use ultrasonic imaging technology to
evaluate the gonad tissue of adult male
sturgeons and compare the images to
Abdominal
wall
Testes
Intestine
Transverse
Cross-Section
mature female sturgeons. Despite the few
adult male sturgeons scanned, the identification
of testes was unambiguous.
However, the occurrence of large fat
deposits made positive identification of
Ultrasound testing clearly identified the testes
in adult male sturgeons.
testes more difficult than confirming the
presence of mature egg masses in adult
females.
advocacy
The True Cost Of Thai Shrimp
Thailand’s conversion from black tiger production to raising healthy, fast-growing
Pacific white shrimp increased efficiencies and reduced costs.
Summary:
Large volumes of shrimp continue to be exported into the United States at
historically low prices. The reasons for this, however, are not about underpaid
labor. The evolution of shrimp farming in Asia that included the conversion
from black tiger shrimp to domesticated, disease-free white shrimp
and practices that tightened biosecurity have led to greater efficiency and
higher production that has outpaced demand.
During the months of December
2009 and January 2010, cables news outlet
CNN ran a report entitled “Slave
Labor Blamed for Falling Shrimp Prices.”
In this report, a shrimper from Louisiana,
USA, stated: “We are trying to make a
living, but because these foreign countries
are using cheap labor, slave labor – call it
whatever you want – we just can’t compete.
Our biggest foe is cheap shrimp
pouring in from Asia.”
The report ends with the shrimper asking
how Asia can produce so much shrimp
so inexpensively. His answer: “Well, it can
be done because you are not paying people
or you are barely paying them.”
The question of how shrimp can be
exported into the United States at historically
low prices is legitimate, but does
the shrimper’s explanation reflect the true
situation?
Lamae Farm
Consider the Lamae Farm, a shrimp
farm owned and operated by Charoen
Pokphand Foods (CPF) in the township
of Lamae, Chumphon province, Thailand.
This farm is neither large nor small
by Thai standards, and is neither the best
nor the worst of Thai farms. It represents
a good farm about which to tell the story
of the true cost of Thai shrimp.
In 2002, the Lamae Farm grew black
tiger prawns, as did 99% of all Thai farms
that year. The farm was composed of six
Robins McIntosh
Senior Vice President
Charoen Pokphand Foods Public Co.
C.P. Tower 27 Floor
313 Silom Road, Bangrak
Bangkok, 10500, Thailand
robmc101@yahoo.com
ponds totaling 8.5 ha of culture area. The
ponds were rectangular with earthen bottoms,
and filled and drained through a
canal system. Water for the farm was
pumped directly from the Gulf of Thailand
into a series of settling reservoirs.
Production statistics for the farm are
presented in Table 1. In 2002, the farm
produced 11 successful harvests out of 12
ponds stocked for a turn rate of 1.8
cycles/year. The cost to produce 1 kg of
60/kg shrimp was 174 baht (U.S. $4.35).
The farm was profitable because the farm
was able to sell its shrimp for 188 baht
(U.S. $4.70)/kg (Table 2).
In 2002, Lamae was a very successful
farm by Thai standards. At that time, the
annual pond failure rate in Thailand was
over 10%. Average survival and growth
rates had declined to less than 50% of
what they were in 1995. With production
trending in the wrong direction, costs
were increasing.
World production of shrimp in 2002
was estimated at 1.3 mmt, with Thailand’s
contribution of 250,000 mt produced
from a pond area of 85,000 ha. But
something was about to change in Thai
shrimp farming: the introduction of new,
more sustainable technologies.
Sustainable Technologies
The use of domesticated, disease-free
shrimp and biosecure technologies was
key to reversing the declining trend in the
Thai shrimp industry. The domesticated
Pacific white shrimp that came from the
Americas allowed the creation of selective-breeding
programs that further
developed the shrimp for more and more
efficient culture in the Asian systems and
environment.
In addition, the industry further
adopted biosecure culture technologies
for the exclusion of viruses from the pond
environment. Farms were reconfigured to
recycle water and use little if any exchange
from open sources. Settling ponds were
86 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 87

Harvest size (shrimp/kg)
Farm gate value (bht/kg)
Cost of production/kg (bht)
Profit/kg (bht)
Profit (%)
Pond preparation
Postlarvae
Feed
Probiotics
Labor
Electricity, fuel
Maintenance
Depreciation
Miscellaneous
Table 1. Performance parameters for Lamae Farm.
Pond number
Culture area (ha)
Species
Annual cycles
Stocking density (shrimp/m 2 )
Harvest size (g)
Yield (kg/ha)
Survival (%)
Growth rate (g/week)
Feed-conversion ratio
set up to retain pond sludge removed
during and after harvests. Crab and bird
barriers were constructed, and many
farms invested in plastic liners to separate
water from soil. The risk of pond failure
was reduced, and pond productivity
increased.
Table 2. Profitability of Lamae Farm.
More From Less
The year 2009 was a good one for
Thai shrimp farmers, with crop failure
rates less than 2%, pond survivorship
above 85% and growth rates that enabled
farmers to harvest shrimp at a size of 60/
kg in less than 90 days with feed-conversion
ratios of less than 1.3.
Thailand harvested around 563,000
mt of shrimp from 52,000 ha of culture
ponds in 2009 – an increase of 126%
from 38% less pond area when compared
to 2002. Likewise, aquaculture worldwide
will harvest over 2.3 mmt of shrimp, a
76% increase over 2002.
While the world greatly increased the
supply of shrimp, the National Marine
Fisheries Service reported that consumption
in the United States increased from
1.45 kg/person in 2002 to approximately
1.86 kg in 2008. This was a 28% increase
in demand.
The supply increase was much greater
2002 2009
6
8.5
P. monodon
1.80
65
16.5
6,640
62
0.95
1.73
2002 2009
60
188.0
174.4
13.6
7.8
Table 3. Production costs at Lamae Farm (%).
71
112.5
89.7
22.8
25.4
2002 2009
23.0
9.1
28.5
10.3
6.4
7.0
2.8
8.0
4.9
14
18.5
L. vannamei
2.95
116
14.2
15,136
91
1.16
1.34
4.7
6.9
51.0
5.4
6.2
12.7
3.6
6.8
2.7
than the demand increase. Therefore,
would this not be a better explanation for
the decline in world shrimp prices and
lower retail prices for United States consumers?
The reason for the increase in supply
was not that Thailand and other shrimpgrowing
nations started using underpaid
“slave labor” in 2002. In fact, the transition
to the more sustainable, higher-productivity
technologies required both
technically competent and professional
aquaculturists, and the serious investment
of additional capital by farmers.
Cost Efficiency
After the introduction of white
shrimp, Lamae Farm acquired neighboring
ponds and increased the number of
culture ponds to 14 with an area of 18.5
ha. The farm produced 806 mt of shrimp
from 41 harvests in 2009 with no pond
failures (Table 1). Costs records at the
CPF accounting department showed an
average cost of production at Lamae of
89.7 baht/(U.S. $2.67)/kg for 2009 – a
48.5% cost reduction from 2002.
Figure 1 illustrates the effect of
changing to domesticated disease-free
shrimp and subsequent genetic selection
programs on cost of production. This is
at a time when there has been an increase
in the unit costs of both feed and energy.
But the gain in efficiency has offset the
increase in unit costs. Feed and energy
represent 64% of the current cost in producing
shrimp, whereas labor represents
only 6% of the cost (Table 3).
Cost efficiency has been driven principally
by the increased growth rate potential
of the shrimp, which has resulted in
higher survival rates and lower feed conversions.
The dramatic decline in pond
preparation costs resulted from increased
management efficiency. reducing the
amount of fallow time between crops from
73 days in 2002 to 18 days in 2009.
Wage Factor
Labor is only 6% of total costs, but
does this indicate the laborers are “barely
being paid”? Lamae Farm employees 21
staff members and laborers. In 2009, the
average cost per employee to the farm
was U.S. $573/month, of which each
employee received $510. The minimum
wage for this area in Thailand is 160 baht
(U.S. $4.77)/day. If a worker is employed
25 days in a month, this represents a
take-home pay of about $120.
Employees at Lamae Farm feel
rewarded both by their job-related
accomplishments and the financial compensation
they receive. By American or
European pay standards, their income
may appear lacking, but in the context of
the Thai cost of living, theirs is considered
a very good livelihood.
But what if Western Hemisphere wages
were paid at Lamae Farm? Could the farm
still be profitable selling into today’s world
shrimp market? The answer is yes.
If Lamae paid an average monthly
wage of U.S. $2,500, the cost of production
would increase to 108 baht (U.S.
In combination with improved stocks,
tighter biosecurity at farms and hatcheries
has led to higher survival and
better animal health.
Figure 1. Production costs for 60/kg shrimp in Thailand.
$3.22)/kg. The average selling price the
farm received in 2009 was 112.5 baht/kg.
Realize, however, that under a scenario
where the farm paid Western wages, the
industry would reduce the amount of labor
by increasing the mechanization of both
feeding and harvesting.
True Benefits
The true cost of Thai shrimp is clearly
based on technology and not lowly abused
or slave labor. Shrimp farming in Thailand
has provided hundreds of thousands of
well-paying jobs that resulted in a net gain
for Thai society. Many people have gained
educational opportunities and thus a better
place in society through the profits of Thai
shrimp farming.
Slavery was abolished by King Chulalonghorn
more than 100 years ago, and in
2008, newly enacted anti-trafficking laws
that carry heavy penalties were enacted.
Thailand is a country with modern laws
for the protection of workers rights that
are enforced when law-breaking activities
are discovered. Today, with the lower
prices paid for shrimp, there is no room in
the industry for gamblers, gold diggers or
non-professionals.
True Cost
Thai shrimp farming is just another
example of why farming is always more
cost effective than hunting. The dynamic
changes that started in 2002 not only
spawned claims that low international
trade prices were due to low wages, but
also charges that the low prices were due
to unfair subsidies by the Thai government.
For that charge, the Thai industry
has had to pay a duty to the United States
since 2004, after the industry began to
adopt more efficient, sustainable and environmentally
founded technologies.
We never question why chicken prices
have fallen, why pork prices have fallen or
why the United States is a leader in corn
products. The answer is technology and
not low-cost, abused labor or a subsidized
industry. The same can be said for shrimp
prices in this modern age of aquaculture.
88 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate global aquaculture advocate May/June 2010 89
Production Cost (baht/kg)
180
160
140
120
100
Year
% L. vannamei
% P. monodon
Changing Improving
Species Genetics & Technologies
0 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
1.5 50.0 80.0 95.0 98.0 99.0 99.0 99.5
98.5 50.0 20.0 5.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 0.5
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calendar innovation
M A Y
International Conference
& Exhibition on Shrimp
Aquaculture
May 5-7, 2010
Jakarta, Indonesia
Phone: +024-70194598
Web: www.aquaculture-mai.org
International Sea Lice
Conference
May 9-12, 2010
Victoria, British Columbia,
Canada
Phone: +1-250-751-4862
Web: www.sealice2010.com
Aquaculture Canada/
NIAA Cold Harvest
May 16-19, 2010
St. John’s Newfoundland, Canada
Phone: +506-529-4766
Web: www.aquacultureassociation.ca/
meeting/aquaculture-canada-2010
Aquaculture U.K. 2010
May 19-20, 2010
Aviemore, Scotland
Phone: +0044-0-1862-892188
Web: www.aquacultureuk.com
National Restaurant
Association Show
May 22-25, 2010
Chicago, Illinois, USA
Phone: +1-202-331-5900
Web: www.restaurant.org/show/
Australasian Aquaculture
May 23-26, 2010
Hobart, Tasmania
Phone: +61-437-152-234
Web: www.australian-
aquacultureportal.com/
austaqua/aa10.html
International Symposium
On Fish Nutrition and Feeding
May 31-June 4, 2010
Qingdao, China
Phone: +86-532-82032145
Web: www.isfnf2010.com
J U N E
AquaVision
June 7-9, 2010
Stavanger, Norway
Phone: +47-9137-7825
Web: www.aquavision.org
90 May/June 2010 global aquaculture advocate
Global Conference
on Aquaculture 2010
June 9-12, 2010
Bangkok, Thailand
Phone: +39-0657052428
Web: www.aqua-conference2010.org
International Aquaponics
And Tilapia Course
June 13-19, 2010
St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands
Phone: +340-692-4158
Web: www.uvi.edu/sites/uvi/Pages/
AES-Aquaculture-International_
Aquaponics.aspx?s=RE
world Ocean Council
June 15-17, 2010
Belfast, Ireland
Phone: +1-808-277-9008
Web: www.oceancouncil.org
Offshore Mariculture Conference
June 16-18, 2010
Dubrovnik, Croatia
Phone: +44-0-1962-842950
Web: www.offshoremariculture.com
A U G U S T
Aquacultural Engineering Society
Issues Forum
August 18-19, 2010
Roanoke, Virgina, USA
Phone: +1-540-553-1809
Web: www.recircaqua.com/aesforum.html
International Conference
On Recirculating Aquaculture
August 20-22, 2010
Roanoke, Virginia, USA
Phone: +1-540-553-1809
Web: www.recircaqua.com/icra.html
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Aquaculture
Events
Please send event listings in English
for consideration to:
Event Calendar
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St. Louis, Missouri 63129 USA
homeoffice@gaalliance.org
fax: +1-314-293-5525
S E P T E M B E R
Asian Seafood Exposition
September 7-9, 2010
Wanchai, Hong Kong
Phone: +1-207-842-5563
Web: www.asianseafoodexpo.com
O C T O B E R
Aquaculture Europe 2010
October 5-8, 2010
Porto, Portugal
Web: www.easonline.org/meetings/
aquaculture-europe-event/ae-2010
GOAL 2010
October 17-20, 2010
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Shangri-La Hotel
Phone: +1-314-293-5500
Web: www.gaalliance.org/GOAL/
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China Fisheries
And Seafood Expo
November 2-4, 2010
Dalian, China
Phone: +1-206-789-5741, ext. 334
Web: www.chinaseafoodexpo.com
International Seafood & Health
Conference & Exhibition
November 6-10, 2010
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
Phone: +61-3-9330-2813
Web: www.seafoodhealthconference.com
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