International Law & Justice

The e-Advocate
Monthly
…a Compilation of Works on:
International Law & Justice
Exodus 20 | Jeremiah 31:31-34
Romans 3:19-20 | 2 Corinthians 3:6-18
Galatians 3:24 | 1 Timothy 1:8
Legal Missions International®
“Helping Individuals, Organizations & Communities
Achieve Their Full Potential”
Special Edition| LMI – December 2020

Walk by Faith; Serve with Abandon
Expect to Win!
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The Advocacy Foundation, Inc.
Helping Individuals, Organizations & Communities
Achieve Their Full Potential
Since its founding in 2003, The Advocacy Foundation has become recognized as an effective
provider of support to those who receive our services, having real impact within the communities
we serve. We are currently engaged in community and faith-based collaborative initiatives,
having the overall objective of eradicating all forms of youth violence and correcting injustices
everywhere. In carrying-out these initiatives, we have adopted the evidence-based strategic
framework developed and implemented by the Office of Juvenile Justice & Delinquency
Prevention (OJJDP).
The stated objectives are:
1. Community Mobilization;
2. Social Intervention;
3. Provision of Opportunities;
4. Organizational Change and Development;
5. Suppression [of illegal activities].
Moreover, it is our most fundamental belief that in order to be effective, prevention and
intervention strategies must be Community Specific, Culturally Relevant, Evidence-Based, and
Collaborative. The Violence Prevention and Intervention programming we employ in
implementing this community-enhancing framework include the programs further described
throughout our publications, programs and special projects both domestically and
internationally.
www.TheAdvocacy.Foundation
ISBN: ......... ../2017
......... Printed in the USA
Advocacy Foundation Publishers
Philadlephia, PA
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Dedication
______
Every publication in our many series’ is dedicated to everyone, absolutely everyone, who by
virtue of their calling and by Divine inspiration, direction and guidance, is on the battlefield dayafter-day
striving to follow God’s will and purpose for their lives. And this is with particular affinity
for those Spiritual warriors who are being transformed into excellence through daily academic,
professional, familial, and other challenges.
We pray that you will bear in mind:
Matthew 19:26 (NIV)
Jesus looked at them and said, "With man this is impossible,
but with God all things are possible." (Emphasis added)
To all of us who daily look past our circumstances, and naysayers, to what the Lord says we will
accomplish:
Blessings!!
- The Advocacy Foundation, Inc.
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The Transformative Justice Project
Eradicating Juvenile Delinquency Requires a Multi-Disciplinary Approach
The way we accomplish all this is a follows:
The Juvenile Justice system is incredibly overloaded, and
Solutions-Based programs are woefully underfunded. Our
precious children, therefore, particularly young people of
color, often get the “swift” version of justice whenever they
come into contact with the law.
Decisions to build prison facilities are often based on
elementary school test results, and our country incarcerates
more of its young than any other nation on earth. So we at
The Foundation labor to pull our young people out of the
“school to prison” pipeline, and we then coordinate the efforts
of the legal, psychological, governmental and educational
professionals needed to bring an end to delinquency.
We also educate families, police, local businesses, elected
officials, clergy, and schools and other stakeholders about
transforming whole communities, and we labor to change
their thinking about the causes of delinquency with the goal
of helping them embrace the idea of restoration for the young
people in our care who demonstrate repentance for their
mistakes.
1. We vigorously advocate for charges reductions, wherever possible, in the adjudicatory (court)
process, with the ultimate goal of expungement or pardon, in order to maximize the chances for
our clients to graduate high school and progress into college, military service or the workforce
without the stigma of a criminal record;
2. We then enroll each young person into an Evidence-Based, Data-Driven Restorative Justice
program designed to facilitate their rehabilitation and subsequent reintegration back into the
community;
3. While those projects are operating, we conduct a wide variety of ComeUnity-ReEngineering
seminars and workshops on topics ranging from Juvenile Justice to Parental Rights, to Domestic
issues to Police friendly contacts, to CBO and FBO accountability and compliance;
4. Throughout the process, we encourage and maintain frequent personal contact between all
parties;
5 Throughout the process we conduct a continuum of events and fundraisers designed to facilitate
collaboration among professionals and community stakeholders; and finally
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6. 1 We disseminate Quarterly publications, like our e-Advocate series Newsletter and our e-Advocate
Quarterly electronic Magazine to all regular donors in order to facilitate a lifelong learning process
on the ever-evolving developments in the Justice system.
And in addition to the help we provide for our young clients and their families, we also facilitate
Community Engagement through the Restorative Justice process, thereby balancing the interesrs
of local businesses, schools, clergy, elected officials, police, and all interested stakeholders. Through
these efforts, relationships are rebuilt & strengthened, local businesses and communities are enhanced &
protected from victimization, young careers are developed, and our precious young people are kept out
of the prison pipeline.
This is a massive undertaking, and we need all the help and financial support you can give! We plan to
help 75 young persons per quarter-year (aggregating to a total of 250 per year) in each jurisdiction we
serve) at an average cost of under $2,500 per client, per year.*
Thank you in advance for your support!
* FYI:
1. The national average cost to taxpayers for minimum-security youth incarceration, is around
$43,000.00 per child, per year.
2. The average annual cost to taxpayers for maximun-security youth incarceration is well over
$148,000.00 per child, per year.
- (US News and World Report, December 9, 2014);
3. In every jurisdiction in the nation, the Plea Bargain rate is above 99%.
The Judicial system engages in a tri-partite balancing task in every single one of these matters, seeking
to balance Rehabilitative Justice with Community Protection and Judicial Economy, and, although
the practitioners work very hard to achieve positive outcomes, the scales are nowhere near balanced
where people of color are involved.
We must reverse this trend, which is right now working very much against the best interests of our young.
Our young people do not belong behind bars.
- Jack Johnson
1
In addition to supporting our world-class programming and support services, all regular donors receive our Quarterly e-Newsletter
(The e-Advocate), as well as The e-Advocate Quarterly Magazine.
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The Advocacy Foundation, Inc.
Helping Individuals, Organizations & Communities
Achieve Their Full Potential
…a collection of works on
International Law & Justice
“Turning the Improbable Into the Exceptional”
Atlanta
Philadelphia
______
John C Johnson III
Founder & CEO
(878) 222-0450
Voice | Data | SMS
www.TheAdvocacy.Foundation
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And God spoke all these words:
Biblical Authority
______
Exodus 20 (NIV)
The Ten Commandments
2
“I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of Egypt, out of the land of slavery.
3
“You shall have no other gods before me.
4
“You shall not make for yourself an image in the form of anything in heaven above or
on the earth beneath or in the waters below. 5 You shall not bow down to them or
worship them; for I, the Lord your God, am a jealous God, punishing the children for the
sin of the parents to the third and fourth generation of those who hate me, 6 but showing
love to a thousand generations of those who love me and keep my commandments.
7
“You shall not misuse the name of the Lord your God, for the Lord will not hold anyone
guiltless who misuses his name.
8
“Remember the Sabbath day by keeping it holy. 9 Six days you shall labor and do all
your work, 10 but the seventh day is a sabbath to the Lord your God. On it you shall not
do any work, neither you, nor your son or daughter, nor your male or female servant,
nor your animals, nor any foreigner residing in your towns. 11 For in six days
the Lord made the heavens and the earth, the sea, and all that is in them, but he
rested on the seventh day. Therefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day and made it
holy.
12
“Honor your father and your mother, so that you may live long in the
land the Lord your God is giving you.
13
“You shall not murder.
14
“You shall not commit adultery.
15
“You shall not steal.
16
“You shall not give false testimony against your neighbor.
17
“You shall not covet your neighbor’s house. You shall not covet your neighbor’s wife,
or his male or female servant, his ox or donkey, or anything that belongs to your
neighbor.”
18
When the people saw the thunder and lightning and heard the trumpet and saw the
mountain in smoke, they trembled with fear. They stayed at a distance 19 and said to
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Moses, “Speak to us yourself and we will listen. But do not have God speak to us or we
will die.”
20
Moses said to the people, “Do not be afraid. God has come to test you, so that the
fear of God will be with you to keep you from sinning.”
21
The people remained at a distance, while Moses approached the thick
darkness where God was.
Idols and Altars
22
Then the Lord said to Moses, “Tell the Israelites this: ‘You have seen for yourselves
that I have spoken to you from heaven: 23 Do not make any gods to be alongside me; do
not make for yourselves gods of silver or gods of gold.
24
“‘Make an altar of earth for me and sacrifice on it your burnt offerings and fellowship
offerings, your sheep and goats and your cattle. Wherever I cause my name to be
honored, I will come to you and bless you. 25 If you make an altar of stones for me, do
not build it with dressed stones, for you will defile it if you use a tool on it. 26 And do not
go up to my altar on steps, or your private parts may be exposed.’
Jeremiah 31:31-34
31
“The days are coming,” declares the Lord,
“when I will make a new covenant
with the people of Israel
and with the people of Judah.
32
It will not be like the covenant
I made with their ancestors
when I took them by the hand
to lead them out of Egypt,
because they broke my covenant,
though I was a husband to[a] them,”
declares the Lord.
33
“This is the covenant I will make with the people of Israel
after that time,” declares the Lord.
“I will put my law in their minds
and write it on their hearts.
I will be their God,
and they will be my people.
34
No longer will they teach their neighbor,
or say to one another, ‘Know the Lord,’
because they will all know me,
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from the least of them to the greatest,”
declares the Lord.
“For I will forgive their wickedness
and will remember their sins no more.”
Romans 3:19-20
19
Now we know that whatever the law says, it says to those who are under the law, so
that every mouth may be silenced and the whole world held accountable to
God. 20 Therefore no one will be declared righteous in God’s sight by the works of the
law; rather, through the law we become conscious of our sin.
2 Corinthians 3:6-18
6
He has made us competent as ministers of a new covenant—not of the letter but of the
Spirit; for the letter kills, but the Spirit gives life.
The Greater Glory of the New Covenant
7
Now if the ministry that brought death, which was engraved in letters on stone, came
with glory, so that the Israelites could not look steadily at the face of Moses because of
its glory, transitory though it was, 8 will not the ministry of the Spirit be even more
glorious? 9 If the ministry that brought condemnation was glorious, how much more
glorious is the ministry that brings righteousness! 10 For what was glorious has no glory
now in comparison with the surpassing glory. 11 And if what was transitory came with
glory, how much greater is the glory of that which lasts!
12
Therefore, since we have such a hope, we are very bold. 13 We are not like Moses,
who would put a veil over his face to prevent the Israelites from seeing the end of what
was passing away. 14 But their minds were made dull, for to this day the same veil
remains when the old covenantis read. It has not been removed, because only in Christ
is it taken away. 15 Even to this day when Moses is read, a veil covers their hearts. 16 But
whenever anyone turns to the Lord, the veil is taken away. 17 Now the Lord is the
Spirit, and where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is freedom. 18 And we all, who with
unveiled faces contemplate the Lord’s glory, are being transformed into his image with
ever-increasing glory, which comes from the Lord, who is the Spirit.
Galatians 3:24
24
So the law was our guardian until Christ came that we might be justified by faith.
1 Timothy 1:8
8
We know that the law is good if one uses it properly.
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Table of Contents
…a compilation of works on
International Law & Justice
Biblical Authority
I. Introduction: International Law…………………………………… 17
II.
III.
Comparative Law
and The World Justice Project.………………………………. 35
Comparative Criminal Justice
and International Criminal Law.………………………………. 51
IV. The United Nations………………………………………………… 65
V. The International Court of Justice….…………………………….. 89
VI. International Public Law Topics to Date………………………… 111
VII. International Human Rights Law..…………………………........ 113
VIII. International Legal Systems…………………………………….. 125
IX. International Treatises……………………………………………. 137
X. References……………………………………………………....... 165
Attachments
A. International Human Rights Law
and the Role of The Legal Professions
B. The International Court of Justice
C. Everything You Always Wanted to Know
About The United Nations
Copyright © 2018 The Advocacy Foundation, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
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I. Introduction
International Law
International Law is the set of rules generally regarded and accepted as binding in
relations between states and between nations. It serves as a framework for the practice
of stable and organized international relations. International law differs from state-based
legal systems in that it is primarily applicable to countries rather than to private citizens.
National law may become international law when treaties delegate national jurisdiction
to supranational tribunals such as the European Court of Human Rights or the
International Criminal Court. Treaties such as the Geneva Conventions may require
national law to conform to respective parts.
Much of international law is consent-based governance. This means that a state
member is not obliged to abide by this type of international law, unless it has expressly
consented to a particular course of conduct. This is an issue of state sovereignty.
However, other aspects of international law are not consent-based but still are
obligatory upon state and non-state actors such as customary international law and
peremptory norms (jus cogens).
History
Sir Alberico Gentili is regarded as
the Father of international law.
The current order of international law, the
equality of sovereignty between nations, was
formed through the conclusion of the "Peace of
Westphalia" in 1648. Prior to 1648, on the basis
of the purpose of war or the legitimacy of war, it
sought to distinguish whether the war was a "just
war" or not. This theory of power interruptions
can also be found in the writings of the Roman
Cicero and the writings of St. Augustine.
According to the theory of armistice, the nation
that caused unwarranted war could not enjoy the
right to obtain or conquer trophies that were
legitimate at the time.
The 17th, 18th and 19th centuries saw the growth
of the concept of the sovereign "nation-state", which consisted of a nation controlled by
a centralised system of government. The concept of nationalism became increasingly
important as people began to see themselves as citizens of a particular nation with a
distinct national identity. Until the mid-19th century, relations between nation-states
were dictated by treaty, agreements to behave in a certain way towards another state,
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unenforceable except by force, and not binding except as matters of honor and
faithfulness. But treaties alone became increasingly toothless and wars became
increasingly destructive, most markedly towards civilians, and civilised peoples decried
their horrors, leading to calls for regulation of the acts of states, especially in times of
war.
The modern study of international law starts in the early 19th century, but its origins go
back at least to the 16th century, and Alberico Gentili, Francisco de Vitoria and Hugo
Grotius, the "fathers of international law." Several legal systems developed in Europe,
including the codified systems of continental European states and English common law,
based on decisions by judges and not by written codes. Other areas developed differing
legal systems, with the Chinese legal tradition dating back more than four thousand
years, although at the end of the 19th century, there was still no written code for civil
proceedings.
One of the first instruments of modern international law was the Lieber Code, passed in
1863 by the Congress of the United States, to govern the conduct of US forces during
the United States Civil War and considered to be the first written recitation of the rules
and articles of war, adhered to by all civilised nations, the precursor of international law.
This led to the first prosecution for war crimes—in the case of United States prisoners of
war held in cruel and depraved conditions at Andersonville, Georgia, in which the
Confederate commandant of that camp was tried and hanged, the only Confederate
soldier to be punished by death in the aftermath of the entire Civil War.
In the years that followed, other states subscribed to limitations of their conduct, and
numerous other treaties and bodies were created to regulate the conduct of states
towards one another in terms of these treaties, including, but not limited to, the
Permanent Court of Arbitration in 1899; the Hague and Geneva Conventions, the first of
which was passed in 1864; the International Court of Justice in 1921; the Genocide
Convention; and the International Criminal Court, in the late 1990s. Because
international law is a relatively new area of law its development and propriety in
applicable areas are often subject to dispute.
International Relations
Under article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, international law has
three principal sources: international treaties, custom, and general principles of law. In
addition, judicial decisions and teachings may be applied as "subsidiary means for the
determination of rules of law".
International treaty law comprises obligations states expressly and voluntarily accept
between themselves in treaties. Customary international law is derived from the
consistent practice of States accompanied by opinio juris, i.e. the conviction of States
that the consistent practice is required by a legal obligation. Judgments of international
tribunals as well as scholarly works have traditionally been looked to as persuasive
sources for custom in addition to direct evidence of state behavior. Attempts to codify
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customary international law picked up momentum after the Second World War with the
formation of the International Law Commission (ILC), under the aegis of the United
Nations. Codified customary law is made the binding interpretation of the underlying
custom by agreement through treaty. For states not party to such treaties, the work of
the ILC may still be accepted as custom applying to those states. General principles of
law are those commonly recognized by the major legal systems of the world. Certain
norms of international law achieve the binding force of peremptory norms (jus cogens)
as to include all states with no permissible derogations.
Colombia v Perú [1950] ICJ 6, recognising custom as a source of international
law, but a practice of giving asylum was not part of it.
Belgium v Spain [1970] ICJ 1, only the state where a corporation is incorporated
(not where its major shareholders reside) has standing to bring an action for
damages for economic loss.
International law is sourced from decision makers and researchers looking to verify the
substantive legal rule governing a legal dispute or academic discourse. The sources of
international law applied by the community of nations to find the content of international
law are listed under Article 38.1 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice:
Treaties, customs, and general principles are stated as the three primary sources; and
judicial decisions and scholarly writings are expressly designated as the subsidiary
sources of international law. Many scholars agree that the fact that the sources are
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arranged sequentially in the Article 38 of the ICJ Statute suggests an implicit hierarchy
of sources. However, there is no concrete evidence, in the decisions of the international
courts and tribunals, to support such strict hierarchy, at least when it is about choosing
international customs and treaties. In addition, unlike the Article 21 of the Rome Statute
of the International Criminal Court, which clearly defines hierarchy of applicable law (or
sources of international law), the language of the Article 38 do not explicitly support
hierarchy of sources.
The sources have been influenced by a range of political and legal theories. During the
20th century, it was recognized by legal positivists that a sovereign state could limit its
authority to act by consenting to an agreement according to the principle pacta sunt
servanda. This consensual view of international law was reflected in the 1920 Statute of
the Permanent Court of International Justice, which was succeeded by the United
Nations Charter and is preserved in the United Nations Article 7 of the 1946 Statute of
the International Court of Justice.
Treaties
Where there are disputes about the exact meaning and application of national laws, it is
the responsibility of the courts to decide what the law means. In international law
interpretation is within the domain of the protagonists, but may also be conferred on
judicial bodies such as the International Court of Justice, by the terms of the treaties or
by consent of the parties. It is generally the responsibility of states to interpret the law
for themselves, but the processes of diplomacy and availability of supra-national judicial
organs operate routinely to provide assistance to that end. Insofar as treaties are
concerned, the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties writes on the topic of
interpretation that:
"A treaty shall be interpreted in good faith in accordance with the ordinary meaning to
be given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and
purpose." (article 31(1))
This is actually a compromise between three different theories of interpretation:
The textual approach, a restrictive interpretation, which bases itself on the
"ordinary meaning" of the text; that approach assigns considerable weight to the
actual text.
The subjective approach, which takes into consideration i. the idea behind the
treaty, ii. treaties "in their context", and iii. what the writers intended when they
wrote the text.
A third approach, which bases itself on interpretation "in the light of its object and
purpose", i.e. the interpretation that best suits the goal of the treaty, also called
"effective interpretation".
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These are general rules of interpretation; specific rules might exist in specific areas of
international law.
Greece v United Kingdom [1952] ICJ 1, ICJ had no jurisdiction to hear a dispute
between the UK government and a private Greek businessman under the terms
of a treaty.
United Kingdom v Iran [1952] ICJ 2, the ICJ did not have jurisdiction for a dispute
over the Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. being nationalised.
Oil Platforms case (Islamic Republic of Iran v United States of America) [2003]
ICJ 4, rejected dispute over damage to ships which hit a mine.
Statehood and Responsibility
International law establishes the framework and the criteria for identifying states as the
principal actors in the international legal system. As the existence of a state
presupposes control and jurisdiction over territory, international law deals with the
acquisition of territory, state immunity and the legal responsibility of states in their
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conduct with each other. International law is similarly concerned with the treatment of
individuals within state boundaries. There is thus a comprehensive regime dealing with
group rights, the treatment of aliens, the rights of refugees, international crimes,
nationality problems, and human rights generally. It further includes the important
functions of the maintenance of international peace and security, arms control, the
pacific settlement of disputes and the regulation of the use of force in international
relations. Even when the law is not able to stop the outbreak of war, it has developed
principles to govern the conduct of hostilities and the treatment of prisoners.
International law is also used to govern issues relating to the global environment, the
global commons such as international waters and outer space, global communications,
and world trade.
In theory all states are sovereign and equal. As a result of the notion of sovereignty, the
value and authority of international law is dependent upon the voluntary participation of
states in its formulation, observance, and enforcement. Although there may be
exceptions, it is thought by many international academics that most states enter into
legal commitments with other states out of enlightened self-interest rather than
adherence to a body of law that is higher than their own. As D. W. Greig notes,
"international law cannot exist in isolation from the political factors operating in the
sphere of international relations".
Traditionally, sovereign states and the Holy See were the sole subjects of international
law. With the proliferation of international organizations over the last century, they have
in some cases been recognized as relevant parties as well. Recent interpretations of
international human rights law, international humanitarian law, and international trade
law (e.g., North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) Chapter 11 actions) have
been inclusive of corporations, and even of certain individuals.
The conflict between international law and national sovereignty is subject to vigorous
debate and dispute in academia, diplomacy, and politics. Certainly, there is a growing
trend toward judging a state's domestic actions in the light of international law and
standards. Numerous people now view the nation-state as the primary unit of
international affairs, and believe that only states may choose to voluntarily enter into
commitments under international law, and that they have the right to follow their own
counsel when it comes to interpretation of their commitments. Certain scholars and
political leaders feel that these modern developments endanger nation states by taking
power away from state governments and ceding it to international bodies such as the
U.N. and the World Bank, argue that international law has evolved to a point where it
exists separately from the mere consent of states, and discern a legislative and judicial
process to international law that parallels such processes within domestic law. This
especially occurs when states violate or deviate from the expected standards of conduct
adhered to by all civilized nations.
A number of states place emphasis on the principle of territorial sovereignty, thus
seeing states as having free rein over their internal affairs. Other states oppose this
view. One group of opponents of this point of view, including many European nations,
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maintain that all civilized nations have certain norms of conduct expected of them,
including the prohibition of genocide, slavery and the slave trade, wars of aggression,
torture, and piracy, and that violation of these universal norms represents a crime, not
only against the individual victims, but against humanity as a whole. States and
individuals who subscribe to this view opine that, in the case of the individual
responsible for violation of international law, he "is become, like the pirate and the slave
trader before him, hostis humani generis, an enemy of all mankind", and thus subject to
prosecution in a fair trial before any fundamentally just tribunal, through the exercise of
universal jurisdiction.
Though the European democracies tend to support broad, universalistic interpretations
of international law, many other democracies have differing views on international law.
Several democracies, including India, Israel and the United States, take a flexible,
eclectic approach, recognizing aspects of international law such as territorial rights as
universal, regarding other aspects as arising from treaty or custom, and viewing certain
aspects as not being subjects of international law at all. Democracies in the developing
world, due to their past colonial histories, often insist on non-interference in their internal
affairs, particularly regarding human rights standards or their peculiar institutions, but
often strongly support international law at the bilateral and multilateral levels, such as in
the United Nations, and especially regarding the use of force, disarmament obligations,
and the terms of the UN Charter.
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Case Concerning United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran [1980]
ICJ 1
Democratic Republic of the Congo v Belgium [2002] ICJ 1
Territory and The Sea
Territorial dispute
Libya v Chad [1994] ICJ 1
United Kingdom v Norway [1951] ICJ 3, the Fisheries case, concerning the limits
of Norway's jurisdiction over neighbouring waters
Peru v Chile (2014) dispute over international waters.
Bakassi case [2002] ICJ 2, between Nigeria and Cameroon
Burkina Faso-Niger frontier dispute case (2013)
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
Corfu Channel Case [1949] ICJ 1, UK sues Albania for damage to ships in
international waters. First ICJ decision.
France v United Kingdom [1953] ICJ 3
Germany v Denmark and the Netherlands [1969] ICJ 1, successful claim for a
greater share of the North Sea continental shelf by Germany. The ICJ held that
the matter ought to be settled, not according to strict legal rules, but through
applying equitable principles.
Case concerning maritime delimitation in the Black Sea (Romania v Ukraine)
[2009] ICJ 3
International Organizations
United Nations
World Trade Organisation
International Labour Organisation
NATO
European Union
G7 and G20
Social and Economic Policy
Netherlands v Sweden [1958] ICJ 8, Sweden had jurisdiction over its
guardianship policy, meaning that its laws overrode a conflicting guardianship
order of the Netherlands.
Liechtenstein v Guatemala [1955] ICJ 1, the recognition of Mr Nottebohm's
nationality, connected to diplomatic protection.
Italy v France, United Kingdom and United States [1954] ICJ 2
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Human Rights
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Croatia–Serbia genocide case (2014) ongoing claims over genocide.
Bosnia and Herzegovina v Serbia and Montenegro [2007] ICJ 2
Case Concerning Barcelona Traction, Light, and Power Company, Ltd [1970] ICJ
1
Labor Law
International Labour
Organization
ILO Conventions
Declaration of
Philadelphia of 1944
Declaration on
Fundamental
Principles and Rights
at Work of 1998
United Nations
Convention on the
Protection of the
Rights of All Migrant
Workers and
Members of Their
Families
the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination 1965
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
1981);
the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities 2008
Development and Finance
Bretton Woods Conference
World Bank
International Monetary Fund
Environmental Law
Kyoto Protocol
Trade
World Trade Organization
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Conflict and Force
War and Armed Conflict
Nicaragua v. United States [1986] ICJ 1
International Court of Justice advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or
Use of Nuclear Weapons
Humanitarian Law
First Geneva Convention of 1949, Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded
and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, (first adopted in 1864)
Second Geneva Convention of 1949, Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded,
Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea (first adopted in 1906)
Third Geneva Convention of 1949, Treatment of Prisoners of War, adopted in
1929, following from the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907.
Fourth Geneva Convention of 1949, Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of
War.
International Criminal Law
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia
Courts and Enforcement
It is probably the case that almost all nations observe almost all principles of
international law and almost all of their obligations almost all the time.
— Louis Henkin
Since international law has no established compulsory judicial system for the settlement
of disputes or a coercive penal system, it is not as straightforward as managing
breaches within a domestic legal system. However, there are means by which breaches
are brought to the attention of the international community and some means for
resolution. For example, there are judicial or quasi-judicial tribunals in international law
in certain areas such as trade and human rights. The formation of the United Nations,
for example, created a means for the world community to enforce international law upon
members that violate its charter through the Security Council.
Since international law exists in a legal environment without an overarching "sovereign"
(i.e., an external power able and willing to compel compliance with international norms),
"enforcement" of international law is very different from in the domestic context. In many
cases, enforcement takes on Coasian characteristics, where the norm is self-enforcing.
In other cases, defection from the norm can pose a real risk, particularly if the
international environment is changing. When this happens, and if enough states (or
enough powerful states) continually ignore a particular aspect of international law, the
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norm may actually change according to concepts of customary international law. For
example, prior to World War I, unrestricted submarine warfare was considered a
violation of international law and ostensibly the casus belli for the United States'
declaration of war against Germany. By World War II, however, the practice was so
widespread that during the Nuremberg trials, the charges against German Admiral Karl
Dönitz for ordering unrestricted submarine warfare were dropped, notwithstanding that
the activity constituted a clear violation of the Second London Naval Treaty of 1936.
Domestic Enforcement
Apart from a state's natural inclination to uphold certain norms, the force of international
law comes from the pressure that states put upon one another to behave consistently
and to honor their obligations. As with any system of law, many violations of
international law obligations are overlooked. If addressed, it may be through diplomacy
and the consequences upon an offending state's reputation, submission to international
judicial determination, arbitration, sanctions or force including war. Though violations
may be common in fact, states try to avoid the appearance of having disregarded
international obligations. States may also unilaterally adopt sanctions against one
another such as the severance of economic or diplomatic ties, or through reciprocal
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action. In some cases, domestic courts may render judgment against a foreign state
(the realm of private international law) for an injury, though this is a complicated area of
law where international law intersects with domestic law.
It is implicit in the Westphalian system of nation-states, and explicitly recognized under
Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, that all states have the inherent right to
individual and collective self-defense if an armed attack occurs against them. Article 51
of the UN Charter guarantees the right of states to defend themselves until (and unless)
the Security Council takes measures to keep the peace.
International Bodies
Violations of the UN Charter by members of the United Nations may be raised by the
aggrieved state in the General Assembly for debate. The General Assembly cannot
make binding resolutions, only 'recommendations', but through its adoption of the
"Uniting for Peace" resolution (A/RES/377 A), of 3 November 1950, the Assembly
declared that it has the power to authorize the use of force, under the terms of the UN
Charter, in cases of breaches of the peace or acts of aggression, provided that the
Security Council, owing to the negative vote of a permanent member, fails to act to
address the situation. The Assembly also declared, by its adoption of resolution 377 A,
that it could call for other collective measures—such as economic and diplomatic
sanctions—in situations constituting the milder "threat to the Peace".
The Uniting for Peace resolution was initiated by the United States in 1950, shortly after
the outbreak of the Korean War, as a means of circumventing possible future Soviet
vetoes in the Security Council. The legal significance of the resolution is unclear, given
that the General Assembly cannot issue binding resolutions. However, it was never
argued by the "Joint Seven-Powers" that put forward the draft resolution, during the
corresponding discussions, that it in any way afforded the Assembly new powers.
Instead, they argued that the resolution simply declared what the Assembly's powers
already were, according to the UN Charter, in the case of a dead-locked Security
Council. The Soviet Union was the only permanent member of the Security Council to
vote against the Charter interpretations that were made law by the Assembly's adoption
of resolution 377 A.
Alleged violations of the Charter can also be raised by states in the Security Council.
The Security Council could subsequently pass resolutions under Chapter VI of the UN
Charter to recommend the "Pacific Resolution of Disputes." Such resolutions are not
binding under international law, though they usually are expressive of the Council's
convictions. In rare cases, the Security Council can adopt resolutions under Chapter VII
of the UN Charter, related to "threats to Peace, Breaches of the Peace and Acts of
Aggression," which are legally binding under international law, and can be followed up
with economic sanctions, military action, and similar uses of force through the auspices
of the United Nations.
It has been argued that resolutions passed outside of Chapter VII can also be binding;
the legal basis for that is the Council's broad powers under Article 24(2), which states
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that "in discharging these duties (exercise of primary responsibility in international
peace and security), it shall act in accordance with the Purposes and Principles of the
United Nations". The mandatory nature of such resolutions was upheld by the
International Court of Justice (ICJ) in its advisory opinion on Namibia. The binding
nature of such resolutions can be deduced from an interpretation of their language and
intent.
States can also, upon mutual consent, submit disputes for arbitration by the
International Court of Justice, located in The Hague, Netherlands. The judgments given
by the Court in these cases are binding, although it possesses no means to enforce its
rulings. The Court may give an advisory opinion on any legal question at the request of
whatever body may be authorized by or in accordance with the Charter of the United
Nations to make such a request. Some of the advisory cases brought before the court
have been controversial with respect to the court's competence and jurisdiction.
Often enormously complicated matters, ICJ cases (of which there have been less than
150 since the court was created from the Permanent Court of International Justice in
1945) can stretch on for years and generally involve thousands of pages of pleadings,
evidence, and the world's leading specialist international lawyers. As of June 2009,
there are 15 cases pending at the ICJ. Decisions made through other means of
arbitration may be binding or non-binding depending on the nature of the arbitration
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agreement, whereas decisions resulting from contentious cases argued before the ICJ
are always binding on the involved states.
Though states (or increasingly, international organizations) are usually the only ones
with standing to address a violation of international law, some treaties, such as the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights have an optional protocol that allows
individuals who have had their rights violated by member states to petition the
international Human Rights Committee. Investment treaties commonly and routinely
provide for enforcement by individuals or investing entities. and commercial agreements
of foreigners with sovereign governments may be enforced on the international plane.
International Courts
There are numerous international bodies created by treaties adjudicating on legal
issues where they may have jurisdiction. The only one claiming universal jurisdiction is
the United Nations Security Council. Others are: the United Nations International Court
of Justice, and the International Criminal Court (when national systems have totally
failed and the Treaty of Rome is applicable) and the Court of Arbitration for Sport.
East Africa Community
There were ambitions to make the East African Community, consisting of Kenya,
Tanzania, Uganda, Burundi and Rwanda, a political federation with its own form of
binding supranational law, but this effort has not materialized.
Union of South American Nations
The Union of South American Nations serves the South American continent. It intends
to establish a framework akin to the European Union by the end of 2019. It is envisaged
to have its own passport and currency, and limit barriers to trade.
Andean Community of Nations
The Andean Community of Nations is the first attempt to integrate the countries of the
Andes Mountains in South America. It started with the Cartagena Agreement of 26 May
1969, and consists of four countries: Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. The Andean
Community follows supranational laws, called Agreements, which are mandatory for
these countries.
International Legal Theory
International legal theory comprises a variety of theoretical and methodological
approaches used to explain and analyze the content, formation and effectiveness of
international law and institutions and to suggest improvements. Some approaches
center on the question of compliance: why states follow international norms in the
absence of a coercive power that ensures compliance. Other approaches focus on the
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problem of the formation of international rules: why states voluntarily adopt international
law norms, that limit their freedom of action, in the absence of a world legislature; while
other perspectives are policy oriented: they elaborate theoretical frameworks and
instruments to criticize the existing norms and to make suggestions on how to improve
them. Some of these approaches are based on domestic legal theory, some are
interdisciplinary, and others have been developed expressly to analyze international
law. Classical approaches to International legal theory are the Natural law, the Eclectic
and the Legal positivism schools of thought.
The natural law approach argues that
international norms should be based on
axiomatic truths. 16th-century natural law
writer, Francisco de Vitoria, a professor of
theology at the University of Salamanca,
examined the questions of the just war, the
Spanish authority in the Americas, and the
rights of the Native American peoples.
In 1625 Hugo Grotius argued that nations
as well as persons ought to be governed by
universal principle based on morality and
divine justice while the relations among
polities ought to be governed by the law of
peoples, the jus gentium, established by the
consent of the community of nations on the
basis of the principle of pacta sunt
servanda, that is, on the basis of the observance of commitments. On his part,
Emmerich de Vattel argued instead for the equality of states as articulated by 18thcentury
natural law and suggested that the law of nations was composed of custom and
law on the one hand, and natural law on the other. During the 17th century, the basic
tenets of the Grotian or eclectic school, especially the doctrines of legal equality,
territorial sovereignty, and independence of states, became the fundamental principles
of the European political and legal system and were enshrined in the 1648 Peace of
Westphalia.
The early positivist school emphasized the importance of custom and treaties as
sources of international law. 16th-century Alberico Gentili used historical examples to
posit that positive law (jus voluntarium) was determined by general consent. Cornelius
van Bynkershoek asserted that the bases of international law were customs and treaties
commonly consented to by various states, while John Jacob Moser emphasized the
importance of state practice in international law. The positivism school narrowed the
range of international practice that might qualify as law, favouring rationality over
morality and ethics. The 1815 Congress of Vienna marked the formal recognition of the
political and international legal system based on the conditions of Europe.
Modern legal positivists consider international law as a unified system of rules that
emanates from the states' will. International law, as it is, is an "objective" reality that
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needs to be distinguished from law "as it should be." Classic positivism demands
rigorous tests for legal validity and it deems irrelevant all extralegal arguments.
Terminology
The term "international law" is sometimes divided into "public" and "private" international
law, particularly by civil law scholars, who seek to follow a Roman tradition. Roman
lawyers would have further distinguished jus gentium, the law of nations, and jus inter
gentes – agreements between nations. On this view, "public" international law is said to
cover relations between nation-states, and includes fields such as treaty law, law of sea,
international criminal law, the laws of war or international humanitarian law, international
human rights law, and refugee law. By contrast "private" international law, which is more
commonly termed "conflict of laws", concerns whether courts within countries claim
jurisdiction over cases with a foreign element, and which country's law applies. A further
concept, more recently developing, is of "supranational law", on the law of supranational
organizations. This concerns regional agreements where the laws of nation states may
be held inapplicable when conflicting with a supranational legal system when that nation
has a treaty obligation to a supranational collective. Systems of "supranational law"
arise when nations explicitly cede their right to make certain judicial decisions to a
common tribunal. The decisions of the common tribunal are directly effective in each
party nation, and have priority over decisions taken by national courts. The European
Union is an example of an international treaty organization which implements a
supranational legal framework, with the European Court of Justice having supremacy
over all member-nation courts in matter of European Union law. A further frequently
used term is "transnational law", which refers to a body of rules that transcend the
nation state.
Criticisms
Nation states observe the principle of 'Par in parem non habet imperium', (Between
equals there is no sovereign power). John Austin therefore asserted that 'so-called'
international law, lacking a sovereign power and so unenforceable, was not really law at
all, but 'positive morality', consisting of 'opinions and sentiments...more ethical than
legal in nature.'
Article 2 (1) of the UN Charter confirms this Sovereignty of Nations; no state is in
subjection to any other state.
Also, since the bulk of international law is treaty law, binding only on signatories, then;
'If legislation is the making of laws by a person or assembly binding on the whole
community , there is no such thing as international law. For treaties bind only those who
sign them.'
Since states are few in number, diverse and atypical in character, unindictable, lacking
a centralised sovereign power, and their agreements unpoliced and decentralised, then,
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says Wight, 'international society is not a society at all. The condition of international
relations is best described as international anarchy;
'While in domestic politics the struggle for power is governed and circumscribed by law,
in international politics, law is governed and circumscribed by the struggle for power.
(This is why) international politics is called power politics... War is the only means by
which states can in the last resort defend vital interests...the causes of war are inherent
in power politics.'
On the subject of treaty law, Charles de Gaulle said
this; 'Treaties are like pretty girls, or roses; they last
only as long as they last.'
For Hans Morgenthau, international law is the
weakest and most primitive system of law
enforcement. Its decentralized nature makes it
similar to the law that prevails in preliterate tribal
societies. A Monopoly on violence is what makes
domestic law enforceable; but between nations,
there are multiple competing sources of force. The
confusion created by treaty laws, which resemble
private contracts between persons, is mitigated only
by the relatively small number of states. On the vital
subject of war, it is unclear whether the Nuremberg
trials created new law, or applied the existing law of
the Kellogg-Briand pact.
Morgenthau asserts that no state may be compelled
to submit a dispute to an international tribunal, making laws unenforceable and
voluntary. International law is also unpoliced, lacking agencies for enforcement. He cites
a 1947 US opinion poll in which 75% of respondents wanted 'an international police to
maintain world peace'; but only 13% wanted that force to exceed the US armed forces.
Later surveys have produced similar contradictory results.
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II. Comparative Law
and The World Justice Project
Comparative Law is the study of differences and similarities between the law (Legal
Systems) of different countries. More specifically, it involves the study of the different
legal "systems" (or "families") in existence in the world, including the common law, the
civil law, socialist law, Canon law, Jewish Law, Islamic law, Hindu law, and Chinese law.
It includes the description and analysis of foreign legal systems, even where no explicit
comparison is undertaken. The importance of comparative law has increased
enormously in the present age of internationalism, economic globalization, and
democratization.
History
The origins of modern Comparative Law can be traced back to Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz in 1667 in his Latin-language book Nova Methodus Discendae Docendaeque
Iurisprudentiae (New Methods of Studying and Teaching Jurisprudence). Chapter 7
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(Presentation of Law as the Project for all Nations, Lands and Times) introduces the
idea of classifying Legal Systems into several families. Noteworthy, a few years earlier,
Leibnitz introduced an idea of Language families.
Although every Legal System is unique, Comparative Law through studies of their
similarities and differences allows for classification of Legal Systems, wherein Law
Families is the basic level of the classification. The main differences between Law
Families are found in the source(s) of Law, the role of court precedents, the origin and
development of the Legal System. Montesquieu is generally regarded as an early
founding figure of comparative law. His comparative approach is obvious in the
following excerpt from Chapter III of Book I of his masterpiece, De l'esprit des lois
(1748; first translated by Thomas Nugent, 1750):
[T]he political and civil laws of each nation ... should be adapted in such a manner to the
people for whom they are framed that it should be a great chance if those of one nation
suit another.
They should be in relation to the nature and principle of each government: whether they
form it, as may be said of politic laws; or whether they support it, as in the case of civil
institutions.
They should be in relation to the climate of each country, to the quality of its soil, to its
situation and extent, to the principal occupation of the natives, whether husbandmen,
huntsmen, or shepherds: they should have relation to the degree of liberty which the
constitution will bear; to the religion of the inhabitants, to their inclinations, riches,
numbers, commerce, manners, and customs.
Also, in Chapter XI (entitled 'How to compare two different Systems of Laws') of Book
XXIX, discussing the French and English systems for punishment of false witnesses, he
advises that "to determine which of those systems is most agreeable to reason, we
must take them each as a whole and compare them in their entirety." Yet another place
where Montesquieu's comparative approach is evident is the following, from Chapter
XIII of Book XXIX:
As the civil laws depend on the political institutions, because they are made for the
same society, whenever there is a design of adopting the civil law of another nation, it
would be proper to examine beforehand whether they have both the same institutions
and the same political law.
The modern founding figure of comparative and anthropological jurisprudence was Sir
Henry Maine, a British jurist and legal historian. In his 1861 work Ancient Law: Its
Connection with the Early History of Society, and Its Relation to Modern Ideas, he set
out his views on the development of legal institutions in primitive societies and engaged
in a comparative discussion of Eastern and Western legal traditions. This work placed
comparative law in its historical context and was widely read and influential.
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The first university course on the subject was established at the University of Oxford in
1869, with Maine taking up the position of professor.
Comparative law in the US was brought by a legal scholar fleeing persecution in
Germany, Rudolf Schlesinger. Schlesinger eventually became professor of comparative
law at Cornell Law School helping to spread the discipline throughout the US.
Purpose
Comparative law is an academic discipline that involves the study of legal systems,
including their constitutive elements and how they differ, and how their elements
combine into a system.
Several disciplines have developed as separate branches of comparative law, including
comparative constitutional law, comparative administrative law, comparative civil law (in
the sense of the law of torts, delicts, contracts and obligations), comparative commercial
law (in the sense of business organizations and trade), and comparative criminal law.
Studies of these specific areas may be viewed as micro- or macro-comparative legal
analysis, i.e. detailed comparisons of two countries, or broad-ranging studies of several
countries. Comparative civil law studies, for instance, show how the law of private
relations is organized, interpreted and used in different systems or countries. The
purposes of comparative law are:
To attain a deeper knowledge of the legal systems in effect
To perfect the legal systems in effect
Possibly, to contribute to a unification of legal systems, of a smaller or larger
scale (cf. for instance, the UNIDROIT initiative)
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Relationship with Other Legal Subjects
Comparative law is different from the fields of general jurisprudence (legal theory),
international law, including both public international law and private international law
(also known as conflict of laws).
Despite the differences between comparative law and these other legal fields,
comparative law helps inform all of these areas of normativity. For example,
comparative law can help international legal institutions, such as those of the United
Nations System, in analyzing the laws of different countries regarding their treaty
obligations. Comparative law would be applicable to private international law when
developing an approach to interpretation in a conflicts analysis. Comparative law may
contribute to legal theory by creating categories and concepts of general application.
Comparative law may also provide insights into the question of legal transplants, i.e. the
transplanting of law and legal institutions from one system to another. The notion of
legal transplants was coined by Alan Watson, one of the world's renowned legal
scholars specializing in comparative law.
Also, the usefulness of comparative law for sociology of law and law and economics
(and vice versa) is very large. The comparative study of the various legal systems may
show how different legal regulations for the same problem function in practice.
Conversely, sociology of law and law & economics may help comparative law answer
questions, such as:
How do regulations in different legal systems really function in the respective
societies?
Are legal rules comparable?
How do the similarities and differences between legal systems get explained?
Arminjon, Nolde, and Wolff
Classifications of Legal Systems
Arminjon, Nolde, and Wolff believed that, for purposes of classifying the (then)
contemporary legal systems of the world, it was required that those systems per se get
studied, irrespective of external factors, such as geographical ones. They proposed the
classification of legal system into seven groups, or so-called 'families', in particular the
French group, under which they also included the countries that codified their law
either in 19th or in the first half of the 20th century, using the Napoleonic code
civil of year 1804 as a model; this includes countries and jurisdictions such as
Italy, Portugal, Spain, Romania, Louisiana, states of South America (such as
Brazil), Quebec, Santa Lucia, the Ionian Islands, Egypt, and Lebanon
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German group
Scandinavian group (comprising the laws of Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland,
and Iceland)
English group (incl. England, the United States, Canada, Australia and New
Zealand inter alia)
Russian group
Islamic group (used in the Muslim world)
Hindu group
David
René David proposed the classification of legal systems, according to the different
ideology inspiring each one, into five groups or families:
Western Laws, a group subdivided into the:
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o
o
Romano-Germanic subgroup (comprising those legal systems where legal
science was formulated according to Roman Law – see also Civil law
(legal system))
Anglo-Saxon subgroup
Soviet Law
Muslim Law
Hindu Law
Chinese Law
Jewish Law
Especially with respect to the aggregating by David of the Romano-Germanic and
Anglo-Saxon Laws into a single family, David argued that the antithesis between the
Anglo-Saxon Laws and Romano-German Laws, is of a technical rather than of an
ideological nature. Of a different kind is, for instance, the antithesis between (say) the
Italian and the American Law, and of a different kind that between the Soviet, Muslim,
Hindu, or Chinese Law. According to David, the Romano-Germanic legal systems
included those countries where legal science was formulated according to Roman Law,
whereas common law countries are those where law was created from the judges. The
characteristics that he believed uniquely differentiate the Western legal family from the
other four are:
Liberal Democracy
Capitalist Economy
Christian Religion
Zweigert and Kötz
Konrad Zweigert and Hein Kötz propose a different, multidimensional methodology for
categorizing laws, i.e. for ordering families of laws. They maintain that, to determine
such families, five criteria should be taken into account, in particular: the historical
background, the characteristic way of thought, the different institutions, the recognized
sources of law, and the dominant ideology. Using the aforementioned criteria, they
classify the legal systems of the world into six families:
Roman family
German family
Common law family
Nordic family
Family of the laws of the Far East (China, and Japan)
Religious family (Jewish, Muslim, and Hindu law)
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Up to the second German edition of their introduction to comparative law, Zweigert and
Kötz also used to
mention Soviet or socialist
law as another family of
laws.
Professional
Associations
American Association of Law Libraries
American Society of Comparative Law
International Association of Judicial Independence and World Peace
International Association of Procedural Law
International Law Association
Comparative Law Periodicals
American Journal of Comparative Law
German Law Journal
Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law
The Journal of Comparative Law
________
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The World Justice Project
The World Justice Project (WJP) is an international civil society organization with the
stated mission of "working to advance the rule of law around the world".
The WJP works through three programs — Research and Scholarship, the WJP Rule of
Law Index, and Engagement. WJP seeks to increase public awareness about the
foundational importance of the rule of law, stimulate government reforms, and develop
practical programs at the community level.
It was founded by William H. Neukom in 2006 as a presidential initiative of the American
Bar Association and with the support of 21 partners. The World Justice Project became
an independent 501(c)(3) non-profit organization in 2009. Its offices are located in
Washington, D.C., and Seattle, Washington, USA.
WJP Definition of Rule of Law
The World Justice Project defines the rule of law system as one in which the following
four universal principles are upheld:
1. The government and its officials and agents are accountable under the law.
2. The laws are clear, publicized, stable and fair, and protect fundamental rights,
including the security of persons and property.
3. The process by which the laws are enacted, administered, and enforced is
accessible, efficient, and fair.
4. Justice is delivered by competent, ethical, and independent representatives and
neutrals who are of sufficient number, have adequate resources, and reflect the
makeup of the communities they serve.
Research and Scholarship
The World Justice Project supports research that examines the contributions of the rule
of law to aspects of economic, political, and social development.
The scholarship program is pursuing a research agenda studying the effectiveness of
the rule of law in domains of social life, the inter-dependencies among the institutional
components of the rule of law, and the causal mechanisms by which the rule of law
affects economic and political life.
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WJP Rule of Law Index
Countries by adherence to the Rule of Law according to the 2017–18 World Justice
Project report
The World Justice Project Rule of Law Index is an quantitative assessment tool
designed to offer a detailed and comprehensive picture of the extent to which countries
adhere to the rule of law in practice. The Index provides data on eight dimensions of the
rule of law: limited government powers; absence of corruption; order and security;
fundamental rights; open government; regulatory enforcement; civil justice; and criminal
justice. These factors are further disaggregated into forty-four indicators. Together, they
provide a comprehensive picture of rule of law compliance. The index is typically
published annually.
The Index rankings and scores are built from over 400 variables drawn from two new
data sources: (i) a general population poll (GPP), designed by the WJP and conducted
by leading local polling companies using a probability sample of 1,000 respondents in
the three largest cities of each country; and (ii) a qualified respondents’ questionnaire
(QRQ) completed by in-country experts in civil and commercial law, criminal law, labor
law, and public health. To date, over 97,000 people and 2,500 experts have been
interviewed in 99 countries and jurisdictions. Adherence to the rule of law is assessed
using 47 indicators organized around eight themes: constraints on government powers,
absence of corruption, open government, fundamental rights, order and security,
regulatory enforcement, civil justice, and criminal justice. In addition to country scores
and rankings, the Index also includes key global findings as well as an analysis of
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egional strengths, rule of law challenges, best and worst performers, and trends to
watch.
WJP Rule of Law Index 2017–18
The World Justice Project's most recent index offers a detailed and comprehensive
picture of the extent to which 113 countries and jurisdictions around the world adhere to
the rule of law. The list below shows the top 30 countries/territories and the full rankings
are available for download on the WJP website.
Denmark Norway Finland Sweden Netherlands
Germany New Zealand Austria Canada Australia
United Kingdom Estonia Singapore Japan
Belgium Hong Kong Czech Republic France United
States
South Korea Portugal Uruguay Spain Costa Rica
Poland Slovenia Chile Saint Kitts and Nevis Romania
Barbados
In its analysis, countries are typically grouped with those that are geographically and
economically similar, so "Somalia isn't compared to Sweden". According to the analysis,
Scandinavia is home to the most successful "rule of law" countries. While the United
States scores well on limiting civil conflict, protecting the right to petition the government
and freedom of speech, it does not do well on measures of its criminal justice system.
WJP Rule of Law Index 2016
The list below shows the top 30 countries/territories in the 2016 report.
Denmark Norway Finland Sweden Netherlands
Germany Austria New Zealand Singapore
United Kingdom Australia Canada Belgium Estonia
Japan Hong Kong Czech Republic United States
South Korea Uruguay France Poland Portugal
Spain Costa Rica Chile Slovenia Barbados
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Antigua and Barbuda
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Engagement
Since its founding in 2006, the WJP has helped give people in countries around the
world greater understanding of the rule of law and with it, greater opportunities in nearly
every part of their lives – from education, to health care, to property rights to fair and
peaceful resolution of disputes. The WJP’s Engagement initiatives strive to make rule of
law advancement as fundamental to the thinking and work of other professionals as it is
to lawyers and judges.
World Justice Challenge
The World Justice Challenge is an open competition designed to incubate practical, onthe-ground
programs that advance the rule of law. Selected programs will be supported
by:
Modest seed grants — the typical size of a seed grant is $15,000 to $25,000
Connections to others in the WJP’s global network
Increased visibility through media and communications support
World Justice Forum
The World Justice Forum is the world’s largest global multidisciplinary platform
dedicated to advancing the rule of law. It is a global gathering at which prominent
leaders from all parts of the world and a variety of disciplines come together to articulate
how the rule of law affects their disciplines and regions and to develop collaborative
actions to strengthen the rule of law.
Since 2007, the WJP has held four World Justice Forums. The inaugural World Justice
Forum was held in Vienna, Austria, on July 2–5, 2008. The World Justice Forum II took
place on November 11–14, 2009, also in Vienna, Austria. The World Justice Forum III
was held on June 20–23, 2011, in Barcelona, Spain. The World Justice Forum IV took
place on July 8–11, 2013, in The Hague, Netherlands.
Country-level workshops
The World Justice Project convened a small taskforce of Tunisian leaders from
business, government and civil society in Tunis, Tunisia, on May 28, 2012, to assess
rule of law opportunities and challenges facing Tunisia during the ongoing reform
process. The WJP worked closely with the World Federation of Engineering
Organizations (WFEO), the Arab Center for the Rule of Law and Integrity (ACRLI), and
the Hague Institute for the Internationalisation of Law (HiiL) in the planning and
execution of the Tunisia workshop. It produced a detailed report on the rule of law
situation in Tunisia based on data from its Rule of Law Index. The WJP is also
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considering organizing additional workshops in the future for countries undergoing
transition.
U.S. Multidisciplinary Workshops
The WJP supports multidisciplinary workshops aimed at strengthening the rule of law in
the United States. State and local bar associations, law schools and other local leaders
are sponsoring state-level multidisciplinary outreach meetings to form multidisciplinary
partnerships to strengthen the rule of law at the state and community levels.
Participants at these meetings have included business and community leaders,
educators, health care professionals, judges, lawyers, government officials, and
religious leaders.
Honorary Chairs
Leadership
The World Justice Project has the support of individuals representing a range of
disciplines around the world. The Honorary Chairs of the World Justice Project are:
Hon. Madeleine Albright
Hon. Giuliano Amato
Hon. Robert Badinter
Hon. James A. Baker III
Cherie Blair
Hon. Stephen G. Breyer
Sharan Burrow
David Byrne
President Jimmy Carter
Maria L. Cattaui
Hon. Hans Corell
Hon. Hilario G. Davide, Jr.
Hernando de Soto
Adama Dieng
William H. Gates, Sr.
Hon. Ruth Bader Ginsburg
Hon. Richard J. Goldstone
Hon. Kunio Hamada
Hon. Lee H. Hamilton
Dr. Mohamed Ibrahim
Hon. Hassan Bubacar Jallow
Hon. Tassaduq Hussain Jillani
Hon. Anthony M. Kennedy
Hon. Beverley McLachlin, P.C.
Hon. George J. Mitchell
John Edwin Mroz
Indra Nooyi
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Hon. Sandra Day O'Connor
Hon. Ana Palacio
Gen. Colin L. Powell
Roy L. Prosterman
Hon. Richard W. Riley
Hon. Mary Robinson
Hon. Petar Stoyanov
Richard Trumka
The Most Rev. Desmond Tutu
Hon. Antonio Vitorino
Paul A. Volcker
Rt. Hon. Lord (Harry) Woolf
Hon. Andrew Young
Board of Directors
The World Justice Project's board of directors includes:
Sheikha Abdulla Al-Misnad
Emil Constantinescu
Ashraf Ghani
William C. Hubbard
Suet-Fern Lee
Mondli Makhanya
William H. Neukom
Ellen Gracie Northfleet
James R. Silkenat
The World Justice Project has the following board officers:
William C. Hubbard, chairman of the board
William H. Neukom, president and chief executive officer
Deborah Enix-Ross, vice president
Suzanne E. Gilbert, vice president
James R. Silkenat, director and vice president
Lawrence B. Bailey, secretary and treasurer
Gerold W. Libby, general counsel
Age of
Lists of countries by laws and law enforcement rankings
Consent
Legal candidacy for political office
Criminal responsibility
Legal drinking
Legal driving
Majority
Legal marriage
Retirement age
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Drugs
Death
Guns
Punishment
Obscenity
Mandatory retirement
School-leaving age
Legal smoking
Voting
Suffrage
Youth suffrage
Working age
Alcohol
Alcohol consumption
Alcohol law
Bath salts
Legal status of Mephedrone
Legal status of MPDV
Legal status of Methylone
Cannabis
Legality
annual use
lifetime use
Cocaine use
Legality
Methamphetamine
Legality
LSD
Legality
Opiate use
Salvia divinorum
Legality
Legality of euthanasia
Homicide
by decade
Law enforcement killings
Legality of suicide
Legality of assisted suicide
Deaths
Ownership
Corporal punishment
At home
At school
In court
Death penalty
Incarceration
Incest
Laws
Pornography
Child pornography
Simulated child pornography
Drawn pornography depicting minors
Internet pornography
Prostitution
Sexual assault
Child sexual abuse
Rape
Sodomy law
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Censorship
Human rights
Freedom of
movement
Property and
Environmental
Business
International
ownership
Other
Sex trafficking
Zoophilia
Censorship by country
Book censorship
by country
Film censorship
by country
Internet censorship
by country
Cartographic censorship
Political censorship
Video gaming censorship
by country
Children's rights
Children in the military
Intersex rights
LGBT rights
Slavery
Human trafficking
by country
In the air
Abode
Air
Estate
Land
Minerals
Mining
Mortgage
Water
Riparian water
Corporate
Corporate liability
Competition
Mergers and acquisitions
Monopoly
Legality of bitcoin by country or territory
International waters
Sea law
Maritime law
Antarctic Treaty System
Abortion law
Minors and abortion
Animal rights
Immigration law
Human cloning
National legal systems
Police brutality
Prisoner abuse
Religious law
Separation of church and state
Sharia
Size of police forces
World Justice Project
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III. Comparative Criminal Justice
and International Criminal Law
Comparative Criminal Justice is a
subfield of the study of Criminal
Justice that compares justice systems
worldwide. Such study can take a
descriptive, historical, or political
approach. It studies the similarities and
differences in structure,
goals, punishment and emphasis on
rights as well as the history and political
stature of different systems.It is common
to broadly categorize the functions of a
criminal justice system into policing,
adjudication (i.e.: courts), and corrections,
although other categorization schemes
exist. Comparativists study the four
different types of societies, their methods
of enforcement and their different types of
punishment such as capital punishment,
and imprisonment. Within these societies
they study different types of legal tradition
and analyze the issues they solve and create. They use their information in order to
learn effective ways of enforcing laws, and to identify and solve problems that may arise
within a system due to its methods.
Societies
Comparativists in criminal justice study four different kinds of societies: Folk-communal,
Urban-commercial, Urban-industrial, and bureaucratic. Folk-communal societies are
often seen as primitive and barbaric, they have little specialization among law enforcers,
and let many problems go unpunished to avoid over-criminalization however, once
tempers “boil over” and the situation becomes a larger issue, harsh and unusual
punishment may be administered. Examples are African or Middle Eastern Tribes, or
early puritan settlements of America. Urban-commercial societies have few written laws
and some specialized enforcement for religious or king’s law enforcement. Punishments
are inconsistent and usually harsh. Urban-industrial societies enforce laws that
prescribe good behavior and give incentives and disincentives for behavior and police
are specialized in property crimes such as theft. Finally, bureaucratic societies are
today’s modern society. They feature fully developed laws, lawyers, and police forces
trained for multiple types of crime. Different “side effects” of these societies include
over-criminalization, overcrowding, and even juvenile delinquency due to the extended
age of adolescence these societies bring on.
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Legal Traditions
Legal traditions play an important role in the development of international law and
justice. Comparativists for criminal justice study these traditions with the intent of finding
a way to combine the views of different traditions towards a single view that allows for
the successful development of international law. Many comparativists believe that the
more states with similar legal views the more likely it is to be able to create international
laws that please all. Reichel (2005) identifies four major legal traditions that each have
their own respective body of laws:
Common law is found particularly in countries that are current or former members
of the British Empire.
Civil law countries include most of continental Europe and various states in South
America and Africa.
Socialist law is essentially civil law with major modifications from Marxist-
Leninist ideology. It is currently only used in China and a few other
contemporary Communist states, but has had enormous influence on Russia and
the former USSR.
Islamic law is religiously-inspired law used in Muslim countries.
Punishment
People who study comparative criminal justice study different forms and use of
punishment across societies, including capital punishment. Fifty-nine countries retain
the death penalty as reported in 2007. Comparativists study the different ways in which
execution is carried out across the world including hanging, shooting, beheading,
injection, electrocution, and even stoning. Comparativists find that in many developing
countries such as Iran, Indonesia, Belarus, and many others, that violent methods of
execution such as hanging beheading, shooting, and stoning are much more common
ways of carrying out the death penalty, and in many cases the only ways. However in
western culture as well as developed countries such as the United States less brutal
execution such as lethal injection is utilized. Even prison sentences can come harshly.
In many countries such as Burma a person can be sentenced to prison for merely
disagreeing with the government. Presumably ridiculous sentences such as multiple life
sentences or sentences of hundreds, even thousands of years are meant to prohibit the
chance of parole in the future. Although it may seem preposterous, western cultures
carry out the same type of sentencing. Even though similar sentences are used across
the globe leniency is varied widely between societies. Many governments such as the
one mentioned above in Burma provide swift and heavy punishment to assert their roles
of power.
________
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International Criminal Law
History
Some precedents in international criminal law can be found in the
time
before World War I. However, it was only after the
war that a truly international crime tribunal was
envisaged
to try perpetrators of crimes committed in
this period. Thus, the Treaty of
Versailles stated that an international
tribunal was to be set up to
try Wilhelm II of Germany. In the
event, however, the Kaiser was
granted asylum in the
Netherlands. After World War II,
the Allied powers set up an
international tribunal to try not
only war crimes, but crimes
against humanity committed under
the Nazi regime. The Nuremberg
Tribunal held its first session in 1945
and pronounced judgments on 30
September
/ 1 October 1946. A similar tribunal was
established for Japanese war crimes (the International
Military Tribunal for the Far East). It operated from 1946 to 1948.
After the beginning of the war in Bosnia, the United Nations Security
Council established the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY)
in 1993 and, after the genocide in Rwanda, the International Criminal Tribunal for
Rwanda in 1994. The International Law Commission had commenced preparatory work
for the establishment of a permanent International Criminal Court in 1993; in 1998, at a
diplomatic conference in Rome, the Rome Statute establishing the ICC was signed. The
ICC issued its first arrest warrants in 2005.
Sources of International Criminal Law
International criminal law is a subset of international law. As such, its sources are the
same as those that comprise international law. The classical enumeration of those
sources is in Article 38(1) of the 1946 Statute of the International Court of Justice and
comprise: treaties, customary international law, general principles of law (and as a
subsidiary measure judicial decisions and the most highly qualified juristic writings).
The Rome Statute governing the International Criminal Court contains an analogous,
though not identical, set of sources that the court may rely on.
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The Importance of Prosecuting International Crimes
The prosecution of severe international crimes—including genocide, crimes against
humanity, and war crimes—is necessary to enforce international criminal law and
deliver justice to victims.
This is an important component of transitional justice, or the process of transforming
societies into rights-respecting democracies and addressing past human rights
violations.
Investigations and trials of leaders who have committed crimes and caused mass
political or military atrocities is a key demand of victims of human rights abuses.
Prosecution of such criminals can play a key role in restoring dignity to victims, and
restoring trusting relationships in society.
The International Criminal Court, as described below, can play an important role in
prosecuting international crimes in cases where domestic courts are unwilling or unable
to do so.
Institutions of International Criminal Law
Today, the most important institution is the International Criminal Court (ICC), as well as
several ad hoc tribunals:
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
Apart from these institutions, some "hybrid" courts and tribunals exist—judicial bodies
with both international and national judges:
Special Court for Sierra Leone, (investigating the crimes committed the Sierra
Leone Civil War)
Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, (investigating the crimes of
the Red Khmer era)
Special Tribunal for Lebanon, (investigating the assassination of Rafik Hariri)
Special Panels of the Dili District Court
War Crimes Chamber of the Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Kosovo Specialist Chambers and Specialist Prosecutor’s Office
Some domestic courts have also been established to hear international crimes, such as
the International Crimes Tribunal (Bangladesh).
International Criminal Court
The International Criminal Court (French: Cour Pénale Internationale; commonly
referred to as the ICC or ICCt) is a permanent tribunal to prosecute individuals
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for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of
aggression (although it cannot currently exercise jurisdiction over the crime of
aggression).
The court's creation perhaps constitutes the most significant reform of international law
since 1945. It gives authority to the two bodies of international law that deal with
treatment of individuals: human rights and humanitarian law.
It came into being on July 1, 2002—the date its founding treaty, the Rome Statute of the
International Criminal Court, entered into force—and it can only prosecute crimes
committed on or after that date. The court's official seat is in The Hague, Netherlands,
but its proceedings may take place anywhere.
As of October 2017, 123 states are parties to the Statute of the Court, including all the
countries of South America, nearly all of Europe, most of Oceania and roughly half of
Africa. Burundi was a member state, but withdrew effective 27 October 2017. A further
31 countries have signed but not ratified the Rome Statute. The law of treaties obliges
these states to refrain from "acts which would defeat the object and purpose" of the
treaty until they declare they do not intend to become a party to the treaty. Four
signatory states—Israel, Sudan, the United States and Russia—have informed the UN
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Secretary General that they no longer intend to become states parties and, as such,
have no legal obligations arising from their signature of the Statute.
41 United Nations member states have neither signed nor acceded to the Rome
Statute. Some of them, including China and India, are critical of the Court. Ukraine, a
non-ratifying signatory, has accepted the Court's jurisdiction for a period starting in
2013.
The court can generally exercise jurisdiction only in cases where the accused is a
national of a state party, the alleged crime took place on the territory of a state party, or
a situation is referred to the court by the United Nations Security Council. It is designed
to complement existing national judicial systems: it can exercise its jurisdiction only
when national courts are unwilling or unable to investigate or prosecute such
crimes. Primary responsibility to investigate and punish crimes is therefore left to
individual states.
To date, the Court opened investigations in 11 situations: Burundi; two in the Central
African Republic; Côte d'Ivoire; Darfur, Sudan; the Democratic Republic of the Congo;
Georgia, Kenya; Libya; Mali; and Uganda. Additionally, the Office of the Prosecutor is
conducting preliminary examinations in eleven situations in Afghanistan; Colombia;
Gabon; Guinea; Iraq / the United Kingdom; Nigeria; Palestine; the Philippines,
registered vessels of Comoros, Greece, and Cambodia; Ukraine and Venezuela.
It publicly indicted 42 people. The ICC has issued arrest warrants for 34 individuals and
summonses to eight others. Eight persons are in detention. Proceedings against 23 are
ongoing: 12 are at large as fugitives, three are under arrest but not in the Court's
custody, one is in the pre-trial phase, six are at trial, and one is appealing his conviction.
Proceedings against 19 have been completed: three are serving sentences, two have
finished their sentences, one has been acquitted, six have had the charges against
them dismissed, two have had the charges against them withdrawn, one has had his
case declared inadmissible, and four have died before trial.
As of March 2011, three trials against four people are underway: two trials regarding the
situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and one trial regarding the Central
African Republic. Another two people have been committed to a fourth trial in the
situation of Darfur, Sudan. One confirmation of charges hearing (against one person in
the situation of the DR Congo) is to start in July 2011 while two new cases (against a
total of six persons in the situation of Kenya) will begin with the suspects' first
appearances in April 2011.
The judicial division of the court consists of 18 judges who are elected by the Assembly
of State Parties for their qualifications, impartiality, and integrity, and serve nine-year,
non-renewable terms. The judges are responsible to ensure fair trials, render decisions,
issue arrest warrants or summonses to appear, authorize victims to participate, and
order witness protection measures. They elect among themselves the ICC president
and two vice presidents who head the court. The Court has three Judicial Divisions who
hear matters at different stages of the proceedings: Pre-Trial, Trial, and Appeals.
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Pre-Trial: three judges decide if there is enough evidence for a case to go to trial, and if
so, confirm the charges and commit the case to trial. They are responsible to issue
arrest warrants or summonses to appeal, preserve evidence, protect suspects and
witnesses, appoint counsel or other support for the defense, ensure that a person is not
detained for an unreasonable period prior to trial, and safeguard information affecting
national security Trial: three judges decide if there is enough evidence to prove beyond
a reasonable doubt that the accused is guilty as charged, sentence those found guilty,
and pronounce the sentence in public, order reparation to victims, including restitution,
compensation and rehabilitation
Appeal: five judges handle appeals filed by parties that confirm, reverse or amend a
decision on guilt or innocence or on the sentence and potentially order a new trial
before a different Trial Chamber. They also ensure that the conviction was not
materially affected by errors or by unfairness of proceedings and that the sentence is
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proportionate to the crimes. The appeal judges are also empowered to confirm, reverse
or amend an order for reparations revise the final judgment of conviction or the
sentence, and hear appeals on a decision on jurisdiction or admissibility, interim release
decisions and interlocutory matters.
The Court's Pre-Trial Chambers has publicly indicted 41 people, and issued arrest
warrants for 33 others, and summonses to eight more. Seven people are currently in
ICC detention. At the trial stage, there are 23 ongoing proceedings, as 12 people are at
large as fugitives, three are under arrest but not in the Court’s custody, and one is
appealing his conviction. Seventeen proceedings have been completed, resulting in
three convictions, one acquittal, six had the charges against them dismissed, two had
the charges against them withdrawn, one had his case declared inadmissible, and four
died before trial.
An example to illustrate the Court’s proceedings is Thomas Lubanga, 51, a Congolese
warlord and the first person convicted by the Court for his crimes of recruiting and using
child soldiers. In March 2012, Lubanga was found guilty and sentenced to 14 years in
prison for abducting boys and girls under the age of 15 and forcing them to fight in for
his army, the Force Patriotique pour la Libération du Congo (FPLC), in the Democratic
Republic of Congo’s Ituri region between 2002 and 2003. FPLC recruited children as
young as 11 from their homes and schools to participate in an ethnic fighting, and many
were taken to military camps, where they were beaten, drugged, and girls used as sex
slaves. On January 13, 2006, the ICC Prosecution filed an application for the issuance
of a warrant of arrest for Lubanga, which was granted by the Pre-Trial Chamber I on
February 10, 2006. On March 17, 2006 Congolese authorities surrendered Lubanga to
the Court, where he was held in their detention center in the Hague until March 20,
2006 where he made his first court appearance to confirm his identity, ensure he was
informed of the crimes of which he was accused, and receive a counsel of
defense. From August 26, 2011 to March 14, 2012, the Trial Chamber I, composed of
judges from France, the Dominican Republic, and Hungary, heard Lubanga’s case,
which included 36 witnesses, including 3 experts called by the Office of the Prosecutor,
24 witnesses called by the defense and three witnesses called by the legal
representatives of the victims participating in the proceedings. The Chamber also called
four experts and a total of 129 victims, represented by two teams of legal
representatives and the Office of Public Counsel for Victims. Trial Chamber I
unanimously found Lubanga guilty as a co-perpetrator of the war crimes of conscripting
and enlisting children under the age of 15 and using them to participate actively in
hostilities from 1 September 2002 to 13 August 2003.
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), or the Tribunal pénal
international pour le Rwanda (TPIR), is an international court established in
November 1994 by the United Nations Security Council in Resolution 955 in order to
judge people responsible for the Rwandan Genocide and other serious violations of
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the international law in Rwanda, or by Rwandan citizens in nearby states, between 1
January and 31 December 1994.
In 1995 it became located in Arusha, Tanzania, under Resolution 977. (From 2006,
Arusha also became the location of the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights).
In 1998 the operation of the Tribunal was expanded in Resolution 1165. Through
several resolutions, the Security Council called on the Tribunal to complete its
investigations by end of 2004, complete all trial activities by end of 2008, and complete
all work in 2012.
The tribunal has jurisdiction over genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes,
which are defined as violations of Common Article Three and Additional Protocol II of
the Geneva Conventions (dealing with war crimes committed during internal conflicts).
So far, the Tribunal has finished 50 trials and convicted 29 accused persons. Another
11 trials are in progress. 14 individuals are awaiting trial in detention; but the prosecutor
intends to transfer 5 to national jurisdiction for trial. 13 others are still at large, some
suspected to be dead. The first trial, of Jean-Paul Akayesu, began in 1997. Jean
Kambanda, interim Prime Minister, pleaded guilty. According to the ICTR's Completion
Strategy, in accordance with Security Council Resolution 1503, all first-instance cases
were to have completed trial by the end of 2008 (this date was later extended to the end
of 2009).
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On July 1, 2012, an International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals will begin
functioning with respect to the work begun by the ICTR. The ICTR has been called upon
by the United Nations Security Council to finish its work by December 31, 2014, and to
prepare its closure and transition of cases to the Mechanism.
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
The International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious
Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of the
Former Yugoslavia since 1991, more commonly referred to as the International
Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia or ICTY, is a body of the United
Nations established to prosecute serious crimes committed during the wars in the
former Yugoslavia, and to try their perpetrators. The tribunal is an ad hoc court which is
located in The Hague, the Netherlands.
The Court was established by Resolution 827 of the United Nations Security Council,
which was passed on 25 May 1993. It has jurisdiction over four clusters of crime
committed on the territory of the former Yugoslavia since 1991: grave breaches of
the Geneva Conventions, violations of the laws or customs of war, genocide, and crime
against humanity. The maximum sentence it can impose is life imprisonment. Various
countries have signed agreements with the UN to carry out custodial sentences. The
last indictment was issued 15 March 2004. The Tribunal aims to complete all trials by
mid-2011 and all appeals by 2013, with the exception of Radovan Karadžić whose trial
is expected to end in 2012 and the appeal to be heard by February 2014. Goran
Hadžić has been charged, however is still at large and thus do not fall within the court's
completion strategy.
On 1 July 2013, an International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals will begin
functioning with respect to the work begun by the ICTY. The ICTY has been called upon
by the United Nations Security Council to finish its work by 31 December 2014 and to
prepare its closure and transition of cases to the Mechanism.
Recognition of International Criminal Law in Domestic Jurisdictions
United Kingdom
Under section 51(1) of the International Criminal Court Act 2001, genocide and crimes
against humanity committed either in the United Kingdom or by United
Kingdom nationalsabroad can be prosecuted but, as a dualist nation, other prosecutions
can only be mounted where the United Kingdom has acceded to the Treaties and
Conventions that create the offences including: war crimes, torture,
and enslavement and forced labour offences. The criminal jurisdiction is presumed
territorial in the absence of express words and based on the presence of the accused
within the jurisdiction. There are a number of statutes that impose criminal liability on
UK and/or non-UK nationals who commit particular acts outside the jurisdiction, but this
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can only be exercised where the individual is present or visits the United Kingdom,
otherwise the UK government would need to seek extradition from the state in which he
is located.
Legal Person's Criminal Liability
It is a rule of statutory interpretation that unless a contrary intention appears, the word
"person" includes anybody of persons corporate or unincorporated. Thus, once the
principle of corporate liability for the form of legal entity is accepted, the entity can be
charged with any international offence no matter where it was committed in the same
way as a natural person.
United States
U.S. Implementation
Because United States federal criminal law is statutory, the relevant international
criminal prohibition must have been incorporated directly into U.S. criminal law
through Congressional legislation before the matter can be prosecuted in United States
Courts.
Congress has enacted statutes covering genocide, war crimes, torture, piracy, slavery,
and trafficking in women and children to meet the U.S. obligations under international
agreements.
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Canada
Natural Persons
In Canada, the Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes Act, S.C. 2000 (CAHW) has
incorporated the following as domestic crimes: genocide, crimes against humanity, war
crimes, breach of responsibility by a military commander or a superior (usually a civilian
superior), offences against the administration of justice of the International Criminal
Court, and possession or laundering of proceeds derived from these crimes. Normally,
criminal jurisdiction is exclusively territorial, but CAHW invokes universal jurisdiction as
defined in customary international law.
Legal Persons
Companies are not expressly included or excluded from prosecution for international
crimes under CAHW. but all the standard remedies in tort are available against
corporations for activities committed outside the jurisdiction.
France
Natural Persons
The new Criminal Code includes a series of provisions describing crimes against
humanity in considerable detail, including genocide and aggravated war crimes. A
limited number of international crimes have equivalents in French domestic law, e.g.,
forced labour is the equivalent of illegal confinement.
Extraterritorial jurisdiction is based on a connection with France through:
nationality of the perpetrator (active personality jurisdiction) of the crime or the
victim (passive personality jurisdiction);
Events constituting the crime represent a connected series of acts or an
indivisible act occurring both in France and another state, or where there were
acts of complicity in France for a crime committed abroad, if the acts are criminal
under all relevant systems of law; or
Concept of universality where French public policy interests are affected.
Legal Persons
In French law, a civil action can be brought jointly with a penal action before a criminal
court. Corporate liability is covered in Articles 121-2 of the new Criminal Code which
provide that legal persons will be liable in the cases identified by the Legislature and
Article 213-3 provides that legal persons may incur criminal liability for all crimes against
humanity.
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Norway
Natural Persons
Norwegian municipal law incorporates specific areas of international law, but there must
be a matching penal provision in the domestic criminal law as a precondition to
enforcement. Norway is a signatory to the International Criminal Court which has
complementary jurisdiction to municipal criminal courts, albeit that the local courts have
precedence to prosecute the crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes,
and the crime of aggression. Norway prosecutes international crimes using domestic
penal law, e.g., genocide can be treated as homicide, torture as an offence against the
person, etc. Norwegian criminal law is applicable to acts committed abroad by any
Norwegian national or any person domiciledin Norway when the act is a felony under
the law of the country in which it is committed. There is a general discretion to decline a
prosecution which occurred in a case brought against the Israeli Prime Minister.
Legal Persons
If a business entity domiciled in Norway is
involved in unlawful activity committed
outside the jurisdiction, both civil and
criminal actions are available subject to the
rule of "double actionability", i.e., the activity
must have been unlawful under the laws of
both Norway and the country of
commission.
The Norwegian Code of Compensation
allows actions for damages for the loss and
damage arising from the breach of international law. Civil jurisdiction is based on
residence or temporary personal presence for natural persons and the place where the
board of directors has its seat. Non-nationals can be sued in Norway if any business
activity occurs in Norway. The court must be conveniens, i.e., objectively competent in a
local and functional way and, in some cases, this requires the defendant's consent.
Germany
Germany has incorporated international criminal law into its domestic legal system in
2002 with the creation of the Völkerstrafgesetzbuch ("Code of Crimes against
International Law").
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IV. The United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization tasked to
promote international co-operation and to create and maintain international order. A
replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on
24 October 1945 after World War II with the aim of preventing another such conflict. At
its founding, the UN had 51 member states; there are now 193. The headquarters of the
UN is in Manhattan, New York City, and is subject to extraterritoriality. Further main
offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by
assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states. Its objectives include
maintaining international peace and security, promoting human rights, fostering social
and economic development, protecting the environment, and providing humanitarian aid
in cases of famine, natural disaster, and armed conflict. The UN is the largest, most
familiar, most internationally represented and most powerful intergovernmental
organization in the world.
The UN Charter was drafted at a conference between April–June 1945 in San
Francisco, and was signed on 26 June 1945 at the conclusion of the conference; [4][5] this
charter took effect on 24 October 1945, and the UN began operation. The UN's mission
to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between
the United States and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization
participated in major actions in Korea and the Congo, as well as approving the creation
of the Israeli state in 1947. The organization's membership grew significantly following
widespread decolonization in the 1960s, and by the 1970s its budget for economic and
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social development programs far outstripped its spending on peacekeeping. After the
end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military and peacekeeping missions across
the world with varying degrees of success.
The UN has six principal organs: the General Assembly (the main deliberative
assembly); the Security Council (for deciding certain resolutions for peace and security);
the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC; for promoting international economic and
social co-operation and development); the Secretariat (for providing studies,
information, and facilities needed by the UN); the International Court of Justice (the
primary judicial organ); and the UN Trusteeship Council(inactive since 1994). UN
System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization,
the World Food Program, UNESCO, and UNICEF. The UN's most prominent officer is
the Secretary-General, an office held by Portuguese politician and diplomat António
Guterres since 2017. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative
status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UN's work.
The organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and
agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UN's effectiveness
have been mixed. Some commentators believe the organization to be an important
force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization
ineffective, corrupt, or biased.
Background
In the century prior to the UN's creation, several international treaty organizations and
conferences had been formed to regulate conflicts between nations, such as
the International Committee of the Red Cross and the Hague Conventions of 1899 and
1907. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the Paris Peace
Conference established the League of Nations to maintain harmony between
countries. This organization resolved some territorial disputes and created international
structures for areas such as postal mail, aviation, and opium control, some of which
would later be absorbed into the UN. However, the League lacked representation for
colonial peoples (then half the world's population) and significant participation from
several major powers, including the US, USSR, Germany, and Japan; it failed to act
against the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Second Italo-Ethiopian War in
1935, the Japanese invasion of China in 1937, and German expansions under Adolf
Hitler that culminated in the Second World War.
1942 "Declaration of United Nations" by the Allies of World War II
The earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US
State Department in 1939. The text of the "Declaration by United Nations" was drafted
by President Franklin Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and
Roosevelt aide Harry Hopkins, while meeting at the White House, 29 December 1941. It
incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France. "Four Policemen" was
coined to refer to four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet
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Union, and Republic of China, which emerged in the Declaration by United Nations.
Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries. "On New
Year's Day 1942, President Roosevelt, Prime Minister Churchill, Maxim Litvinov, of the
USSR, and T. V. Soong, of China, signed a short document which later came to be
known as the United Nations Declaration and the next day the representatives of
twenty-two other nations added their signatures." The term United Nations was first
officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from
the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, which Stalin
approved after Roosevelt insisted. By 1 March 1945, 21 additional states had signed.
A JOINT DECLARATION BY THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, THE UNITED
KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND, THE UNION OF
SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS, CHINA, AUSTRALIA, BELGIUM, CANADA, COSTA
RICA, CUBA, CZECHOSLOVAKIA, DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, EL SALVADOR,
GREECE, GUATEMALA, HAITI, HONDURAS, INDIA, LUXEMBOURG,
NETHERLANDS, NEW ZEALAND, NICARAGUA, NORWAY, PANAMA, POLAND,
SOUTH AFRICA, YUGOSLAVIA
The Governments signatory hereto,
Having subscribed to a common program of purposes and principles embodied in the
Joint Declaration of the President of the United States of America and the Prime
Minister of Great Britain dated August 14, 1941, known as the Atlantic Charter,
Being convinced that complete victory over their enemies is essential to defend life,
liberty, independence and religious freedom, and to preserve human rights and justice
in their own lands as well as in other lands, and that they are now engaged in a
common struggle against savage and brutal forces seeking to subjugate the world,
DECLARE:
1. Each Government pledges itself to employ its full resources, military or
economic, against those members of the Tripartite Pact and its adherents with
which such government is at war.
2. Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory
hereto and not to make a separate armistice or peace with the enemies.
The foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may
be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory
over Hitlerism.
— The Washington Conference 1941–1942
During the war, "the United Nations" became the official term for the Allies. To join,
countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis.
Page 67 of 198

Founding
The UN in 1945.
In light blue, the
founding
members. In dark
blue, protectorates
and territories of
the founding
members.
The UN was
formulated and
negotiated
among the
delegations from the Allied Big Four (the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet
Union and China) at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference in 1944. After months of
planning, the UN Conference on International Organization opened in San Francisco,
25 April 1945, attended by 50 governments and a number of non-governmental
organizations involved in drafting the UN Charter. "The heads of the delegations of the
sponsoring countries took turns as chairman of the plenary meetings: Anthony Eden, of
Britain, Edward Stettinius, of the United States, T. V. Soong, of China, and Vyacheslav
Molotov, of the Soviet Union. At the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mister
Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mister Gromyko for Mister Molotov." The UN
officially came into existence 24 October 1945, upon ratification of the Charter by the
five permanent members of the Security Council—France, the Republic of China, the
Soviet Union, the UK and the US—and by a majority of the other 46 signatories.
The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, and the
Security Council took place in London beginning 10 January 1946. The General
Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN, and the
facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings
in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory. The Norwegian
Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General.
Cold War Era
Though the UN's primary mandate was peacekeeping, the division between the US and
USSR often paralysed the organization, generally allowing it to intervene only in
conflicts distant from the Cold War. (A notable exception was a Security Council
resolution in 1950 authorizing a US-led coalition to repel the North Korean invasion of
South Korea, passed in the absence of the USSR.) In 1947, the General Assembly
approved a resolution to partition Palestine, approving the creation of the state of Israel.
Two years later, Ralph Bunche, a UN official, negotiated an armistice to the resulting
conflict. In 1956, the first UN peacekeeping force was established to end the Suez
Crisis; however, the UN was unable to intervene against the USSR's simultaneous
invasion of Hungary following that country's revolution.
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In 1960, the UN deployed United Nations Operation in the Congo (UNOC), the largest
military force of its early decades, to bring order to the breakaway State of Katanga,
restoring it to the control of the Democratic Republic of the Congo by 1964. While
travelling to meet rebel leader Moise Tshombe during the conflict, Dag Hammarskjöld,
often named as one of the UN's most effective Secretaries-General, died in a plane
crash; months later he was posthumously awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. In 1964,
Hammarskjöld's successor, U Thant, deployed the UN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus,
which would become one of the UN's longest-running peacekeeping missions.
With the spread of decolonization in the 1960s, the organization's membership saw an
influx of newly independent nations. In 1960 alone, 17 new states joined the UN, 16 of
them from Africa. On 25 October 1971, with opposition from the United States, but with
the support of many Third World nations, the mainland, communist People's Republic of
China was given the Chinese seat on the Security Council in place of the Republic of
China that occupied Taiwan; the vote was widely seen as a sign of waning US influence
in the organization. Third World nations organized into the Group of 77 coalition under
the leadership of Algeria, which briefly became a dominant power at the UN. In 1975, a
bloc comprising the USSR and Third World nations passed a resolution, over strenuous
US and Israeli opposition, declaring Zionism to be racism; the resolution was repealed
in 1991, shortly after the end of the Cold War.
With an increasing Third World presence and the failure of UN mediation in conflicts in
the Middle East, Vietnam, and Kashmir, the UN increasingly shifted its attention to its
ostensibly secondary goals of economic development and cultural exchange. By the
1970s, the UN budget for social and economic development was far greater than its
peacekeeping budget.
Post-Cold War
Kofi Annan,
Secretary-General from 1997 to 2006
After the Cold War, the UN saw a radical expansion in its
peacekeeping duties, taking on more missions in ten years
than it had in the previous four decades. Between 1988 and
2000, the number of adopted Security Council resolutions
more than doubled, and the peacekeeping budget increased
more than tenfold. The UN negotiated an end to
the Salvadoran Civil War, launched a
successful peacekeeping mission in Namibia, and oversaw
democratic elections in post-apartheid South Africa and post-
Khmer Rouge Cambodia. In 1991, the UN authorized a US-led coalition that repulsed
the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Brian Urquhart, Under-Secretary-General from 1971 to
1985, later described the hopes raised by these successes as a "false renaissance" for
the organization, given the more troubled missions that followed.
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Though the UN Charter had been written primarily to prevent aggression by one nation
against another, in the early 1990s the UN faced a number of simultaneous, serious
crises within nations such as Somalia, Haiti, Mozambique, and the former
Yugoslavia. The UN mission in Somalia was widely viewed as a failure after the US
withdrawal following casualties in the Battle of Mogadishu, and the UN mission to
Bosnia faced "worldwide ridicule" for its indecisive and confused mission in the face of
ethnic cleansing. In 1994, the UN Assistance Mission for Rwanda failed to intervene in
the Rwandan genocide amid indecision in the Security Council.
Beginning in the last decades of the Cold War, American and European critics of the UN
condemned the organization for perceived mismanagement and corruption. In 1984, the
US President, Ronald Reagan, withdrew his nation's funding from UNESCO (the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, founded 1946) over
allegations of mismanagement, followed by Britain and Singapore. Boutros Boutros-
Ghali, Secretary-General from 1992 to 1996, initiated a reform of the Secretariat,
reducing the size of the organization somewhat. His successor, Kofi Annan (1997–
2006), initiated further management reforms in the face of threats from the United
States to withhold its UN dues.
In the late 1990s and 2000s, international interventions authorized by the UN took a
wider variety of forms. The UN mission in the Sierra Leone Civil War of 1991–2002 was
supplemented by British Royal Marines, and the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 was
overseen by NATO. In 2003, the United States invaded Iraq despite failing to pass a UN
Security Council resolution for authorization, prompting a new round of questioning of
the organization's effectiveness. Under the eighth Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon, the
UN has intervened with peacekeepers in crises including the War in Darfur in Sudan
and the Kivu conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo and sent observers and
chemical weapons inspectors to the Syrian Civil War. In 2013, an internal review of UN
actions in the final battles of the Sri Lankan Civil War in 2009 concluded that the
organization had suffered "systemic failure". One hundred and one UN personnel died
in the 2010 Haiti earthquake, the worst loss of life in the organization's history.
The Millennium Summit was held in 2000 to discuss the UN's role in the 21st
century. The three day meeting was the largest gathering of world leaders in history,
and culminated in the adoption by all member states of the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs), a commitment to achieve international development in areas such
as poverty reduction, gender equality, and public health. Progress towards these goals,
which were to be met by 2015, was ultimately uneven. The 2005 World
Summit reaffirmed the UN's focus on promoting development, peacekeeping, human
rights, and global security. The Sustainable Development Goals were launched in 2015
to succeed the Millennium Development Goals.
In addition to addressing global challenges, the UN has sought to improve its
accountability and democratic legitimacy by engaging more with civil society and
fostering a global constituency. In an effort to enhance transparency, in 2016 the
organization held its first public debate between candidates for Secretary-General. On 1
Page 70 of 198

January 2017, Portuguese diplomat António Guterres, who previously served as UN
High Commissioner for Refugees, became the ninth Secretary-General. Guterres has
highlighted several key goals for his administration, including an emphasis on diplomacy
for preventing conflicts, more effective peacekeeping efforts, and streamlining the
organization to be more responsive and versatile to global needs.
Structure
The UN system is based on five principal organs: the General Assembly, the Security
Council, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), the Secretariat, and
the International Court of Justice. A sixth principal organ, the Trusteeship Council,
suspended operations in 1994, upon the independence of Palau, the last remaining UN
trustee territory.
Four of the five principal organs are located at the main UN Headquarters in New York
City. The International Court of Justice is located in The Hague, while other major
agencies are based in the UN offices at Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi. Other UN
institutions are located throughout the world.
The six official languages of the UN, used in intergovernmental meetings and
documents, are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish. On the basis
of the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations, the UN and
its agencies are immune from the laws of the countries where they operate,
safeguarding the UN's impartiality with regard to the host and member countries.
Below the six organs sit, in the words of the author Linda Fasulo, "an amazing collection
of entities and organizations, some of which are actually older than the UN itself and
operate with almost complete independence from it". These include specialized
agencies, research and training institutions, programmes and funds, and other UN
entities.
The UN obey the Noblemaire principle, which is binding on any organization that
belongs to the UN system. This principle calls for salaries that will draw and keep
citizens of countries where salaries are highest, and also calls for equal pay for work of
equal value independent of the employee's nationality.
In practice, the ICSC takes reference to the highest-paying national civil service. Staff
salaries are subject to an internal tax that is administered by the UN organizations.
Page 71 of 198

Principal Organs of The United Nations
UN General Assembly
— Deliberative assembly of all UN member
states —
UN Secretariat
— Administrative organ of the UN —
International Court of Justice
— Universal court for international law —
May resolve non-compulsory
recommendations to states or
suggestions to the Security Council
(UNSC);
Decides on the admission of new
members, following proposal by the
UNSC;
Adopts the budget;
Elects the non-permanent members
of the UNSC; all members of
ECOSOC; the UN Secretary
General (following his/her proposal
by the UNSC); and the fifteen
judges of the International Court of
Justice (ICJ). Each country has one
vote.
Supports the other UN
bodiesadministratively (for example,
in the organization of conferences,
the writing of reports and studies
and the preparation of the budget);
Its chairperson – the UN Secretary
General – is elected by the General
Assembly for a five-year mandate
and is the UN's foremost
representative.
Decides disputes between states
that recognize its jurisdiction;
Issues legal opinions;
Renders judgement by relative
majority. Its fifteen judges are
elected by the UN General
Assembly for nine-year terms.
UN Security Council
— For international security issues —
UN Economic and Social Council
— For global economical and social affairs —
UN Trusteeship Council
— For administering trust territories(currently
inactive) —
Responsible for the maintenance
of international peace and security;
May adopt compulsory resolutions;
Has fifteen members: five
Responsible for co-operation
between states as regards
economic and social matters;
Co-ordinates co-operation between
Was originally designed to manage
colonial possessions that were
former League of Nations
mandates;
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permanent members with veto
power and ten elected members.
the UN's numerous specialized
agencies;
Has 54 members, elected by the
General Assembly to serve
staggered three-year mandates.
Has been inactive since 1994,
when Palau, the last trust territory,
attained independence.
General Assembly
Mikhail Gorbachev, Soviet general secretary,
addresses the UN General Assembly in December
1988.
The General Assembly is the main deliberative
assembly of the UN. Composed of all UN member
states, the assembly meets in regular yearly sessions,
but emergency sessions can also be called. The
assembly is led by a president, elected from among the member states on a rotating
regional basis, and 21 vice-presidents. The first session convened 10 January 1946 in
the Methodist Central Hall in London and included representatives of 51 nations.
When the General Assembly votes on important questions, a two-thirds majority of
those present and voting is required. Examples of important questions include
recommendations on peace and security; election of members to organs; admission,
suspension, and expulsion of members; and budgetary matters. All other questions are
decided by a majority vote. Each member country has one vote. Apart from approval of
budgetary matters, resolutions are not binding on the members. The Assembly may
make recommendations on any matters within the scope of the UN, except matters of
peace and security that are under consideration by the Security Council.
Draft resolutions can be forwarded to the General Assembly by its six main committees:
First Committee (Disarmament and International Security)
Second Committee (Economic and Financial)
Third Committee (Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural)
Fourth Committee (Special Political and Decolonization)
Fifth Committee (Administrative and Budgetary)
Sixth Committee (Legal)
As well as by the following two committees:
General Committee – a supervisory committee consisting of the assembly's
president, vice-president, and committee heads.
Credentials Committee – responsible for determining the credentials of each
member nation's UN representatives.
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Security Council
Colin Powell, the US Secretary of State, demonstrates a vial
with allegedIraqi chemical weapon probes to the UN Security
Council on Iraq warhearings, 5 February 2003
The Security Council is charged with maintaining
peace and security among countries. While other
organs of the UN can only make "recommendations" to
member states, the Security Council has the power to
make binding decisions that member states have agreed to carry out, under the terms
of Charter Article 25. The decisions of the Council are known as United Nations Security
Council resolutions.
The Security Council is made up of fifteen member states, consisting of five permanent
members—China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and ten
non-permanent members elected for two-year terms by the General Assembly (with end
of term date)—Bolivia (term ends 2018), Egypt (2017), Ethiopia (2018), Italy (2018),
Japan (2017), Kazakhstan (2018), Senegal (2017), Sweden (2018), Ukraine (2017),
Uruguay (2017). The five permanent members hold veto power over UN resolutions,
allowing a permanent member to block adoption of a resolution, though not debate. The
ten temporary seats are held for two-year terms, with five member states per year voted
in by the General Assembly on a regional basis. The presidency of the Security Council
rotates alphabetically each month.
Secretariat
The UN Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General, assisted by the Deputy
Secretary-General and a staff of international civil servants worldwide. It provides
studies, information, and facilities needed by UN bodies for their meetings. It also
carries out tasks as directed by the Security Council, the General Assembly, the
Economic and Social Council, and other UN bodies.
The current Secretary-General,
António Guterres
The Secretary-General acts as the de facto spokesperson and
leader of the UN. The position is defined in the UN Charter as
the organization's "chief administrative officer". Article 99 of
the charter states that the Secretary-General can bring to the
Security Council's attention "any matter which in his opinion
may threaten the maintenance of international peace and
security", a phrase that Secretaries-General since Trygve
Lie have interpreted as giving the position broad scope for
action on the world stage. The office has evolved into a dual
role of an administrator of the UN organization and a diplomat
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and mediator addressing disputes between member states and finding consensus
to global issues.
The Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly, after being
recommended by the Security Council, where the permanent members have veto
power. There are no specific criteria for the post, but over the years it has become
accepted that the post shall be held for one or two terms of five years. The current
Secretary-General is António Guterres, who replaced Ban Ki-moon in 2017.
Secretaries-General of the United Nations
No.
Name
Country of
Origin
1 Trygve Lie Norway 2 February 1946
2 Dag Hammarskjöld Sweden 10 April 1953
3 U Thant Burma
Took Office Left Office Note
30 November
1961
4 Kurt Waldheim Austria 1 January 1972
5
6
Javier Pérez de
Cuéllar
Boutros
Ghali
Boutros-
Peru 1 January 1982
Egypt 1 January 1992
7 Kofi Annan Ghana 1 January 1997
8 Ban Ki-moon South Korea 1 January 2007
10 November
1952
18 September
1961
31 December
1971
31 December
1981
31 December
1991
31 December
1996
31 December
2006
31 December
2016
9 António Guterres Portugal 1 January 2017 –
Resigned
Died
office
in
International Court of Justice
The court had ruled that Kosovo's unilateral declaration
of independence from Serbia in 2008
did not violate international law
The International Court of Justice (ICJ), located in The
Hague, in the Netherlands, is the primary judicial organ
of the UN. Established in 1945 by the UN Charter, the
Court began work in 1946 as the successor to
the Permanent Court of International Justice. The ICJ is composed of 15 judges who
serve 9-year terms and are appointed by the General Assembly; every sitting judge
must be from a different nation.
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It is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague, sharing the building with the Hague
Academy of International Law, a private centre for the study of international law. The
ICJ's primary purpose is to adjudicate disputes among states. The court has heard
cases related to war crimes, illegal state interference, ethnic cleansing, and other
issues. The ICJ can also be called upon by other UN organs to provide advisory
opinions.
Economic and Social Council
The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) assists the General Assembly in
promoting international economic and social co-operation and development. ECOSOC
has 54 members, which are elected by the General Assembly for a three-year term. The
president is elected for a one-year term and chosen amongst the small or middle
powers represented on ECOSOC. The council has one annual meeting in July, held in
either New York or Geneva. Viewed as separate from the specialized bodies it coordinates,
ECOSOC's functions include information gathering, advising member
nations, and making recommendations. Owing to its broad mandate of co-ordinating
many agencies, ECOSOC has at times been criticized as unfocused or irrelevant.
ECOSOC's subsidiary bodies include the United Nations Permanent Forum on
Indigenous Issues, which advises UN agencies on issues relating to indigenous
peoples; the United Nations Forum on Forests, which co-ordinates and promotes
sustainable forest management; the United Nations Statistical Commission, which coordinates
information-gathering efforts between agencies; and the Commission on
Sustainable Development, which co-ordinates efforts between UN agencies and NGOs
working towards sustainable development. ECOSOC may also grant consultative status
to non-governmental organizations; by 2004, more than 2,200 organizations had
received this status.
Specialized Agencies
The UN Charter stipulates that each primary organ of the United Nations can establish
various specialized agencies to fulfil its duties. Some best-known agencies are
the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Food and Agriculture
Organization, UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization), the World Bank, and the World Health Organization (WHO). The UN
performs most of its humanitarian work through these agencies. Examples include mass
vaccination programmes (through WHO), the avoidance of famine and malnutrition
(through the work of the WFP), and the protection of vulnerable and displaced people
(for example, by UNHCR).
Organizations and specialized agencies of the United Nations
No. Acronym Agency Headquarters Head
Established
in
1 FAO Food and Agriculture Rome, Italy José Graziano 1945
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Organizations and specialized agencies of the United Nations
No. Acronym Agency Headquarters Head
2 IAEA
3 ICAO
4 IFAD
5 ILO
6 IMO
7 IMF
8 ITU
9 UNESCO
10 UNIDO
11 UNWTO
12 UPU
Organization
International Atomic
Energy Agency
International Civil
Aviation Organization
International Fund for
Agricultural
Development
da Silva
Established
in
Vienna, Austria Yukiya Amano 1957
Montreal,
Quebec, Canada
Rome, Italy
Fang Liu 1947
Kanayo F.
Nwanze
1977
International Labour
Organization Geneva, Switzerland Guy Ryder 1946 (1919)
International Maritime
Organization
International
Monetary Fund
International
Telecommunication
Union
United Nations
Educational,
Scientific and
Cultural Organization
United Nations
Industrial
Development
Organization
World Tourism
Organization
Universal Postal
Union
13 WBG World Bank Group
14 WFP
15 WHO
16 WIPO
17 WMO
World Food
Programme
World Health
Organization
World Intellectual
Property
Organization
World Meteorological
Organization
London, United
Kingdom
Washington,
D.C., United States
Kitack Lim 1948
Christine
Lagarde
1945 (1944)
Geneva, Switzerland Houlin Zhao 1947 (1865)
Paris, France
Audrey
Azoulay
1946
Vienna, Austria Li Yong 1967
Madrid, Spain Taleb Rifai 1974
Bern, Switzerland
Washington,
D.C., United States
Bishar
Abdirahman
Hussein
1947 (1874)
Jim Y. Kim 1945 (1944)
Rome, Italy Ertharin Cousin 1963
Geneva, Switzerland
Tedros
Adhanom
1948
Geneva, Switzerland Francis Gurry 1974
Geneva, Switzerland
Petteri
Taalas (Secretary-
1950 (1873)
Page 77 of 198

Organizations and specialized agencies of the United Nations
No. Acronym Agency Headquarters Head
General)
Michel
Jarraud (President)
Established
in
Membership
Map of the current
UN member states
by their dates of
admission.
1945 (original
members)
1946–1959
1960–1989
1990–present
non-member
observer states
With the addition of South Sudan 14 July 2011, there are 193 UN member states,
including all undisputedindependent states apart from Vatican City. The UN Charter
outlines the rules for membership:
1. Membership in the United Nations is open to all other peace-loving states that
accept the obligations contained in the present Charter and, in the judgment of
the Organization, are able and willing to carry out these obligations.
2. The admission of any such state to membership in the United Nations will be
effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the
Security Council. Chapter II, Article 4.
In addition, there are two non-member observer states of the United Nations General
Assembly: the Holy See (which holds sovereignty over Vatican City) and the State of
Palestine. The Cook Islands and Niue, both states in free association with New
Zealand, are full members of several UN specialized agencies and have had their "full
treaty-making capacity" recognized by the Secretariat.
Group of 77
The Group of 77 at the UN is a loose coalition of developing nations, designed to
promote its members' collective economic interests and create an enhanced joint
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negotiating capacity in the UN. Seventy-seven nations founded the organization, but by
November 2013 the organization had since expanded to 133 member countries. [110] The
group was founded 15 June 1964 by the "Joint Declaration of the Seventy-Seven
Countries" issued at the United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development (UNCTAD). The group held its first major meeting in Algiers in 1967,
where it adopted the Charter of Algiers and established the basis for permanent
institutional structures.
Peacekeeping and Security
Objectives
The UN, after approval by the Security Council, sends peacekeepers to regions where
armed conflict has recently ceased or paused to enforce the terms of peace agreements
and to discourage combatants from resuming hostilities. Since the UN does not
maintain its own military, peacekeeping forces are voluntarily provided by member
states. These soldiers are sometimes nicknamed "Blue Helmets" for their distinctive
gear. The peacekeeping force as a whole received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988.
In September 2013, the UN had peacekeeping soldiers deployed on 15 missions. The
largest was the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo(MONUSCO), which included 20,688 uniformed personnel. The
smallest, United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP),
included 42 uniformed personnel responsible for monitoring the ceasefire in Jammu and
Kashmir. UN peacekeepers with the United Nations Truce Supervision
Organization (UNTSO) have been stationed in the Middle East since 1948, the longestrunning
active peacekeeping mission.
A study by the RAND Corporation in 2005 found the UN to be successful in two out of
three peacekeeping efforts. It compared efforts at nation-building by the UN to those of
the United States, and found that seven out of eight UN cases are at peace, as
compared with four out of eight US cases at peace. Also in 2005, the Human Security
Report documented a decline in the number of wars, genocides, and human rights
abuses since the end of the Cold War, and presented evidence, albeit circumstantial,
that international activism—mostly spearheaded by the UN—has been the main cause
of the decline in armed conflict in that period. Situations in which the UN has not only
acted to keep the peace but also intervened include the Korean War (1950–53) and the
authorization of intervention in Iraq after the Gulf War (1990–91).
UN Buffer Zone in Cyprus was established in 1974 following
the Turkish invasion of Cyprus.
The UN has also drawn criticism for perceived failures.
In many cases, member states have shown reluctance
to achieve or enforce Security Council resolutions.
Disagreements in the Security Council about military
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action and intervention are seen as having failed to prevent the Bangladesh genocide in
1971, the Cambodian genocide in the 1970s, and the Rwandan genocide in
1994. Similarly, UN inaction is blamed for failing to either prevent the Srebrenica
massacre in 1995 or complete the peacekeeping operations in 1992–93 during
the Somali Civil War. UN peacekeepers have also been accused of child rape, soliciting
prostitutes, and sexual abuse during various peacekeeping missions in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo, Haiti, Liberia, Sudan and what is now South Sudan, Burundi,
and Ivory Coast. Scientists cited UN peacekeepers from Nepal as the likely source of
the 2010–13 Haiti cholera outbreak, which killed more than 8,000 Haitians following the
2010 Haiti earthquake.
In addition to peacekeeping, the UN is also active in encouraging disarmament.
Regulation of armaments was included in the writing of the UN Charter in 1945 and was
envisioned as a way of limiting the use of human and economic resources for their
creation. The advent of nuclear weapons came only weeks after the signing of the
charter, resulting in the first resolution of the first General Assembly meeting calling for
specific proposals for "the elimination from national armaments of atomic weapons and
of all other major weapons adaptable to mass destruction". The UN has been involved
with arms-limitation treaties, such as the Outer Space Treaty (1967), the Treaty on the
Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (1968), the Seabed Arms Control Treaty (1971),
the Biological Weapons Convention (1972), the Chemical Weapons Convention (1992),
and the Ottawa Treaty (1997), which prohibits landmines. Three UN bodies oversee
arms proliferation issues: the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Organization for
the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
Organization Preparatory Commission.
Human Rights
One of the UN's primary purposes is "promoting and encouraging respect for human
rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language,
or religion", and member states pledge to undertake "joint and separate action" to
protect these rights.
Eleanor Roosevelt with the
Universal Declaration of Human Rightsin Spanish, 1949
In 1948, the General Assembly adopted a Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, drafted by a committee
headed by American diplomat and activist Eleanor
Roosevelt, and including the French lawyer René
Cassin. The document proclaims basic civil, political,
and economic rights common to all human beings,
though its effectiveness towards achieving these ends has been disputed since its
drafting. The Declaration serves as a "common standard of achievement for all peoples
and all nations" rather than a legally binding document, but it has become the basis of
two binding treaties, the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights and International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. In practice,
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the UN is unable to take significant action against human rights abuses without a
Security Council resolution, though it does substantial work in investigating and
reporting abuses.
In 1979, the General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms
of Discrimination against Women, followed by the Convention on the Rights of the
Child in 1989. With the end of the Cold War, the push for human rights action took on
new impetus. The United Nations Commission on Human Rights was formed in 1993 to
oversee human rights issues for the UN, following the recommendation of that
year's World Conference on Human Rights. Jacques Fomerand, a scholar of the UN,
describes this organization's mandate as "broad and vague", with only "meagre"
resources to carry it out. In 2006, it was replaced by a Human Rights Council consisting
of 47 nations. Also in 2006, the General Assembly passed a Declaration on the Rights
of Indigenous Peoples, and in 2011 it passed its first resolution recognizing the rights
of LGBT people.
Other UN bodies responsible for women's rights issues include United Nations
Commission on the Status of Women, a commission of ECOSOC founded in 1946;
the United Nations Development Fund for Women, created in 1976; and the United
Nations International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women,
founded in 1979. The UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, one of three bodies
with a mandate to oversee issues related to indigenous peoples, held its first session in
2002.
Economic Development and Humanitarian Assistance
Millennium Development Goals
1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
2. Achieve universal primary education
3. Promote gender equality and empower women
4. Reduce child mortality
5. Improve maternal health
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
8. Develop a global partnership for development
Another primary purpose of the UN is "to achieve international co-operation in solving
international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian
character". Numerous bodies have been created to work towards this goal, primarily
under the authority of the General Assembly and ECOSOC. In 2000, the 192 UN
member states agreed to achieve eight Millennium Development Goalsby 2015.
The UN Development Programme (UNDP), an organization for grant-based technical
assistance founded in 1945, is one of the leading bodies in the field of international
development. The organization also publishes the UN Human Development Index, a
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comparative measure ranking countries by poverty, literacy, education, life expectancy,
and other factors. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), also founded in 1945,
promotes agricultural development and food security. UNICEF (the United Nations
Children's Fund) was created in 1946 to aid European children after the Second World
War and expanded its mission to provide aid around the world and to uphold the
Convention on the Rights of the Child.
Three former directors of the
Global Smallpox Eradication Program read the news
that smallpox had been globally eradicated, 1980
The World Bank Group and International Monetary
Fund (IMF) are independent, specialized agencies and
observers within the UN framework, according to a 1947
agreement. They were initially formed separately from
the UN through the Bretton Woods Agreement in
1944. The World Bank provides loans for international development, while the IMF
promotes international economic co-operation and gives emergency loans to indebted
countries.
In Jordan, UNHCR remains responsible for the
Syrian refugeesand the Zaatari refugee camp
The World Health Organization (WHO), which focuses
on international health issues and disease eradication, is
another of the UN's largest agencies. In 1980, the
agency announced that the eradication of smallpox had
been completed. In subsequent decades, WHO largely
eradicated polio, river blindness, and leprosy. The Joint United Nations Programme on
HIV/AIDS(UNAIDS), begun in 1996, co-ordinates the organization's response to the
AIDS epidemic. The UN Population Fund, which also dedicates part of its resources to
combating HIV, is the world's largest source of funding for reproductive
health and family planning services.
Along with the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, the UN often
takes a leading role in co-ordinating emergency relief. The World Food
Programme (WFP), created in 1961, provides food aid in response to famine, natural
disasters, and armed conflict. The organization reports that it feeds an average of 90
million people in 80 nations each year.
The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR),
established in 1950, works to protect the rights of refugees, asylum seekers, and
stateless people. UNHCR and WFP programmes are funded by voluntary contributions
from governments, corporations, and individuals, though the UNHCR's administrative
costs are paid for by the UN's primary budget.
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Other
Since the UN's creation, over 80 colonies have attained independence. The General
Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial
Countries and Peoples in 1960 with no votes against but abstentions from all major
colonial powers. The UN works towards decolonization through groups including the UN
Committee on Decolonization, created in 1962. The committee lists seventeen
remaining "Non-Self-Governing Territories", the largest and most populous of which
is Western Sahara.
Beginning with the formation of the UN Environmental Programme (UNEP) in 1972, the
UN has made environmental issues a prominent part of its agenda. A lack of success in
the first two decades of UN work in this area led to the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil, which sought to give new impetus to these efforts. In 1988, the UNEP
and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), another UN organization,
established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which assesses and
reports on research on global warming. The UN-sponsored Kyoto Protocol, signed in
1997, set legally binding emissions reduction targets for ratifying states.
The UN also declares and co-ordinates international observances, periods of time to
observe issues of international interest or concern. Examples include World
Tuberculosis Day, Earth Day, and the International Year of Deserts and Desertification.
Funding
Top 25 contributors to the United Nations budget for 2016
Member state
Contribution
(% of UN budget)
United States 22.000
Japan 9.680
China 7.921
Germany 6.389
France 4.859
United Kingdom 4.463
Brazil 3.823
Italy 3.748
Russia 3.088
Canada 2.921
Spain 2.443
Australia 2.337
South Korea 2.039
Netherlands 1.482
Mexico 1.435
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Saudi Arabia 1.146
Switzerland 1.140
Turkey 1.018
Sweden 0.956
Argentina 0.892
Belgium 0.885
Norway 0.849
Poland 0.841
India 0.737
Other member states
12.908
The UN is financed from assessed and voluntary contributions from member states. The
General Assembly approves the regular budget and determines the assessment for
each member. This is broadly based on the relative capacity of each country to pay, as
measured by its gross national income (GNI), with adjustments for external debt and
low per capita income. The two-year budget for 2012–13 was $5.512 billion in total.
The Assembly has established the principle that the UN should not be unduly
dependent on any one member to finance its operations. Thus, there is a "ceiling" rate,
setting the maximum amount that any member can be assessed for the regular budget.
In December 2000, the Assembly revised the scale of assessments in response to
pressure from the United States. As part of that revision, the regular budget ceiling was
reduced from 25% to 22%. For the least developed countries (LDCs), a ceiling rate of
0.01% is applied. In addition to the ceiling rates, the minimum amount assessed to any
member nation (or "floor" rate) is set at 0.001% of the UN budget ($55,120 for the two
year budget 2013–2014).
A large share of the UN's expenditure addresses its core mission of peace and security,
and this budget is assessed separately from the main organizational budget. The
peacekeeping budget for the 2015–16 fiscal year was $8.27 billion, supporting 82,318
troops deployed in 15 missions around the world. UN peace operations are funded by
assessments, using a formula derived from the regular funding scale that includes a
weighted surcharge for the five permanent Security Council members, who must
approve all peacekeeping operations. This surcharge serves to offset discounted
peacekeeping assessment rates for less developed countries. In 2017, the top 8
providers of assessed financial contributions to UN peacekeeping operations were
the United
States (28.47%), China (10.25%), Japan (9.68%), Germany(6.39%), France (6.28%), U
nited Kingdom (5.77%), Russian Federation (3.99%) and Italy(3.75%).
Special UN programmes not included in the regular budget, such as UNICEF and the
World Food Programme, are financed by voluntary contributions from member
governments, corporations, and private individuals.
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Evaluations, Awards, and Criticism
The 2001 Nobel Peace Prize to the UN—diploma
in the lobby of the UN Headquarters in New York City
A number of agencies and individuals associated with
the UN have won the Nobel Peace Prize in recognition
of their work. Two Secretaries-General, Dag
Hammarskjöld and Kofi Annan, were each awarded the
prize (in 1961 and 2001, respectively), as were Ralph
Bunche (1950), a UN negotiator, René Cassin (1968),
a contributor to the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights, and the US Secretary of State Cordell Hull (1945), the latter for his role in the
organization's founding. Lester B. Pearson, the Canadian Secretary of State for External
Affairs, was awarded the prize in 1957 for his role in organizing the UN's first
peacekeeping force to resolve the Suez Crisis. UNICEF won the prize in 1965,
the International Labour Organization in 1969, the UN Peace-Keeping Forces in 1988,
the International Atomic Energy Agency (which reports to the UN) in 2005, and the UNsupported
Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons in 2013. The UN High
Commissioner for Refugees was awarded in 1954 and 1981, becoming one of only two
recipients to win the prize twice. The UN as a whole was awarded the prize in 2001,
sharing it with Annan.
Since its founding, there have been many calls for reform of the UN but little consensus
on how to do so. Some want the UN to play a greater or more effective role in world
affairs, while others want its role reduced to humanitarian work. There have also been
numerous calls for the UN Security Council's membership to be increased, for different
ways of electing the UN's Secretary-General, and for a UN Parliamentary Assembly.
Jacques Fomerand states the most enduring divide in views of the UN is "the North–
South split" between richer Northern nations and developing Southern nations.
Southern nations tend to favour a more empowered UN with a stronger General
Assembly, allowing them a greater voice in world affairs, while Northern nations prefer
an economically laissez-faire UN that focuses on transnational threats such as
terrorism.
After World War II, the French Committee of National Liberation was late to be
recognized by the US as the government of France, and so the country was initially
excluded from the conferences that created the new organization. The future French
president Charles de Gaulle criticized the UN, famously calling it
a machin ("contraption"), and was not convinced that a global security alliance would
help maintain world peace, preferring direct defence treaties between
countries. Throughout the Cold War, both the US and USSR repeatedly accused the
UN of favouring the other. In 1953, the USSR effectively forced the resignation of
Trygve Lie, the Secretary-General, through its refusal to deal with him, while in the
1950s and 1960s, a popular US bumper sticker read, "You can't spell communism
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without U.N." In a sometimes-misquoted statement, President George W. Bush stated in
February 2003 (referring to UN uncertainty towards Iraqi provocations under the
Saddam Hussein regime) that "free nations will not allow the UN to fade into history as
an ineffective, irrelevant debating society." In contrast, the French President, François
Hollande, stated in 2012 that "France trusts the United Nations. She knows that no
state, no matter how powerful, can solve urgent problems, fight for development and
bring an end to all crises... France wants the UN to be the centre of global
governance." Critics such as Dore Gold, an Israeli diplomat, Robert S. Wistrich, a British
scholar, Alan Dershowitz, an American legal scholar, Mark Dreyfus, an Australian
politician, and the Anti-Defamation League consider UN attention to Israel's treatment of
Palestinians to be excessive. In September 2015, Saudi Arabia's Faisal bin Hassan
Trad has been elected Chair of the UN Human Rights Council panel that appoints
independent experts, a move criticized by human rights groups.
Since 1971, the Republic of China (Taiwan) has been excluded from the UN and since
then has always been rejected in new applications. Citizens of this country are also not
allowed to enter the buildings of the United Nations with the passport of Taiwan. In this
way, critics agree that the UN is failing its own development goals and guidelines. This
criticism also brought pressure from the People's Republic of China, which regards the
territories administered by Taiwan as their own territory.
Critics have also accused the UN of bureaucratic inefficiency, waste, and corruption. In
1976, the General Assembly established the Joint Inspection Unit to seek out
inefficiencies within the UN system. During the 1990s, the US withheld dues citing
inefficiency and only started repayment on the condition that a major reforms initiative
was introduced. In 1994, the Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS) was
established by the General Assembly to serve as an efficiency watchdog. In 1994,
former Special Representative of the Secretary-General of the UN to Somalia Mohamed
Sahnoun published "Somalia: The Missed Opportunities", a book in which he analyses
the reasons for the failure of the 1992 UN intervention in Somalia, showing that,
between the start of the Somali civil war in 1988 and the fall of the Siad Barreregime in
January 1991, the UN missed at least three opportunities to prevent major human
tragedies; when the UN tried to provide humanitarian assistance, they were totally
outperformed by NGOs, whose competence and dedication sharply contrasted with the
UN's excessive caution and bureaucratic inefficiencies. If radical reform was not
undertaken, warned Mohamed Sahnoun, then the UN would continue to respond to
such crisis with inept improvization. In 2004, the UN faced accusations that its recently
ended Oil-for-Food Programme—in which Iraq had been allowed to trade oil for basic
needs to relieve the pressure of sanctions—had suffered from widespread corruption,
including billions of dollars of kickbacks. An independent inquiry created by the UN
found that many of its officials had been involved, as well as raising "significant"
questions about the role of Kojo Annan, the son of Kofi Annan.
In evaluating the UN as a whole, Jacques Fomerand writes that the "accomplishments
of the United Nations in the last 60 years are impressive in their own terms. Progress in
human development during the 20th century has been dramatic and the UN and its
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agencies have certainly helped the world become a more hospitable and livable place
for millions." Evaluating the first 50 years of the UN's history, the author Stanley Meisler
writes that "the United Nations never fulfilled the hopes of its founders, but it
accomplished a great deal nevertheless", citing its role in decolonization and its many
successful peacekeeping efforts. The British historian Paul Kennedy states that while
the organization has suffered some major setbacks, "when all its aspects are
considered, the UN has brought great benefits to our generation and ... will bring
benefits to our children's and grandchildren's generations as well."
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V. The International Court
of Justice
The International Court of Justice (abbreviated ICJ; commonly referred to
as the World Court) is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations (UN). It settles
legal disputes between member states and gives advisory opinions to authorized UN
organs and specialized agencies. It comprises a panel of 15 judges elected by the
General Assembly and Security Council for nine-year terms. It is seated in the Peace
Palace in The Hague, Netherlands.
Established in 1945 by the UN Charter, the court began
work in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court of
International Justice. The Statute of the International
Court of Justice, similar to that of its predecessor, is
the main constitutional document constituting and
regulating the court.
The court's workload covers a wide range of judicial
activity. After the court ruled that the United States's
covert war against Nicaragua was in violation of
international law (Nicaragua v. United States), the
United States withdrew from compulsory jurisdiction in
1986 to accept the court's jurisdiction only on a case-by-case basis.
Chapter XIV of the United Nations Charter authorizes the UN Security Council to
enforce Court rulings. However, such enforcement is subject to the veto power of the
five permanent members of the Council, which the United States used in the Nicaragua
case.
Composition
Public hearing at the ICJ.
The ICJ is composed of fifteen [15] judges elected to
nine-year terms by the UN General Assembly and the
UN Security Council from a list of people nominated by
the national groups in the Permanent Court of
Arbitration. The election process is set out in Articles
4–19 of the ICJ statute. Elections are staggered, with
five judges elected every three years to ensure
continuity within the court. Should a judge die in office,
the practice has generally been to elect a judge in a
special election to complete the term.
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No two judges may be nationals of the same country. According to Article 9, the
membership of the court is supposed to represent the "main forms of civilization and of
the principal legal systems of the world". Essentially, that has meant common law, civil
law and socialist law (now post-communist law).
There is an informal understanding that the seats will be distributed by geographic
regions so that there are five seats for Western countries, three for African states
(including one judge of francophone civil law, one of Anglophone common law and one
Arab), two for Eastern European states, three for Asian states and two for Latin
American and Caribbean states. For most of the court's history, the five permanent
members of the United Nations Security Council (France, Russia, China, the United
Kingdom, and the United States) have always had a judge serving, thereby occupying
three of the Western seats, one of the Asian seats and one of the Eastern European
seats. Exceptions have been China not having a judge on the court from 1967 to 1985,
during which time it did not put forward a candidate, and British judge Sir Christopher
Greenwood being withdrawn as a candidate for election for a second nine-year term on
the bench in 2017, leaving no judges from the United Kingdom on the court. [7]
Greenwood had been supported by the UN Security Council but failed to get a majority
in the UN General Assembly. Indian judge Dalveer Bhandari instead took the seat. [7]
Article 6 of the Statute provides that all judges should be "elected regardless of their
nationality among persons of high moral character" who are either qualified for the
highest judicial office in their home states or known as lawyers with sufficient
competence in international law. Judicial independence is dealt with specifically in
Articles 16–18. Judges of the ICJ are not able to hold any other post or act as counsel.
In practice, members of the court have their own interpretation of these rules and allow
them to be involved in outside arbitration and hold professional posts as long as there is
no conflict of interest. A judge can be dismissed only by a unanimous vote of the other
members of the court. Despite these provisions, the independence of ICJ judges has
been questioned. For example, during the Nicaragua case, the United States issued a
communiqué suggesting that it could not present sensitive material to the court because
of the presence of judges from Eastern bloc states.
Judges may deliver joint judgments or give their own separate opinions. Decisions and
Advisory Opinions are by majority, and, in the event of an equal division, the President's
vote becomes decisive, which occurred in the Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear
Weapons in Armed Conflict (Opinion requested by WHO), [1996] ICJ Reports 66.
Judges may also deliver separate dissenting opinions.
Ad hoc Judges
Article 31 of the statute sets out a procedure whereby ad hoc judges sit on contentious
cases before the court. The system allows any party to a contentious case (if it
otherwise does not have one of that party's nationals sitting on the court) to select one
additional person to sit as a judge on that case only. It is thus possible that as many as
seventeen judges may sit on one case.
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The system may seem strange when compared with domestic court processes, but its
purpose is to encourage states to submit cases. For example, if a state knows that it will
have a judicial officer who can participate in deliberation and offer other judges local
knowledge and an understanding of the state's perspective, it may be more willing to
submit to the jurisdiction of the court. Although this system does not sit well with the
judicial nature of the body, it is usually of little practical consequence. Ad hoc judges
usually (but not always) vote in favour of the state that appointed them and thus cancel
each other out.
Chambers
Generally, the court sits as full bench, but in the last fifteen years, it has on occasion sat
as a chamber. Articles 26–29 of the statute allow the court to form smaller chambers,
usually 3 or 5 judges, to hear cases. Two types of chambers are contemplated by
Article 26: firstly, chambers for special categories of cases, and second, the formation of
ad hoc chambers to hear particular disputes. In 1993, a special chamber was
established, under Article 26(1) of the ICJ statute, to deal specifically with environmental
matters (although it has never been used).
Ad hoc chambers are more frequently convened. For example, chambers were used to
hear the Gulf of Maine Case (Canada/US). In that case, the parties made clear they
would withdraw the case unless the court appointed judges to the chamber acceptable
to the parties. Judgments of chambers may either less authority than full Court
judgments or diminish the proper interpretation of universal international law informed
by a variety of cultural and legal perspectives. On the other hand, the use of chambers
might encourage greater recourse to the court and thus enhance international dispute
resolution.
Current Composition
As of 22 June 2018, the composition of the court is as follows:
Name Nationality Position Term began Term ends
Abdulqawi Ahmed Yusuf Somalia President a 2009 2027
Xue Hanqin China Vice-President a 2010 2021
Yuji Iwasawa Japan Member 2018 2021
Peter Tomka Slovakia Member 2003 2021
Mohamed Bennouna Morocco Member 2006 2024
Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade Brazil Member 2009 2027
Nawaf Salam Lebanon Member 2018 2027
Ronny Abraham France Member 2005 2027
Joan E. Donoghue United States Member 2010 2024
Giorgio Gaja Italy Member 2012 2021
Julia Sebutinde Uganda Member 2012 2021
Dalveer Bhandari India Member 2012 2027
James Crawford Australia Member 2015 2024
Kirill Gevorgian Russia Member 2015 2024
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Patrick Lipton Robinson Jamaica Member 2015 2024
Philippe Couvreur Belgium Registrar 2014 2021
a
2018–2021.
Presidents
# President Start End Country
1 José Gustavo Guerrero 1946 1949 El Salvador
2 Jules Basdevant 1949 1952 France
3 Arnold McNair 1952 1955 United Kingdom
4 Green Hackworth 1955 1958 United States
5 Helge Klæstad 1958 1961 Norway
6 Bohdan Winiarski 1961 1964 Poland
7 Percy Spender 1964 1967 Australia
8 José Bustamante y Rivero 1967 1970 Peru
9 Muhammad Zafarullah Khan 1970 1973 Pakistan
10 Manfred Lachs 1973 1976 Poland
11 Eduardo Jiménez de Aréchaga 1976 1979 Uruguay
12 Humphrey Waldock 1979 1981 United Kingdom
13 Taslim Elias 1982 1985 Nigeria
14 Nagendra Singh 1985 1988 India
15 José Ruda 1988 1991 Argentina
16 Robert Jennings 1991 1994 United Kingdom
17 Mohammed Bedjaoui 1994 1997 Algeria
18 Stephen Schwebel 1997 2000 United States
19 Gilbert Guillaume 2000 2003 France
20 Shi Jiuyong 2003 2006 China
21 Rosalyn Higgins 2006 2009 United Kingdom
22 Hisashi Owada 2009 2012 Japan
23 Peter Tomka 2012 2015 Slovakia
24 Ronny Abraham 2015 2018 France
25 Abdulqawi Yusuf 2018 Somalia
Jurisdiction
As stated in Article 93 of the UN Charter, all 193 UN members are automatically parties
to the court's statute. Non-UN members may also become parties to the court's statute
under the Article 93(2) procedure. For example, before becoming a UN member state,
Switzerland used this procedure in 1948 to become a party, and Nauru became a party
in 1988. Once a state is a party to the court's statute, it is entitled to participate in cases
before the court.
However, being a party to the statute does not automatically give the court jurisdiction
over disputes involving those parties. The issue of jurisdiction is considered in the three
types of ICJ cases: contentious issues, incidental jurisdiction, and advisory opinions.
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Contentious Issues
Play media
In contentious cases (adversarial proceedings seeking to settle a dispute), the ICJ
produces a binding ruling between states that agree to submit to the ruling of the court.
Only states may be parties in contentious cases. Individuals, corporations, parts of a
federal state, NGOs, UN organs and self-determination groups are excluded from direct
participation in cases although the court may receive information from public
international organizations. That does not preclude non-state interests from being the
subject of proceedings if a state brings the case against another. For example, a state
may, in cases of "diplomatic protection", bring a case on behalf of one of its nationals or
corporations.
Jurisdiction is often a crucial question for the court in contentious cases. (See
Procedure below.) The key principle is that the ICJ has jurisdiction only on the basis of
consent. Article 36 outlines four bases on which the court's jurisdiction may be founded:
First, 36(1) provides that parties may refer cases to the court (jurisdiction
founded on "special agreement" or "compromis"). This method is based on
explicit consent rather than true compulsory jurisdiction. It is, perhaps, the most
effective basis for the court's jurisdiction because the parties concerned have a
desire for the dispute to be resolved by the court and are thus more likely to
comply with the court's judgment.
Second, 36(1) also gives the court jurisdiction over "matters specifically provided
for... in treaties and conventions in force". Most modern treaties contain a
compromissory clause, providing for dispute resolution by the ICJ. Cases
founded on compromissory clauses have not been as effective as cases founded
on special agreement since a state may have no interest in having the matter
examined by the court and may refuse to comply with a judgment. For example,
during the Iran hostage crisis, Iran refused to participate in a case brought by the
US based on a compromissory clause contained in the Vienna Convention on
Diplomatic Relations and did not comply with the judgment. Since the 1970s, the
use of such clauses has declined. Many modern treaties set out their own
dispute resolution regime, often based on forms of arbitration.
Third, Article 36(2) allows states to make optional clause declarations accepting
the court's jurisdiction. The label "compulsory" sometimes placed on Article 36(2)
jurisdiction is misleading since declarations by states are voluntary. Furthermore,
many declarations contain reservations, such as exclusion from jurisdiction
certain types of disputes ("ratione materia"). The principle of reciprocity may
further limit jurisdiction. As of February 2011, sixty-six states had a declaration in
force. Of the permanent Security Council members, only the United Kingdom has
a declaration. In the court's early years, most declarations were made by
industrialized countries. Since the Nicaragua Case, declarations made by
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developing countries have increased, reflecting a growing confidence in the court
since the 1980s. Industrialized countries, however, have sometimes increased
exclusions or removed their declarations in recent years. Examples include the
United States, as mentioned previously, and Australia, which modified its
declaration in 2002 to exclude disputes on maritime boundaries (most likely to
prevent an impending challenge from East Timor, which gained their
independence two months later).
Finally, 36(5) provides for jurisdiction on the basis of declarations made under
the Permanent Court of International Justice's statute. Article 37 of the Statute
similarly transfers jurisdiction under any compromissory clause in a treaty that
gave jurisdiction to the PCIJ.
In addition, the court may have jurisdiction on the basis of tacit consent (forum
prorogatum). In the absence of clear jurisdiction under Article 36, jurisdiction is
established if the respondent accepts ICJ jurisdiction explicitly or simply pleads
on the merits. The notion arose in the Corfu Channel Case (UK v Albania)
(1949), in which the court held that a letter from Albania stating that it submitted
to the jurisdiction of the ICJ was sufficient to grant the court jurisdiction.
Incidental jurisdiction
Until rendering a final judgment, the court has competence to order interim measures
for the protection of the rights of a party to a dispute. One or both parties to a dispute
may apply the ICJ for issuing interim measures. In the Frontier Dispute Case, both
parties to the dispute, Burkina Faso and Mali submitted an application to the court to
indicate interim measures. Incidental jurisdiction of the court derives from the Article 41
of the Statute of it. Such as the final judgment, the order for interim measures of the
court are binding on state parties to the dispute. The ICJ has competence to indicate
interim measures only if the prima facie jurisdiction is satisfied.
Advisory Opinions
Audience of the "Accordance with International Law of the
Unilateral Declaration of Independence by the Provisional
Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo"
An advisory opinion is a function of the court open only
to specified United Nations bodies and agencies. The
UN Charter grants the General Assembly or the
Security Council a power to request the court to issue
an advisory opinion on any legal question. Other organs of the UN rather than GA and
SC may not request an advisory opinion of the ICJ unless the General Assembly
authorizes them. Other organs of the UN only request an advisory opinion of the court
regarding the matters falling into the scope of their activities. On receiving a request, the
court decides which states and organizations might provide useful information and gives
them an opportunity to present written or oral statements. Advisory opinions were
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intended as a means by which UN agencies could seek the court's help in deciding
complex legal issues that might fall under their respective mandates.
In principle, the court's advisory opinions are only consultative in character but they are
influential and widely respected. Certain instruments or regulations can provide in
advance that the advisory opinion shall be specifically binding on particular agencies or
states, but inherently, they are non-binding under the Statute of the Court. This nonbinding
character does not mean that advisory opinions are without legal effect,
because the legal reasoning embodied in them reflects the court's authoritative views on
important issues of international law. In arriving at them, the court follows essentially the
same rules and procedures that govern its binding judgments delivered in contentious
cases submitted to it by sovereign states.
An advisory opinion derives its status and authority from the fact that it is the official
pronouncement of the principal judicial organ of the United Nations.
Advisory opinions have often been controversial because the questions asked are
controversial or the case was pursued as an indirect way of bringing what is really a
contentious case before the court. Examples of advisory opinions can be found in the
section advisory opinions in the List of International Court of Justice cases article. One
such well-known advisory opinion is the Nuclear Weapons Case.
ICJ and the Security Council
Article 94 establishes the duty of all UN members to comply with decisions of the court
involving them. If parties do not comply, the issue may be taken before the Security
Council for enforcement action. There are obvious problems with such a method of
enforcement. If the judgment is against one of the permanent five members of the
Security Council or its allies, any resolution on enforcement would then be vetoed. That
occurred, for example, after the Nicaragua case, when Nicaragua brought the issue of
Page 95 of 198

the United States' noncompliance with the court's decision before the Security Council.
Furthermore, if the Security Council refuses to enforce a judgment against any other
state, there is no method of forcing the state to comply. Furthermore, the most effective
form to take action for the Security Council, coercive action under Chapter VII of the
United Nations Charter, can be justified only if international peace and security are at
stake. The Security Council has never done that so far.
The relationship between the ICJ and the Security Council, and the separation of their
powers, was considered by the court in 1992 in the Pan Am case. The court had to
consider an application from Libya for the order of provisional measures to protect its
rights, which, it alleged, were being infringed by the threat of economic sanctions by the
United Kingdom and United States. The problem was that these sanctions had been
authorized by the Security Council, which resulted in a potential conflict between the
Chapter VII functions of the Security Council and the judicial function of the court. The
court decided, by eleven votes to five, that it could not order the requested provisional
measures because the rights claimed by Libya, even if legitimate under the Montreal
Convention, could not be prima facie regarded as appropriate since the action was
ordered by the Security Council. In accordance with Article 103 of the UN Charter,
obligations under the Charter took precedence over other treaty obligations.
Nevertheless, the court declared the application admissible in 1998. A decision on the
merits has not been given since the parties (United Kingdom, United States, and Libya)
settled the case out of court in 2003.
There was a marked reluctance on the part of a majority of the court to become involved
in a dispute in such a way as to bring it potentially into conflict with the Council. The
court stated in the Nicaragua case that there is no necessary inconsistency between
action by the Security Council and adjudication by the ICJ. However, when there is
room for conflict, the balance appears to be in favour of the Security Council.
Should either party fail "to perform the obligations incumbent upon it under a judgment
rendered by the Court", the Security Council may be called upon to "make
recommendations or decide upon measures" if the Security Council deems such actions
necessary. In practice, the court's powers have been limited by the unwillingness of the
losing party to abide by the court's ruling and by the Security Council's unwillingness to
impose consequences. However, in theory, "so far as the parties to the case are
concerned, a judgment of the Court is binding, final and without appeal", and "by signing
the Charter, a State Member of the United Nations undertakes to comply with any
decision of the International Court of Justice in a case to which it is a party."
For example, the United States had previously accepted the court's compulsory
jurisdiction upon its creation in 1946 but in 1984, after Nicaragua v. United States,
withdrew its acceptance following the court's judgment that called on the US to "cease
and to refrain" from the "unlawful use of force" against the government of Nicaragua.
The court ruled (with only the American judge dissenting) that the United States was "in
breach of its obligation under the Treaty of Friendship with Nicaragua not to use force
against Nicaragua" and ordered the United States to pay war reparations.
Page 96 of 198

Examples of Contentious Cases
A complaint by the United States in 1980 that Iran was detaining American
diplomats in Tehran in violation of international law.
A dispute between Tunisia and Libya over the delimitation of the continental shelf
between them.
A complaint by Iran after the shooting down of Iran Air Flight 655 by the United
States Navy guided missile cruiser.
A dispute over the course of the maritime boundary dividing the U.S. and Canada
in the Gulf of Maine area.
A complaint by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia against the member states of
the North Atlantic Treaty Organization regarding their actions in the Kosovo War.
This was denied on 15 December 2004 because of lack of jurisdiction, the FRY
not being a party to the ICJ statute at the time it made the application.
A complaint by the Republic of Macedonia (former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia) that Greece is, by vetoing its accession to NATO, in violation of the
Interim Accord of 13 September 1995 between the two countries. The complaint
was decided in favour of Macedonia on 5 December 2011.
Page 97 of 198

A complaint by the Democratic Republic of the Congo that the DRC's sovereignty
had been violated by Uganda and that DRC had lost billions of dollars worth of
resources, was decided in favour of the DRC.
A complaint by the Republic of India that a Pakistani military court gave a death
sentence to Indian Jadhav for alleged espionage and subversive activities
Kulbhushan Jadhav case.
Law Applied
When deciding cases, the court applies international law as summarized in Article 38 of
the ICJ Statute, which provides that in arriving at its decisions the court shall apply
international conventions, international custom and the "general principles of law
recognized by civilized nations." It may also refer to academic writing ("the teachings of
the most highly qualified publicists of the various nations") and previous judicial
decisions to help interpret the law although the court is not formally bound by its
previous decisions under the doctrine of stare decisis. Article 59 makes clear that the
common law notion of precedent or stare decisis does not apply to the decisions of the
ICJ. The court's decision binds only the parties to that particular controversy. Under
38(1)(d), however, the court may consider its own previous decisions.
If the parties agree, they may also grant the court the liberty to decide ex aequo et bono
("in justice and fairness"), granting the ICJ the freedom to make an equitable decision
based on what is fair under the circumstances. That provision has not been used in the
court's history. So far, the International Court of Justice has dealt with about 130 cases.
Procedure
The ICJ is vested with the power to make its own rules. Court procedure is set out in the
Rules of Court of the International Court of Justice 1978 (as amended on 29 September
2005).
Cases before the ICJ will follow a standard pattern. The case is lodged by the applicant,
which files a written memorial setting out the basis of the court's jurisdiction and the
merits of its claim. The respondent may accept the court's jurisdiction and file its own
memorial on the merits of the case.
Preliminary Objections
A respondent that does not wish to submit to the jurisdiction of the court may raise
preliminary objections. Any such objections must be ruled upon before the court can
address the merits of the applicant's claim. Often, a separate public hearing is held on
the preliminary objections and the court will render a judgment. Respondents normally
file preliminary objections to the jurisdiction of the court and/or the admissibility of the
case. Inadmissibility refers to a range of arguments about factors the court should take
Page 98 of 198

into account in deciding jurisdiction, such as the fact that the issue is not justiciable or
that it is not a "legal dispute".
In addition, objections may be made because all necessary parties are not before the
court. If the case necessarily requires the court to rule on the rights and obligations of a
state that has not consented to the court's jurisdiction, the court does not proceed to
issue a judgment on the merits.
If the court decides it has jurisdiction and the case is admissible, the respondent then is
required to file a Memorial addressing the merits of the applicant's claim. Once all
written arguments are filed, the court holds a public hearing on the merits.
Once a case has been filed, any party (usually the applicant) may seek an order from
the court to protect the status quo pending the hearing of the case. Such orders are
known as Provisional (or Interim) Measures and are analogous to interlocutory
injunctions in United States law. Article 41 of the statute allows the court to make such
orders. The court must be satisfied to have prima facie jurisdiction to hear the merits of
the case before it grants provisional measures.
Applications to Intervene
In cases in which a third state's interests are affected, that state may be permitted to
intervene in the case and participate as a full party. Under Article 62, a state "with an
interest of a legal nature" may apply; however, it is within the court's discretion whether
or not to allow the intervention. Intervention applications are rare, and the first
successful application occurred only in 1991.
Page 99 of 198

Judgment and Remedies
Once deliberation has taken place, the court issues a majority opinion. Individual judges
may issue concurring opinions (if they agree with the outcome reached in the judgment
of the court but differ in their reasoning) or dissenting opinions (if they disagree with the
majority). No appeal is possible, but any party may ask for the court to clarify if there is
a dispute as to the meaning or scope of the court's judgment.
Criticisms
The International Court has been criticized with respect to its rulings, its procedures,
and its authority. As with criticisms of the United Nations, many of these criticisms refer
more to the general authority assigned to the body by member states through its charter
than to specific problems with the composition of judges or their rulings. Major criticisms
include the following:
"Compulsory" jurisdiction is limited to cases where both parties have agreed to
submit to its decision, and so instances of aggression tend to be automatically
escalated to and adjudicated by the Security Council. According to the
sovereignty principle of international law, no nation is superior or inferior against
another. Therefore, there is no entity that could force the states into practice of
the law or punish the states in case any violation of international law occurs.
Therefore, the absence of binding force means that the 193 member states of the
ICJ do not necessarily have to accept the jurisdiction. Moreover, membership in
the UN and ICJ does not give the court automatic jurisdiction over the member
states, but it is the consent of each state to follow the jurisdiction that matters.
Organizations, private enterprises, and individuals cannot have their cases taken
to the International Court or appeal a national supreme court's ruling. UN
agencies likewise cannot bring up a case except in advisory opinions (a process
initiated by the court and non-binding). Only states can bring the cases and
become the defendants of the cases. This also means that the potential victims
of crimes against humanity, such as minor ethnic groups or indigenous peoples,
may not have appropriate backing by a state.
Other existing international thematic courts, such as the ICC, are not under the
umbrella of the International Court. Unlike ICJ, international thematic courts like
ICC work independently from United Nations. Such dualistic structure between
various international courts sometimes makes it hard for the courts to engage in
effective and collective jurisdiction.
The International Court does not enjoy a full separation of powers, with
permanent members of the Security Council being able to veto enforcement of
cases, even those to which they consented to be bound. Because the jurisdiction
does not have binding force itself, in many cases, the instances of aggression
Page 100 of 198

are adjudicated by Security Council by adopting a resolution, etc. There is,
therefore, a likelihood for the permanent member states of Security Council to
avoid the responsibility brought up by International Court of Justice, as shown in
the example of Nicaragua v. United States.
________
List of International Court of Justice Cases
This is a list of contentious cases and advisory opinions brought to the International
Court of Justice since its creation in 1946. 165 cases have been entered onto the
General List for consideration before the court.
The jurisdiction of the ICJ is limited. Only states have standing to bring a compulsory
claim against another state, and then only with the consent of the responding state.
However, certain United Nations bodies and agencies such as the UN General
Assembly have the power to submit questions for advisory opinions. Although these
advisory opinions are not binding under international law, they do provide the ICJ's
interpretation of what international law is.
List of Cases
The list is organized by and includes only those disputes assigned a General List
number by the registrar of the court. In the early days of the court, any formally correct
application was accepted by the registrar and entered on to the General List. If there
was no jurisdiction (because of lack of consent by the responding party), the case was
soon closed by the court. In 1978, however, the Court amended its rules and instructed
the registrar to only enter a case on the General List if there was consent by the
responding party, seemingly reducing the problem of meritless applications. However,
at times consent and therefore jurisdiction is contested by the responding party. Such a
case may be ordered to be added to the General List over the protestations of the
respondent to allow the court to decide whether there is consent. In such a situation,
however, the mere addition of a dispute to the General List does not have legal
significance.
No. Name Applicant Respondent
Case
began
22 May
1947
Case
ended
9 April
1949
1 Corfu Channel Case
United
Kingdom
Albania
2 General List Number 2 assigned to some elements of Corfu Channel Case
Conditions of Admission of a
24
9 April
3 State to Membership in the
United Nations General Assembly November
1949
United Nations
1947
4
Reparation for Injuries
Suffered in the Service of the
United Nations
5 Fisheries Case
6
United Nations General Assembly
United
Kingdom
Norway
Case Concerning the
Protection of French France Egypt
7
December
1948
28
September
1949
13
October
11 April
1949
18
December
1951
29 March
1950
Disposition
Judgment on
Merits
Opinion on
Merits
Opinion on
Merits
Judgment on
Merits
Discontinued
Page 101 of 198

Nationals and Protected
Persons in Egypt
7 Asylum Case Colombia Peru
8
9
10
11
12
13
Interpretation of Peace
Treaties with Bulgaria,
Hungary and Romania
Competence of the General
Assembly for the Admission
of a State to the United
Nations
International Status of South
West Africa
Rights of Nationals of the
United States of America in
Morocco
Reservations to the
Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime
of Genocide
Request for Interpretation of
the Judgment of 20
November 1950 in the Asylum
Case
United Nations General Assembly
United Nations General Assembly
United Nations General Assembly
France
United States
United Nations General Assembly
Colombia
Peru
14 Haya de la Torre Colombia Peru
15 Ambatielos Case Greece
16 Anglo-Iranian Oil Co.
United
Kingdom
17 Minquiers and Ecrehos Case France
United
Kingdom
Iran
United
Kingdom
18 Nottebohm Case Liechtenstein Guatemala
1949
15
October
1949
31
October
1949
28
November
1949
27
December
1949
28
October
1950
20
November
1950
20
November
1950
13
December
1950
9 April
1951
26 May
1951
5
December
1951
17
December
1951
20
November
1950
18 July
1950
3 March
1950
11 July
1950
27 August
1952
28 May
1951
27
November
1950
19 May
1953
9 April
1951
22 July
1952
17
November
1953
6 April
1955
Judgment on
Merits
Opinion on
Merits
Opinion on
Merits
Opinion on
Merits
Judgment on
Merits
Opinion on
Merits
Judgment on
Admissibility
Judgment on
Merits
Judgment on
Merits
Judgment on
Jurisdiction
Judgment on
Merits
Judgment on
Merits
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Monetary Gold Removed from
Rome in 1943
Italy
France /
United
Kingdom /
United States
Electricite de Beyrouth
Company Case France Lebanon
Effect of Awards of
Compensation Made by the
United Nations Administrative United Nations General Assembly
Tribunal
Treatment in Hungary of
Aircraft and Crew of the
United States (United States
v. Hungary)
Treatment in Hungary of
Aircraft and Crew of the
United States (United States
v. Soviet Union)
Voting Procedure on
Questions relating to Reports
and Petitions concerning the
Territory of South West Africa
Aerial Incident of 10 March
1953
26 Antarctica (UK v. Argentina)
27 Antarctica (UK v. Chile)
United
States
United
States
Hungary
Soviet Union
United Nations General Assembly
United
States
United
Kingdom
United
Kingdom
Czechoslovakia
Argentina
Chile
19 May
1953
15 August
1953
21
December
1953
3 March
1954
3 March
1954
6
December
1954
29 March
1955
4 May
1955
4 May
1955
15 June
1954
29 July
1954
13 July
1954
12 July
1954
12 July
1954
7 June
1955
14 March
1956
16 March
1956
16 March
1956
Judgment on
Jurisdiction
Case Dismissed
Opinion on
Merits
Discontinued
Discontinued
Opinion on
Merits
Discontinued
Discontinued
Discontinued
Page 102 of 198

28
Aerial Incident of 7 October
1952
United
States
Soviet Union
29 Certain Norwegian Loans France Norway
30
31
32
33
Judgements of the
Administrative Tribunal of the
ILO upon Complaints made
against UNESCO
Admissibility of Hearings of
Petitioners by the Committee
on South West Africa
United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization
United Nations General Assembly
Right of Passage over Indian
Territory Portugal India
Application of the Convention
of 1902 Governing the
Guardianship of Infants
Netherlands
Sweden
34 Interhandel Case Switzerland United States
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
Aerial Incident of 27 July 1955
(Israel v. Bulgaria) Israel Bulgaria
Aerial Incident of 27 July 1955
(United States v. Bulgaria)
Aerial Incident of 27 July 1955
(United Kingdom v. Bulgaria)
United
States
United
Kingdom
Bulgaria
Bulgaria
Sovereignty over Certain
Frontier Land Belgium Netherlands
Arbitral Award Made by the
King of Spain on 23
December 1906
Aerial Incident of 4
September 1954
Honduras
United
States
Nicaragua
Soviet Union
Barcelona Traction, Light and
Power Company Belgium Spain
Compagnie du Port, des
Quais et des Entrepôts de
Beyrouth and Société Radio-
Orient (France v. Lebanon)
Constitution of the Maritime
Safety Committee of the Inter-
Governmental Maritime
Consultative Organization
Aerial Incident of 7 November
1954
France
Lebanon
International Maritime Organization
United
States
Soviet Union
45 Preah Vihear Temple Cambodia Thailand
46
47
South West Africa (Ethiopia v.
South Africa) Ethiopia South Africa
South West Africa (Liberia v.
South Africa)
Liberia
48 Northern Cameroons Cameroon
49
50
Certain Expenses of the
United Nations
Barcelona Traction, Light and
Power Company,
Limited(Second Application:
1962)
South Africa
United
Kingdom
United Nations General Assembly
Belgium
Spain
2 June
1955
6 July
1955
2
December
1955
19
December
1955
22
December
1955
10 July
1957
2 October
1957
16
October
1957
28
October
1957
22
November
1957
27
November
1957
1 July
1958
22 August
1958
23
September
1958
13
February
1959
25 March
1959
8 July
1957
6 October
1959
4
November
1960
4
November
1960
30 May
1961
21
December
1961
19 June
1962
14 March
1956
6 July
1957
23
October
1956
1 June
1956
12 April
1960
28
November
1958
21 March
1959
26 May
1959
30 May
1960
3 August
1959
20 June
1959
18
November
1960
9
December
1958
10 April
1961
31 August
1960
8 June
1960
7 October
1959
15 June
1962
18 July
1966
18 July
1966
2
December
1963
20 July
1962
5 February
1970
Discontinued
Judgment on
Merits
Opinion on
Merits
Opinion on
Merits
Judgment on
Merits
Judgment on
Merits
Judgment on
Jurisdiction
Judgment on
Jurisdiction
Discontinued
Discontinued
Judgment on
Merits
Judgment on
Merits
Discontinued
Discontinued
Discontinued
Opinion on
Merits
Discontinued
Judgment on
Merits
Judgment on
Merits
Judgment on
Merits
Judgment on
Jurisdiction
Opinion on
Merits
Judgment on
Merits
Page 103 of 198

51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
North Sea Continental Shelf
cases
North Sea Continental Shelf
cases
Legal Consequences for
States of the Continued
Presence of South Africa in
Namibia (South West Africa)
notwithstanding Security
Council Resolution 276
Appeal Relating to the
Jurisdiction of the ICAO
Council
Fisheries Jurisdiction
(Germany v. Iceland)
Fisheries Jurisdiction (United
Kingdom v. Iceland)
Application for Review of
Judgement No. 158 of the
United Nations Administrative
Tribunal
Nuclear Tests Case (Australia
v. France)
Nuclear Tests Case (New
Zealand v. France)
West
Germany
West
Germany
Denmark
Netherlands
United Nations Security Council
India
West
Germany
United
Kingdom
Pakistan
Iceland
Iceland
United Nations Administrative
Tribunal
Australia
New Zealand
France
France
Trial of Pakistani Prisoners of
War Pakistan India
61 Western Sahara United Nations General Assembly
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
Aegean Sea Continental Shelf
Case Greece Turkey
Continental Shelf
(Tunisia/Libyan Arab
Jamahiriya)
United States Diplomatic and
Consular Staff in Tehran
Interpretation of the
Agreement of 25 March 1951
between the WHO and Egypt
Application for Review of
Judgement No. 273 of the
United Nations Administrative
Tribunal
Delimitation of the Maritime
Boundary in the Gulf of Maine
Area
Continental Shelf (Libyan
Arab Jamahiriya/Malta)
Tunisia
United
States
Libya
Iran
World Health Organization
United Nations Administrative
Tribunal
Canada
Libya
United States
Malta
Frontier Dispute (Burkina
Faso/Republic of Mali) Burkina Faso Mali
Military and Paramilitary
Activities in and Against
Nicaragua
Application for Revision and
Interpretation of the Judgment
of 24 February 1982 in the
Case concerning the
Continental Shelf
(Tunisia/Libyan Arab
Nicaragua
Tunisia
United States
Libya
20
February
1967
20
February
1967
5 August
1970
30 August
1971
5 June
1972
14 April
1972
3 July
1972
9 May
1973
9 May
1973
11 May
1973
21
December
1974
10 August
1976
1
December
1978
29
November
1979
28 May
1980
28 July
1981
25
November
1981
9 April
1984
27 July
1984
20
February
1969
20
February
1969
21 June
1971
18 August
1972
25 July
1974
25 July
1974
12 July
1973
20
December
1974
20
December
1974
15
December
1973
16
October
1975
19
December
1978
24
February
1982
24 May
1980
20
December
1980
20 July
1982
12
October
1984
3 June
1985
22
December
1986
27 June
1986
10
December
1985
Joined with
Germany v.
Netherlands
Judgment on
Merits
Opinion on
Merits
Judgment on
Jurisdiction
Judgment on
Merits
Judgment on
Merits
Opinion on
Merits
Judgment on
Jurisdiction
Judgment on
Jurisdiction
Discontinued
Opinion on
Merits
Judgment on
Jurisdiction
Judgment on
Merits
Judgment on
Merits
Opinion on
Merits
Opinion on
Merits
Judgment on
Merits
27 June 1986
Page 104 of 198

72
73
74
75
76
77
78
Jamahiriya)
Application for Review of
Judgement No. 333 of the
United Nations Administrative
Tribunal
Border and Transborder
Armed Actions (Nicaragua v.
Costa Rica)
Border and Transborder
Armed Actions (Nicaragua v.
Honduras)
Land, Island and Maritime
Frontier Dispute
Elettronica Sicula S.p.A.
(ELSI)
Applicability of the Obligation
to Arbitrate under Section 21
of the United Nations
Headquarters Agreement of
26 June 1947
Maritime Delimitation in the
Area Between Greenland and
Jan Mayen
United Nations Administrative
Tribunal
Nicaragua
Nicaragua
El Salvador
United
States
Costa Rica
Honduras
Honduras /
Nicaragua
Italy
United Nations General Assembly
Denmark
Norway
79 Aerial Incident of 3 July 1988 Iran United States
80
81
Certain Phosphate Lands in
Nauru
Applicability of Article VI,
Section 22, of the Convention
on the Privileges and
Immunities of the United
Nations
82 Arbitral Award of 31 July 1989
83
Territorial Dispute (Libyan
Arab Jamahiriya/Chad)
Nauru
Australia
United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization
Guinea-
Bissau
Libya
Senegal
Chad
84 East Timor Portugal Australia
85
86
87
88
89
90
Maritime Delimitation between
Guinea-Bissau and Senegal
Guinea-
Bissau
Senegal
Passage through the Great
Belt Finland Denmark
Maritime Delimitation and
Territorial Questions between
Qatar and Bahrain
Questions of Interpretation
and Application of the 1971
Montreal Convention arising
from the Aerial Incident at
Lockerbie (Libyan Arab
Jamahiriya v. United
Kingdom)
Questions of Interpretation
and Application of the 1971
Montreal Convention arising
from the Aerial Incident at
Lockerbie (Libyan Arab
Jamahiriya v. United States of
America)
Oil Platforms (Islamic
Republic of Iran v United
States of America)
Qatar
Libya
Libya
Iran
Bahrain
United
Kingdom
United States
United States
10
September
1984
28 July
1986
28 July
1986
11
December
1986
6 February
1987
7 March
1988
16 August
1988
17 May
1989
19 May
1989
13 June
1989
23 August
1989
22
February
1991
12 March
1991
17 May
1991
8 July
1991
3 March
1992
3 March
1992
2
November
1992
27 May
1987
19 August
1987
20
December
1988
11
September
1992
20 July
1989
26 April
1988
14 June
1993
22
February
1996
13
September
1993
15
December
1989
12
November
1991
3 February
1994
30 June
1995
8
November
1998
10
September
1992
16 March
2001
10
September
2003
10
September
2003
6
November
2003
Opinion on
Merits
Discontinued
Judgment on
Jurisdiction
Judgment on
Merits
Opinion on
Merits
Discontinued
Discontinued
Opinion on
Merits
Judgment on
Merits
Discontinued
Discontinued
Judgment on
Merits
Discontinued
Discontinued
Page 105 of 198

91
92
93
94
95
96
97
Application of the Convention
on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (Bosnia and
Herzegovina v. Serbia and
Montenegro)
Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros
Project
Legality of the Use by a State
of Nuclear Weapons in Armed
Conflict
Land and Maritime Boundary
Between Cameroon and
Nigeria
Legality of the Threat or Use
of Nuclear Weapons
Bosnia and
Herzegovina
Hungary
Serbia and
Montenegro
Slovakia
World Health Organization
Cameroon
Nigeria /
Equatorial
Guinea
United Nations General Assembly
Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain
v. Canada) Spain Canada
Request for an Examination
of the Situation in Accordance
with Paragraph 63 of the
Court's Judgment of 20
December 1974 in the
Nuclear Tests
New Zealand
France
98 Kasikili/Sedudu Island Botswana Namibia
99
100
101
102
Vienna Convention on
Consular Relations (Paraguay
v. United States of America)
Difference Relating to
Immunity from Legal Process
of a Special Rapporteur of the
Commission on Human
Rights
Request for Interpretation of
the Judgment of 11 June
1998
Paraguay
United States
United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization
Cameroon
Nigeria
Sovereignty over Pulau
Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan Indonesia Malaysia
103 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo Guinea
Democratic
Republic of the
Congo
104 LaGrand Germany United States
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
Legality of Use of Force
(Yugoslavia v. Belgium)
Legality of Use of Force
(Yugoslavia v. Canada)
Legality of Use of Force
(Yugoslavia v. France)
Legality of Use of Force
(Yugoslavia v. Germany)
Legality of Use of Force
(Yugoslavia v. Italy)
Legality of Use of Force
(Yugoslavia v. Netherlands)
Legality of Use of Force
(Yugoslavia v. Portugal)
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia
Belgium
Canada
France
Germany
Italy
Netherlands
Portugal
20 March
1993
3
September
1993
29 March
1996
6 January
1995
28 March
1995
21 August
1995
3 April
1998
10 August
1998
28
October
1998
2
November
1998
28
December
1998
2 March
1999
29 April
1999
29 April
1999
29 April
1999
29 April
1999
29 April
1999
29 April
1999
29 April
1999
26
February
2007
25
September
1997
8 July
1996
10
October
2002
8 July
1996
4
December
1998
22
September
1995
13
December
1999
10
November
1998
29 April
1999
25 March
1999
17
December
2002
19 June
2012
27 June
2001
15
December
2004
15
December
2004
15
December
2004
15
December
2004
15
December
2004
15
December
2004
15
December
In progress
Opinion on
Merits
Judgment on
Merits
Opinion on
Merits
Judgment on
Jurisdiction
Dismissed
Discontinued
Opinion on
Merits
Judgment on
Merits
Judgment on
Merits
Judgment on
Merits
Judgment on
Merits
Judgment on
Jurisdiction
Judgment on
Jurisdiction
Judgment on
Jurisdiction
Judgment on
Jurisdiction
Judgment on
Jurisdiction
Judgment on
Jurisdiction
Judgment on
Jurisdiction
Page 106 of 198

112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
Legality of Use of Force
(Yugoslavia v. Spain)
Legality of Use of Force
(Yugoslavia v. United
Kingdom)
Legality of Use of Force
(Yugoslavia v. United States
of America)
Armed Activities on the
Territory of the Congo
(Democratic Republic of the
Congo v. Burundi)
Armed Activities on the
Territory of the Congo
(Democratic Republic of the
Congo v. Uganda)
Armed Activities on the
Territory of the Congo
(Democratic Republic of the
Congo v. Rwanda)
Application of the Convention
on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia)
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia
Democratic
Republic of the
Congo
Democratic
Republic of the
Congo
Democratic
Republic of the
Congo
Croatia
Spain
United
Kingdom
United States
Burundi
Uganda
Rwanda
Serbia
Aerial Incident of 10 August
1999 Pakistan India
Territorial and Maritime
Dispute between Nicaragua
and Honduras in the
Caribbean Sea
Arrest Warrant of 11 April
2000
Application for the Revision of
the Judgment of 11 July 1996
in the Case concerning
Application of the Convention
on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide
Nicaragua
Democratic
Republic of the
Congo
Bosnia and
Herzegovina
Honduras
Belgium
Yugoslavia
Certain Property
(Liechtenstein v. Germany) Liechtenstein Germany
Territorial and Maritime
Dispute (Nicaragua v.
Colombia)
Nicaragua
Colombia
125 Frontier Dispute (Benin/Niger) Benin Niger
126
127
128
129
Armed Activities on the
Territory of the Congo (New
Application: 2002)
(Democratic Republic of the
Congo v. Rwanda)
Application for Revision of the
Judgment of 11 September
1992 in the Case concerning
the Land, Island And Maritime
Frontier Dispute (El
Salvador/Honduras:
Nicaragua Intervening)
Avena and Other Mexican
Nationals
Certain Criminal Proceedings
in France
Democratic
Republic of the
Congo
El Salvador
Mexico
Democratic
Republic of the
Congo
Rwanda
Honduras
United States
France
29 April
1999
29 April
1999
29 April
1999
23 June
1999
23 June
1999
23 June
1999
2 July
1999
21
September
1999
8
December
1999
17
October
2000
24 April
2001
1 June
2001
6
December
2001
11 April
2002
28 May
2002
10
September
2002
9 January
2003
11 April
2003
2004
2 June
1999
15
December
2004
2 June
1999
30
January
2001
Discontinued
Judgment on
Jurisdiction
Discontinued
Discontinued
- In progress
30
January
2001
3 February
2015
21 June
2000
8 October
2007
14
February
2002
3 February
2003
10
February
2005
19
November
2012
12 July
2005
3 February
2006
18
December
2003
31 March
2004
16
November
2010
Discontinued
Judgment on
Merits
Judgment on
Jurisdiction
Judgement on
Merits
Judgment on
Merits
Judgment on
Jurisdiction
Judgment on
Jurisdiction
Judgment on
Merits
Judgement on
Merits
Judgment on
Jurisdiction
Judgment on
Admissibility
Judgment on
Merits
Discontinued
130 Sovereignty over Pedra Malaysia Singapore 24 July 23 May Opinion on
Page 107 of 198

131
132
133
134
135
136
137
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh,
Middle Rocks and South
Ledge
Legal Consequences of the
Construction of a Wall in the
Occupied Palestinian Territory
United Nations General Assembly
Maritime Delimitation in the
Black Sea Romania Ukraine
Dispute regarding
Navigational and Related
Rights
Costa Rica
Nicaragua
Status vis-à-vis the Host State
of a Diplomatic Envoy to the
Dominica
United Nations
Switzerland
Pulp Mills on the River
Uruguay Argentina Uruguay
Certain Questions of Mutual
Assistance in Criminal
Matters
Djibouti
France
Maritime Dispute (Peru v.
Chile) Peru Chile
138 Aerial Herbicide Spraying Ecuador Colombia
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
Request for Interpretation of
the Judgment of 31 March
2004 in the Case concerning
Avena and Other Mexican
Nationals
Application of the
International Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination
Accordance with International
Law of the Unilateral
Declaration of Independence
In Respect of Kosovo
Application of the Interim
Accord of 13 September 1995
Jurisdictional Immunities of
the State
Questions relating to the
Obligation to Prosecute or
Extradite
Jurisdiction and Enforcement
of Judgments in Civil and
Commercial Matters
Judgment No.2867 of the
Administrative Tribunal of the
International Labour
Organization
Certain questions concerning
diplomatic relations
Mexico
Georgia
United States
Russia
United Nations General Assembly
Macedonia
Germany
Belgium
Belgium
Greece
Italy /
Greece
Senegal
Switzerland
International Fund for Agricultural
Development
Honduras
Brazil
148 Whaling in the Antarctic
Australia /
New Zealand
Japan
149
Frontier Dispute (Burkina
Faso v. Niger) Burkina Faso Niger
Certain Activities carried out
150 by Nicaragua in the Border
Costa Rica
Nicaragua
Area
151
Request for Interpretation of
Temple of Preah Vihear Case Cambodia Thailand
2003 2008 Merits
10
December
2003
16
September
2004
29
September
2005
26 April
2006
4 May
2006
9 August
2006
16
January
2008
31 March
2008
5 June
2008
12 August
2008
10
October
2008
17
November
2008
23
December
2008
19
February
2009
21
December
2009
26 April
2010
28
October
2009
31 May
2010
21 July
2010
18
November
2010
28 April
2011
7 July
2004
3 February
2009
13 July
2009
9 June
2006
20 April
2010
4 June
2008
27
January
2014
13
September
2013
19
January
2009
1 April
2011
22 July
2010
5
December
2011
3 February
2012
20 July
2012
5 April
2011
1 February
2012
12 May
2010
31 March
2014
16 April
2013
Opinion on
Merits
Judgement on
Merits
Judgement on
Merits
Discontinued
Judgement on
Merits
Judgement on
Merrits
Judgement on
Merits
Discontinued
Judgement on
Merits
Judgment on
Jurisdiction
Opinion on
Merits
Judgement on
Merits
Judgment on
Merits
Judgment on
Merits
Discontinued
Opinion on
Merits
Discontinued
Judgment on
Merits
Judgment on
Merits
- In progress
11
November
2013
Judgment
Page 108 of 198

152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
Construction of a Road in
Costa Rica along the San
Juan River
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Obligation to Negotiate
Access to the Pacific Ocean Bolivia Chile
Delimitation of the Continental
Shelf Nicaragua Colombia
Alleged Violations of
Sovereign Rights Nicaragua Colombia
Seizure of Certain Documents
and Data
Maritime Delimitation in the
Caribbean Sea and the
Pacific Ocean
Obligations concerning
Negotiations relating to
Cessation of the Nuclear
Arms Race and to Nuclear
Disarmament (Marshall
Islands v. India)
Obligations concerning
Negotiations relating to
Cessation of the Nuclear
Arms Race and to Nuclear
Disarmament (Marshall
Islands v. Pakistan)
Obligations concerning
Negotiations relating to
Cessation of the Nuclear
Arms Race and to Nuclear
Disarmament (Marshall
Islands v. United Kingdom)
Maritime Delimitation in the
Timor-Leste
Costa Rica
Marshall
Islands
Marshall
Islands
Marshall
Islands
Australia
Nicaragua
India
Pakistan
United
Kingdom
Indian Ocean Somalia Kenya
Dispute over the Status and
Use of the Waters of the
Silala
Chile
Bolivia
Immunities and Criminal
Proceedings
Equatorial
Guinea
France
164 Certain Iranian Assets Iran United States
165
166
172
Land Boundary in the
Northern Part of Isla Portillos
Illegal Detention of
Kulbhushan Jadhav by
Pakistan
Application of the
International Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination (Qatar
v. United Arab Emirates)
Costa Rica
India
Qatar
Nicaragua
Pakistan
United Arab
Emirates
22
December
2011
24 April
2013
16
September
2013
27
November
2013
17
December
2013
25
February
2014
24 April
2014
24 April
2014
24 April
2014
28 August
2014
6 June
2016
13 June
2016
14 June
2016
16
January
2017
15 May
2017
15 June
2018
17 April
2013
Joined with
Certain Activities
carried out by
Nicaragua
- In progress
- In progress
- In progress
11 June
2015
Discontinued
- In progress
5 October
2016
5 October
2016
5 October
2016
Judgement on
Jurisdiction
Judgement on
Jurisdiction
Judgement on
Jurisdiction
- In progress
- In progress
- In progress
- In progress
- In progress
- In progress
- In progress
Page 109 of 198

Page 110 of 198

VI. International Public Law
Topics to Date
This is a comprehensive list of those areas of law dealing with the United Nations
System and the Law of Nations. It is being started as a sublist as it is a specialized area
of law that often does not interact with general legal topics. There is also a separate List
of treaties (see “International Treatises”, below).
Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works
Convention on Biological Diversity
Convention on the Rights of the Child
Crime against international law
Declaration of war
Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection
EU Copyright Directive
European Union law
European Company Statute
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
Geneva Conventions
History of public international law
Human Rights Committee
International copyright
International Court of Justice
International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia
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International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
International Criminal Court
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights
International human rights law
International humanitarian law
International judicial institutions
International Prize Court
International trade law
Laws of war
List of treaties
Madrid Agreement
Notable UN General Assembly Resolutions
Permanent Court of Arbitration
Refugees
Treaty of Maastricht
UN Economic and Social Council
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East
United Nations System
Universal Copyright Convention
WIPO Copyright Treaty
WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty
World Health Organization
World Intellectual Property Organization
World Trade Organization
Page 112 of 198

VII. International Human
Rights Law
International Human Rights Law (IHRL) is the body of international law
designed to promote human rights on social, regional, and domestic levels. As a form of
international law, international human rights law are primarily made up of treaties,
agreements between sovereign states intended to have binding legal effect between the
parties that have agreed to them; and customary international law. Other international
human rights instruments, while not legally binding, contribute to the implementation,
understanding and development of international human rights law and have been
recognized as a source of political obligation.
The relationship between international human rights law and international humanitarian
law is disputed among international law scholars. This discussion forms part of a larger
discussion on fragmentation of international law. While pluralist scholars conceive
international human rights law as being distinct from international humanitarian law,
proponents of the constitutionalist approach regard the latter as a subset of the former.
In a nutshell, those who favors separate, self-contained regimes emphasize the
differences in applicability; international humanitarian law applies only during armed
conflict.
On the other hand, a more systemic perspective explains that international humanitarian
law represents a function of international human rights law; it includes general norms
that apply to everyone at all time as well as specialized norms which apply to certain
Page 113 of 198

situations such as armed conflict between both state and military occupation (i.e. IHL) or
to certain groups of people including refugees (e.g. the 1951 Refugee Convention),
children (the Convention on the Rights of the Child), and prisoners of war (the 1949
Third Geneva Convention).
United Nations System
The General Assembly of the United Nations adopted the Vienna Declaration and
Programme of Action in 1993, in terms of which the United Nations High Commissioner
for Human Rights was established.
In 2006, the United Nations Commission on Human Rights was replaced with the United
Nations Human Rights Council for the enforcement of international human rights law.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
International Bill of Human Rights
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a UN General Assembly
declaration that does not in form create binding international human rights law. Many
legal scholars cite the UDHR as evidence of customary international law.
More broadly, the UDHR has become an authoritative human rights reference. It has
provided the basis for subsequent international human rights instruments that form nonbinding,
but ultimately authoritative international human rights law.
International Human Rights Treaties
Besides the adoption in 1966 of the two wide-ranging Covenants that form part of the
International Bill of Human Rights (namely the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights), other treaties have been adopted at the international level. These are generally
known as human rights instruments. Some of the most significant include the following:
the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(CPCG) (adopted 1948 and entered into force in 1951);
the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (CSR) (adopted in 1951 and
entered into force in 1954);
the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD)
(adopted in 1965 and entered into force in 1969);
the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
(CEDAW) (entered into force in 1981);
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the United Nations Convention Against Torture (CAT) (adopted in 1984 and
entered into force in 1987);
the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) (adopted in 1989 and entered
into force in 1990);
the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant
Workers and Members of their Families (ICRMW) (adopted in 1990 and entered
into force in 2003);
the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) (entered into
force on 3 May 2008); and
the International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced
Disappearance (ICPPED) (adopted in 2006 and entered into force in 2010).
Regional Protection and Institutions
Regional systems of international human rights law supplement and complement
national and international human rights law by protecting and promoting human rights in
specific areas of the world. There are three key regional human rights instruments
which have established human rights law on a regional basis:
Page 115 of 198

the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights for Africa of 1981, in force
since 1986;
the American Convention on Human Rights for the Americas of 1969, in force
since 1978; and
the European Convention on Human Rights for Europe of 1950, in force since
1953.
Americas and Europe
The Organization of American States and the Council of Europe, like the UN, have
adopted treaties (albeit with weaker implementation mechanisms) containing catalogues
of economic, social and cultural rights, in addition to the aforementioned conventions
dealing mostly with civil and political rights:
the European Social Charter for Europe of 1961, in force since 1965 (whose
complaints mechanism, created in 1995 under an Additional Protocol, has been
in force since 1998); and
the Protocol of San Salvador to the ACHR for the Americas of 1988, in force
since 1999.
Africa
The African Union (AU) is a supranational union consisting of 53 African countries.
Established in 2001, the AU's purpose is to help secure Africa's democracy, human
rights, and a sustainable economy, in particular by bringing an end to intra-African
conflict and creating an effective common market.
The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights is the region's principal human
rights instrument. It emerged under the aegis of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU)
(since replaced by the African Union). The intention to draw up the African Charter on
Human and Peoples' Rights was announced in 1979. The Charter was unanimously
approved at the OAU's 1981 Assembly.
Pursuant to Article 63 (whereby it was to "come into force three months after the
reception by the Secretary General of the instruments of ratification or adherence of a
simple majority" of the OAU's member states), the African Charter on Human and
Peoples' Rights came into effect on 21 October 1986, in honour of which 21 October
was declared African Human Rights Day.
The African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights (ACHPR) is a quasi-judicial
organ of the African Union, tasked with promoting and protecting human rights and
collective (peoples') rights throughout the African continent, as well as with interpreting
the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, and considering individual
Page 116 of 198

complaints of violations of the Charter. The Commission has three broad areas of
responsibility:
1. promoting human and peoples' rights;
2. protecting human and peoples' rights; and
3. interpreting the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights.
In pursuit of these goals, the Commission is mandated to "collect documents, undertake
studies and researches on African problems in the field of human and peoples' rights,
organize seminars, symposia and conferences, disseminate information, encourage
national and local institutions concerned with human and peoples' rights and, should the
case arise, give its views or make recommendations to governments."
With the creation of the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights (under a protocol
to the Charter which was adopted in 1998 and entered into force in January 2004), the
Commission will have the additional task of preparing cases for submission to the
Court's jurisdiction. In a July 2004 decision, the AU Assembly resolved that the future
Court on Human and Peoples' Rights would be integrated with the African Court of
Justice.
The Court of Justice of the African Union is intended to be the "principal judicial organ of
the Union." Although it has not yet been established, it is intended to take over the
duties of the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights, as well as to act as
the supreme court of the African Union, interpreting all necessary laws and treaties. The
Protocol establishing the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights entered into
force in January 2004, but its merging with the Court of Justice has delayed its
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establishment. The Protocol establishing the Court of Justice will come into force when
ratified by fifteen countries.
There are many countries in Africa accused of human rights violations by the
international community and NGOs.
Inter-American System
See also: Human rights in North America and Human rights in South America
The Organization of American States (OAS) is an international organization
headquartered in Washington, DC. Its members are the thirty-five independent nationstates
of the Americas.
Over the course of the 1990s, with the end of the Cold War, the return to democracy in
Latin America, and the thrust toward globalisation, the OAS made major efforts to
reinvent itself to fit the new context. Its stated priorities now include the following:
Strengthening Democracy;
Working for Peace;
Protecting Human Rights;
Combating Corruption;
The Rights of Indigenous Peoples; And
Promoting Sustainable Development.
The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) is an autonomous organ of
the Organization of American States, also based in Washington, D.C. Along with the
Inter-American Court of Human Rights, based in San José, Costa Rica, it is one of the
bodies that comprise the inter-American system for the promotion and protection of
human rights. The IACHR is a permanent body which meets in regular and special
sessions several times a year to examine allegations of human rights violations in the
hemisphere. Its human rights duties stem from three documents:
1. the OAS Charter;
2. the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man; and
3. the American Convention on Human Rights.
The Inter-American Court of Human Rights was established in 1979 with the purpose of
enforcing and interpreting the provisions of the American Convention on Human Rights.
Its two main functions are therefore adjudicatory and advisory:
Under the former, it hears and rules on the specific cases of human rights
violations referred to it.
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Under the latter, it issues opinions on matters of legal interpretation brought to its
attention by other OAS bodies or member states.
Many countries in the Americas, including Colombia, Cuba, Mexico and Venezuela,
have been accused of human rights violations.
European System
The Council of Europe, founded in 1949, is the oldest organization working for
European integration. It is an international organization with legal personality recognized
under public international law, and has observer status at the United Nations. The seat
of the Council is in Strasbourg in France.
The Council of Europe is responsible for both the European Convention on Human
Rights and the European Court of Human Rights. These institutions bind the Council's
members to a code of human rights which, although strict, is more lenient than that of
the UN Charter on human rights.
The Council also promotes the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages
and the European Social Charter. Membership is open to all European states which
seek European integration, accept the principle of the rule of law, and are able and
willing to guarantee democracy, fundamental human rights and freedoms.
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The Council of Europe is separate from the European Union, but the latter is expected
to accede to the European Convention on Human Rights. The Council includes all the
member states of European Union. The EU also has a separate human rights
document, the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union.
The European Convention on Human Rights has since 1950 defined and guaranteed
human rights and fundamental freedoms in Europe. All 47 member states of the Council
of Europe have signed this Convention, and are therefore under the jurisdiction of the
European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg. In order to prevent torture and inhuman
or degrading treatment, the Committee for the Prevention of Torture was established.
The Council of Europe also adopted the Convention on Action against Trafficking in
Human Beings in May 2005, for protection against human trafficking and sexual
exploitation, the Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children against
Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse in October 2007, and the Convention on
preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence in May 2011.
The European Court of Human Rights is the only international court with jurisdiction to
deal with cases brought by individuals rather than states. In early 2010, the court had a
backlog of over 120,000 cases and a multi-year waiting list. About one out of every
twenty cases submitted to the court is considered admissible. In 2007, the court issued
1,503 verdicts. At the current rate of proceedings, it would take 46 years for the backlog
to clear.
Monitoring, Implementation and Enforcement
There is currently no international court to administer international human rights law, but
quasi-judicial bodies exist under some UN treaties (like the Human Rights Committee
under the ICCPR). The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction over the crime
of genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. The European Court of Human
Rights and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights enforce regional human rights
law.
Although these same international bodies also hold jurisdiction over cases regarding
international humanitarian law, it is crucial to recognize, as discussed above, that the
two frameworks constitute different legal regimes.
The United Nations human rights bodies do have some quasi-legal enforcement
mechanisms. These include the treaty bodies attached to the seven currently active
treaties, and the United Nations Human Rights Council complaints procedures, with
Universal Periodic Review and United Nations Special Rapporteur (known as the 1235
and 1503 mechanisms respectively).
The enforcement of international human rights law is the responsibility of the nation
state; it is the primary responsibility of the State to make the human rights of its citizens
a reality.
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In practice, many human rights are difficult to enforce legally, due to the absence of
consensus on the application of certain rights, the lack of relevant national legislation or
of bodies empowered to take legal action to enforce them.
In over 110 countries, national human rights institutions (NHRIs) have been set up to
protect, promote or monitor human rights with jurisdiction in a given country. Although
not all NHRIs are compliant with the Paris Principles, the number and effect of these
institutions is increasing.
The Paris Principles were defined at the first International Workshop on National
Institutions for the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights in Paris from 7 to 9
October 1991, and adopted by UN Human Rights Commission Resolution 1992/54 of
1992 and General Assembly Resolution 48/134 of 1993. The Paris Principles list a
number of responsibilities for national human rights institutions.
Universal Jurisdiction
Universal jurisdiction is a controversial principle in international law, whereby states
claim criminal jurisdiction over people whose alleged crimes were committed outside the
boundaries of the prosecuting state, regardless of nationality, country of residence or
any other relationship to the prosecuting country. The state backs its claim on the
grounds that the crime committed is considered a crime against all, which any state is
authorised to punish. The concept of universal jurisdiction is therefore closely linked to
the idea that certain international norms are erga omnes, or owed to the entire world
community, as well as the concept of jus cogens.
In 1993, Belgium passed a "law of universal jurisdiction" to give its courts jurisdiction
over crimes against humanity in other countries. In 1998, Augusto Pinochet was
arrested in London following an indictment by Spanish judge Baltasar Garzón under the
universal-jurisdiction principle.
The principle is supported by Amnesty International and other human rights
organisations, which believe that certain crimes pose a threat to the international
community as a whole, and that the community has a moral duty to act.
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Others, like Henry Kissinger, argue that "widespread agreement that human rights
violations and crimes against humanity must be prosecuted has hindered active
consideration of the proper role of international courts. Universal jurisdiction risks
creating universal tyranny—that of judges".
________
International
Nongovernmental Organizations
A
Accountable Now
Assyrian Confederation of Europe
Austrian Holocaust Memorial Service
C
Carbon War Room
Cesvi
Child Helpline International
Commission on Accreditation of Rehabilitation Facilities
Conference of NGOs
D
Digital Humanitarian Network
G
Girls Not Brides
Global High-Level Panel on Water and Peace
Global Infrastructure Basel Foundation
Global Leadership Foundation
H
The Human Library
I
IEEE Rebooting Computing
Initiatives of Change
Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre
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International Alert
International Committee for Robot Arms Control
International Council of Organizations of Folklore Festivals and Folk Arts
International Foundation for Electoral Systems
International Ice Hockey Federation
International Police Association
International Raoul Wallenberg Foundation
International Rescue Committee
International Solidarity Movement
International Tiger Coalition
Interpeace
L
La Strada International Association
M
Club of Madrid
Mercy-USA
Messiah Foundation International
N
Network for Integrity in Reconstruction
Norwegian Refugee Council
O
Organization for International Economic Relations
P
Panos Network
Project Harmony (organization)
Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs
R
The Rebuilding Alliance
S
Saferworld
Service Civil International
Soroptimist International
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South American Initiative
U
UK India Business Council
UNOY Peacebuilders
Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization
V
Via Campesina
W
World Committee Against War and Fascism
World Cultural Council
World Federalist Movement
World Justice Project
World Veterans Federation
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VIII. International
Legal Systems
The Contemporary Legal Systems of The World are generally
based on one of four basic systems: civil law, common law, statutory law, religious law
or combinations of these. However, the legal system of each country is shaped by its
unique history and so incorporates individual variations. The science that studies Law at
the level of legal systems is called Comparative Law.
Both civil (also known as Roman) and common law systems can be considered the
most widespread in the world: civil law because it is the most widespread by landmass,
and common law because it is employed by the greatest number of people.
Civil Law
The central source of law that is recognized as authoritative is codifications in a
constitution or statute passed by legislature, to amend a code. While the concept of
codification dates back to the Code of Hammurabi in Babylon ca. 1790 BC, civil law
systems derive from the Roman Empire and, more particularly, the Corpus Juris Civilis
issued by the Emperor Justinian ca. AD 529. This was an extensive reform of the law in
the Byzantine Empire, bringing it together into codified documents. Civil law was also
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partly influenced by religious laws such as Canon law and Islamic law. Civil law today,
in theory, is interpreted rather than developed or made by judges. Only legislative
enactments (rather than legal precedents, as in common law) are considered legally
binding.
Scholars of comparative law and economists promoting the legal origins theory usually
subdivide civil law into four distinct groups:
French Civil Law: in France, the Benelux countries, Italy, Romania, Spain and
former colonies of those countries;
German Civil Law: in Germany, Austria, Russia, Switzerland, Estonia, Latvia,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo*, Macedonia, Montenegro, Slovenia,
Serbia, Greece, Portugal and its former colonies, Turkey, and East Asian
countries including Japan, Thailand, South Korea and Taiwan (Republic of
China);
Scandinavian Civil Law: in Denmark, Norway and Sweden. As historically
integrated in the Scandinavian cultural sphere, Finland and Iceland also inherited
the system.
Chinese Law: a mixture of civil law and socialist law in use in the People's
Republic of China.
However, some of these legal systems are often and more correctly said to be of hybrid
nature:
Napoleonic to Germanistic influence (Italian civil law)
The Italian civil code of 1942 replaced the original one of 1865, introducing germanistic
elements due to the geopolitical alliances of the time. The Italian approach has been
imitated by other countries including the Netherlands (1992), Argentina (2014), Brazil
(2002) and Portugal (1966). Most of them have innovations introduced by the Italian
legislation, including the unification of the civil and commercial codes.
Germanistic to Napoleonic influence (Swiss civil law)
The Swiss civil code is considered mainly influenced by the German civil code and
partly influenced by the French civil code.
The civil code of the Republic of Turkey is a slightly modified version of the Swiss code,
adopted in 1926 during Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's presidency as part of the government's
progressive reforms and secularization.
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A comprehensive list of countries that base their legal system on a codified civil law
follows:
Country
Albania
Angola
Argentina
Description
Based on Napoleonic Civil law. The Civil Code of the Republic of Albania, 1991
Based on Portuguese civil law
The Spanish legal tradition had a great influence on the Civil Code of Argentina, basically a work of the
Argentine jurist Dalmacio Vélez Sársfield, who dedicated five years of his life on this task. The Civil
Code came into effect on 1 January 1871. Beyond the influence of the Spanish legal tradition, the
Argentinian Civil Code was also inspired by the Draft of the Brazilian Civil Code, the Draft of the
Spanish Civil Code of 1851, the Napoleonic code and the Chilean Civil Code. The sources of this Civil
Code also include various theoretical legal works, mainly of the great French jurists of the 19th century.
It was the first Civil Law that consciously adopted as its cornerstone the distinction between i. rights
from obligations and ii. real property rights, thus distancing itself from the French model.
The Argentinian Civil Code was also in effect in Paraguay, as per a Paraguayan law of 1880, until the
new Civil Code went in force in 1987.
In Argentina, this 1871 Civil Code remained in force until August 2015, when it was replaced by the new
Código Civil y Comercial de la Nación.
Andorra
Armenia
Aruba
Austria
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Belgium
Benin
Bolivia
Bosnia
Herzegovina
Brazil
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Chad
and
People's Republic
of China
Republic of the
Congo
Democratic
Republic of the Congo
Cote d'Ivoire
Cambodia
Cape Verde
Central
Republic
Chile
African
During the second half of the 20th century, the German legal theory became increasingly influential in
Argentina.
Courts apply the customary laws of Andorra, supplemented with Roman law and customary Catalan
law.
Based on Napoleonic Civil law. The Legal System of Armenia
Based on Dutch civil law
Based on Germanic Civil law. The Allgemeines bürgerliches Gesetzbuch (ABGB) of 1811
Based on German, French, Russian and traditional Azerbaijani Law
Based on Germanic Civil law
The Napoleonic Code is still in use, although it is heavily modified (especially concerning family law)
Based on Napoleonic Civil law.
Influenced by the Napoleonic Code
Influenced by Austrian law. The Swiss civil law (Zivilgesetzbuch) was a model for the Law on
Obligations of 1978.
Based on the German, Italian, French and Portuguese doctrine and codes. However, in 2004 the
Federal Supreme Court (STF) have gained the authority to create binding precedents (súmulas
vinculantes) about Constitutional norms whose validity,interpretation and eficacy are controversial
among the judiciary organs or among these and the public administration. Such controversy must cause
juridical unsafety and relevant multiplication of prossecutions about an identical theme for a binding
precedent to be created. The STF is the only court in Brazil with such attribution.
Civil Law system influenced by Germanic and Roman law systems
Based on Germanic Civil law with influences from the Soviet Socialist from Soviet Union
Based on the Napoleonic Civil law.
Based on Belgian civil law
Based on Portuguese civil law
Based on the Chilean Civil Law inspired by the Napoleonic Civil Law. The Spanish legal tradition
exercised an especially great influence on the civil code of Chile. On its turn, the Chilean civil code
influenced to a large degree the drafting of the civil codes of other Latin-American states. For instance,
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the codes of Ecuador (1861) and Colombia (1873) constituted faithful reproductions of the Chilean
code, but for very few exceptions. The compiler of the Civil Code of Chile, Venezuelan Andrés Bello,
worked for its completion for almost 30 years, using elements, of the Spanish law on the one hand, and
of other Western laws, especially of the French one, on the other. Indeed, it is noted that he consulted
and used all of the codes that had been issued till then, starting from the era of Justinian.
Colombia
Costa Rica
Croatia
Cuba
Curaçao
Czech Republic
Denmark
Dominican
Republic
Ecuador
El Salvador
Estonia
Finland
France
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Ethiopia
Gabon
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Georgia
Germany
Greece
The Civil Code came into effect on 1 January 1857. The influence of the Napoleonic code and the Law
of Castile of the Spanish colonial period (especially the Siete Partidas), is great; it is observed however
that e.g. in many provisions of property or contract law, the solutions of the French code civil were put
aside in favor of pure Roman law or Castilian law.
Based on the Chilean Civil Law. Civil code introduced in 1873. Nearly faithful reproduction of the
Chilean civil code
Based on the Napoleonic Civil Law. First Civil Code (a part of the General Code or Carrillo Code) came
into effect in 1841; its text was inspired by the South Peruvian Civil Code of Marshal Andres de Santa
Cruz. The present Civil Code went into effect 1 January 1888, and was influenced by the Napoleonic
Code and the Spanish Civil Code of 1889 (from its 1851 draft version).
Based on the Germanic Civil Law. Croatian Law system is largely influenced by German and Austrian
law systems. It is significantly influenced by the Civil Code of the Austrian Empire from 1811, known in
Croatia as "General Civil Law" ("Opći građanski zakon"). OGZ was in force from 1853 to 1946. The
Independent State of Croatia, a Nazi-controlled puppet state that was established in 1941 during World
War II, used the OGZ as a basis for the 1943 "Base of the Civil Code for the Independent State of
Croatia" ("Osnova građanskoga zakona za Nezavisnu Državu Hrvatsku"). After the War, Croatia
become a member of the Yugoslav Federation which enacted in 1946 the "Law on immediate voiding of
regulations passed before April 6, 1941 and during the enemy occupation" ("Zakon o nevaženju pravnih
propisa donesenih prije 6. travnja 1941. i za vrijeme neprijateljske okupacije"). By this law OGZ was
declared invalid as a whole, but implementation of some of its legal rules was approved. During the
post-War era, the Croatian legal system become influenced by elements of the socialist law. Croatian
civil law was pushed aside, and it took norms of public law and legal regulation of the social ownership.
After Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia on June 25, 1991, the previous legal system was
used as a base for writing new laws. "The Law on Obligations" ("Zakon o obveznim odnosima") was
enacted in 2005. Today, Croatia as a European union member state implements elements of the EU
acquis into its legal system.
Influenced by Spanish and American law with large elements of Communist legal theory.
Based on Dutch Civil Law.
Based on Germanic civil law. Descended from the Civil Code of the Austrian Empire (1811), influenced
by German (1939–45) and Soviet (1947/68–89) legal codes during occupation periods, substantially
reformed to remove Soviet influence and elements of socialist law after the Velvet Revolution (1989).
The new Civil Code of the Czech Republic was introduced in 2014.
Based on Nordic law. Scandinavian-German civil law
Based by the Napoleonic Code
Based on the Chilean civil law. Civil code introduced in 1861.
Based on German civil law.
Based on Nordic law.
Based on Napoleonic code (code civil of 1804)
Based on Napoleonic civil law and Islamic law.
Based on French civil law system, customary law, and decree
Based on Portuguese civil law
Based on Germanic civil law. The Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch of 1900 ("BGB"). The BGB is influenced
both by Roman and German law traditions.
Based on Germanic civil law. The Greek civil code of 1946, highly influenced by traditional Roman law
and the German civil code of 1900 (Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch); the Greek civil code replaced the
Byzantine–Roman civil law in effect in Greece since its independence (Νομική Διάταξη της Ανατολικής
Χέρσου Ελλάδος, Legal Provision of Eastern Mainland Greece, November 1821: 'Οι Κοινωνικοί Νόμοι
των Αειμνήστων Χριστιανών Αυτοκρατόρων της Ελλάδος μόνοι ισχύουσι κατά το παρόν εις την
Ανατολικήν Χέρσον Ελλάδα', 'The Social [i.e. Civil] Laws of the Dear Departed Christian Emperors of
Greece [referring to the Byzantine Emperors] alone are in effect at present in Eastern Mainland
Greece')
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Guatemala
Based on Napoleonic civil law. Guatemala has had three Civil Codes: the first one from 1877, a new
one introduced in 1933, and the one currently in force, which was passed in 1963. This Civil Code has
suffered some reforms throughout the years, as well as a few derogations relating to areas which have
subsequently been regulated by newer laws, such as the Code of Commerce and the Law of the
National Registry of Persons. In general, it follows the tradition of the Roman-French system of civil
codification.
Haiti
Honduras
Hungary
Iceland
India (only Goa,
Daman and Diu and
Dadra and Nagar
Haveli)
Italy
Japan
Latvia
Lebanon
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Libya
Macau
Mauritius
Mexico
Mongolia
Montenegro
Mozambique
Netherlands
Nepal
Norway
Regarding the theory of 'sources of law' in the Guatemalan legal system, the 'Ley del Organismo
Judicial' recognizes 'the law' as the main legal source (in the sense of legislative texts), although it also
establishes 'jurisprudence' as a complementary source. Although jurisprudence technically refers to
judicial decisions in general, in practice it tends to be confused and identified with the concept of 'legal
doctrine', which is a qualified series of identical resolutions in similar cases pronounced by higher courts
(the Constitutional Court acting as a 'Tribunal de Amparo', and the Supreme Court acting as a 'Tribunal
de Casación') whose theses become binding for lower courts.
Based on Napoleonic civil law.
Based on Germanic, codified Roman law with elements from Napoleonic civil law.
Based on Nordic law. Germanic traditional laws and influenced by Medieval Norwegian and Danish
laws.
Based on Portuguese civil law
Based on Germanic civil law, with elements of the Napoleonic civil code; civil code of 1942 replaced the
original one of 1865
Based on Germanic civil law. Japanese civil code of 1895.
Based on Napoleonic and German civil law, as it was historically before the Soviet occupation. While
general principles of law are prerequisites in making and interpreting the law, case law is also regularly
applied to present legal arguments in courts and explain application of law in similar cases. Civil law
largely modeled after Napoleonic code mixed with strong elements of German civil law. Criminal law
retains Russian and German legal traditions, while criminal procedure law has been fully modeled after
practice accepted in Western Europe. Civil law of Latvia enacted on 1937.
Based on Napoleonic civil law.
Modeled after Dutch civil law
Based on Napoleonic civil law.
Based on Napoleonic civil law, with Ottoman, Italian, and Egyptian sources
Based on the Portuguese civil law; also influenced by the law of the PRC
Based on Napoleonic civil law."The origins of Mexico's legal system are both ancient and classical,
based on the Roman and French legal systems, and the Mexican system shares more in common with
other legal systems throughout the world (especially those in Latin America and most of continental
Europe) ..."
Based on Germanic civil law.
Based on Napoleonic and German civil law. First: the General Property Code for the Principality of
Montenegro of 1888, written by Valtazar Bogišić. Present: the Law on Obligations of 2008.
Based on Portuguese civil law
Based on Napoleonic code with German law influence
Based on Civil Code
Scandinavian-German civil law. King Magnus VI the Lawmender unified the regional laws into a single
code of law for the whole kingdom in 1274. This was replaced by Christian V's Norwegian Code of
1687.
Panama
Paraguay
The Paraguayan Civil Code in force since 1987 is largely influenced by the Napoleonic Code and the
Argentinian Code
Peru
Based on civil law system; accepts compulsory International Court of Justice ICJ jurisdiction with
despotic and corrupting reservations;
Poland The Polish Civil Code in force since 1965
Portugal
Influenced by the Napoleonic Code and later by the German Civil Law
Taiwan (Republic
Influenced by German Civil Code. Enacted in 1931.
of China)
Romania
Civil Code came into force in 2011. Based on the Civil Code of Quebec, but also influenced by the
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Russia
Rwanda
São Tomé e
Príncipe
Serbia
Slovakia
Slovenia
South Korea
Spain
Suriname
Sweden
Switzerland
Timor-Leste
Turkey
Ukraine
United States –
Louisiana
Uruguay
Uzbekistan
Vietnam
Venezuela
Napoleonic Code and other French-inspired codes (such as those of Italy, Spain and Switzerland)
Civil Law system descendant from Roman Law through Byzantine tradition. Heavily influenced by
German and Dutch norms in 1700–1800s. Socialist-style modification in 1900s, and Continental
European Law influences since 1990s.
Mixture of Belgian civil law and English common law
Based on Portuguese civil law
First: the Civil Code of Principality of Serbia of 1844, written by Jovan Hadžić, was influenced by the
Austrian Civil Code (Allgemeines bürgerliches Gesetzbuch). Present: The Swiss civil law
(Zivilgesetzbuch) was a model for the Law on Obligations of 1978.
Descended from the Civil Code of the Austrian Empire (1811), influenced by German (1939–45) and
Soviet (1947/68–89) legal codes during occupation periods, substantially reformed to remove Soviet
influence and elements of socialist law after the Velvet Revolution (1989).
A Civil Law system influenced mostly by Germanic and Austro-Hungarian law systems
Based on German civil law system. Also largely influenced by Japanese civil law which itself modelled
after German one. Korean Civil Code was introduced 1958 and fully enacted by 1960.
Influenced by the Napoleonic Code, it also has some elements of Spain's legal tradition, starting with
the Siete Partidas, a major legislative achievement from the Middle Ages. That body of law remained
more or less unchanged until the 19th century, when the first civil codes were drafted, merging both the
Napoleonic style with the Castilian traditions.
Based on Dutch civil law
Scandinavian-German civil law. Like all Scandinavian legal systems, it is distinguished by its traditional
character and for the fact that it did not adopt elements of Roman law. It is indeed worth mentioning that
it assimilated very few elements of foreign laws whatsoever. It is also interesting that the Napoleonic
Code had no influence in codification of law in Scandinavia. The historical basis of the law of Sweden,
just as for all Nordic countries, is Old German law. Codification of the law started in Sweden during the
18th century, preceding the codifications of most other European countries. However, neither Sweden,
nor any other Nordic state created a civil code of the kind of the Code Civil or the BGB.
The Swiss Civil Code of 1908 and 1912 (obligations; fifth book)
Based on Portuguese civil law
Modeled after the Swiss civil law (Zivilgesetzbuch) of 1907.
Civil Code of Ukraine of 2004
Law in the state of Louisiana is based on French and Spanish civil law
Federal courts and 49 states use the legal system based on English common law (see below), which
has diverged somewhat since the mid-nineteenth century in that they look to each other's cases for
guidance on issues of first impression and rarely, if ever, look at contemporary cases on the same issue
in the UK or the Commonwealth.
Represents an evolution of Soviet civil law. Overwhelmingly strong impact of the Communist legal
theory is traceable.
Communist legal theory and French civil law
Civil law
Common Law
Common law and equity (legal concept) are systems of law whose sources are the
decisions in cases by judges. In addition, every system will have a legislature that
passes new laws and statutes. The relationships between statutes and judicial
decisions can be complex. In some jurisdictions, such statutes may overrule judicial
decisions or codify the topic covered by several contradictory or ambiguous decisions.
In some jurisdictions, judicial decisions may decide whether the jurisdiction's
constitution allowed a particular statute or statutory provision to be made or what
meaning is contained within the statutory provisions. Statutes were allowed to be made
by the government. Common law developed in England, influenced by Anglo-Saxon law
and to a much lesser extent by the Norman conquest of England, which introduced legal
concepts from Norman law, which, in turn, had its origins in Salic law. Common law was
later inherited by the Commonwealth of Nations, and almost every former colony of the
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British Empire has adopted it (Malta being an exception). The doctrine of stare decisis,
also known as case law or precedent by courts, is the major difference to codified civil
law systems.
Common law is currently in practice in Ireland, most of the United Kingdom (England
and Wales and Northern Ireland), Australia, New Zealand, Bangladesh, India (excluding
Goa), Pakistan, South Africa, Canada (excluding Quebec), Hong Kong, the United
States (on a state level excluding Louisiana), and many other places. In addition to
these countries, several others have adapted the common law system into a mixed
system. For example, Nigeria operates largely on a common law system, but
incorporates religious law.
In the European Union, the Court of Justice takes an approach mixing civil law (based
on the treaties) with an attachment to the importance of case law. One of the most
fundamental documents to shape common law is the English Magna Carta, which
placed limits on the power of the English Kings. It served as a kind of medieval bill of
rights for the aristocracy and the judiciary who developed the law.
Country
American Samoa
Antigua and Barbuda
Australia
Bahamas
Bangladesh
Based on law of the United States
Based on English common law
Description
Based on English common law. Some Indigenous Aboriginal laws are partially
recognised in the system.
Based on English common law
Based on English common law, with family law heavily based on Shar'iah law.
Barbados
Based on English common law
Belize
Based on English common law
Bhutan
Based on English common law, with Indian influence. Religious law influences personal
law.
British Virgin Islands
Based on English common law
Canada Based on English common law, except in Quebec, where a civil law system based
on French law prevails in most matters of a civil nature, such as obligations (contract
and delict), property law, family law and private matters. Federal statutes take into
account the bijuridical nature of Canada and use both common law and civil law terms
where appropriate.
Cayman Islands
Based on English common law
Cyprus
Based on English common law as inherited from British colonisation, with civil law
influences, particularly in criminal law.
Dominica
Based on English common law
England and Wales Primarily common law, with early Roman and some modern continental European
influences
(UK)
Fiji
Based on English common law
Gibraltar
Based on English common law
Ghana
Grenada
Hong Kong
India
Ireland
Israel
Jamaica
Kiribati
Based on English common law
Principally based on English common law
Based on English common law, except in Goa, Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar
Haveli which follow a Civil law system based on the Portuguese Civil Law
Based on Irish law before 1922, which was itself based on English common law
Based on English common law from the period of the British Mandate (that includes
laws from Ottoman Empire time), also incorporating civil law and fragments of Halakha
and Sharia for family law cases
Based on English common law
Based on English common law
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Liberia
Marshall Islands
Myanmar
Nauru
Nepal
New Zealand
Northern
Ireland
(UK)
Palau
Pakistan [20]
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Singapore
Tonga
Trinidad and Tobago
Tuvalu
Uganda
United States
Based on Anglo-American and customary law
Based on law of the United States
Based on English common law
Based on English common law
Based on English common law
Based on English common law
Based on Irish law before 1921, in turn based on English common law
Based on law of the United States
Based on English common law with some provisions of Islamic law
Based on English common law
Based on English common law
Based on English common law, but Muslims are subject to the Administration of Muslim
Law Act, which gives the Sharia Court jurisdiction over Muslim personal law, e.g.,
marriage, inheritance and divorce.
Based on English common law
Based on English common law
Based on English common law
Based on English common law
Federal courts and 49 states use the legal system based on English common law, which
has diverged somewhat since the mid-nineteenth century in that they look to each
other's cases for guidance on issues of first impression and rarely, if ever, look at
contemporary cases on the same issue in the UK or the Commonwealth.
Law in the state of Louisiana is based on French and Spanish civil law (see above)
Religious Law
Religious law refers to the notion of a religious system or document being used as a
legal source, though the methodology used varies. For example, the use of Jewish and
Halakha for public law has a static and unalterable quality, precluding amendment
through legislative acts of government or development through judicial precedent;
Christian Canon law is more similar to civil law in its use of codes; and Islamic Sharia
law (and Fiqh jurisprudence) is based on legal precedent and reasoning by analogy
(Qiyas), and is thus considered similar to common law.
The main kinds of religious law are Sharia in Islam, Halakha in Judaism, and canon law
in some Christian groups. In some cases these are intended purely as individual moral
guidance, whereas in other cases they are intended and may be used as the basis for a
country's legal system. The latter was particularly common during the Middle Ages.
The Halakha is followed by orthodox and conservative Jews in both ecclesiastical and
civil relations. No country is fully governed by Halakha, but two Jewish people may
decide, because of personal belief, to have a dispute heard by a Jewish court, and be
bound by its rulings.
The Islamic legal system of Sharia (Islamic law) and Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) is the
most widely used religious law, and one of the three most common legal systems in the
world alongside common law and civil law. It is based on both divine law, derived from
the Qur'an and Sunnah, and the rulings of Ulema (jurists), who used the methods of
Ijma (consensus), Qiyas (analogical deduction), Ijtihad (research) and Urf (common
practice) to derive Fatwā (legal opinions). An Ulema was required to qualify for an
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Ijazah (legal doctorate) at a Madrasa (law school/college) before they could issue
Fatwā. During the Islamic Golden Age, classical Islamic law may have had an influence
on the development of common law and several civil law institutions. Sharia law
governs a number of Islamic countries, including Saudi Arabia and Iran, though most
countries use Sharia law only as a supplement to national law. It can relate to all
aspects of civil law, including property rights, contracts or public law.
Country
Afghanistan
Egypt
The Gambia
Iran
Libya
Mauritania
Morocco
Nigeria
Oman
Saudi Arabia
Sudan
Yemen
Description
Islamic law & American/British law after invasion
Islamic law is ensured in Article 2 of the Egyptian constitution.
English common law, Islamic law and customary law
Shia Islamic law
Islamic law
mix of Islamic law and French Civil Codes, Islamic law largely applicable to
family law.
mix of Islamic law and French Civil Codes, Islamic law largely applicable to
family law. Halakha recognized to family law cases for Jewish citizens.
Sharia in the northern states, common law in the south and at the federal
level.
Sharia and tribal custom laws
Islamic law
Based on Islamic law
Islamic law
Pluralistic Systems
Civil Law and Canon Law
Canon law is not divine law, properly speaking, because it is not found in revelation.
Instead, it is seen as human law inspired by the word of God and applying the demands
of that revelation to the actual situation of the church. Canon law regulates the internal
ordering of the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Anglican
Communion. Canon law is amended and adapted by the legislative authority of the
church, such as councils of bishops, individual bishops for their respective sees, the
Pope for the entire Catholic Church, and the British Parliament for the Church of
England.
Vatican City
Country
Description
Based on Roman, Italian, and Catholic canon law
Civil Law and Common Law
Country
Botswana
Cameroon
Cyprus
Description
Based on South African law. An 1891 proclamation by the High Commissioner for Southern Africa
applied the law of the Cape Colony (now part of South Africa) to the Bechuanaland Protectorate (now
Botswana).
Based on English common law (Cyprus was a British colony 1878–1960), with admixtures of French and
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Guyana
Jersey
Lesotho
Louisiana
(U.S.)
Malta
Mauritius
Namibia
Philippines
Puerto
(U.S.)
Quebec
(Canada)
Saint Lucia
Scotland
(UK)
Seychelles
South Africa
Sri Lanka
Swaziland
Thailand
Vanuatu
Zimbabwe
Rico
Greek civil and public law, Italian civil law, Indian contract law, Greek Orthodox canon law, Muslim
religious law, and Ottoman civil law.
The Bailiwick of Jersey's legal system draws on local legislation enacted by the States of Jersey,
Norman customary law, English common law and modern French civil law
Based on South African law. An 1884 proclamation by the High Commissioner for Southern Africa
applied the law of the Cape Colony (now part of South Africa) to Basutoland (now Lesotho).
Based on French and Spanish civil law, but federal laws (based on common law) are also in effect in
Louisiana because of federal Supremacy Clause.
Initially based on Roman Law and eventually progressed to the Code de Rohan, the Napoleonic Code
with influences from Italian Civil Law. English common law however is also a source of Maltese Law,
most notably in Public Law
Laws governing the Mauritian penal system are derived partly from French civil law and British common
law.
Based on South African law. South Africa conquered South-West Africa (now Namibia) in 1915, and a
1919 proclamation by the Governor-General applied the law of the Cape Province of South Africa to the
territory.
Based on Spanish law; influenced by U.S. common law after 1898 Spanish– and Philippine–American
Wars, personal law based on sharia law applies to Muslims
Based on Spanish law; influenced by U.S. common law after 1898 (victory of the U.S. over Spain in the
Spanish–American War of 1898 and cession of Puerto Rico to the U.S.); federal laws (based on
common law) are in effect because of federal Supremacy Clause.
After the 1763 Treaty of Paris awarded French Canada to Great Britain, the British initially attempted to
impose English Common Law, but in response to the deteriorating political situation in the nearby
Thirteen Colonies, the Quebec Act was passed in 1774, which allowed a mix of English Common Law
and customary civil law, based on the Coutume de Paris. Codification occurred in 1866 with the
enactment of the Civil Code of Lower Canada, which continued in force when the modern Province of
Quebec was created at Confederation in 1867. Canadian federal law in force in Quebec is based on
common law, but federal statutes also take into account the bijuridical nature of Canada and use both
common law and civil law terms where appropriate.
Based on Roman and continental law, with common law elements dating back to the High Middle Ages.
The substantive civil law is based on the French Civil Code. Otherwise the criminal law and court
procedure are based on the English common law. See Seychelles Legal Environment.
An amalgam of Roman-Dutch civil law and English common law, as well as Customary Law.
An amalgam of English common law, Roman-Dutch civil law and Customary Law
Based on South African law. A 1907 proclamation by the High Commissioner for Southern Africa applied
the Roman-Dutch common law of the Transvaal Colony (now part of South Africa) to Swaziland.
The Thai legal system became an amalgam of German, Swiss, French, English, Japanese, Italian, and
Indian laws and practices. Even today, Islamic laws and practices exist in four southern provinces. Over
the years, Thai law has naturally taken on its own Thai identity.
Consists of a mixed system combining the legacy of English common law, French civil law and
indigenous customary law.
Based on South African law. An 1891 proclamation by the High Commissioner for Southern Africa
applied the law of the Cape Colony (now part of South Africa) to Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe).
Civil Law and Sharia Law
Country
Afghanistan
Algeria
Bahrain
Comoros
Djibouti
Egypt
Eritrea
Jordan
Morocco
Oman
Qatar
Description
Family Law (personal Statute) for Muslims based on Islamic Jurisprudence, Separate Personal
Statute for non Muslims, and all other branches of Law are based on French civil law system
Mainly based on French Civil Code and Ottoman Majalla, Islamic law applicable to family law
Based on Islamic law and French and Spanish civil law system
Based on Islamic law and Egyptian civil law system (after the French civil law system)
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Syria
United Arab Emirates
Based on Islamic law and French civil law system
Based on Islamic law and Egyptian civil law system (after the French civil law system)
Common Law and Sharia Law
Country
Bangladesh
Brunei
Gambia
Malaysia
Nigeria
Pakistan
United Arab Emirates
Description
Common law, personal law based on sharia law applies to Muslims
Based on English common law, personal law based on sharia law applies to Muslims
Sharia is applied in some northern states
Based on English Common Law, some Islamic law applications in inheritance. Tribal Law in FATA
Based on Common law system in the Dubai International Financial Center (DIFC Courts) and Abu
Dhabi Global Market (ADGM) Courts (after the English Common law system)
Hybrid Law
India
Country
Indonesia
Description
The most prominent example of a hybrid legal system is the Indian legal system. India follows a mixture
of civil, common law and customary or religious law. Separate personal law codes apply to Muslims,
Christians, and Hindus. Decisions by the Supreme Court of India and High Courts are binding on the
lower courts. Further, most of the laws are statutory and it also has a constitution which signifies the Civil
nature of law in India. Ethiopia also follows this system.
Based on civil law of The Netherlands and adat (cultural law of Indonesia)
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Perceptions
Despite the usefulness of different classifications, every legal system has its own
individual identity. Below are groups of legal systems, categorized by their geography.
Click the "expand" buttons on the right for the lists of countries. Some studies show that
ethnic minorities are more likely to feel that the legal system within their particular
jurisdiction is unfair and unjust. People with mental health issues, particularly young
ones are also likely to have a low opinion of the justice system.
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IX. International Treatises
This List of Treaties contains known historic agreements, pacts, peaces, and
major contracts between states, armies, governments, and tribal groups.
Before AD 1200
Year Name Summary
c. 2100 (Lagash and Umma of Border agreement between the rulers of the city-states of Lagash and Umma in
BC Mesopotamia)
Mesopotamia, inscribed on a stone block, setting a prescribed boundary between their
two states.
c.
1259 BC
Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty Treaty between the Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II and the Hittite monarch Hattusili III
after the Battle of Kadesh.
c. 493 Foedus Cassianum
Ends the war between the Roman Republic and the Latin League.
BC
c. 450 Peace of Callias
Ends the Persian Wars.
BC
445 BC Thirty Years' Peace Ends the First Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta.
421 BC Peace of Nicias Athens and Sparta end the first phase of the Peloponnesian War.
387 BC Peace of Antalcidas Sets the boundaries of Greek and Persian territory.
241 BC Treaty of Lutatius Ends the First Punic War.
226 BC Ebro Treaty Establishes the Ebro River in Iberia as the boundary line between the Roman Republic
and Carthage.
215 BC Macedonian–Carthaginian
Treaty
Establishes an anti-Roman alliance between Philip V of Macedon and Hannibal of
Carthage.
205 BC Treaty of Phoenice Ends the First Macedonian War.
196 BC Treaty of Tempe Ends the Second Macedonian War.
188 BC Treaty of Apamea Between the Roman Republic and Antiochus III (the Great), ruler of the Seleucid
Empire.
161 BC Roman–Jewish Treaty Establishes friendship between Judas Maccabeus and the Roman Republic.
85 BC Treaty of Dardanos Ends the First Mithridatic War.
387 Peace of Acilisene Between the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire and the Sassanian Persian Empire.
532 The Eternal Peace Between the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire and the Sassanian Persian Empire.
562 The Fifty-Year Peace Between the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire and the Sassanian Persian Empire.
587 Treaty of Andelot Between Frankish rulers Guntram and Brunhilda; Guntram adopts Brunhilda's son
Childebert II.
628 Treaty of Hudaybiyyah Between Muslims and the Quraish.
638 Ili River Treaty Between Eastern Turks and the Western Turks (Onok).
641 The Bakt Between Nubia and Egypt.
713 Treaty of Orihuela Establishes a dhimmi over the Christian inhabitants of Orihuela.
716 Byzantine–Bulgarian Treaty
of 716
Officially ends the Battle of Anchialus and establishes the borders between Byzantium
and the Bulgarian Empire.
783 Peace treaty between China Peace treaty between Tang China and the Tibetan Empire.
and Tibet (783) (fr)
803 Pax Nicephori Peace between Charlemagne and the Byzantine Empire; recognizes Venice as
Byzantine territory.
811 Treaty of Heiligen Sets the southern boundary of Denmark at the Eider River.
815 Byzantine–Bulgarian Treaty
of 815
Ends prolonged series of conflicts between the Bulgarian Empire and the Byzantine
Empire in Bulgarian favor.
822 Peace treaty between China ends a conflict between China and Tibet
and Tibet (822) (fr)
836 Pactum Sicardi Peace between the Duchy of Naples and the Principality of Salerno under Sicard.
843 Treaty of Verdun Partitions the Carolingian Empire.
870 Treaty of Mersen Further partitions the Carolingian Empire.
878–890 Treaty of Alfred and Between Alfred of Wessex and Guthrum, the Viking ruler of East Anglia.
Guthrum
907 Rus'–Byzantine Treaty (907) Regulates the status of the colony of Rus' merchants in Constantinople.
911 Rus'–Byzantine Treaty (911) Between the Byzantine Empire and Kievan Rus'.
Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur- Charles the Simple grants Normandy to Rollo.
Epte
921 Treaty of Bonn West Francia and East Francia both recognize each other.
945 Rus'–Byzantine Treaty (945) Between the Byzantine Empire and Kievan Rus'.
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1004 Chanyuan Treaty Establishes relations between the Northern Song and Liao Dynasties.
1013 Peace of Merseburg Between Holy Roman Emperor Henry II and Duke Bolesław I the Brave of Poland.
1018 Peace of Bautzen Between Holy Roman Emperor Henry II and Duke Bolesław I the Brave of Poland.
1031 Peace of Bautzen Between Holy Roman Emperor Conrad II and Duke Mieszko II of Poland.
1033 Peace of Merseburg Between Holy Roman Emperor Conrad II and Duke Mieszko II of Poland.
1059 Treaty of Melfi Pope Nicholas II recognizes Norman influence in southern Italy.
1080 Treaty of Ceprano Pope Gregory VII establishes an alliance with Robert Guiscard and recognizes his
conquests.
1082 Byzantine–Venetian Treaty Byzantium grants trade concessions to Venice in return for military aid against the
of 1082
Normans.
1091 Treaty of Caen Ends rivalry between William II of England and Duke Robert Curthose of Normandy.
1101 Treaty of Alton Robert Curthose recognizes Henry I as King of England.
1108 Treaty of Devol The Principality of Antioch becomes a nominal vassal of the Byzantine Empire.
1122 Pactum Calixtinum Between Pope Callixtus II and Holy Roman Emperor Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor.
1123 Pactum Warmundi The crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem allies with Venice.
1139 Treaty of Mignano Roger II of Sicily recognised as king by the legitimate Pope Innocent II.
1141 Treaty of Shaoxing Ends conflicts between the Jin Dynasty and Southern Song Dynasty.
1143 Treaty of Zamora Recognises Portuguese independence from the Kingdom of León.
1151 Treaty of Tudilén Recognises the conquests of the Crown of Aragon south of the Júcar and recognises
future conquests in Murcia.
1153 Treaty of Wallingford Officially ends The Anarchy between Empress Matilda and her cousin Stephen of
England.
Treaty of Constance
Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor, and Pope Eugene III agree to defend Italy against
Manuel I Comnenus.
1156 Treaty of Benevento Peace between the Papacy and the Kingdom of Sicily.
1158 Treaty of Sahagún (1158) Between Sancho III of Castile and Ferdinand II of León.
1170 Treaty of Sahagún (1170) Between Alfonso VIII of Castile and Alfonso II of Aragon.
1175 Treaty of Windsor (1175) Between King Henry II of England and the last High King of Ireland, Rory O'Connor
during Norman expansion in Ireland.
1177 Treaty of Venice Peace between the Papacy, the Lombard League, the Kingdom of Sicily, and the Holy
Roman Emperor, Frederick Barbarossa.
1179 Treaty of Cazorla Defines the zones of conquest in Andalusia between Aragon and Castile.
1183 Peace of Constance Peace between the Lombard League and the Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick
Barbarossa. Reaffirms the Peace of Venice.
1192 Treaty of Jaffa Ends the Third Crusade.
1200–1299
Year Name Summary
1200 Treaty of Le Goulet John of England and Philip II of France make peace. Marriage between Blanche of Castile
and Louis VIII of France.
1204 Partitio terrarum imperii
Romaniae
1209 Treaty of Speyer Otto IV renounces the Concordat of Worms.
1212 Golden Bull of Sicily Determines the rights and duties of the Bohemian monarchs.
1214 Treaty of Nymphaeum Establishes peace between the Nicaean Empire and the Latin Empire.
Agreement between the participants of the Fourth Crusade on the division of the Byzantine
Empire. Establishment of the Latin Empire
Treaty of Chinon Between King John of England and Philip II of France
(1214) (fr)
1215 Magna Carta Between King John of England and his subjects.
1217 Treaty of Lambeth Between Louis VIII of France and Henry III of England.
1218 Golden Charter of Bern Establishes Bern as an independent state.
1219 Nicaean–Venetian
Treaty of 1219
Grants Venetians freedom of trade and duty-free imports throughout the Nicaean Empire in
exchange for non-support for the Latin Empire.
1220 Treaty with the Princes Between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and German bishops.
of the Church
1222 Golden Bull of 1222 Andrew II of Hungary grants Hungarian nobles the power to disobey the king when he acted
contrary to the law.
1226 Treaty of Melun Forces the counts of Flanders to swear fealty to the French crown.
Golden Bull of Rimini Resolves disputes over Chełmno Land.
1229 Treaty of Paris (1229) Officially ends the Albigensian Crusade.
1230 Treaty of San Germano Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II restores Sicily to Pope Gregory IX.
Treaty of Ceprano Establishes lines of reconciliation between Pope Gregory IX and Holy Roman Emperor
(1230)
Frederick II.
Treaty of Kruszwica Konrad I of Masovia grants Chełmno Land to the Prussians and the Order of Dobrzyń.
1234 Golden Bull of Rieti Recognizes Kulmerland (Chełmno Land) as subject to the Pope's authority and not as a fief
belonging to anyone.
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1236 Treaty of Kremmen The Margraviate of Brandenburg gains most of the territory and the right of succession for
Pomerania-Demmin.
1237 Treaty of York A feudal agreement between Henry III of England and Alexander III of Scotland.
1244 Treaty of Almizra Establishes the borders of the Kingdom of Valencia.
Treaty of Játiva
Permits the Moors of Spain to hold on to the Xativa Castle for two years before relinquishing
it to King James I of Aragon.
1245 Al-Azraq Treaty Between the King James I of Aragon and the Muslim commander Mohammad Abu Abdallah
Ben Hudzail al Sahuir.
1249 Treaty of Christburg Establishes peace between the pagan Prussian clans and the Teutonic Knights.
Treaty of Lödöse
Prevents mutual hostility between the Kingdom of Sweden and the Kingdom of Norway from
escalating into war.
1250 Treaty of Landin Succession of Pomerania-Demmin: The Margraviate of Brandenburg's rights are dropped in
favour of Pomerania-Stettin
1258 Treaty of Corbeil Establishes a border between France and the Crown of Aragon.
Provisions of Oxford
Between King Henry III, of England and his Barons. Established a permanent baronial
council / Parliament.
1259 Treaty of Paris [16] Between Louis IX of France and Henry III of England.
1261 Treaty of Nymphaeum A trade and defense pact between the Nicaean Empire and the Republic of Genoa.
1262 Old Covenant Between the major chieftains of Iceland and Haakon IV of Norway. The signing brought
about the union of Iceland with Norway
1265 Treaty of Pipton Established alliance between Prince Llywelyn ap Gruffudd of Wales and Simon de Montford
during the Second Barons' War.
1266 Dictum of Kenilworth Ends hostilities between the supporters of Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester and
Henry III of England; comes into effect in 1267.
Treaty of Perth
Terms of sovereignty over the Western Isles, the Isle of Man, and the Northern Isles agreed
between Norway and Scotland.
1267 Treaty of Badajoz King Alfonso X and King Afonso III agree to use the Guadiana River as the boundary line
separating Castile and Portugal.
Treaty of Montgomery Henry III of England acknowledges Llywelyn ap Gruffudd's title as the 'Prince of Wales'.
Treaty of Viterbo Grants Charles I of Anjou claims to the defunct Latin Empire.
1271 Peace of Pressburg Ends war between Bohemia and Hungary.
1277 Treaty of Aberconwy Between King Edward I of England and Llewelyn the Last of Wales.
1278 Paréage of Andorra Between the Count of Foix, Roger-Bernard III, and the Bishop of Urgell, Pere d'Urtx,
1278
establishing their joint-sovereignty over the territory of Andorra.
1281 Treaty of Orvieto Between Charles I of Sicily, the Republic of Venice, and Philip of Courtenay; attempts to
recover the Latin Empire.
1283 Treaty of Rheinfelden Duke Rudolph II of Austria surrenders power to his older brother Albert I of Germany.
Rostock Peace Treaty Between 8 Hanseatic towns in the Baltic region, the dukes of Saxony and Pomerania, the
prince of Rügen, the lords of Schwerin and Dannenberg and the nobility of Rostock.
1289–
1290
Treaty of Birgham Attempts to end competing claims between the House of Balliol and the House of Bruce for
the Scottish throne; never comes into effect.
1291 Treaty of Tarascon Ends the Aragonese Crusade.
1295 Auld Alliance Scotland and France forge the first treaty of mutual self-defense against England.
Treaty of Anagni Reaffirms the Treaty of Tarascon, but fails to diplomatically settle the Sicilian question.
1300–1399
Year Name Summary
1302 Peace of Caltabellotta Ends the War of the Sicilian Vespers.
1303 Treaty of Paris Restores Gascony to England from France during the Hundred Years' War.
1304 Treaty of Torrellas Brought peace to Castile and Aragon and divided up the Kingdom of Murcia between them.
1305 Treaty of Athis-sur- France acquires the cities of Lille, Douai, and Béthune and Flanders retains its independence.
Orge
Treaty of Elche
Modifies the Treaty of Torrellas and grants Cartagena to Castile.
1309 Treaty of Soldin (1309) The Teutonic Order purchases from Margrave Waldemar of Brandenburg-Stendal the rights to
Pomerelia and Danzig (Gdańsk).
1317 Treaty of Templin Ascanians surrender the territories of Schlawe-Stolp to the Pomeranians.
1323 Treaty of Nöteborg Sets the boundary between Sweden and Novgorod Republic.
Treaty of Paris
Count Louis of Flanders relinquishes Flemish claims over Zeeland.
1326 Treaty of Corbeil Renews the Auld Alliance between France and Scotland.
Treaty of Novgorod End decades of border skirmishes at the border of Norway and Novgorod Republic.
1328 Treaty of Edinburgh– Between Edward III of England and the Scots.
Northampton
1329 Treaty of Pavia (1329) Between Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor and his nephews.
1338 Declaration of Rhense German princes elect German kings without the consent of the Papacy.
1340 Truce of Espléchin Between the English and French crowns during the Hundred Years' War.
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1343 Treaty of Kalisz (1343) Between King Casimir III the Great of Poland and the Teutonic Knights.
1354 Treaty of Stralsund Settles border disputes between the duchies of Mecklenburg and Pomerania.
(1354)
Treaty of Mantes First peace between Charles II of Navarre and John II of France.
1355 Treaty of Valognes Second peace between Charles II of Navarre and John II of France.
Treaty of Paris (1355) Recognizes the annexation of the Barony of Gex by the county of Savoy.
1358 Treaty of Zadar The Republic of Venice loses influence over territories in Dalmatia.
1359 Treaty of London Cedes western France to England; repudiated by the Estates-General in Paris.
(1359)
1360 Treaty of Brétigny Ends the first phase of the Hundred Years' War.
1370 Treaty of Stralsund Ends the war between the Hanseatic League and Denmark.
(1370)
1371 Treaty of Vincennes- Renewal of the Auld Alliance between the Kingdoms of France and Scotland.
Edinburgh
1373 Anglo-Portuguese
Treaty of 1373
Treaty of alliance between King Edward III of England and King Ferdinand I and Queen Eleanor
of Portugal; it is the oldest treaty still in force.
1379 Treaty of Neuberg Divides Habsburg lands between Dukes Albert III and Leopold III.
1380 Treaty of Dovydiškės Jogaila signs a secret peace treaty with the Teutonic Knights against Kęstutis.
1382 Treaty of Dubysa Jogaila promises to convert the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to Christianity, cede Samogitia, and
establish a four-year alliance with the Teutonic Knights; never comes into effect.
1384 Treaty of Königsberg
(1384)
Vytautas agreed to cede Samogitia to the Teutonic Knights in exchange for their support in the
war against Jogaila, but the treaty was later broken
1385 Union of Krewo Establishes a dynastic union between Poland and Lithuania.
1386 Treaty of Windsor Renews the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance.
(1386)
1390 Treaty of Königsberg Establishes alliance between Vytautas the Great and the Teutonic Order.
(1390)
1390 Treaty of Lyck Vytautas agreed to cede Samogitia to the Teutonic Knights in exchange for their support in the
war against Jogaila, but the treaty was again broken
1392 Ostrów Agreement Vytautas and Jogaila made peace, but attacks from the Teutonic Knights continued as a result of
the Samogitian dispute
1397 Treaty of Kalmar Establishes the Kalmar Union; becomes null and void in 1523.
1398 Treaty of Salynas Vytautas the Great cedes Samogitia to the Teutonic Knights.
1400–1499
Year Name Summary
1401 Pact of Vilnius and Reaffirms the Union of Krewo and grants autonomy to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
Radom
1411 First Peace of Thorn Ends the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War.
1412 Treaty of Lubowla Between Władysław II of Poland and Sigismund of Luxemburg, king of Hungary.
Compromise of Caspe Between the crowns of Aragon and Castile, ensuring the access of the royal House of
Trastámara to the Aragonese crown, thus eventually uniting Spain.
Peace of Baden
Signed by the Swiss Confederation and Frederick IV, Duke of Austria, (broken after 2 years by
the Swiss)
1413 Union of Horodło Reaffirms the Union of Krewo and the Pact of Vilnius and Radom; permits Lithuania to have a
separate Grand Duke and parliament.
1416 Ottoman–Venetian Maritime trade rights to Republic of Venice
maritime treaty (1416)
1420 Treaty of Troyes Attempt to pass the French throne to England.
1422 Treaty of Melno The Teutonic Knights relinquish Nieszawa to Poland and all claims to Samogitia and northern
Lithuania to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania; Poland renounces claims to Pomerelia, Culmerland,
and the Michelauer Land east of Culmerland.
1424 Edict of Wieluń Outlaws Hussitism in the Kingdom of Poland.
1428 Treaty of Delft Ends hostilities between England and Flanders.
1431 Treaty of Medina del Peace between Portugal and Castile; ratified in Almeirim in 1432.
Campo (1431)
1432 Union of Grodno (1432) Reinforces the Polish–Lithuanian union.
1433 Truce of Łęczyca Mitigates hostilities in the Polish–Teutonic War (1431–35) between the Kingdom of Poland and
the Teutonic Order in Łęczyca.
1435 Treaty of Arras (1435) Reconciles a longstanding feud between King Charles VII of France and Philip, Duke of
Burgundy.
Peace of Brześć Ends the Polish–Teutonic War (1431–35).
Kujawski
1441 Treaty of Copenhagen
(1441)
Christopher of Bavaria crushed a great peasant rebellion in Northern Jutland; Baltic Sea is
opened to Dutch traders.
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1443 Treaty of Gyehae Between the Joseon dynasty and Sō Clan (lord of Tsushima Island); controls Japanese piracy
and legitimizes trade between Tsushima Island and a Korean port.
1444 Peace of Szeged Between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Ottoman Empire.
1454 Treaty of Lodi Peace between Milan, Florence and Venice.
Treaty of Cölln
State of the Teutonic Order pawns Neumark to Electorate of Brandenburg
Treaty of Constantinople between the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Venice
1455 Treaty of Mewe State of the Teutonic Order sells Neumark to Electorate of Brandenburg
1456 Treaty of Yazhelbitsy Establishes peace between Vasili II and the people of Novgorod.
1460 Treaty of Ribe Defines status of Schleswig and Holstein.
1462 Treaty of Westminster Divides Scotland between King Edward IV of England and the Earl of Douglas.
(1462)
1464 Treaty of York (1464) Aligns James III of Scotland with Yorkist England
1465 Treaty of Conflans Officially ends the Guerre folle (Mad War).
1466 Second Peace of Thorn Ends the Thirteen Years' War between Poland and the Teutonic Knights.
(1466)
Treaty of Soldin (1466) Duchy of Pomerania becomes a nominal fief of the Electorate of Brandenburg. Implementation
failed, war ensued.
1468 Treaty of Péronne Between Duke Charles I of Burgundy and King Louis XI of France.
(1468)
1472 Treaty of Prenzlau Declares Albert III, Elector of Brandenburg, ruler of Pomerania–Stettin.
1474 Treaty of Utrecht (1474) Ends the Anglo-Hanseatic War between England and the Hanseatic League led by Lübeck and
Danzig.
Treaty of London (1474) Charles the Bold of Burgundy agrees to support Edward IV's planned invasion of France.
1475 Treaty of Picquigny Louis XI pays Edward IV to stay in England and not pursue his claim to the French throne.
1478 Treaty of Brno (1478) Divides Bohemian territories between Ladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary and Matthias
Corvinus.
1479 Peace of Olomouc Ratifies the Treaty of Brno (1478).
Treaty of Alcáçovas Between the Kingdom of Castile and Portugal; ends the Castilian Civil War begun in 1474.
Treaty of Constantinople Officially ends the fifteen-year war between Venice and the Ottoman Empire.
(1479)
1482 Treaty of Fotheringhay Edward IV of England undertook to place the Duke of Albany on his brother's throne of
Scotland.
Treaty of Arras (1482) Between King Louis XI of France and the governments of the Low Countries.
Treaty of Münsingen Count Eberhard V reunites the divided county of Württemberg and declares it indivisible.
1484 Treaty of Bagnolo Ends the War of Ferrara (1482–1484) between Ercole d'Este I and Pope Sixtus IV along with his
Venetian allies.
1485 Treaty of Leipzig Divides Saxony between Ernest, Elector of Saxony and Albert, Duke of Saxony.
1488 Treaty of Sablé Duke Francis I of Brittany becomes a vassal of King Charles VIII of France.
1489 Treaty of Medina del Primarily a marriage contract between Arthur Tudor and Catherine of Aragon.
Campo (1489)
Treaty of Frankfurt Between Maximilian of Austria and the envoys of King Charles VIII of France.
(1489)
Treaty of Dordrecht Establishes an alliance between Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I and King Henry VII of
(1489)
England.
Treaty of Redon
1490 Treaty of Woking
(Okyng)
Henry VII of England grants Lord Daubeney of Brittany 6000 English troops.
Between King Henry VII of England, and Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of
Aragon, by Ambassador in London, Dr Rodrigo Gonzalez de la Puebla; for the marriage of
Catherine of Aragon to Arthur, Prince of Wales
1491 Peace of Pressburg Defines the future succession of the Austrian and Hungarian kingdoms.
(1491)
Treaty of Granada Relinquishes the sovereignty of the Moorish Kingdom of Granada to Spain.
(1491)
1492 Treaty of Bourges (fr) some provinces were to be given to Henry IV of England
Peace of Etaples Ends war between England and France.
1493 Treaty of Barcelona France cedes Roussillon and Cerdagne to Spain in return for Spanish neutrality during its war
with Italy.
Treaty of Senlis
France cedes the Duchy of Burgundy, the County of Artois, Picardy and the Low Countries to
the House of Habsburg.
Treaty of Pyritz
preliminary end to the Brandenburg-Pomeranian conflict
1494 Treaty of Tordesillas Divides the world between Spain and Portugal.
1496 Intercursus Magnus Resolves some trade wars between England and the Netherlands.
1497 Treaty of Ayton Seven year peace between England and Scotland under the arbitration of Ferdinand and
Isabella of Spain.
1499 Treaty of Basel (1499) Concludes the Swabian War fought between the Swabian League and the Old Swiss
Confederacy.
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1500–1599
Year Name Summary
1500 Treaty of Granada King Ferdinand II of Aragon agrees to support French claims over the Kingdom of
Naples.
1501 Treaty of Trente Austria recognises all French conquests in northern Italy.
1502 Treaty of Perpetual Peace Ends hostilities between England and Scotland; void in 1513.
1504 Treaty of Blois Temporarily halts the Italian Wars.
Treaty of Lyons
Louis XII of France cedes Naples to Ferdinand II of Aragon.
1511 Treaty of Westminster Treaty of alliance between Henry VIII of England and Ferdinand II of Aragon against
France.
1516 Peace of Noyon Divides Italy between France and Spain.
1517 Treaty of Rouen Attempts to renew the Auld Alliance.
1518 Treaty of London Establishes a non-aggression pact between France, England, Holy Roman Empire, the
Papacy, Spain, Burgundy and the Netherlands.
1521 Treaty of Bruges Treaty between England and the Holy Roman Empire during the Italian War of 1521–
1526
1522 Treaty of Windsor Between Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and Henry VIII of England; its main clause
was the invasion of France.
1524 Treaty of Malmö Ends the Swedish War of Liberation.
1526 Treaty of Hampton Court Establishes peace between France and England.
Treaty of Madrid
France relinquishes the Duchy of Burgundy and the Charolais; temporarily ends French
interests in Italy.
Alliance treaty between Ending effective Savoy dynasty rule over Geneva. Geneva became part of the Swiss
Geneva, Berne and Fribourg confederation The treaty was concluded on February 20 and ratified on March 12, 1526
Treaty of Berwick
Three year peace agreement between Scotland and England.
1527 Treaty of Westminster Treaty of alliance between King Henry VIII of England and King Francis I of France
against King Charles V of Spain.
1528 Treaty of Gorinchem Between Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and Duke Charles of Guelders.
1529 Treaty of Barcelona Francis I, returns the Franche-Comté and promises to return the Duchy of Burgundy.
Treaty of Cambrai
Also known as the Paix des Dames (Ladies' Peace).
Treaty of Saragossa
Specifies the anti-meridian line of demarcation between Spanish and Portuguese
Treaty of Grimnitz
imperial territories.
House of Hohenzollern and House of Pomerania agree on legal status and succession
in the Duchy of Pomerania
1533 Treaty of Constantinople Ends hostilities between the Ottoman Empire and the Archduchy of Austria.
1534 Treaty of Bassein Sultan Bahadur of Gujarat cedes the Mumbai Islands and other territories to the
Portuguese Empire.
1537 Treaty of Novgorod Russo-Swedish truce
1538 Treaty of Nagyvárad Recognizes John Zápolya as the king of Hungary while Ferdinand I, Holy Roman
Emperor retains the western parts of the Hungarian Kingdom.
1541 First Treaty of Brömsebro Between Denmark–Norway and Sweden.
1543 Treaty of Greenwich Contains two agreements that attempts to unite the Kingdom of England with the
Kingdom of Scotland.
Treaty of Venlo
Duke Wilhelm of Jülich-Cleves-Berg cedes the territory of Guelders and the county of
Zutphen to Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.
1544 Treaty of Speyer Establishes peace between Denmark-Norway and the Holy Roman Empire.
Treaty of Crépy
Holy Roman Emperor Charles V relinquishes his claim to the Duchy of Burgundy and
Francis I of France surrenders his claim to the Kingdom of Naples.
1551 Treaty of Weissenburg Declares Archduke Ferdinand of Austria king of Hungary and Transylvania.
1552 Peace of Passau Holy Roman Emperor Charles V guarantees Lutheran religious freedoms to Protestants.
Treaty of Chambord
Maurice of Saxony cedes Toul, Verdun, and Metz to Henry II of France.
1555 Peace of Augsburg Between Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and the forces of the Schmalkaldic League.
Treaty of Amasya
Ends the war between Ottoman Turkey and Safavid Persia.
1556 Treaty of Vaucelles King Henry II of France cedes Franche-Comté to King Philip II of Spain.
1557 Treaty of Novgorod Russia and Sweden, ended the Russo-Swedish War (1554–1557)
Treaty of Pozvol
Livonia and Poland-Lithuania, triggered the Livonian War
1559 Peace of Cateau Cambrésis Ends the Italian Wars.
Treaty of Vilna
Livonian War: Livonian–Polish–Lithuanian alliance
1560 Treaty of Edinburgh England, Scotland, France: concludes Siege of Leith, attempts to end Auld Alliance.
1561 Treaty of Vilna Livonian War: Livonian Order subordinated to Poland-Lithuania
1562 Edict of Saint-Germain Recognizes the existence of French Protestants and guarantees them freedom of
conscience and private worship.
Treaty of Hampton Court
Treaty of Mozhaysk
Establishes military and economic ties between Queen Elizabeth I of England and
Huguenot leader Louis I de Bourbon.
Livonian War, Russo-Danish mutual assurance of their claims in Livonia
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1563 Edict of Amboise Ends the first phase of the French Wars of Religion.
1564 Treaty of Dorpat Livonian War, Russo-Swedish mutual assurance of their claims in Livonia
1568 Peace of Longjumeau Ends the second phase of the French Wars of Religion; confirms the Edict of Amboise;
expires in August 1568.
Treaty of Roskilde (1568)
peace between Lübeck, Denmark–Norway and Sweden during the Northern Seven
Years' War, not ratified
1569 Union of Lublin Unites the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into a single state, the
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
1570 Treaty of Stettin Ends the Northern Seven Years' War.
Peace of Saint-Germain-en- Ends the third phase of the French Wars of Religion.
Laye
1572 Treaty of Blois Queen Elizabeth I of England and Catherine de' Medici of France establish an alliance
against Spain.
1573 Edict of Boulogne Ends the fourth phase of the French Wars of Religion; gives Huguenots the right to
worship in La Rochelle, Montauban, and Nîmes.
1576 Edict of Beaulieu Ends the fifth phase of the French Wars of Religion; Henry III of France gives the
Huguenots the right of public worship.
Pacification of Ghent
Alliance of the provinces of the Netherlands against the Spanish.
1577 Treaty of Bergerac Ends the sixth phase of the French Wars of Religion; Huguenots can practice their faith
only in the suburbs of one town in each judicial district.
Edict of 1577
Provides for the removal of Spanish troops from the Netherlands; upholds Pacification of
Ghent.
1579 Union of Atrecht The southern states of the Spanish Netherlands express loyalty to the King of Spain.
Union of Utrecht
Unifies the northern states of the Netherlands.
1580 Treaty of Fleix Ends the seventh phase of the French Wars of Religion; recognizes previous treaties
granting religious privileges to the Huguenots.
Treaty of Plessis-les-Tours François, Duke of Anjou becomes sovereign of the Dutch Republic.
1582 Peace of Jam Zapolski Ends the Livonian War between Poland and Muscovy.
1583 Treaty of Plussa A truce between Russia and Sweden; ends the Livonian War (1558–1583).
1584 Treaty of Joinville Forms a Catholic alliance between the French Catholic League and Habsburg Spain
against Protestant forces such as Elizabeth I of England.
1585 Treaty of Nemours Revokes previous concessions made to the Huguenots; instigates the War of the Three
Henries.
Treaty of Nonsuch
England assists Dutch in the Eighty Years' War.
1586 Treaty of Berwick Agreement of amity between Queen Elizabeth I of England and King James VI of
Scotland.
1590 Treaty of Ferhat Paşa Ends the war between Ottoman Turkey and Safavid Persia. Turkish control on
Caucasus region.
1595 Treaty of Teusina Ends the Russo–Swedish War (1590–1595).
1598 Peace of Vervins The Spanish withdraw from French territory.
Edict of Nantes
Henry IV of France grants French Protestants (or Huguenots) substantial rights in a
nation still considered essentially Catholic.
1600–1699
Year Name Summary
1600 Treaty of Paris (1600) Between Henry IV of France and Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy.
1601 Treaty of Lyon (1601) Henry IV of France acquires Bugey, Valromey, Gex, and Bresse.
1604 Treaty of London, 1604 Ends hostilities between England and Spain.
1606 Peace of Žitava Ends the Long War between the Ottoman Turkey and the Habsburg Monarchy.
Treaty of Vienna (1606)
Restores all constitutional and religious rights/privileges to the Hungarians in both
Transylvania and Royal Hungary.
1608 Treaty of Lieben Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II surrenders Hungary, Austrian territories near the Danube
River, and Moravia to his brother Matthias.
1609 Treaty of Antwerp (1609) Spain and the Netherlands agree to a 12-year truce.
1610 Treaty of Brussol Establishes a military alliance between Charles Emmanuel I and Henry IV of France against
the Spanish in Italy.
1612 Treaty of Nasuh Pasha Treaty between Ottoman Turkey and Safavid Persia Revision of 1590 treaty. Persia
regained some of its loses in 1590.
1613 Treaty of Knäred Ends the Kalmar War between Denmark and Sweden.
Two Row Wampum Treaty Treaty between the Iroquois and representatives of the Dutch government.
1614 Treaty of Xanten Ends the War of the Jülich Succession.
1615 Peace of Asti Duke Charles Emmanuel I of Savoy relinquishes claims on Monferrato.
Peace of Tyrnau
Recognizes Gábor Bethlen as the Prince of Transylvania.
Treaty of Serav
Ratifies the treaty of 1612 between Ottoman Turkey and Safavid Persia
1616 Treaty of Loudun Ends hostilities between Queen Marie de' Medici and rebellious French princes led by Henry
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II, the third Prince of Condé.
1617 Treaty of Pavia Savoy cedes Monferrato to Mantua.
Treaty of Stolbovo
Ends the Ingrian War between Sweden and Muscovy.
Peace of Busza
Peace between Ottoman Turkey and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
1618 Truce of Deulino Ends the Polish–Muscovite War (1605–18); expires in 1632.
1619 Treaty of Angoulême Ends civil war in France between supporters of Queen Marie de' Medici and her son, King
Louis XIII of France.
Treaty of Munich (1619) Duke Maximilian of Bavaria allows Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II to use his forces in
exchange for territories in the Electorate of the Palatinate.
1620 Treaty of Ulm (1620) The Protestant Union ceases its support of Frederick V of Bohemia.
1621 Peace of Nikolsburg Ends the war between Prince Gabriel Bethlen of Transylvania and Emperor Ferdinand II of
the Holy Roman Empire.
Treaty of Madrid (1621) Restores Valtelline to the Grisons and grants Protestants in the region religious freedoms.
Treaty of Khotyn
Between Ottoman Turkey and Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Treaty of the Hague (1621) A failed treaty of alliance between Denmark and the Dutch Republic
Treaty of Bremen
A failed treaty of commerce between Denmark and the Dutch Republic
1622 Treaty of Montpellier Between King Louis XIII of France and Duke Henry II of Rohan; confirms the Edict of
Nantes.
1623 Treaty of Paris (1623) France, Savoy, and Venice agree to have Spanish forces leave Valtelline.
1625 Treaty of The Hague (1625) England and the Netherlands agree to economically support Christian IV of Denmark during
the Thirty Years' War.
1626 Peace of Pressburg (1626) Ends the revolt against the Habsburgs.
Treaty of Monzón
France and Spain share equal rights in their control of Valtelline.
1627 Capitulation of Franzburg Duchy of Pomerania occupied by Albrecht von Wallenstein's imperial army
1628 Treaty of Munich Recognizes Duke Maximilian of Bavaria as a prince-elector; grants Maximilian control of the
Upper Palatinate and the right bank of the Rhine River for thirty years.
1629 Edict of Restitution Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II attempts to reinforce the territorial and religious
settlements made after the Peace of Augsburg.
Treaty of Lübeck
Denmark withdraws from the Thirty Years' War.
Truce of Altmark
Ends hostilities between Sweden and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Peace of Alais
Between the Huguenots and King Louis XIII of France; confirms the basic principles of the
Edict of Nantes with additional clauses.
Treaty of Suza
2 treaties between France, Savoy, England and Scotland
1630 Peace of Regensburg Temporarily halts the War of the Mantuan Succession.
Treaty of Stettin (1630) The Duchy of Pomerania allies with and is occupied by the Swedish Empire
Treaty of Madrid (1630) Ends English involvement in the Dutch Revolt.
1631 Treaty of Bärwalde France and Sweden establish an alliance against the Holy Roman Empire.
Treaty of Cherasco
Ends the War of the Mantuan Succession.
Treaty of Munich (1631) France and Bavaria establish a secret "Catholic" alliance.
1632 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en- England returns New France (Quebec) to France.
Laye (1632)
Treaty of Ahmet Pasha
Short lived peace treaty, ends hostalities between the Ottoman Turkey and the Safavid
Persia
1634 Treaty of Polyanovka Ends the Smolensk War between Poland and Muscovy.
1635 Peace of Prague (1635) Between the Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand II, and most of the Protestant states of the
Holy Roman Empire.
Treaty of Sztumska Wieś The Swedish Empire concedes territories to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
1636 Treaty of Wismar Establishes alliance between Sweden and France against the Habsburgs.
1638 Treaty of Hamburg (1638) Confirms Treaty of Wismar; France pays Sweden 1,000,000 livres.
Treaty of Hartford (1638) Cedes Pequot Indian lands to Connecticut River towns and outlaws Pequot settlement and
the use of the Pequot language.
1639 Treaty of Berwick (1639) Ends the First Bishops' War between Charles I of England and the Scots.
Treaty of Zuhab
Ends the war between Safavid Persia and the Ottoman Turkey. The borderline drawn by the
treaty is still effective today.
Treaty of Asurar Ali
Establishes the boundary between the Mughals and the Ahom kingdom.
1640 Treaty of Ripon Between Charles I of England and the Scots in the aftermath of the Second Bishops' War.
1642 Treaty of Axim (1642) Regulates the jurisdiction of the Netherlands and the Dutch West India Company in the town
and polity of Axim.
1643 Solemn League and Between the Scottish Covenanters and the leaders of the English Parliamentarians.
Covenant
1645 Second Treaty of Ends the Torstenson War between Sweden and Denmark–Norway.
Brömsebro (1645)
1647 Truce of Ulm (1647) Forces Duke Maximilian of Bavaria to renounce his alliance with Holy Roman Emperor
Ferdinand II.
1648 Peace of Westphalia Ends the Thirty Years' War and the Eighty Years' War, and establishes the principle of the
sovereignty of nations in use today.
Treaty of Concordia
Divides the island of Saint Martin between France and the Netherlands.
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1649 Peace of Rueil Ends the opening episodes of the Fronde, France's civil war.
Treaty of Zboriv
Places three provinces of Ukraine under the control of the Cossacks.
1650 Treaty of Breda (1650) Between Charles II of England and the Scottish Covenanters during the Wars of the Three
Kingdoms.
Treaty of Hartford (1650) Establishes boundary lines between New Amsterdam and English settlers in Connecticut.
1651 Treaty of Bila Tserkva Establishes peace between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ukrainian
Cossacks after the Battle of Berestechko.
1653 Treaty of Stettin (1653) The Swedish Empire and Brandenburg partition Pomerania.
1654 Treaty of Pereyaslav Between Muscovy and Cossack Hetmanate.
Treaty of Westminster Ends the First Anglo-Dutch War.
(1654)
1655 Treaty of Kėdainiai Second Northern War – Grand Duchy of Lithuania becomes Swedish protectorate
Union of Kėdainiai
Second Northern War – Lithuanian–Swedish union
Treaty of Rinsk
Second Northern War – anti-Swedish alliance of Brandenburg-Prussia and Royal Prussian
estates
1656 Treaty of Königsberg (1656) Second Northern War – Duchy of Prussia and Ermland become Swedish fiefs.
Treaty of Marienburg Second Northern War – alliance between Brandenburg-Prussia and Sweden
Treaty of Elbing
Second Northern War – Dutch-Swedish settlement of conflicts over Danzig (Gdańsk)
Treaty of Labiau
Second Northern War – Hohenzollerns become full souvereigns in Prussia and Ermland.
Truce of Vilna
Second Northern War / Russo-Polish War – Russo-Polish truce and alliance against
Sweden
Treaty of Vienna (1656) Second Northern War: 1st Habsburg–Polish alliance against Sweden
Treaty of Radnot
It envisaged a partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth; Transylvania enters the
Second Northern War on the Swedish side
Treaty of Butre (1656) Between the Gold Coast (West Africa) state of Ahanta and the States General and the
Dutch West India Company, establishing a Dutch protectorate over Butre and Upper
Ahanta.
1657 Treaty of Vienna (1657) Second Northern War: 2nd Habsburg–Polish alliance against Sweden
Treaty of Wehlau
Second Northern War: Poland accepts Hohenzollerns as full souvereigns in Prussia, anti-
Swedish alliance.
Treaty of Bromberg Second Northern War – Wehlau confirmed and amended
(Bydgoszcz)
Treaty of Paris (1657) Establishes military alliance between England and France against Spain.
Treaty of Raalte
Willem II no longer is viceroy of Overijssel.
1658 Treaty of Hadiach Between Poland and Cossack Hetmanate.
Treaty of Taastrup
An accord that preceded the Treaty of Roskilde between Charles X Gustav of Sweden and
King Frederick III of Denmark.
Treaty of Roskilde
Second Northern War: Denmark–Norway cedes territory ("Skåneland") to Sweden.
Treaty of Valiesar
Second Northern War: Sweden temporarily cedes territory to Russia, cession of hostilities.
1659 Treaty of the Pyrenees Ends war between France and Spain.
Concert of The Hague Second Northern War – Anglo-Franco-Dutch agreement regarding peace between Denmark
(1659)
and Swede
1660 Treaty of Copenhagen Second Northern War – peace between Denmark and Sweden, restores Trondheim to
(1660)
Norway and Bornholm to Denmark.
Treaty of Oliva
Second Northern War – peace between Sweden, Brandenburg-Prussia and Poland.
1661 Treaty of Cardis Second Northern War – peace between Sweden and Russia.
Treaty of Den Haag
The Dutch Empire recognizes Portuguese imperial sovereignty over Recife in Brazil.
1662 Treaty of Montmartre Duke Charles IV gives to Louis XIV the throne to the Duchy of Lorraine.
1663 Treaty of Ghilajharighat Between the Ahoms and the Mughal forces.
1664 Peace of Vasvár Between the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy and the Ottoman Turkey after the Battle of Saint
Gotthard; lasted until 1683.
1665 Treaty of Purandar (1665) Between Rajput Jai Singh and Shivaji Maharaj.
1666 Treaty of Habenhausen Peace negotiations after the Second Swedish war on Bermen between Sweden and the city
of Bremen.
1667 Treaty of Breda (1667) Ends the Second Anglo-Dutch War.
Treaty of Andrusovo
Ends the war between Muscovy and Poland-Lithuania.
Treaty of Bongaja
Sultan Hasanuddin of Makassar recognizes the influence of the Dutch East India Company
(VOC) in Indonesian territories.
1668 First Triple Alliance Alliance between England, the United Provinces and Sweden.
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle Ends the War of Devolution between Louis XIV of France and Habsburg Spain.
(1668)
Treaty of Lisbon (1668) Spain recognizes Portuguese sovereignty after the Portuguese Restoration War; Portugal
cedes Ceuta to Spain.
1670 Secret Treaty of Dover France helps England to rejoin the Roman Catholic Church and England assists France
militarily against the Dutch Republic.
Treaty of Madrid (1670) Between England and Spain.
Treaty of Copenhagen An alliance and commercial treaty between Britain and Denmark-Norway, establishing terms
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(1670) of contraband and permitting Danish settlement of the Virgin Islands
1672 Treaty of Buczacz Between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Ottoman Turkey. Podolia under Turkish
control.
1674 Treaty of Westminster Ends the Third Anglo-Dutch War.
(1674)
1675 Strasbourg Agreement First international agreement banning the use of chemical weapons (i.e. poisoned bullets);
(1675)
signed between France and the Holy Roman Empire.
1676 Treaty of Żurawno Between Ottoman Turkey and Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Ratifies 1672 treaty.
1677 Treaty of 1677 Native American tribes in Virginia swear fealty to the British Empire.
1678 Treaties of Nijmegen Ends the Franco-Dutch War.
Treaty of Casco (1678) Ends war between the eastern Native Americans and the English settlers of Massachusetts
Bay Colony.
1679 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en- Swedish Pomerania and Bremen-Verden restored to Sweden after the Scanian War
Laye (1679)
1681 Treaty of Bakhchisarai Concludes the Russo-Turkish War (1676–1681); establishes a 20-year truce whereby the
Dnieper River would separate the Ottoman Empire from Russian territories.
1684 Truce of Ratisbon Ends War of Reunions between France and Spain
1686 Eternal Peace Treaty of Ends war between Muscovy and Poland.
1686
1689 Treaty of Nerchinsk Ends war between the Russian Empire and the Qing Dynasty of China.
1691 Treaty of Limerick Ends the Williamite War in Ireland.
1697 Treaty of Ryswick Ends the War of the Grand Alliance.
1698 Treaty of Den Haag (1698) Attempts to resolve the issue of who would inherit the Spanish throne.
1699 Treaty of Karlowitz Ends the war between the alliance consisting of Austria, Venice and Polish–Lithuanian
Commonwealth on one side and the Ottoman Turkey on the other side.
Treaty of Preobrazhenskoye Denmark, Russia, Saxony, and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth divide Swedish
territories.
1700–1799
Year Name Summary
1700 Treaty of London An attempt to restore the Pragmatic Sanction following the death of Joseph
Ferdinand, Electoral Prince of Bavaria.
Treaty of Constantinople
Establishes peace between Russia and the Ottoman Empire.
Peace of Travendal
Temporary peace between the Swedish Empire and Denmark–Norway during
the Great Northern War.
1701 Great Peace of Montreal Establishes peace between New France and the 39 First Nations of North
America.
Treaty of The Hague (1701)
England, Austria, the United Provinces, and the Holy Roman Empire establish
a defensive alliance against France.
1703 Methuen Treaty Between Portugal and the Kingdom of England.
1704 Treaty of Ilbersheim Removes Bavaria from the War of the Spanish Succession.
Treaty of Narva
Great Northern War: Saxon–Polish–Lithuanian–Russian alliance.
1705 Treaty of Warsaw Great Northern War: Polish–Lithuanian–Swedish alliance.
Treaty of Genova
War of the Spanish Succession: English–Catalan alliance.
1706 Treaty of Altranstädt Great Northern War – peace between Augustus the Strong, king of Poland and
elector of Saxony, and Charles XII of Sweden. Augustus resigns as king.
1707 Treaty of Union Unites the Kingdoms of England and Scotland to create the Kingdom of Great
Britain.
Treaty of Altranstädt (1707)
Emperor Joseph I guarantees to Charles XII religious tolerance and liberty of
conscience for Silesian Protestants.
1709 Treaty of Thorn Great Northern War: Saxon–Polish–Lithuanian-Russian alliance.
Treaty of Copenhagen
Great Northern War: Russo-Danish alliance
1710 Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia Great Northern War: Estonian and Livonian estates and towns surrender to
Russia.
Treaty of Hanover
Great Northern War: Hanoveranian–Russian alliance.
1711 Treaty of Szatmár [73] Ends the Kuruc Rebellion led by Francis II Rákóczi.
Treaty of Pruth
Between Ottoman Turkey and Russia Russia loses some territories and grants
a free passage for Charles XII of Sweden.
1713 Treaty of Utrecht Ends the War of the Spanish Succession.
Treaty of Portsmouth
Ends Queen Anne's War hostilities between the Abenakis and the Province of
Massachusetts Bay.
Treaty of Schwedt
Great Northern War: Russo-Prussian alliance
1714 Treaty of Baden Ends hostilities between France and the Holy Roman Empire and also ends the
War of the Spanish Succession.
Treaty of Rastatt
Ends the War of the Spanish Succession; hostilities between Louis XIV of
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France and Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI cease.
1715 Treaty of Stettin Great Northern War: Hanoveranian–British–Prussian alliance
Treaty of Berlin
Great Northern War: Hanoveranian–British–Danish–Norwegian alliance
Treaty of Greifswald
Great Northern War: Hanoveranian–British–Russian alliance
1717 Second Triple Alliance Alliance between Kingdom of Great Britain, the United Provinces and France.
1718 Treaty of Passarowitz Ends the war between Austria and the Ottoman Empire.
Treaty of Baden
Ends the Toggenburg War among the Swiss cantons
1720 Treaty of Den Haag Spain abandons her claims in Italy after the War of the Quadruple Alliance.
Treaty of Frederiksborg
Ends Great Northern War between Sweden and Denmark–Norway.
Treaty of Stockholm
Ends the Great Northern War between Sweden, Hanover and Brandenburg-
Prussia
1721 Treaty of Nystad Ends the Great Northern War between Sweden and Russia.
1725 Treaty of Hanover Establishes a military alliance between Great Britain, France, Prussia, Sweden,
Treaty of Vienna
the Netherlands and Denmark against Spain.
Ends Austrian claims to the Spanish throne; Austria helps Spain to reacquire
Gibraltar from the British.
1727 Treaty of Kyakhta Redefines boundaries between Russia and China.
1729 Treaty of Seville (1729) Britain maintains control over Port Mahon and Gibraltar.
1731 Treaty of Vienna (1731) Verifies the Quadruple Alliance between the Holy Roman Empire, Britain, the
Dutch Empire, and Spain.
1732 Löwenwolde's Treaty Establishes a joint policy between Austria, the Russian Empire, and Prussia
pertaining to the succession of the Polish throne.
Treaty of Rasht
Ends Russian claims over Persian territories.
1733 Treaty of Turin (1733) Secret treaty between France and the Duke of Savoy for military alliance prior
to War of the Polish Succession.
Treaty of the Escorial
First of the Bourbon Family Compacts between France and Spain, agreeing to
mutual defense and military alliance in the conquest of Italian territories held by
the Habsburgs.
1736 Treaty of Constantinople (1736) Ends hostilities between the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Persia
1738 Treaty of Vienna (1738) Ends the War of the Polish Succession.
1739 Treaty of El Pardo (1739) Spain and the United Kingdom settle their respective claims to American
navigation and trade.
Treaty of Niš (1739)
Ends the war between Russia and the Ottoman Empire.
Treaty of Belgrade
Ends the war between Austria and the Ottoman Empire.
1740 Treaty of Friendship and Alliance Between the Miskito nation and Kingdom of Great Britain.
1742 Treaty of Berlin (1742) Ends First Silesian War.
Treaty of Breslau
Ends First Silesian War.
Convention of Turin
Ends Austria and Sardinia promise to assist each other against Spain.
1743 Treaty of Åbo Ends the Hats' Russian War.
Treaty of Worms (1743)
Establishes political alliance between the Kingdom of Great Britain, Austria and
Sardinia.
1745 Treaty of Dresden Austria confirms the loss of Silesia to Prussia after the Second Silesian War.
Treaty of Fontainebleau (1745)
Establishes a military alliance between Louis XV of France and Charles Edward
Stuart against George II of Great Britain.
Treaty of Füssen
Ends Bavaria's support of the French in the War of the Austrian Succession.
1746 Treaty of Kerden Ends hostalities between Ottoman Turkey and Afsharid Iran
1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) Ends the War of the Austrian Succession.
1750 Treaty of Madrid (13 January 1750) Defines the boundaries of the Spanish and the Portuguese colonies in South
America, replacing the Treaty of Tordesillas.
1752 Treaty of Aranjuez (1752) Recognizes Spanish and Austrian interests in Italy.
1755 Treaty of Giyanti Divides the Sultanate of Mataram between Prince Mangkubumi and
Pakubuwono III.
1756 Treaty of Westminster (1756) Treaty of neutrality between Prussia and the British Empire.
1757 Treaty of Alinagar Between the British East India Company and the Nawab of Bengal.
1758 Treaty of Easton Native Americans agree not to fight the British during the French and Indian
War.
1761 Treaty of El Pardo (1761) Nullifies the Treaty of Madrid (13 January 1750).
1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762) A secret agreement whereby France cedes Louisiana to Spain.
Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1762) Ends the Seven Years' War between Russia and Prussia.
Treaty of Hamburg (1762)
Between Prussia and Sweden after Russia breaks its alliance with Prussia.
1763 Treaty of Hubertusburg Ends the Seven Years' War.
First Treaty of Paris
1765 Treaty of Allahabad Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II grants Diwani rights to the British East India
Company.
1766 Treaty of Batticaloa King Keerthisiri Rajasinghe of Kandy recognizes Dutch imperial possessions in
Sri Lanka.
1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix In North America, the boundary established by the Proclamation of 1763 is
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moved west.
Treaty of Masulipatam
Confirms the conquest of the state of Hyderabad by the British.
1770 Treaty of Lochaber The Cherokee relinquish territories to the British Empire.
1774 Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca Ends Russo-Turkish War (1768–74).
1776 Treaty of Watertown Alliance between the State of Massachusetts Bay and the Mi'kmaq of Nova
Scotia.
Treaty of Purandar (1776)
Between the peshwa of the Maratha people and the British East India
Company.
1777 First Treaty of San Ildefonso Ends disputes between Portugal and Spain over the territories of The Seven
Missions and of Colonia del Sacramento.
Treaty of Aranjuez (1777)
Defines Spanish and French colonies on Santo Domingo.
1778 Treaty of Amity and Commerce (United Establishes a commercial alliance between the United States and France
States–France)
Treaty of Alliance (1778)
Establishes a military alliance between the United States and France.
Treaty of El Pardo (1778)
Queen Maria I of Portugal cedes Annobón, Bioko, and territories on the Guinea
coast to King Charles III of Spain.
Treaty of Fort Pitt (1778)
Gives the United States permission to travel through Delaware territory, as well
as to call upon the Delaware Indians to help American troops fight against the
British.
1779 Treaty of Aranjuez (1779) Spain joins the American Revolutionary War against the Kingdom of Great
Britain.
Treaty of Teschen
Ends the War of the Bavarian Succession between Austria and Prussia.
Treaty of Aynalıkavak
Ratifies the terms of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca
1780 Treaty of Aranjuez (1780) Spain cedes territories to Morocco.
1782 1782 Edict of Tolerance Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II promotes religious tolerance towards Jews.
Treaty of Salbai
Between the Maratha Empire and the British East India Company.
1783 Treaty of Amity and Commerce (United
States–Sweden)
Sweden becomes the first neutral nation to officially recognize the young
American republic.
Second Treaty of Paris
Ends the American Revolutionary War.
Treaty of Georgievsk
Establishes the east Georgian Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti as a protectorate
under suzerainty of the Russian Empire.
1784 Treaty of Fort Stanwix The Iroquois Confederacy cedes all lands west of the Niagara River to the
United States.
Treaty of Mangalore
Ends the Second Anglo-Mysore War.
1785 Treaty of Fontainebleau Reinforces the Treaty of Münster whereby the Scheldt Estuary is under the
sovereignty of the United Provinces.
Treaty of Amity and Commerce Between the Kingdom of Prussia and the United States promoting free trade
(Prussia–United States)
and demanding the unconditionally humane custody for war prisoner, a novelty
at the time.
Treaty of Hopewell
Treaty of Fort McIntosh
Between the United States and the Cherokee Indians.
Native American tribes cede to the United States all claims to land in the Ohio
Country east of the Cuyahoga and Muskingum rivers; tribes also cede the
areas surrounding Fort Detroit and Fort Michilimackinac.
1786 Eden Agreement Between the Kingdom of Great Britain and France.
Moroccan–American Treaty of The oldest non-broken friendship treaty between Morocco and the United
Friendship
States.
Treaty of Hartford (1786)
Resolves territorial and border disputes between the states of New York and
Massachusetts.
Treaty of Hopewell
Between the United States, the Choctaw Indians, and the Chickasaw Indians.
Jay–Gardoqui Treaty
Trade treaty between United States and Spain. Not ratified by U.S. government
Convention of London (1786)
Great Britain agrees to evacuate Mosquito Coast in exchange for Spanish
concessions in present-day Belize.
1787 Treaty of Beaufort Officially sets the all-river boundary between the U.S. states of Georgia and
South Carolina.
1788 Third Triple Alliance Alliance between Kingdom of Great Britain, the United Provinces and Kingdom
of Prussia.
First Treaty of Buffalo Creek
Between the Seneca tribe of Western New York and certain purchasers of
rights to the Indians' land.
1789 Treaty of Fort Harmar Between the United States government and several Native American tribes with
claims to the Ohio Country.
1790 Treaty of Reichenbach (1790) Between Frederick William II of Prussia and Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II of
Austria.
Treaty of Värälä Ends Russo-Swedish War (1788–90).
Treaty of New York (1790)
Between the United States government and the Creek people.
1791 Treaty of Holston Settles disputes between the United States and the Cherokee over the
territories south of the Ohio River; proclaimed and amended in 1792.
Treaty of Sistova Ends the war between Ottoman Turkey and Austria (1787–1791)
1792 Treaty of Jassy Ends the Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792).
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Treaty of Seringapatam
Ends the Third Anglo-Mysore War.
1794 Jay Treaty [85] Attempts to settle post-Revolution disputes between the United States and the
Kingdom of Great Britain.
Treaty of Canandaigua
Establishes peace and friendship between the United States and the Six
Nations of the Iroquois (Haudenosaunee).
1795 Pinckney's Treaty Defines boundaries of the United States and Spanish colonies.
Treaty of The Hague (1795)
The Batavian Republic cedes Venlo, Flanders, and Maastricht to France.
Treaty of Greenville
Ends the war between the United States and a coalition of Native Americans.
Treaty of Basel
Three agreements whereby France made peace with Prussia, Spain and
Hessen-Kassel; concludes the early stage of the French Revolutionary Wars
against the First Coalition (1792–1795).
1796 Treaty with Tripoli (1796) Ends the war between the United States and Tripoli.
Treaty of New York (1796)
Between the Seven Nations of Canada and New York State.
Treaty of Colerain
Affirms the binding of the Treaty of New York (1790) and establishes the
boundary line between the Creek Nation and the United States.
Second Treaty of San Ildefonso
Treaty of alliance between Spain and France against Britain.
1797 Treaty of Leoben Preliminary accord to the Treaty of Campo Formio; Austria loses Belgium and
Lombardy in exchange for Istria and Dalmatia.
Treaty of Campo Formio
Austria recognizes hegemony of French Republic over northern Italy and
Belgium. Effective end of the War of the First Coalition (1792–1797).
Treaty of Tolentino
Between France and the Papal States.
Treaty with Tunis (1797)
Peace treaty between the United States and the 'Barbary State' of Tunis,
nominally part of the Ottoman Empire.
1800–1899
Year Name Summary
1800 Third Treaty of San Ildefonso Spain cedes the Louisiana Territory to France.
Treaty of Mortefontaine Ends the Quasi-War between the United States and France.
1801 Carnatic Treaty The Nawab of Arcot cedes territories in India to Great Britain for two hundred
rupees.
Treaty of Aranjuez (1801) Confirms the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso between Spain and France.
Treaty of Badajoz (1801) Portugal cedes Olivenza to Spain and agrees to close its harbors to Great
Britain.
Treaty of Madrid (1801) Confirms the Treaty of Badajoz (1801) between Portugal and France; Portugal
also agrees to pay 20 million francs and cedes half of Guiana.
Treaty of Florence
The Kingdom of Naples cedes some central Italian possessions, the island of
Elba, and the Athena of Velletri to France.
Treaty of Lunéville
Ends the War of the Second Coalition against France.
1802 Treaty of Amiens Ends the war between France and Great Britain.
Treaty of Bassein
The Maratha Peshwa of Pune cedes territories in western India to Great Britain.
Treaty of Al Arish
Napoleon agrees to return Egypt to the Ottoman Empire
1803 Louisiana Purchase United States buys the Louisiana Territory from France.
Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon Between Great Britain and Daulat Rao Sindhia, chief of the Maratha Empire;
treaty was revised twice.
Treaty of Fort Wayne
Between the United States and the Delaware, Shawnee, Potowatomi, Miami, and
Kickapoo Indians, defining the boundaries of the Vincennes Tract in southwest
Indiana.
1804 Treaty of St. Louis (1804) The Sac and Fox Indians cede Illinois to the United States.
1805 Treaty of Fort Industry The Ottawa, Chippewa, Wyandot, Potawatomi, Delaware, and Shawnee Indians
cede eastern Ohio to the United States.
Treaty of Pressburg (1805) Between France and Austria, ending Austria's participation in the War of the
"Treaty of Peace and Amity"
Fourth Coalition.
Between the United States and the Pasha of Tripoli, ending the First Barbary
War.
1806 Treaty of Poznań Ends the war between France and Saxony after the latter's defeat during the War
of the Fourth Coalition.
1807 Treaty of Detroit The Ottawa, Chippewa, Wyandot, and Potawatomi Indians cede parts of
Michigan and Ohio to the United States.
Treaties of Tilsit
France, Russia, and Prussia create the Duchy of Warsaw.
Treaty of Finckenstein
Between France and Persia.
Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807) Between Spain and France, proposing the partition of Portugal.
1808 Treaty of Fort Clark The Osage Nation cedes large portions of the Missouri Territory to the United
States.
1809 Treaty of Amritsar, 1809 Between Ranjit Singh and the British East India Company, restricting the Sikh
Empire to north of the Sutlej River.
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Treaty of the Dardanelles
Treaty of Hamina
Treaty of Schönbrunn
Treaty of Fort Wayne (1809)
Between the Ottoman Empire and Great Britain.
Ends the Finnish War between Sweden and Russia.
Ends the War of the Fifth Coalition against Napoleon.
The Delaware, Eel River, Miami, Potawatomi, Kickapoo, and Wea Indians cede
part of Indiana to the United States.
1810 Treaty of Paris (1810) Ends the war between France and Sweden.
1812 Treaty of Bucharest (1812) Ends the Russo-Turkish War (1806–12).
1813 Treaty of Gulistan Between Russia and Qajarid Persia.
Treaty of Fulda
Württemberg agrees with Austria to leave the Confederation of the Rhine.
Treaty of Kalisz (1813)
Russia and Prussia establish the Kalisz Union against Napoleon.
Treaties of Reichenbach Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria establish the Sixth Coalition against
Napoleon.
Treaty of Töplitz
Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria augment the Sixth Coalition against
Napoleon.
Treaty of Peterswaldau Great Britain agrees to pay for 10,000 German troops in Russian service.
Treaty of Ried
Bavaria pledges to Austria to leave the Confederation of the Rhine and join the
Sixth Coalition against Napoleon.
1814 Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 Between the Great Britain and the United Provinces (Netherlands).
Treaty of Paris
Ends the War of the Sixth Coalition against France.
Treaty of Ghent
Ends the War of 1812 between Great Britain and the United States.
Treaty of Kiel
The king of Denmark–Norway cedes Norway to Sweden in exchange for
territories in Pomerania.
Convention of Moss
Armistice agreement and de facto peace treaty between Norway and Sweden.
Treaty of Fontainebleau (1814) Russia, Prussia, and Austria accept Napoleon's abdication as Emperor of
France, and allow him to remain Emperor of Elba.
Treaty of Fort Jackson
The Creek Indians cede territories to the United States.
Eight Articles of London Amalgamates the Netherlands and Belgium.
1815 Treaty of Paris (1815) Follows the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo.
Final Act of the Congress of Ends the Napoleonic Wars.
Vienna
Sugauli Treaty
Ends the Anglo-Nepalese War between Great Britain and Nepal.
Treaty of Springwells
The United States restored relations witrh the Wyandot, Delaware, Seneca,
Shawnee, Miami, Chippewa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi Indians, absolving them
for supporting Great Britain in the War of 1812.
Quadruple Alliance (1815) Between the UK, Austria, Prussia and Russia.
Treaty of Nicolls' Outpost Between the UK and Red Stick and allied Native Americans (unratified)
1816 Treaty of St. Louis (1816) The Council of Three Fires cedes a 20-mile (32 km) strip of land, which
connected Chicago and Lake Michigan with the Illinois River.
1817 Rush–Bagot Treaty Settles boundary disputes between the United States and Great Britain.
Treaty of Fort Meigs
Between the United States and the Wyandot, Seneca, Delaware, Shawnee,
Potawatomi, Ottawa and Ojibwa tribes.
Treaty of Titalia
The British East India Company restores land taken by Nepal to the chogyal
(monarch) of Sikkim, who acknowledges the Company as overlord.
1818 Treaty of 1818 Resolves boundary disputes between the United States and the Great Britain;
leaves the Oregon Country open to both countries.
Treaty of St. Mary's
Between the United States and the Miami people.
Treaty of the Creek Agency Between the United States and the Creek people.
(1818)
Treaty of St. Louis (1818) The Osage Nation cedes all territories to the United States beginning at the
Arkansas River and ending at the Verdigris River.
Quintuple Alliance
France joigned the quadruple alliance
1819 Adams–Onís Treaty Settles a border dispute between the United States and Spain.
Treaty of Saginaw
Native Americans cede land to the United States.
1820 Treaty of Doak's Stand The Choctaw agree to surrender one-third of their land to the United States.
1821 Treaty of Córdoba Mexico becomes independent from Spain.
Treaty of Chicago
The Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes cede to the United States all lands in
the Michigan Territory south of the Grand River.
Treaty of Indian Springs (1821) Creek Indians cede land to the state of Georgia in return for cash payments
totaling $200,000 over a period of 14 years.
1822 Capitulation of Quito. Set forth conditions for the withdrawal of the Spanish royalist forces from the
territories of the Real Audiencia de Quito after the Battle of Pichincha.
1823 Treaty of Moultrie Creek Between the United States and the Creek people.
1824 Second Anglo-Dutch Treaty Settles disputes between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands, dividing the
Malay World.
Russo-American Treaty of
1824
Anderson–Gual Treaty
The United States and Russia fix the southern limit of Russian America at 54°40'
N.
First bilateral U.S. treaty with another country of the Americas.
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1825 Treaty of Rio de Janeiro The Kingdom of Portugal recognized the independence of the Empire of Brazil.
(1825)
Osage Treaty (1825)
The Osage Nation cedes territories to the United States within and west of
Missouri and the Arkansas Territory.
Treaty of St. Louis (1825) The Shawnee Indians cede the area of Cape Girardeau in Missouri to the United
States.
Treaty of Hanover (1825) Ends the War of German Dissolution.
Treaty of Indian Springs (1825) Relocates the Creek Indians in Georgia (except the Tokaubatchee) to a parcel of
land along the Arkansas River.
First Treaty of Prairie du Chien Between the United States and representatives of the Sioux, Sac and Fox,
Menominee, Ioway, Winnebago and Anishinaabeg tribes.
Treaty of Saint Petersburg
(1825)
Also known as the Anglo-Russian Treaty of 1825. Great Britain and Russia fix
the southern limit of Russian America at 54°40' N, and roughly outline the land
boundary between the two Powers northwards from there.
United States–Central America Between the United States and the Federal Republic of Central America.
Treaty
1826 Akkerman Convention Forces the Ottomans to retreat from Moldavia and Wallachia; grants autonomy to
the Principality of Serbia.
Treaty of Mississinwas
Between the United States and the Miami tribe.
Treaty of Yandaboo
Ends the First Burmese War.
Burney Treaty
British acknowledge Siamese claim over the four northern Malay states of
Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis and Terengganu.
1827 Treaty of London (1827) Alliance between the United Kingdom, France and Russia to end Turkish action
in Greece.
1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay Persia cedes northern territories to Russia, ending the Russo-Persian War,
1826–1828.
Treaty of Montevideo (1828) Brazil and Argentina recognize the independence of Uruguay.
Treaty of Limits (Mexico– Between Mexico and the United States, confirming their shared border as agreed
United States)
to by Spain and the U.S. in the Adams–Onís Treaty.
1829 London Protocol (1829) Formulates the boundaries of modern Greece.
Treaty of Edirne
The Ottoman Empire cedes to Russia the right to protect Greece and control the
mouth of the Danube River.
Second Treaty of Prairie du Between the United States and representatives of the Council of Three Fires.
Chien
Third Treaty of Prairie du Between the United States and the Winnebago.
Chien
1830 London Protocol (1830) Confirms sovereignty of Greece.
Treaty of Dancing Rabbit The United States grants rights to the Choctaw Indians.
Creek
Fourth Treaty of Prairie du
Chien
Between the United States and the Sac and Fox, the Mdewakanton, Wahpekute,
Wahpeton and Sisiton Sioux, Omaha, Ioway, Otoe and Missouria tribes.
1831 Treaty of the Eighteen Articles An attempt to establish Belgium's borders.
Pacto Federal
Establishes a military alliance between the Argentine provinces of Buenos Aires,
Entre Ríos, and Santa Fe.
1832 Treaty of Cusseta Between the United States and the Creek Indians.
Treaty of Pontotoc Creek Between the United States and the Chickasaws leading to their removal to
present-day Oklahoma.
Treaty of Constantinople Officially ends the Greek War of Independence and establishes the borders of
(1832)
modern Greece.
London Reiterates and ratifies the
Protocol terms of the Treaty of
(1832) Constantinople (1832).
1833 Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi The Ottoman Empire grants Russia free passage through the Bosporus.
Convention of Kütahya
Between the Ottoman Empire and its vassal Muhammad Ali of Egypt, granting
Muhammad Ali extra privileges.
Treaty of Chicago
Native American tribes cede lands west of Lake Michigan to the United States in
exchange for a reservation of equal size further to the west on the Missouri River;
proclaimed in 1835.
Treaty of Zonhoven
Establishes special regulations over the use of the Meuse River by the
Netherlands and Belgium.
1834 Treaty of Desmichels France acknowledges Abd-el-Kader as Bey of Mascara and independent
sovereign ruler of Oran in Algeria.
1835 Treaty of New Echota Between a faction of the Cherokee Indians and the United States, ceding all
Cherokee lands in Georgia and for all Georgia Cherokees to relocate to the
Indian Territory.
Batman's Treaty
Between John Batman and a group of Wurundjeri elders for the sale of land
around Port Phillip, Australia.
1836 Treaties of Velasco Between Mexico and the Republic of Texas, establishing the independence of
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Texas.
Treaty of Washington (1836) The Ottawa and Chippewa Indians cede parts of northern Michigan to the United
States.
1837 Munich Coin Treaty Unification of currency by six south German states.
Treaty of Tafna
Ends conflict between French and Algerian forces; France cedes territories to
Abd-el-Kader.
1838 Treaty of Balta Liman Commercial treaty between the Ottoman Empire and the Great Britain.
Second Treaty of Buffalo Between the Seneca tribe of Western New York and certain purchasers of rights
Creek
to the Indians' land.
Dresden Coinage Convention Currency treaty between the states of the Zollverein.
1839 Edict of Toleration (Hawaii) King Kamehameha III establishes the Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu.
Treaty of London (1839) Guarantees the neutrality of Belgium.
1840 Treaty of Waitangi Between Great Britain and the Maori of New Zealand, which becomes a British
colony.
1842 Treaty of Nanjing Ends the First Opium War between Great Britain and China; China cedes Hong
Kong Island to Britain.
Webster–Ashburton Treaty Settles boundary disputes between the United States and Canada.
Third Treaty of Buffalo Creek Between the US and Seneca Indians.
1843 Treaty of Maastricht (1843) Establishes borders between Belgium and the Netherlands.
1844 Treaty of Tangiers Ends First Franco-Moroccan War.
Treaty of Tehuacana Creek Establishes peace between the Republic of Texas and various Native American
tribes.
Treaty of Wanghia
First diplomatic agreement between China and the United States in history.
Treaty of Whampoa
China grants privileges to France.
1846 Oregon Treaty Establishes the border between the British and American sections of the Oregon
Country.
Treaty of Lahore
Ends the First Sikh War between Great Britain and the Sikh Empire.
Treaty of Amritsar
The British East India Company recognizes Gulab Singh Dogra as ruler of
Kashmir.
Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty New Granada (today Colombia) and the United States establish diplomatic and
commercial relations.
1847 Treaty of Cahuenga First treaty to end the Mexican–American War.
1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo Second treaty ending the Mexican–American War.
1850 Arana–Southern Treaty Great Britain ends the blockade of Argentina.
Clayton–Bulwer Treaty
The United States and the Great Britain agree not to colonize Central America.
Punctation of Olmütz
Between Prussia and Austria.
1851 Treaty of Mendota Between the United States and the Sioux tribes of Minnesota (Mdewakanton and
Wahpekute).
Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851) United States negotiates safe passage for Oregon Trail settlers with Native
Americans.
Treaty of Kulja
China and Russia establish commercial relations.
Treaty of Traverse des Sioux Between the United States and the Sioux Indians of Minnesota.
1852 London Protocol (1852) Signed after the First War of Schleswig.
Sand River Convention
Regulated the relationship between British government of the Cape Colony and
the Boers north of the Orange River in South Africa.
1854 Convention of Kanagawa Japan is opened to American trade.
Anglo-Japanese Friendship Japan is opened to British trade.
Treaty
Treaty with the Umpqua and
Kalapuya
Between the United States and the tribes of Umpqua and Kalapuya in the
Oregon Territory.
Treaty of Medicine Creek The Nisqually, Puyallup, and Squaxin Island tribes, along with six other smaller
Native American tribes cede territories to the United States.
1855 Bowring Treaty Between Great Britain and Siam, opening Bangkok to foreign free trade, and
Treaty of Hellgate
Treaty of Shimoda
Treaty of Neah Bay
Treaty with the Kalapuya, etc.
Canadian–American
Reciprocity Treaty
Point Elliott Treaty
Point No Point Treaty
guaranteeing Siam's independence.
The Bitterroot Salish, Pend d'Oreille, and Kootenai tribes cede territories to the
United States.
Defines the border between Japan and Russia and opens three Japanese ports
to foreign trade.
Between the United States and the Makah people.
Between the United States and the tribes of Kalapuya, Molala, Clackamas and
others in the Oregon Territory.
Trade treaty between the colonies of British North America and the United
States.
United States government and various Native American tribes of the Puget
Sound region in the newly formed Washington Territory.
Original inhabitants of the Kitsap Peninsula cede ownership of their land in
exchange for small reservations in Hood Canal and a payment of 60,000 dollars
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from the U.S. federal government.
Quinault Treaty
The Quinault and Quileute (including the Hoh) tribes cede territories to the United
States government.
Treaty with the Nez Perce Conducted at Walla Walla, Washington, wherein the United States recognizes
the sovereignty and lands of the Nez Perce. Territory becomes part of United
States. Ratified 1859.
Treaty with the Confederated
Umatilla, Cayuse, and Walla
Walla Tribes
Conducted at Walla Walla, Washington, wherein the United States recognizes
the sovereignty and lands of the Cayuse, Umatilla, and Walla Walla. Territory
becomes part of United States. Ratified 1859.
Treaty with the Yakama Conducted at Walla Walla, Washington, wherein the United States recognizes
Confederated Tribes and the sovereignty and lands of the many and varied bands and tribes making up
Bands
the Yakama Confederated Tribes and Bands. Territory becomes part of United
States. Ratified 1859.
"Buffalo" Treaty
Conducted near Ft. Benton, Montana, at Blackfoot Council wherein several tribal
nations east and west of continental divide agreed to peace terms and mutual
use of territories while hunting buffalo.
1856 Treaty of Paris (1856) Ends the Crimean War.
1857 Vienna Monetary Treaty Monetary Treaty Between the German States
Fourth Treaty of Buffalo Creek Between the US and Seneca Indians
1858 Treaty of Tientsin Ends the first phase of the Second Opium War between Great Britain and China.
Treaty of Aigun
Specifies border between Russia and China.
Treaty of Amity and Japanese treaty ports opened to commerce.
Commerce (United States–
Japan)
1859 Treaty of Zurich Franco-Austrian armistice formalizing the Peace of Villafranca.
1860 Cobden–Chevalier Treaty Establishes free trade between Great Britain and France.
1860 Convention of Peking Ends the Second Opium War between Great Britain and China; China cedes
Kowloon Peninsula to Great Britain.
1861 Franco-Monegasque Treaty Grants sovereignty to Monaco.
1862 Treaty of Commerce and Established official trade agreements between the United States and Ottoman
Navigation
Empire.
Convention of Scutari
Montenegro acknowledges Ottoman suzerainty.
1862 First Treaty of Saigon Emperor Tự Đức cedes Saigon, the island of Poulo Condor, and three southern
provinces (Biên Hòa, Gia Định, and Dinh Tuong) to the French Empire.
1863 Treaty of Hué (1863) Confirms the First Treaty of Saigon.
Treaty of Ruby Valley (1863) The Western Shoshone Indians give certain rights in Nevada Territory to the
United States.
1864 First Geneva Convention Establishes rules for the treatment of battlefield casualties.
Treaty of London (1864) Great Britain cedes the Ionian Islands to Greece.
Treaty of Vienna (1864) Ends the Second War of Schleswig between Denmark and Austria/Prussia.
1865 Treaty of the Triple Alliance Military alliance between Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay against Paraguay.
1866 Peace of Prague (1866) Ends Austro-Prussian War.
1867 Alaska Purchase The United States buys Alaska from Russia.
Medicine Lodge Treaty Negotiations between the United States and Native Americans.
Treaty of London (1867) An international accord in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War and the
Luxembourg Crisis.
1868 Burlingame Treaty Establishes relations between the United States and China.
Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) Ends Red Cloud's War.
Bancroft Treaties (Treaty on
Naturalization)
The North German Confederation recognizes the legal right of its subjects to
become citizens of the United States; the first European government to do so.
1871 Treaty of Frankfurt (1871) Ends the Franco-Prussian War.
Treaty of Washington (1871) Settles grievances between the United States and Great Britain.
Treaty 1 (Stone Fort Treaty) Ojibwe and Swampy Cree Indians of southeastern Manitoba accept the
sovereignty of Canada.
Treaty 2 (Manitoba Post Ojibwe Indians of southwestern Manitoba accept the sovereignty of Canada.
Treaty)
1873 Treaty 3 (Northwest Angle
Treaty)
Ojibwe Indians of eastern Manitoba and western Ontario accept the sovereignty
of Canada.
1874 Pangkor Treaty of 1874 Perak becomes the first Malay state to accept British Resident.
Treaty of Berne
Universal Postal Union becomes the second oldest international organization.
Second Treaty of Saigon Reiterates the Treaty of Saigon (1862); the Red River (Song Hong) opens for
trade, as well as the ports of Hanoi, Haiphong and Qui Nonh.
Treaty 4 (Qu'appelle Treaty) Cree and Saulteaux Indians of southern Saskatchewan accept the sovereignty of
Canada.
1875 Treaty of Saint Petersburg In exchange for the Kuril Islands, Japan relinquishes claims on Sakhalin.
(1875)
Convention du Mètre
An international treaty that establishes three organizations to oversee the
keeping of metric standards.
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Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 A free trade agreement between the United States and the Hawaiian Kingdom.
Treaty 5
Saulteaux and Swampy Cree Indians, and Michel Band métis of Manitoba accept
the sovereignty of Canada.
1876 Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876 First Unequal treaty of Korean Joseon dynasty.
Treaty 6
Plain and Wood Cree and Assiniboine Indians of central Alberta and
Saskatchewan accept the sovereignty of Canada.
1877 London Protocol (1877) Great Britain agrees to remain neutral in any conflict between the Ottoman
Empire and Russia.
Treaty 7
Blackfoot, Nakota, and Sarcee Indians of Alberta accept the sovereignty of
Canada.
1878 Cyprus Convention The Ottoman Empire cedes Cyprus to Great Britain in return for military support
against Russia
Pact of Zanjón
Ends the Cuban Ten Years' War.
Treaty of San Stefano
Ends the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78) between Russia and the Ottoman
Empire.
Treaty of Berlin (1878)
Amends the Treaty of San Stefano.
1879 Treaty of Gandamak Ends the first phase of the Second Anglo-Afghan War.
1881 Boundary treaty of 1881 Chile and Argentina define their boundary.
between Chile and Argentina
Treaty of Akhal
Persia officially recognizes the annexation of Khwarazm by Russia.
Treaty of Bardo
Tunisia becomes a protectorate of France.
1882 Triple Alliance (1882) Alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.
Kilmainham Treaty
Between the British government under William Ewart Gladstone and the Irish
nationalist leader Charles Stewart Parnell.
1883 Paris Convention for the Intellectual property systems (including patents) of any contracting state become
Protection of Industrial accessible to the nationals of other states party to the Convention.
Property
Treaty of Ancón
Treaty of Hué (1883)
Settles territorial disputes between Peru and Chile.
Annam cedes protectorate over Annam and Tonkin to France; not confirmed as
too harsh.
1884 Treaty of Hué (1884) Between Annam and France, replacing the Treaty of Hué (1883).
1885 Treaty of Simulambuco Between Portugal and the Ngoyo Kingdom in the Cabinda enclave north of
Angola.
1886 Berne Convention International agreement about copyright.
Treaty of Bucharest
Ends war between Serbia and Bulgaria.
1887 Reinsurance Treaty Between Germany and Russia.
1889 Treaty of Berlin (1889) The United States, Great Britain, and Germany establish a condominium and
recognize the independence of Samoa.
Treaty of Wuchale
Peace treaty between Ethiopia and Italy, subsequently disputed.
Puna de Atacama dispute Secret treaty between Argentina and Bolivia (see also 1891)
1890 Heligoland–Zanzibar Treaty Agreement between the Great Britain and Germany concerning mainly territorial
interests in Africa.
1891 Treaty of Madrid (1891) Gives France legal protection of the word champagne.
Puna de Atacama dispute Secret treaty between Chili and Bolivia (see also 1889)
1895 Treaty of The Hague (1895) Establishes boundaries of British New Guinea.
Treaty of Shimonoseki
Ends the First Sino-Japanese War between China and Japan.
Treaty of Friendship, Establishes diplomatic and commercial relations between Brazil and Japan.
Commerce and Navigation
between Brazil and Japan
1896 Treaty of Addis Ababa Abrogates the Treaty of Wuchale, formally ends the First Italo–Ethiopian War,
and recognizes Ethiopia as an independent state.
1897 Treaty of Constantinople Ends hostilities between the Ottoman Empire and Greece. Greece pays
(1897)
reparations. Crete autonomous under Ottoman suzerainty (Cretan State).
Franco-Ethiopian treaty (1897) France and Ethiopia the boundary between Ethiopia and French Somaliland.
1898 Treaty of Paris (1898) Ends the Spanish–American War.
Convention for the Extension China cedes the New Territories to Great Britain.
of Hong Kong Territory
1899 Hague Conventions of 1899 Attempts to formalize laws of war.
and 1907
Tripartite Convention (1899) Divides Samoa between the United States and Germany.
Treaty 8
Cree and Chipewyan Indians cede northern British Columbia, Alberta, and
Saskatchewan to Canada and
accept Canadian sovereignty.
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1900–1999
Year Name Summary
1900 Treaty of Paris Ends all conflicting claims over Río Muni (Equatorial Guinea).
Treaty of Washington
Seeks to remove any ground of misunderstanding growing out of the
interpretation of Article III of the Treaty of Paris (1898) by clarifying
specifics of territories relinquished to the United States by Spain.
Convention for the Preservation of Wild First international agreement on wildlife conservation.
Animals, Birds and Fish in Africa
1901 Hay–Pauncefote Treaty Replaces the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty.
Boxer Protocol
Peace agreement between the Eight-Nation Alliance and China.
1902 Anglo-Japanese Alliance Treaty of alliance between England and Japan; signed by Lord Lansdowne
and Hayashi Tadasu.
Treaty of Vereeniging
Ends the Second Boer War.
1903 Cuban–American Treaty of Relations (1903) The Republic of Cuba grants the United States the right to lease land in the
Guantánamo Bay area.
Hay–Herrán Treaty
The United States attempts to acquire a lease on Panama.
Hay–Herbert Treaty
Between the United Kingdom and the United States on the location of the
border between Alaska and Canada.
Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty
Establishes the Panama Canal Zone.
Treaty of Petrópolis
Ends tensions between Bolivia and Brazil over the territory of Acre.
Southern African Customs Union Agreement Creates customs union between British colonies and protectorates in
Southern Africa.
1904 Treaty of Peace and Friendship (1904) Fixes borders between Chile and Bolivia.
Treaty of Lhasa
Between Great Britain and Tibet.
1905 Treaty of Portsmouth Ends the Russo-Japanese War.
Treaty of Björkö
A secret mutual defense accord between the German Empire and Russia.
October Manifesto
Response to Russian Revolution of 1905. Created the Duma but Tsar
Nicholas II of Russia disregarded it after the country was stable again and
continued his absolute rule.
Taft–Katsura Agreement
Japan and the United States agree on spheres of influence in Asia.
Convention of Karlstad
This treaty dissolves of the union between Norway and Sweden
established by the Convention of Moss and Treaty of Kiel in 1814.
Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905
This treaty deprived Korean Empire of its diplomatic sovereignty, in effect
making Korea a protectorate of Empire of Japan; void in 1965.
Treaty 9 (James Bay Treaty)
Conducted at Osnaburgh House trade post, on Lake St. Joseph (Albany
River), Ontario, Canada, negotiating an agreement between the Canadian
monarch, King Edward VII, and First Nations. There were later adhesions
to the treaty.
1906 Second Geneva Convention Specifies the treatment of wounded, sick and shipwrecked members of
armed forces at sea.
Treaty 10
Conducted at Île-à-la-Crosse and Lac du Brochet, Saskatchewan, Canada,
negotiating an agreement between the Canadian monarch, King Edward
VII, and First Nations. There were later adhesions to the treaty in 1907.
Treaty of Limits (Brazil–Netherlands)
Defined international boundary between Brazil and Dutch colony of
Surinam
1909 Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 Formally divides northern Malay states between Siam and the British
Empire.
1910 Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910 Begins the period of Korea under Japanese rule; declared null and void in
1965.
Brussels Collision Convention
Governs apportionment of legal liability in maritime collision cases.
1911 North Pacific Fur Seal Convention of 1911 First international treaty seeking the management and conservation of
wildlife.
1912 International Opium Convention The first international drug control treaty.
1913 Treaty of London (1913) Ends the First Balkan War.
Treaty of Bucharest (1913)
Ends the Second Balkan War.
Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Alliance between Mongolia and Tibet.
Government of Mongolia and Tibet
Treaty of Athens
Peace treaty between Ottoman Empire and Greece. Ottoman Empire
acknowledges union of Crete with Greece.
Treaty of Constantinople (1913) Peace treaty between Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria. Bulgaria
acknowledges Ottoman control on Eastern Thrace.
1914 Bryan–Chamorro Treaty The United States acquires the rights to any canal built in Nicaragua, to
build a naval base in the Gulf of Fonseca, and to lease the Great and Little
Corn Islands in the Caribbean; ratified in 1916.
1915 Treaty of London (1915) (London Pact) Italy enters World War I.
Treaty of Kyakhta (1915)
Status of Mongolia
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1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement France and the United Kingdom define spheres of influence in the Middle
East.
Treaty of Bucharest (1916)
Alliance between Romania and the Entente.
1917 Lansing–Ishii Agreement Trade treaty between the United States and Japan.
Corfu Declaration
Statement of intention to form a Kingdom of Yugoslavia.
1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Ukraine–Central Between the Ukrainian People's Republic and the Central Powers.
Powers)
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Between Russia and the Central Powers; Russia pulls out of World War I.
Treaty of Bucharest (1918)
Between Romania and the Central Powers; never ratified.
Treaty of Batum
Between the Democratic Republic of Armenia and the Ottoman Empire.
Armistice of Mudros
Ends the Middle-Eastern part of World War I and forces the Ottomans to
renounce most of their imperial holdings.
Armistice of Villa Giusti
Between the Kingdom of Italy and Austria-Hungary, ending warfare on
Italian Front during World War I.
Armistice with Germany
Between France, Britain, and Germany, ending World War I
Treaty of Rongbatsa
Agreement upon borders between India, Nepal, Tibet and China.
1919 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) Dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
Treaty of Versailles Formally ends World War I.
Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine
Between Allied Powers and Bulgaria.
Faisal–Weizmann Agreement
Agreement for Arab–Jewish cooperation in the Middle East.
Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919 (Treaty of
Rawalpindi)
Between the United Kingdom and Afghanistan during the Third Anglo-
Afghan War; United Kingdom recognizes Afghanistan's independence;
amended in 1921.
1920 Seventh Treaty of Paris Union of Bessarabia and Romania.
Treaty of Warsaw (1920)
Between the Second Polish Republic and the Ukrainian People's Republic.
Treaty of Brno (1920)
Naturalizes all populaces within the respective language groups of Austria
and Czechoslovakia.
Treaty of Rapallo (1920)
Between Italy and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes
(subsequently the Kingdom of Yugoslavia).
Treaty of Moscow (1920)
Mutual recognition of the Russian SFSR and the Democratic Republic of
Georgia
Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Finnish)
Establishes border between Russia and Finland.
Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)
Establishes border between Russia and Estonia.
Treaty of Trianon
Regulates the newly independent Hungary.
Treaty of Sèvres
Peace between the Allies of World War I and the Ottoman Empire.
Latvian–Soviet Peace Treaty
Brings peace between the Republic of Latvia and Russian SFSR.
Treaty of Alexandropol
Ends the war between Turkish nationalists and the Armenian Republic.
Svalbard Treaty
The Arctic archipelago of Svalbard becomes part of the Kingdom of
Norway.
1921 Franco-Polish alliance (1921) Military alliance between Poland and France that was active between 1921
and 1940.
Anglo-Irish Treaty
Ends the Irish War of Independence and created the Irish Free State.
Peace of Riga
Ends the Polish–Soviet War.
Thomson–Urrutia Treaty
Colombia recognizes Panama's independence in return for 25 million
dollars.
Treaty of Berlin (1921)
Separate post-World War I peace agreement between the United States
and Germany.
Treaty of Kars
Friendship treaty between Turkey and the Soviet governments of the
Transcaucasian Republics.
Treaty of Ankara (1921)
France agrees to evacuate Cilicia in return for economic concessions from
Turkey; Turkey acknowledges French imperial sovereignty over Syria.
Russo-Persian Treaty of Friendship (1921) Grants both Iran and the Soviet Union full and equal shipping rights in the
Caspian Sea.
Treaty of Moscow (1921)
A friendship treaty between the Grand National Assembly of Turkey
(TBMM) and the Bolshevik government of the Russian Soviet Federative
Socialist Republic.
Anglo–Afghan Treaty of 1921 Amendments to and expansion of the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919
between the United Kingdom and Afghanistan
Treaty 11
Conducted at Northwest Territories, Canada, negotiating an agreement
between the Canadian monarch, King George V, and First Nations. There
were further signings in 1921.
1922 Washington Naval Treaty Attempts to limit naval expansion.
Treaty of Rapallo (1922)
Treaty on the Creation of the USSR
Between the Weimar Republic and Bolshevist Russia.
Legalized the creation of a union of several Republics of the Soviet Union
in the form of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
1923 Treaty of Lausanne Sets the boundaries of modern Turkey.
Halibut Treaty
Canadian-American agreement concerning fishing rights in the northern
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Pacific Ocean.
Convention and Statute on the International
Régime of Maritime Ports
Mandated equal treatment of all ships in maritime ports, regardless of
nationality.
1924 Brussels Agreement (1924) Multilateral treaty providing for medical treatment of seamen with venereal
diseases.
Treaty of Rome (1924)
Revokes parts of the Treaty of Rapallo (1920) that created the independent
Free State of Fiume; Fiume would be annexed to Italy while the town of
Sušak would be assigned to Yugoslavia.
1925 Treaty of Nettuno Defines border and immigration policy between the Kingdom of Italy and
the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.
Locarno Treaties
Seven treaties between the World War I Western European Allied powers
and the new states of central and Eastern Europe.
1926 Treaty of Berlin (1926) Germany and the Soviet Union pledge neutrality.
1927 Treaty of Jeddah (1927) Establishes the independence of present-day Saudi Arabia from the United
Kingdom.
1928 Kellogg–Briand Pact Calls "for the renunciation of war as an instrument of national policy".
Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1928
20 year treaty of peace between the Kingdom of Italy and the Empire of
Ethiopia.
1929 Lateran Treaty The Kingdom of Italy and the Vatican City formally recognize each other.
Geneva Convention (1929)
Establishes rules for the treatment of prisoners of war; predecessor of the
1949 Third Geneva Convention.
International Convention for the Suppression Criminalises the counterfeiting of currency.
of Counterfeiting Currency
1930 London Naval Treaty Regulates submarine warfare and shipbuilding.
Convention Between the United States and
Great Britain (1930)
Definitely delimits the boundary between North Borneo (then a British
protectorate) and the Philippine archipelago (then a U.S. Territory).
1931 Treaty of Westminster (1931) Creates the British Commonwealth.
1932 Soviet–Polish Non-Aggression Pact International treaty of non-aggression signed by representatives of Poland
and the USSR.
1934 German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact International treaty between Nazi Germany and the Second Polish
Republic; both countries pledged to settle disputes through bilateral
negotiations.
Balkan Pact
Between Greece, Turkey, Romania, and Yugoslavia; signatories agree to
suspend all disputed territorial claims against each other.
1935 Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance Bilateral pact between France and the USSR with the aim of containing
German aggression.
Treaty of Establishment, Commerce and Reinforces the Russo-Persian Treaty of Friendship.
Navigation
1936 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 The United Kingdom withdraws its troops from Egypt except those
necessary to protect the Suez Canal and its surroundings.
Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence France provides independence to Syria.
(1936)
Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime Approve Turkish control on Bosphorus and Dardanelles Straits
of the Straits
1937 International Convention for the Regulation of
Whaling
Establishes limitations on whaling practices; protocols signed in 1938 and
again in 1945.
Treaty of Saadabad
A non-aggression pact signed by Turkey, Iran, Iraq and Afghanistan.
1938 Munich Agreement Surrenders the Sudetenland to Germany.
1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact Soviet-German non-aggression pact.
Pact of Steel
Pact of Friendship and Alliance between Germany and Italy.
1940 Moscow Peace Treaty Ends the Winter War.
Treaty of Commerce and Navigation
Reinforces the Treaty of Establishment, Commerce and Navigation
between Iran and the Soviet Union.
Treaty of Craiova
Romania cedes territories to Bulgaria.
1941 Tokyo Convention Ends the Franco-Thai War.
1942 Anglo-Soviet Treaty of 1942 Twenty-year mutual assistance agreement between the United Kingdom
and the USSR that establishes both a military and political alliance.
1944 Bretton Woods Agreement Establishes rules for commercial and financial relations among the major
industrial states.
Tito–Šubašić Agreement
Attempts to merge Yugoslavian governments.
Chicago Convention on International Civil Establishes the International Civil Aviation Organization; ratified in 1947.
Aviation
London Protocol (1944)
Prepares for the division of Germany into three occupation zones.
1945 Treaty of Varkiza Attempts to officially end the Greek Civil War.
United Nations Charter
Establishes the United Nations.
Wanfried Agreement
Transfers three Hessian villages to the Soviet Union and two Eichsfeld
villages to the United States.
1946 Bermuda Agreement Bilateral agreement on civil aviation between the United States and United
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Kingdom.
Keflavik Agreement
Between the USA and Iceland
Gruber–De Gasperi Agreement
South Tyrol and Trentino remain part of Italy, but ensures their autonomy
as region of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol.
International Convention for the Regulation of
Whaling
Replaces the International Agreement for the Regulation of Whaling;
governs the commercial, scientific, and aboriginal subsistence whaling
practices of fifty-nine member nations.
1946 Lake Success Protocol Shifts drug control functions previously assigned to the League of Nations
to the United Nations.
Treaty of Manila (1946)
The United States recognizes the independence of the Republic of the
Philippines.
Treaty of London (1946)
Great Britain recognizes the independence of Transjordan.
1947 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Establishes international trade rules.
Paris Peace Treaties, 1947
Formally ends World War II in the European Theatre.
Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal A "hemispheric defense" doctrine signed by many nations in the Americas.
Assistance
1949 North Atlantic Treaty Establishes NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
Fourth Geneva Convention
Establishes rules for the protection of civilians during wartime.
Treaty of The Hague (1949)
The Netherlands grants independence to Indonesia except for the South
Molucca Islands and West Irian.
Treaty of London (1949)
Creates the Council of Europe.
1950 Liaquat–Nehru Pact Between Pakistani Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan and Indian Prime
Minister Jawaharlal Nehru.
Treaty of Zgorzelec
Establishes borders between the Republic of Poland and the German
Democratic Republic.
1951 Mutual Defense Treaty (U.S.–Philippines) A mutual defense accord between the Philippines and the United States.
Genocide Convention
Defines and outlaws genocide.
Treaty of San Francisco
Formally ends the war between the Allies of World War II and Japan.
Security Treaty Between the United States
and Japan
A mutual defense agreement between the United States and Japan; goes
into effect on April 28, 1952.
U.S. and Japan Mutual Defense Assistance
Agreement
Permits U.S. armed forces to station troops in Japan while encouraging
Japan to rearm for defensive purposes only; goes into effect on May 1,
1954.
1952 ANZUS Treaty Alliance between Australia, New Zealand and the United States.
Treaty of Taipei
Peace treaty between Japan and the Republic of China.
General Treaty
Treaty between the Federal Republic of Germany and the Western Allies
(France, UK, USA) restoring (limited) German sovereignty.
International Convention relating to Arrest of Standardises rules relating to arrest of ships in port.
Sea-going Ships
1953 Korean War Armistice Agreement Ended the fighting between the United Nations Command and the Korean
People's Army & PRC People's Liberation Army.
1954 Central Treaty Organization Alliance of Middle Eastern countries and the United Kingdom.
Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty
Established the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, (SEATO), a defensive
alliance between Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines,
South Korea, South Vietnam, Thailand, the United Kingdom and the United
States.
1955 Asian–African Conference Conference stated to promote Afro-Asian economic and cultural
cooperation and to oppose colonialism or neocolonialism by the United
States, the Soviet Union, or any other "imperialistic" nation.
Austrian State Treaty
Simonstown Agreement
Re-establishes a free, sovereign and democratic Austria.
The Royal Navy surrenders its naval base at Simonstown, South Africa and
transfers command of the South African Navy to the government of South
Africa.
Warsaw Pact
Alliance of Central and Eastern European communist states.
1956 Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 Reestablishes diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union and Japan
following World War II.
1957 Anglo-Malayan Defence Agreement Provides a security umbrella for the independent Malaya.
Treaty of Rome
Establishes the European Economic Community.
International Atomic Energy Treaty
Establishes the International Atomic Energy Agency.
1958 1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement Bilateral treaty between the United States and the United Kingdom on
nuclear weapons cooperation.
Convention on the Territorial Sea and the
Contiguous Zone
Provides new universal legal controls for the management of marine
natural resources and the control of pollution.
1959 Antarctic Treaty System Sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, establishes freedom of
scientific investigation and bans military activity on the continent; comes
into force in 1961.
1960 Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security
between the United States and Japan
Strengthens Japan's ties to the "West" during the Cold War era.
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The Indus Waters Treaty 1960
Water sharing treaty between India and Pakistan.
1960 Treaty of Montevideo Establishes the Latin American Free Trade Association.
London and Zurich Agreements
Between United Kingdom, Turkey and Greece about the independence and
Guarantee of Cyprus.
1961 Arms Control and Disarmament Agency Strengthens U.S. national security by implementing effective policies of
arms control and disarmament.
Hague Convention of 5 October 1961 International treaty drafted by the Hague Conference on Private
International Law. It specifies the modalities through which a document
issued in one of the signatory countries can be certified for legal purposes
in all the other signatory states. Such a certification is called an apostille
(French: certification). The apostille is an international certification.
Columbia River Treaty
International agreement between Canada and the United States on the
development and operation of the upper Columbia River basin.
Vienna
Convention International treaty on diplomatic intercourse and the privileges and
on Diplomatic Relations
immunities of diplomatic missions; came into force in 1964.
Alliance for Progress
U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower attempts to establish economic
cooperation between North America and South America.
Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs
International treaty against the illicit manufacture and trafficking of narcotic
drugs.
Convention on the Reduction of International treaty against statelessness; goes into effect on December 13,
Statelessness
1975.
1962 Nassau Agreement The United States provides the United Kingdom with nuclear-armed Polaris
missiles in return for a nuclear submarine base in the Holy Loch, near
Glasgow.
New York Agreement
Agreement between the Republic of Indonesia and the Kingdom of the
Netherlands Concerning West New Guinea (West Irian). Transferred
responsibility for a territory to the United Nations and arranged for
subsequent administration by Indonesia pending an act of selfdetermination
defined in agreement.
1963 Vienna Convention Multilateral treaty that codifies consular practices.
on Consular Relations
Vienna
Convention Sets rules of liability for any and all forms of nuclear damage.
on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage
Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty [183]
Prohibiting all test detonations of nuclear weapons except underground.
Élysée Treaty
Franco-German agreement for joint cooperation in foreign policy, economic
and military integration, and exchange of student education.
Strasbourg Convention
Harmonizes patent laws across European countries.
1965 Merger Treaty Organizes the European Coal and Steel Community, the European
Economic Community and Euratom; creates European Commission and
the Council of the European Communities; comes into force on July 1,
1967.
Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan
and the Republic of Korea
Established basic relationship between Japan and the Republic of Korea
(South Korea).
1967 Treaty of Tlatelolco Keeps Latin American and the Caribbean regions free of nuclear weapons.
ASEAN Declaration
Founding document of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations.
WIPO Convention
Established the World Intellectual Property Organization.
Outer Space Treaty
Forbids the placing of nuclear weapons or any other weapons of mass
destruction on celestial bodies and into outer space in general.
1968 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Limits the spread of nuclear weapons through non-proliferation,
Weapons
disarmament, and the right to utilize nuclear technology for peaceful
purposes.
1969 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination
Commits signatories to the elimination of racial discrimination and the
promotion of understanding among all races.
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties Codifies the pre-existing international customary law on treaties with some
necessary gap-filling and clarifications.
Arusha Agreement
Establishes better economic relations between the European Community
and the nations of Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania; comes into force in
1971.
1970 Hague Hijacking Convention Criminalises the hijacking of civil aviation aircraft.
Patent Cooperation Treaty
Provides a unified procedure for filing patent applications to protect
inventions internationally; comes into force in 1978; amended in 1979;
modified in 1984 and 2001.
Boundary Treaty of 1970
Settles boundary disputes between the United States and Mexico.
Treaty of Warsaw (1970)
West Germany and the People's Republic of Poland pledge themselves to
nonviolence and accept the Oder–Neisse line; ratified in 1972.
1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances Attempts to control psychoactive drugs such as amphetamines,
Five Power Defence Arrangements
barbiturates, and LSD.
Security agreement between Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Singapore
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and the United Kingdom.
Ramsar Convention
Focuses on the conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands; goes
into effect in 1975.
IPC Agreement
Establishes a common classification for patents for invention, inventors'
certificates, utility models and utility certificates; goes into effect in 1975;
amended in 1979.
Seabed Arms Control Treaty Bans the placement of nuclear weapons on the ocean floor beyond a 12-
mile (19 km) coastal zone; comes into force in 1972.
Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Criminalises sabotage of civil aircraft and dangerous acts on board aircraft
Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation
Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Specifies strategic cooperation between India and the Soviet Union.
Cooperation
1972 Addis Ababa Agreement (1972) A series of accords between the government of Sudan and insurgents in
Southern Sudan, which ended the First Sudanese Civil War
Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty
Limits the use of anti-ballistic missile (ABM) systems in defending areas
against missile-delivered nuclear weapons (US PL 92-448).
Basic Treaty (1972)
Establishes relations between the Federal Republic of Germany and the
German Democratic Republic; comes into effect in 1973.
Biological Weapons Convention
First multilateral disarmament treaty banning the production of an entire
category of biological weapons (with exceptions for medical and defensive
purposes in small quantities).
Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Provides protection for Antarctic seals; comes into effect in 1978.
Seals
London Convention on the Prevention of
Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and
Attempts to control pollution of the sea via deliberate dumping by vessels,
aircraft, and platforms.
Other Matter
Sino-Japanese Joint Communiqué
Japan recognizes PRC as the sole legal Government of China; and China
renounces its demand for war reparation from Japan
Simla Agreement
Normalised relations between India and Pakistan following the Bangladesh
Liberation War.
1973 European Patent Convention Multilateral treaty instituting the European Patent Organisation.
Agreement on the Transfer of Corpses Establishes rules and standards for the transfer of human corpses across
CITES- The Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora
Paris Peace Accords
Vientiane Treaty
Agreement on the Transfer of Corpses
Sunningdale Agreement
international borders
Also known as the Washington Convention; Regulates international trade
of endangered species of animals and plants (live specimens, as well as
their parts and derivatives)
Formalized American withdrawal from Vietnam.
A cease-fire agreement between the monarchial government of Laos and
the communist Pathet Lao.
Establishes rules and standards for the transport of human corpses across
international borders. Intended to replace a similar 1937 treaty.
Established a power-sharingNorthern Ireland Executive under Brian
Faulkner of the UUP and Gerry Fitt of the SDLP.
1974 Japan–Australia Migratory Bird Agreement Treaty between Australia and Japan to minimise harm to the major areas
used by birds that migrate between the two countries; comes into force in
1981.
Threshold Test Ban Treaty
Establishes a nuclear "threshold" by prohibiting nuclear tests of devices
having a yield exceeding 150 kilotons.
1975 Treaty of Osimo Divides the Free Territory of Trieste between Italy and Yugoslavia.
Treaty of Lagos
Establishes the Economic Community of West African States.
1976 Environmental Modification Convention Prohibits the military or other hostile use of environmental modification
techniques; comes into force in 1978.
Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Treaty signed among the founding members of ASEAN and acceded to by
Southeast Asia
all ASEAN members and 15 non-members.
Convention on Limitation of Liability for Admiralty law treaty regarding liability for maritime claims.
Maritime Claims
1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties Abrogates the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty and guarantees Panama its
eventual control of the Panama Canal after 1999.
1978 Camp David Accords Agreement between Egypt and Israel.
Treaty of Peace and Friendship between Peace agreement between Japan and the People's Republic of China.
Japan and the People's Republic of China
1979 Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty Israel and Egypt agree to mutually recognize each other; Israel agrees to
withdraw its troops from the Sinai Peninsula in return for Israeli ships to
gain free passage through the Suez Canal.
Moon Treaty
Treaty of Accession 1979
Treaty of Montevideo
Turns jurisdiction of all heavenly bodies to the international community;
goes into effect in 1984.
New members for the European union
Both Argentina and Chile pledge to a peaceful solution to their border
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disputes at the Beagle Channel.
1983 Australia New Zealand Closer Economic
Relations Trade Agreement
A free trade agreement between the governments of New Zealand and
Australia.
1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration The United Kingdom relinquishes Hong Kong to the People's Republic of
China.
Nkomati Accord
Nonagression treaty between Mozambique and the Republic of South
Africa.
Oujda Treaty
Morocco and Libya establish the Arabic–African Union.
Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1984
between Chile and Argentina
Resolves disputes between Argentina and Chile over the possession of the
Picton, Lennox and Nueva islands.
1985 Plaza Accord The Group of Five agree to devalue the US dollar in relation to the
Japanese yen and German Deutsche Mark by intervening in currency
markets.
Schengen Agreement
Establishes for the European Community a border system and a common
policy on the temporary entry of persons.
1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of
Sulphur Emissions
Provides for a 30% reduction in sulphur emissions and their transboundary
fluxes by 1993; comes into effect in 1987.
Treaty of Rarotonga
Formalizes a nuclear-weapon-free zone in the South Pacific.
1986 China–Australia Migratory Bird Agreement Treaty between Australia and China to minimise harm to major areas used
by birds that migrate between the two countries; comes into force in 1988.
Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear
Accident
In the wake of the Chernobyl disaster, states agree to promptly notify each
other and the IAEA of nuclear accidents that occur.
1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty Eliminates nuclear and conventional ground-launched ballistic and cruise
missiles with ranges of 500 to 5,500 kilometers (300 to 3,400 miles); ratified
and comes into force in 1988.
Joint Declaration on the Question of Macau Portugal relinquishes Macau to the People's Republic of China.
1988 Nitrogen Oxide Protocol Provides for the control or reduction of nitrogen oxides and their
transboundary fluxes; comes into effect in 1991.
United Nations Convention Against Illicit
Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic
Enforcing the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs and the 1971
Convention on Psychotropic Substances.
Substances
Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Criminalizes hijacking and other dangerous acts on ships.
Acts against the Safety of Maritime
Navigation
Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Criminalizes dangerous or violent acts in airports
Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation
1989 Montreal Protocol Attempts to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of a
number of substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion.
Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in
Europe
Establishes limits on key categories of conventional military equipment in
Europe and mandates the destruction of excess weaponry.
Timor Gap Treaty Between the governments of Australia and Indonesia; rewritten in 2001.
Wellington Convention
Prohibits the use of fishing driftnets in the South Pacific that are longer than
2.5 metres.
1990 Malaysia–Singapore Points of Agreement of
1990
Treaty regarding the future of railway land owned by the Malaysian
government through Malayan Railways in Singapore.
1990 Chemical Weapons Accord On June 1, 1990 Presidents George H. W. Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev
sign the bilateral U.S.-Soviet Chemical Weapons Accord.
Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect
to Germany
The Four Powers renounce all rights they formerly held in Germany and
Germany renounces all claims to territories east of the Oder–Neisse line.
1991 Brioni Agreement Ends ten-day war in Slovenia.
Abuja Treaty
International agreement that creates the African Economic Community.
Treaty of Asunción
International treaty signed between Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and
Paraguay, served as the basis for the establishment of the Mercosur
trading block.
Extradition treaty
Treaty on Extradition between Australia and the Republic of the Philippines.
Signed in Manila on 7 March 1988, entered into force on 18 January 1991.
Belavezha Accords
Agreement which declared the Soviet Union effectively dissolved and
established the Commonwealth of Independent States in its place.
1992 Maastricht Treaty Establishes the European Union.
United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change
Attempts to reduce emissions of greenhouse gas in order to combat global
warming.
Treaty on Open Skies
Establishes an international program of unarmed aerial surveillance flights
over all participants' territories.
CIS Collective Security Treaty
Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan
establish framework for the Commonwealth of Independent States.
Sochi agreement
Georgian and South Ossetian forces signed a ceasefire to halt the
contemperaneously recognized "civil war."
1993 Oslo I Accord Between the Israeli government and the Palestine Liberation Organization.
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Chemical Weapons Convention
Outlaws the production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons.
1994 Israel–Jordan Treaty of Peace Normalizes relations between Israel and Jordan and resolves territorial
disputes between them.
North American Free Trade Agreement Free trade agreement between Canada, the United States of America, and
Mexico.
Kremlin accords
Stops the preprogrammed aiming of nuclear missiles at targets in any
nation and provides for the dismantling of Russian nuclear weapons in
Ukraine.
Bishkek Protocol
Provisional ceasefire agreement between Armenia and Azerbaijan.
United Nations Convention on the Law of the
Sea
Provides universal legal controls for the management of marine natural
resources and the control of pollution.
United Nations Convention to Combat Agreement to combat desertification and to mitigate the effects of drought;
Desertification
comes into force in 1996.
Extradition treaty
Extradition treaty between the government of the republic of the Philippines
and the government of the United States of America. Signed at Manila on
13 November 1994.
Convention on Nuclear Safety
States agree to general safety rules regarding civilian nuclear power plants
and programmes.
1995 Dayton Agreement Ends Bosnian War.
General Agreement on Trade in Services Extends the multilateral trading system to provide services (i.e. tertiary
sector of industry).
1996 Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Forbids all nuclear explosions in all environments for military or civilian
purposes.
Khasavyurt Accord
Ceasefire agreement that ends the First Chechen War.
WIPO Copyright Treaty
Provides additional protections for copyright deemed necessary due to
advances in information technology.
WIPO Performances and Phonograms Establishes rights and privileges for performers and producers of audiovisual
Treaty
works.
1997 Amsterdam Treaty Substantially revises the Maastricht Treaty; comes into effect on May 1,
1999.
Ottawa Treaty
Bans all anti-personnel landmines (AP-mines).
Chemical Weapons Convention
Outlaws the production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons.
Kyoto Protocol Mandates the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions; negotiated in 1997,
ratified in 2004, and went into effect in 2005.
Russian - Ukrainian Friendship Treaty Fixes the principle of strategic partnership, the recognition of the
inviolability of existing borders, respect for territorial integrity and mutual
commitment not to use its territory to harm the security of each other.
Ratified in 1998 by Ukraine and in 1999 by Russia. Still in force.
1998 Good Friday Agreement Major political development in the Northern Ireland peace process.
POP Air Pollution Protocol
Agreement to provide for the control and reduction of emissions of
persistent organic pollutants; has not yet come into effect.
Rome Statute of the International
Criminal Court
Establishes the International Criminal Court.
1999 Adapted Conventional Armed Forces in Replaces ceilings given to NATO and the Warsaw Pact with territorial ones.
Europe Treaty
East African Community Treaty
Establishes the East African Community between Uganda, Kenya and the
Republic of Tanzania; goes into effect on July 7, 2000.
Kumanovo Agreement Concluded the Kosovo War; went into effect on June 9, 1999.
Narrative Protocol on Eastern and Western
Sections of the China-Russia Boundary
between the Government of the People’s
Republic of China and the Government of the
Russian Federation
China’s Jiang Zemin and Russia’s president, Boris Yeltsin, signed in Beijing
on Dec 9th, 1999. The treaty formally recognized 1.6 million square
kilometers of land occupied by Russia belongs to Russia, and gave Russia
the exit point of the Tumen River, cutting off northeast China from the Sea
of Japan
2000–Current
Year Name Summary
2000 Cotonou Agreement Attempts to reduce poverty and integrate the ACP countries into the world economy;
came into force in 2002.
Patent Law Treaty
Harmonizes formal procedures such as the requirements to obtain a filing date for a
patent application, the form and content of a patent application, and representation.
Treaty of Jeddah (2000)
Resolves a border dispute between Saudi Arabia and Yemen that dates backs to Saudi
boundary claims made in 1934.
2001 Agreement on the Conservation
of Albatrosses and Petrels
Attempts to prevent the decline of seabird populations in the southern hemisphere,
particularly albatrosses and procellariidae.
Treaty of Nice
Amends two founding treaties of the European Union.
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Ohrid Agreement
2001 Sino-Russian Treaty of
Friendship
Convention on Cybercrime
2002 ASEAN Agreement on
Transboundary Haze Pollution
Gbadolite Agreement
Pretoria Accord
Ends the armed conflict between the Albanian National Liberation Army and
Macedonia.
Twenty-year strategic treaty between Russia and the People's Republic of China.
Prohibits the use of computers or networks as tools for criminal activity.
Between ASEAN nations to bring haze pollution under control in Southeast Asia.
Attempts to cease hostilities between the warring factions in the Second Congo War;
treaty has limited effect.
Rwandan troops withdraw from the Democratic Republic of the Congo in exchange for
international commitment towards the disarmament of the interahamwe and the ex-FAR
fighters.
Limits the nuclear arsenals of Russia and the United States.
Strategic Offensive Reductions
Treaty
2003 ASEAN Free Trade Area Agreement by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, of local manufacturing in all
ASEAN countries.
Treaty of Accession 2003 Integrates ten nations into the European Union; came into force on May 1, 2004.
Accra Comprehensive Peace
Agreement
WHO Framework Convention on
Tobacco Control
2004 International Treaty on Plant
Genetic Resources for Food and
Agriculture
2005 Comprehensive Peace
Agreement
Energy Community Treaty
Treaty of Accession 2005
Ended the Second Liberian Civil War on August 18, 2003.
2006 Tripoli Agreement Ends Chadian-Sudanese conflict.
Waziristan Accord
Ends Waziristan War.
St Andrews Agreement
First public health treaty of the world; came into force on February 27, 2005. Its
purpose is to "protect present and future generations from the devastating health,
social, environmental and economic consequences of tobacco consumption and
exposure to tobacco smoke."
Assures farmers' facilitated access to seeds of the world's food security crops; came
into force on June 29, 2004.
Ended the Second Sudanese Civil War between the Government of Sudan and the
Sudan People's Liberation Army; creates the Government of National Unity. Signed on
January 9, 2005 and scheduled for full implementation by July 9, 2011.
Establishes the Energy Community.
Integrates two nations (Bulgaria and Romania) into the European Union; came into
force on January 1, 2007.
Resolves outstanding grievances in the Northern Ireland peace process, enabling
devolved power-sharing government to resume.
2007 Treaty of Lisbon Reforming the European Union.
ASEAN Charter
New constitution making the Association of Southeast Asian Nations a legal entity.
2008 UNASUR Constitutive Treaty Treaty establishing the Union of South American Nations.
2009 Extradition treaty Extradition Treaty between the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland and the Government of the Republic of the Philippines. Bilateral treaty
signed in London on 18 September 2009.
2010 Barents Sea border treaty Treaty signed 15 September in Murmansk between the Government of the Russian
Federation and the Government of the Kingdom of Norway. This treaty ends decades
of negotiations over the maritime border in the Barents Sea.
Global Plan of Action to Combat
Trafficking in Persons
2011 Arctic Search and Rescue
Agreement
A human trafficking action plan adopted by the United Nations
Treaty among the 8 member states of the Arctic Council signed 12 May 2011. It
coordinates international search and rescue (SAR) coverage and response in the
Arctic.
Treaty of Accession 2011 Integrates Croatia into the European Union; came into force on July 1, 2013.
2012 Framework Agreement on the
Bangsamoro
2013 Intergovernmental Agreement on
Dry Ports
Treaty between the Philippine government and the Islamic militant group, Moro Islamic
Liberation Front. The treaty seeks to create a new autonomous political entity named
Bangsamoro to replace the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao.
Treaty among the members of the member states of the United Nations Economic and
Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific to facilitate cooperation in the development
of a network of dry ports in Asia.
2014 Convention on the Manipulation Council of Europe treaty to combat match fixing in sports
of Sports Competitions
Treaty on the Accession of Treaty signed between self-declared independent Republic of Crimea and Russia
Crimea to Russia
which is only recognised by a small number of countries
Minsk Protocol
Agreement between Ukraine, the Russian Federation, the Donetsk People's Republic
(DPR), and the Lugansk People's Republic (LPR) to halt the war in the Donbass region
of Ukraine
2015 Minsk II Between Ukraine, Russia, France, and Germany.
Paris Agreement
Agreement dealing with greenhouse gas emissions mitigation
2017 Treaty on the Prohibition of
Nuclear Weapons
The first legally binding international agreement to comprehensively prohibit nuclear
weapons, with the goal of leading towards their total elimination.
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Pending
Central American Free Trade Agreement
Free Trade Area of the Americas
Substantive Patent Law Treaty (SPLT)
WIPO Protection of Broadcasting Organizations
Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement
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X. References
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_law
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_law
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_criminal_justice
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Justice_Project#WJP_Rule_of_Law_Index_2015
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:International_nongovernmental_organizations
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_criminal_law
7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations
8. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice
9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_International_Court_of_Justice_cases
10. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_international_public_law_articles
11. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_human_rights_law
12. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems
13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_treaties
14. https://www.amun.org/uploads/Handbooks/RP_07_ch4.pdf
15. https://www.ohchr.org/documents/publications/training9chapter1en.pdf
16. http://unic-ir.org/Engaboutun.pdf
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Attachment A
International Human Rights Law
and The Role of The Legal Professions
Page 169 of 198

.........Chapter 1
INTERNATIONAL
HUMAN RIGHTS LAW AND
THE ROLE OF THE LEGAL
PROFESSIONS: A GENERAL
INTRODUCTION ...................
Learning Objectives
To ensure that participants acquire a basic working knowledge of the origin, purpose
and scope of international human rights law;
To familiarize participants with the application of international human rights law at
the domestic level and to begin to make them aware of the important role played by the
legal professions in this respect.
Questions
Why did you want to join the course?
What is a human right?
Why are human rights important in general?
Why are human rights important in the country where you are professionally active?
How do you, as judges, prosecutors and/or lawyers, see your role as promoters and
protectors of human rights in the exercise of your professional duties?
What specific problems, if any, do you face with regard to the protection of human
rights in the country/countries where you work?
Human Rights in the Administration of Justice: A Manual on Human Rights for Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers 1

Chapter 1 • International Human Rights Law and the Role of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction
1. Introduction
In recent decades, international human rights law has had an ever-growing
impact on domestic legal systems throughout the world, and thereby also on the daily
work of domestic judges, prosecutors and lawyers. This evolving legal situation, the
true dimensions of which could hardly have been foreseen half a century ago, requires
each State concerned, and also the relevant legal professions, carefully to consider ways
in which effective implementation of the State’s legal human rights obligations can best
be secured. This may in many instances constitute a challenge to legal practitioners,
owing to the conflicting requirements of different laws, lack of access to information,
and the need for further training.
The objective of the present Manual is therefore to convey a basic knowledge
of, and skills in, the implementation of international human rights law to judges,
prosecutors and lawyers – legal professions without which there can be no truly
efficient protection of the rights of the individual at the domestic level. To this end, the
present chapter will provide a general introductory survey of the basic notions of
international human rights law, whilst the remaining fifteen chapters will contain more
detailed information and analyses of human rights standards that are of particular
relevance to the administration of justice.
2. Origin, Meaning and Scope of
International Human Rights Law
2.1 The Charter of the United Nations and the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Humanity’s yearning for respect, tolerance and equality goes a long way back
in history, but the curious thing to note is that, although our societies have in many
respects made great strides in the technological, political, social and economic fields,
contemporary grievances remain very much the same as they were hundreds, even
thousands of years ago.
As to the protection of the rights and freedoms of the individual at the
international level, work began in the nineteenth century to outlaw slavery and to
improve the situation of the sick and wounded in times of war. 1 At the end of the First
World War, several treaties were concluded with the allied or newly created States for
the purpose of providing special protection for minorities. 2 At about the same time, in
1919, the International Labour Organization (ILO) was founded for the purpose of
improving the conditions of workers. Although the initial motivation of the ILO was
humanitarian, there were also, inter alia, political reasons for its creation, it being feared
1 A.H. Robertson, Human Rights in the World (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1972), pp. 15-20.
2 Ibid., pp. 20-22. On the history of human rights, see resource list in Handout No. 1 to Chapter 2 of the Manual.
2 Human Rights in the Administration of Justice: A Manual on Human Rights for Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers

Chapter 1 • International Human Rights Law and the Role of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction
that, unless the conditions of the ever-increasing number of workers were improved,
the workers would create social unrest, even revolution, thereby also imperilling the
peace and harmony of the world. 3
Following the atrocities committed during the Second World War, the acute
need to maintain peace and justice for humankind precipitated a search for ways of
strengthening international cooperation, including cooperation aimed both at
protecting the human person against the arbitrary exercise of State power and at
improving standards of living. The foundations of a new international legal order based
on certain fundamental purposes and principles were thus laid in San Francisco on 26
June 1945 with the adoption of the Charter of the United Nations. In the Preamble to
the Charter, faith is first reaffirmed “in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and
worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large
and small”. Secondly, the Preamble also, inter alia, expresses the determination “to
promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom”. Thirdly, one of
the four purposes of the United Nations is, according to Article 1(3) of the Charter,
“2. To achieve international co-operation in solving international
problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character, and
in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for
fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language,
or religion”.
Other Charter provisions containing references to human rights are: Articles
13(1)(b), 55(c), 62(2), 68, and 76(c). It is of particular significance to point out that,
according to Articles 56 and 55(c) read in conjunction, United Nations Member States
have a legal obligation “to take joint and separate action in co-operation with the
Organization for the achievement of” “universal respect for, and observance of, human
rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or
religion”. This important legal duty conditions Member States’ participation
throughout the United Nations human rights programme.
With the adoption by the United Nations General Assembly of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights on 10 December 1948, the rather terse references to
“human rights and fundamental freedoms” in the Charter acquired an authoritative
interpretation. The Universal Declaration recognizes civil, cultural, economic, political
and social rights, and, although it is not a legally binding document per se, since it was
adopted by a resolution of the General Assembly, the principles contained therein are
now considered to be legally binding on States either as customary international law,
general principles of law, or as fundamental principles of humanity. In its dictum in the
case concerning the hostages in Tehran, the International Court of Justice clearly
invoked “the fundamental principles enunciated in the ... Declaration” as being legally
binding on Iran in particular with regard to the wrongful deprivation of liberty and the
imposition of “physical constraint in conditions of hardship”. 4
3 For the history of the ILO, see the ILO web site: www.ilo.org/public/english/about/history.htm.
4 See United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran (United States of America v. Iran), Judgment, ICJ Reports 1980, p. 42, para. 91.
Human Rights in the Administration of Justice: A Manual on Human Rights for Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers 3

Chapter 1 • International Human Rights Law and the Role of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction
The devastating experiences of the First and Second World Wars
underscored the imperative need both to protect the human person against
the arbitrary exercise of State power and to promote social progress and
better living standards in larger freedom.
2.2 The ethical dimension of human rights
The very specificity of the concept of “human rights” is that they belong to
the individual in his or her quality as a human being, who cannot be deprived of their
substance in any circumstances; these rights are thus intrinsic to the human condition.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights all give expression to this fundamental ethical basis in their first preambular
paragraphs by recognizing “the inherent dignity and ... the equal and inalienable rights
of all members of the human family”. Here, then, is an expression of the principle of
universality of rights, including the right to equal protection before the law and by the
law, which, as will be seen in Chapter 13, is a fundamental principle conditioning the
entire field of international human rights law.
As to the regional level, the second preambular paragraph to the American
Convention on Human Rights also expressly recognizes “that the essential rights of
man are not derived from one’s being a national of a certain State, but are based upon
attributes of the human personality”. As stated by the Inter-American Court of Human
Rights in its Advisory Opinion on Habeas Corpus in Emergency Situations, the rights
protected by the Convention cannot, per se, be suspended even in emergency
situations, because they are “inherent to man”. 5 It follows, in the view of the Court,
that “what may only be suspended or limited” under the Convention is the “full and
effective exercise” of the rights contained therein. 6 Finally, the African Charter on
Human and Peoples’ Rights, in its fifth preambular paragraph, also recognizes “that
fundamental human rights stem from the attributes of human beings, which justifies
their national and international protection”.
Consequently, human rights are owed by States to all individuals within their
jurisdiction and in some situations also to groups of individuals. The principle of
universal and inalienable rights of all human beings is thus solidly anchored in international
human rights law.
Human rights are inherent in all members of the human family.
Human rights are thus universal and inalienable rights of all
human beings.
5 See I-A Court HR, Habeas Corpus in Emergency Situations (arts. 27(2), 25(1) and 7(6), Advisory Opinion OC-8/87 of January 30, 1987,
Series A, No. 8, para. 18 at p. 37.
6 Ibid., loc. cit.
4 Human Rights in the Administration of Justice: A Manual on Human Rights for Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers

Chapter 1 • International Human Rights Law and the Role of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction
Human beings cannot be deprived of the substance of their rights
(inalienability). Only the exercise of some of these rights can be
limited in certain circumstances.
The fact that human rights originate in the unique nature of the
human being means that they should be subjected to effective legal
protection at the national and international levels.
2.3 Human rights and their impact on national and
international peace, security and development
As already explained, it was the tragedies of the two World Wars that
compelled the international community to create a world organization with the purpose
of furthering peace and justice, inter alia by encouraging the promotion and protection
of human rights and fundamental freedoms. The all-too-evident lesson to be drawn
from the Second World War was that, when a State pursues a deliberate policy of
denying persons within its territory their fundamental rights, not only is the internal
security of that State in jeopardy, but in serious situations there is a spillover effect that
imperils the peace and security of other States as well. This hard-won lesson has been
confirmed on numerous occasions since in every part of the world. Effective
protection of human rights promotes peace and stability at the national level not only
by allowing people to enjoy their basic rights and freedoms, but also by providing a
basic democratic, cultural, economic, political and social framework within which
conflicts can be peacefully resolved. Effective protection of human rights is
consequently also an essential precondition for peace and justice at the international level,
since it has inbuilt safeguards that offer the population ways of easing social tension at the
domestic level before it reaches such proportions as to create a threat on a wider scale.
As a reading of, in particular, Article 1 of the Charter of the United Nations
and the first preambular paragraphs of the Universal Declaration and the two
International Covenants makes clear, the drafters were well aware of the essential fact
that effective human rights protection at the municipal level is the foundation of justice,
peace and social and economic development throughout the world.
More recently, the link between, inter alia, the rule of law, effective human
rights protection and economic progress has been emphasized by the Secretary-
General of the United Nations in his Millennium Report, where he emphasized that
“84. It is now widely accepted that economic success depends in
considerable measure on the quality of governance a country enjoys. Good
governance comprises the rule of law, effective State institutions,
transparency and accountability in the management of public affairs,
respect for human rights, and the participation of all citizens in the
decisions that affect their lives. While there may be debates about the most
appropriate forms they should take, there can be no disputing the
importance of these principles”. 7
7 UN doc. A/54/2000, We the Peoples: the Role of the United Nations in the Twenty-First Century, Report of the Secretary-General, para. 84.
Human Rights in the Administration of Justice: A Manual on Human Rights for Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers 5

Chapter 1 • International Human Rights Law and the Role of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction
Effective protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms is
conducive to both domestic and international peace and security.
Effective protection of human rights provides a basic democratic culture
enabling conflicts to be resolved peacefully.
Economic progress depends to a large extent on good governance and
effective protection of human rights.
2.4 The sources of law
The third preambular paragraph of the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights states that
“... it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last
resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights
should be protected by the rule of law” (emphasis added).
This means that, in order to enable the human person fully to enjoy his or her
rights, these rights must be effectively protected by domestic legal systems. The
principle of the rule of law can thus also be described as an overarching principle in the
field of human rights protection because, where it does not exist, respect for human
rights becomes illusory. It is interesting in this respect to note that, according to article 3
of the Statute of the Council of Europe, “every Member State ... must accept the
principle of the rule of law”. This fundamental principle is thus legally binding on the 43
Member States of the organization, a fact that has also influenced the case-law of the
European Court of Human Rights. 8
Consequently, judges, prosecutors and lawyers have a crucial role to fulfil in
ensuring that human rights are effectively implemented at the domestic level. This
responsibility requires the members of these legal professions to familiarize themselves
adequately with both national and international human rights law. Whilst their access to
domestic legal sources should pose no major problem, the situation is more complex at
the international level, where there are several legal sources and a case-law rich in many
respects.
With some modification, the next section will follow the hierarchy of legal
sources as they appear in article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice.
Although one might disagree with the classification of sources in this provision, it
serves as a useful starting point. According to article 38(1) of the Statute, the sources
are:
8 Eur. Court HR, Golder case, Judgment of 21 February 1975, Series A, No. 18, para. 34 at p. 17. The Court stated that one “reason
why the signatory Governments decided to ‘take the first steps for the collective enforcement of certain of the Rights stated in the
Universal Declaration’ was their profound belief in the rule of law”; it therefore seemed “both natural and in conformity with the
principle of good faith ... to bear in mind this widely proclaimed consideration when interpreting the terms of” article 6(1) of the
European Convention “according to their context and in the light of the object and purpose of the Convention”. Referring
moreover to the references to the rule of law contained in the Statute of the Council of Europe, the Court concluded that “in civil
matters one can scarcely conceive of the rule of law without there being a possibility of having access to the courts”. The Council
of Europe had 43 Member States as of 22 April 2002.
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Chapter 1 • International Human Rights Law and the Role of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction
“international conventions”;
“international custom, as evidence of a general practice accepted as law”;
“general principles of law recognized by” the community of nations; 9
“judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists ... as
subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law”.
Without seeking to be exhaustive, the next section will set forth the essential
characteristics of the main sources of international human rights law. However, it
should be noted at the outset that in international human rights law, judicial decisions,
and also quasi-judicial decisions and general comments adopted by monitoring organs,
take on special relevance in understanding the extent of the legal obligations of States.
Human rights must be effectively protected by domestic legal systems.
Judges, prosecutors and lawyers have a crucial role to fulfil in ensuring
that human rights are effectively protected at the domestic level.
The principal sources of international law are international
conventions, international customary law, and general
principles of law.
2.4.1 International treaties
In the human rights field, the most important tool for judges, prosecutors and
lawyers to consult, apart from existing domestic law, is no doubt the treaty obligations
incumbent on the State within whose jurisdiction they are working. A “treaty” is
generally a legally binding, written agreement concluded between States, 10 but can also be an
agreement between, for instance, the United Nations and a State for specific purposes.
Treaties may go by different names, such as convention, covenant, protocol, orpact, but the
legal effects thereof are the same. At the international level, a State establishes its
consent to be bound by a treaty principally through ratification, acceptance, approval, or
accession; 11 only exceptionally is the consent to be bound expressed by signature. 12
However, the function of signature of a treaty is often that of authenticating the text,
and it creates an obligation on the State concerned “to refrain from acts which would
defeat the object and purpose” of the treaty, at least until the moment it has “made its
intention clear not to become a party” thereto. 13
Once a treaty has entered into force and is binding upon the States parties,
these must perform the treaty obligations “in good faith” (pacta sunt servanda). 14 This
implies, inter alia, that a State cannot avoid responsibility under international law by
invoking the provisions of its internal laws to justify its failure to perform its
international legal obligations. Moreover, in international human rights law, State
9 Article 38(1)(c) archaically refers to “civilized nations”.
10 Article 2(1)(a) of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.
11 Ibid., article 2(1)(b).
12 Ibid., article 12.
13 Ibid., article 18(a).
14 Ibid., article 26.
Human Rights in the Administration of Justice: A Manual on Human Rights for Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers 7

Chapter 1 • International Human Rights Law and the Role of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction
responsibility is strict in that States are responsible for violations of their treaty
obligations even where they were not intentional.
Human rights treaties are law-making treaties of an objective nature in that
they create general norms that are the same for all States parties. These norms have to
be applied by a State party irrespective of the state of implementation by other States
parties. The traditional principle of reciprocity does not, in other words, apply to human
rights treaties. 15
The fact that human rights treaties have been concluded for the purpose of
ensuring effective protection of the rights of the individual takes on particular
importance in the course of the interpretative process. In explaining the meaning of the
provisions of a human rights treaty, it is therefore essential for judges to adopt a
teleological and holistic interpretative approach by searching for an interpretation
that respects the rights and interests of the individual and is also logical in the context of
the treaty as a whole.
Examples of law-making treaties in the human rights field are the two
International Covenants on Civil and Political and on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights, which will be considered in further detail below. Suffice it to mention in this
regard that the Committees created under the terms of each treaty to monitor its
implementation have by now adopted many views and comments which provide
valuable interpretative guidance to both national and international lawyers.
Obligations incurred by States under international treaties must be
performed in good faith.
In international human rights law State responsibility is strict in that
States are responsible for violations of their treaty obligations even where
they were not intentional.
A human rights treaty must be interpreted on the basis of a teleological
and holistic approach by searching for an interpretation that respects the
rights and interests of the individual and is also logical in the context of
the treaty as a whole.
2.4.2 International customary law
To follow the hierarchy of legal sources in article 38(1) of the Statute of the
International Court of Justice, judges can in the second place apply “international
custom, as evidence of a general practice accepted as law”. International customary
legal obligations binding upon States are thus created when there is evidence of both
acts amounting to a “settled practice” of States; and
a “belief that this practice is rendered obligatory by the existence of a rule of law
requiring it” (opinio juris). 16
15 Eur. Comm. HR, Application No. 788/60, Austria v. Italy, decision of 11 January 1961 on the admissibility, 4 Yearbook of the European
Convention on Human Rights, p. 140.
16 North Sea Continental Shelf cases, Judgment, ICJ Reports 1969, p. 44, para. 77.
8 Human Rights in the Administration of Justice: A Manual on Human Rights for Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers

Chapter 1 • International Human Rights Law and the Role of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction
The judge will thus have to assess the existence of one objective element
consisting of the general practice, and one subjective element, namely, that there is a
belief among States as to the legally binding nature of this practice. 17
With regard to the question of practice, it follows from the ruling of the
International Court of Justice in the North Sea Continental Shelf cases that, at least with
regard to “the formation of a new rule of customary international law on the basis of
what was originally a purely conventional rule”, the passage of time can be relatively
short, although
“an indispensable requirement would be that within the period in question,
short though it might be, State practice, including that of States whose
interests are specially affected, should have been both extensive and
virtually uniform in the sense of the provision invoked; – and should
moreover have occurred in such a way as to show a general recognition
that a rule of law or legal obligation is involved”. 18
In the subsequent case of Nicaragua v. the United States of America, the
International Court of Justice appears however to have somewhat softened this rather
strict interpretation of the objective element of State practice, whilst at the same time
placing a correspondingly greater emphasis on the opinio juris in the creation of custom.
In its reasoning, which related to the use of force, the Court held, in particular:
“186. It is not to be expected that in the practice of States the application of
the rules in question should have been perfect, in the sense that States
should have refrained, with complete consistency, from the use of force or
from intervention in each other’s internal affairs. The Court does not
consider that, for a rule to be established as customary, the corresponding
practice must be in absolutely rigorous conformity with the rule. In order
to deduce the existence of customary rules, the Court deems it sufficient
that the conduct of States should, in general, be consistent with such rules,
and that instances of State conduct inconsistent with a given rule should
generally have been treated as breaches of that rule, not as indications of
the recognition of a new rule. If a State acts in a way prima facie
incompatible with a recognized rule, but defends its conduct by appealing
to exceptions or justifications contained within the rule itself, then whether
or not the State’s conduct is in fact justifiable on that basis, the significance
of that attitude is to confirm rather than to weaken the rule”. 19
The question now arises as to what legal principles for the protection of the
human person might have been considered to form part of customary international law
by the International Court of Justice.
In its Advisory Opinion of 1951 on Reservations to the Convention on Genocide, the
Court importantly held that “the principles underlying the Convention are principles
which are recognized ... as binding on States, even without any conventional
obligation”. 20 Furthermore, it followed from the Preamble to the Convention that it
17 Ibid., loc. cit.
18 Ibid., p. 43, para. 74.
19 Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, ICJ Reports 1986,
p. 98, para. 186.
20 Reservations to the Convention on Genocide, Advisory Opinion, ICJ Reports 1951, p.23.
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Chapter 1 • International Human Rights Law and the Role of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction
was of “universal character” both with regard to “the condemnation of genocide and ...
the co-operation required ‘in order to liberate mankind from such an odious
scourge’”. 21 Finally, the Court noted that the Convention had been approved by a
resolution which was unanimously adopted by the States. 22 It is thus beyond doubt that
in 1951 the crime of genocide was already part of customary international law, applicable to
all States.
Later, in the Barcelona Traction case, the International Court of Justice
significantly made “an essential distinction” between “the obligations of a State
towards the international community as a whole, and those arising vis-à-vis another
State in the field of diplomatic protection”. 23 It added that by “their very nature the
former are the concern of all States”, and, in “view of the importance of the rights
involved, all States can be held to have a legal interest in their protection; they are
obligations erga omnes”. 24 In the view of the Court, such “obligations derive, for
example, in contemporary international law, from the outlawing of acts of aggression,
and of genocide, as also from the principles and rules concerning the basic rights of the
human person, including protection from slavery and racial discrimination”. 25 It added
that whilst some “of the corresponding rights of protection have entered into the body
of general international law ... ; others are conferred by international instruments of a
universal or quasi-universal character”. 26
Finally, and as already noted above, in its dictum in the hostages in Tehran case,
the Court stated that:
“Wrongfully to deprive human beings of their freedom and to subject
them to physical constraint in conditions of hardship is in itself manifestly
incompatible with the principles of the Charter of the United Nations, as
well as with the fundamental principles enunciated in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights”. 27
It is thus beyond doubt that basic human rights obligations form part of
customary international law. Whilst the International Court of Justice has expressly
mentioned the crimes of genocide and aggression, as well as the prohibition of racial
discrimination, slavery, arbitrary detention and physical hardship as forming part of a
universally binding corpus of law, it has not limited the scope of the law to these
elements.
General Assembly resolutions: It may not be an easy task to identify international
custom, but resolutions adopted by the United Nations General Assembly can in
certain circumstances be regarded as having legal value, albeit not legally binding per
se. This is, for instance, the case with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Thus, although not a source of law in the strict sense, they can provide evidence of
customary law. However, this will to a large extent depend on their contents, such as
21 Ibid., loc. cit.
22 Ibid.
23 Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited, Judgment, ICJ Reports 1970, p. 32, para. 33.
24 Ibid., loc. cit.
25 Ibid., p. 32, para. 34.
26 Ibid., loc. cit.
27 ICJ Reports 1980, p. 42, para. 91.
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Chapter 1 • International Human Rights Law and the Role of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction
the degree of precision of the norms and undertakings defined therein, and the means foreseen for the
control of their application; it will also depend on the number of countries having voted in favour
thereof, and the circumstances of their adoption. 28 A particularly relevant question in this
respect would be whether the resolution concerned has been adopted in isolation or whether it
forms part of a series of resolutions on the same subject with a consistent and universal content.
Peremptory norms (jus cogens): It should finally be noted that some legal norms,
such as the prohibition of slavery, may be considered to be so fundamental that they
are called peremptory norms of international law. According to article 53 of the Vienna
Convention on the Law of Treaties, a treaty is simply “void if, at the time of its
conclusion, it conflicts with a peremptory norm of international law”. According to
the same article, such a norm is described as “a norm from which no derogation is
permitted and which can be modified only by a subsequent norm of general
international law having the same character”. However, whenever the notion of
peremptory norm is being discussed, disputes arise as to its exact contents, and
consequently it will not be further dealt with in this Manual.
2.4.3 General principles of law recognized by the community
of nations
This third source of law cited by the Statute of the International Court of
Justice helps ensure that, in cases where international treaties and customary law might
provide an insufficient basis for the Court to take a decision, it will be able to draw on
other resources.
A general principle of law, as a source of international human rights law, is a
legal proposition so fundamental that it can be found in all major legal systems
throughout the world. If there is evidence that, in their domestic law, States adhere to a
particular legal principle which provides for a human right or which is essential to the
protection thereof, then this illustrates the existence of a legally binding principle under
international human rights law. Judges and lawyers can thus look to other legal systems
to determine whether a particular human rights principle is so often accepted that it can
be considered to have become a general principle of international law. Domestic law
analogies have thus, for instance, been used in the field of principles governing the
judicial process, such as the question of evidence. 29
2.4.4 Subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law
As subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law, article 38 of the
Statute mentions “judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified
publicists”. As previously mentioned, in the human rights field, judicial decisions are
particularly important for a full understanding of the law, and the wealth of
international case-law that now exists in this field must be regarded as authoritative
evidence of the state of the law. However, neither the International Court of Justice nor
28 For some of these elements, see e.g. Les résolutions dans la formation du droit international du développement, Colloque des 20 et 21
novembre 1970, L’Institut universitaire de hautes études internationales, Genève, 1971 (Études et travaux, No. 13), pp. 9, 30-31
(intervention by Professor Virally).
29 Ian Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1979), 3rd edn., 1979, p. 18.
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Chapter 1 • International Human Rights Law and the Role of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction
the international monitoring organs in the human rights field are obliged to follow
previous judicial decisions. 30 Although this is usually done, it is particularly important
for the monitoring organs in the human rights field to retain the flexibility required to
adjust earlier decisions to ever-changing social needs, which, at the international level,
cannot easily be met through legislation. 31 Suffice it to add in this context that the
reference to “judicial decisions” can also mean judicial decisions taken by domestic
courts, and that the higher the court, the greater weight the decision will have.
However, when international monitoring organs interpret human rights law, they are
likely to do so independently of domestic laws.
As to “the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists”, it must be
remembered that article 38 was drafted at a time when international jurisprudence on
human rights law was non-existent. Whilst the interpretation and application of this law
must principally be based on the legal texts and relevant case-law, writings of “the most
highly qualified publicists” can of course in some situations contribute to an improved
understanding of the law and its practical implementation. Yet it is advisable to exercise
considerable care before relying on legal articles and principles and comments adopted
by private bodies outside the framework of the officially established treaty organs, since
they may not in all respects correctly reflect the status of the law to be interpreted and
applied.
2.5 International human rights law and international
humanitarian law: common concerns and basic
differences
Although this Manual is aimed at conveying knowledge and skills in human
rights law, rather than in international humanitarian law, it is important to say a few
words about the relationship between these two closely linked fields of law.
Whilst both human rights law and international humanitarian law are aimed at
protecting the individual, international human rights law provides non-discriminatory
treatment to everybody at all times, whether in peacetime or in times of war or
other upheaval. International humanitarian law, on the other hand, is aimed at
ensuring a minimum of protection to victims of armed conflicts, such as the sick,
injured, shipwrecked and prisoners of war, by outlawing excessive human suffering
and material destruction in the light of military necessity. 32 Although the 1949
Geneva Conventions and the two Protocols Additional thereto adopted in 1977
guarantee certain fundamental rights to the individual in the specifically defined
situations of international and internal armed conflicts, neither the personal, temporal
nor material fields of applicability of international humanitarian law are as wide as
30 As to the International Court of Justice, see article 59 of the Statute.
31 See e.g. the case in which the European Commission of Human Rights reversed its own earlier decision according to which
a legal person, such as a church, could not bring a case under article 9(1) of the European Convention on Human Rights claiming
a violation of “the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion”, Eur. Comm. HR, Application No. 7805/77, X. and Church
of Scientology v. Sweden, decision of 5 May 1979 on the admissibility of the application, 16 DR, p.70.
32 Seguridad del Estado, Derecho Humanitario y Derechos Humanos, Informe Final, San José, Costa Rica, Comité Internacional de la
Cruz Roja/Instituto Interamericano de Derechos Humanos, 1984, p. 7.
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Chapter 1 • International Human Rights Law and the Role of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction
those afforded by international human rights law. 33 In that sense, humanitarian law is
also less egalitarian in nature, although the principle of non-discrimination is
guaranteed with regard to the enjoyment of the rights afforded by this law. 34
What it is of primordial importance to stress at this stage is that, in
international and non-international armed conflicts, international human rights law and
humanitarian law will apply simultaneously. As to the modifications to the
implementation of human rights guarantees that might be authorized in what is
generally called public emergencies threatening the life of the nation, these will be briefly referred
to in section 2.8 below and in more detail in Chapter 16.
International human rights law is applicable at all times, that is, both in
times of peace and in times of turmoil, including armed conflicts, whether
of an internal or international character.
This means that there will be situations when international human rights
law and international humanitarian law will be applicable
simultaneously.
2.6 Reservations and interpretative declarations to
international human rights treaties
In assessing the exact extent of a given State’s legal obligations under a human
rights treaty, it is necessary to ascertain whether the State has made a reservation, or,
possibly, an interpretative declaration at the time of ratification or accession. The major
human rights treaties dealt with in this Manual allow for reservations to be made,
although they have somewhat different ways of regulating the subject. In deciding
whether a State party has actually made a true reservation, rather than a mere
declaration as to its own understanding of the interpretation of a provision or a
statement of policy, the Human Rights Committee set up to monitor the
implementation of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights has stated,
in its General Comment No. 24, that it will have regard “to the intention of the State,
rather than the form of the instrument”. 35 Whilst this Covenant contains no specific
article regulating the question of reservations, the Human Rights Committee has stated
that the “absence of a prohibition on reservations does not mean that any reservation is
permitted”, but that the matter “is governed by international law”. 36 Basing itself on
article 19(3) of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, the Committee stated
33 J. Patrnogic and B. Jakovljevic, International Humanitarian Law in the Contemporary World, Sanremo, Italy, International Institute
of Humanitarian Law (Collection of Publications 10), 1991, p. 28.
34 See e.g. article 3 common to the Four Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949; article 75 of Protocol Additional to the
Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I);
and article 2(1) of Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims
of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II).
35 See General Comment No. 24, in UN doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.5, Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations
Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies (hereinafter referred to as United Nations Compilation of General Comments), p. 150, para. 3;
emphasis added.
36 Ibid., p. 151, para. 6.
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Chapter 1 • International Human Rights Law and the Role of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction
that “the matter of interpretation and acceptability of reservations” is governed by the
“object and purpose test”. 37 This means, for instance, that reservations “must be
specific and transparent, so that the Committee, those under the jurisdiction of the
reserving State and other States parties may be clear as to what obligations of human
rights compliance have or have not been undertaken”; similarly a resolution must “not
be general, but must refer to a particular provision of the Covenant and indicate in
precise terms its scope in relation thereto”. 38
The American Convention on Human Rights expressly stipulates in its article
75, that it “shall be subject to reservations only in conformity with the provisions of the
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties”. In its Advisory Opinion on The Effect of
Reservations, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights stated that article 75 “makes
sense” only if understood as enabling “States to make whatever reservations they deem
appropriate”, provided that they “are not incompatible with the object and purpose of
the treaty”. 39 In its Advisory Opinion on Restrictions to the Death Penalty it further noted
with regard to the rights that cannot be suspended in any circumstances under article
27(2) of the Convention that it “would follow therefrom that a reservation which was
designed to enable a State to suspend any of the non-derogable fundamental rights
must be deemed to be incompatible with the object and purpose of the Convention
and, consequently, not permitted by it”. 40 The Court accepted, however, that the
“situation would be different if the reservation sought merely to restrict certain aspects
of a non-derogable right without depriving the right as a whole of its basic purpose”. 41
Like the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the African
Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights is silent on the question of reservations.
However, article 64 of the European Convention on Human Rights expressly outlaws
reservations of “a general character”, whilst permitting reservations “in respect of any
particular provision of the Convention to the extent that any law” in force in the
territory of the State at the time of signature or ratification “is not in conformity with
the provision” concerned.
In interpreting and applying international treaties, domestic judges,
prosecutors and lawyers may thus also have to consider the relevant State’s legal
obligations in the light of reservations or interpretative declarations.
The scope of a State’s legal obligations under an international human
rights treaty may have to be considered in the light of any existing
reservations or interpretative declarations.
37 Ibid., loc. cit.
38 Ibid., p. 155, para. 19.
39 I-A Court HR, The Effect of Reservations on the Entry Into Force of the American Convention on Human Rights (Arts. 74 and 75),
Advisory Opinion OC-2/82 of September 24, 1982, Series A, No.2, p. 18, para. 35.
40 I-A Court HR, Restrictions to the Death Penalty (Arts. 4(2) and 4(4) American Convention on Human Rights), Advisory Opinion
OC-3/83 of September 8, 1983, Series A, No. 3, p. 83, para. 61.
41 Ibid., at p. 84.
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Chapter 1 • International Human Rights Law and the Role of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction
Under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and
the American Convention on Human Rights, reservations must be
compatible with the object and purpose of the treaty.
The European Convention on Human Rights forbids reservations of a
general character. Reservations must relate to a specific provision of the
Convention.
2.7 Limitations on the exercise of rights
The exercise – albeit not the substance per se – of certain rights, such as the
right to freedom of expression, the right to freedom of association and assembly, the
right to freedom of movement and the right to respect for one’s private and family life
and correspondence, is generally accompanied by certain limitations that can be
imposed, for instance, in order to protect the rights and freedoms of others, national
security, and public health or morals. 42 These limitations are the result of carefully
weighed interests. What they show is the balance struck between, on the one hand,
individuals’ interest in maximizing the enjoyment of the right that belongs to them,
and, on the other hand, the interest of society in general, that is, the general interest,in
imposing certain restrictions on the exercise of this right, provided that they are taken
in accordance with the law and are necessary in a democratic society for certain
specific legitimate purposes. In interpreting and applying these limitations in any
given case, it will therefore be necessary to make a careful examination of the
proportionality of the restrictive measure or measures concerned both in general
and as applied in the individual case. Chapter 12 of this Manual provides numerous
examples of how these limitations have been applied in specific cases.
Limitations on the exercise of human rights are the result of a careful
balance between the individual’s interest and the general interest, and
must, in order to be lawful:
be defined by law;
be imposed for one or more specific legitimate purposes;
be necessary for one or more of these purposes in a democratic society
(proportionality).
In order to be necessary the limitation, both in general and as applied in
the individual case, must respond to a clearly established social need. It is
not sufficient that the limitation is desirable or simply does not harm the
functioning of the democratic constitutional order.
42 See e.g. articles 12(3), 13, 18(3), 19(3), 21, 22(2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights; articles 11 and
12(2) of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights; articles 11(2), 12(3), 13(2), 15 and 16(2) of the American Convention
on Human Rights; and articles 8(2)-11(2) of the European Convention on Human Rights.
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Chapter 1 • International Human Rights Law and the Role of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction
2.8 Derogations from international legal obligations
In interpreting and applying the terms of the three main general human rights
treaties in particularly severe crisis situations when the life of the nation is imperilled, domestic
judges, prosecutors and lawyers will also have to consider the possibility that the State
concerned has modified the extent of its international legal obligations by resorting to
temporary derogations. The question of the administration of criminal justice during
states of exception will be dealt with in Chapter 16, and it will therefore suffice in this
context to point out that the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (art.
4), the American Convention on Human Rights (art. 27) and the European Convention
on Human Rights (art. 15) all provide for the possibility for the States parties to resort
to derogations in particularly serious emergency situations. However, the African
Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights has no corresponding emergency provision,
and the absence thereof is seen by the African Commission on Human and Peoples’
Rights “as an expression of the principle that the restriction of human rights is not a
solution to national difficulties”, and that “the legitimate exercise of human rights does
not pose dangers to a democratic State governed by the rule of law”. 43
In the treaties where it exists, the right to derogate is subjected to strict
formal and substantive requirements, and was never intended to provide
Governments with unlimited powers to avoid their treaty obligations. In particular, a
qualified principle of proportionality applies in that, according to all the
aforementioned treaties, the limitations resorted to must be “strictly required by the
exigencies of the situation”. It is noteworthy, furthermore, that some rights, such as the
right to life and the right to freedom from torture, may not in any circumstances be
derogated from, and that the list of non-derogable rights found in the second
paragraphs of the aforesaid articles is not exhaustive. In other words, one cannot argue a
contrario that, because a right is not expressly listed as non-derogable, the States parties
can proceed to extraordinary limitations on its enjoyment.
Since the derogation articles provide for extraordinary limitations on the
exercise of human rights, judges, both national and international, have to be conscious
of their obligation to interpret these articles by construing them strictly so that
individuals’ rights are not sapped of their substance. By at all times maximizing the
enjoyment of human rights, States are more likely than not to overcome their crisis
situations in a positive, constructive and sustainable manner.
Under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the
American and European Conventions on Human Rights, States parties
have the right in certain particularly difficult situations to derogate from
some of their legal obligations.
The right to derogate is subjected to strict formal and substantive legal
requirements.
43 See undated decision: ACHPR, Cases of Amnesty International, Comité Loosli Bachelard, Lawyers Committee for Human Rights,
Association of Members of the Episcopal Conference of East Africa v. Sudan, No. 48/90, 50/91, 52/91 and 89/93, para. 79; the text used is
that found at the following web site: http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/africa/comcases/48-90_50-91_52-91_89-93.html.
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Chapter 1 • International Human Rights Law and the Role of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction
Some fundamental rights may never in any circumstances be derogated
from.
The right to derogate must be construed so as not to sap the individual
rights of their substance.
Derogations are not permitted under the African Charter on Human
and Peoples’ Rights.
2.9 International State responsibility for human rights
violations
Under international law, States will incur responsibility for not complying
with their legal obligations to respect and ensure, that is, to guarantee, the effective
enjoyment of the human rights recognized either in a treaty binding on the State
concerned or in any other source of law. As explained by the Inter-American Court of
Human Rights in the Velásquez case, an “impairment of those rights which can be
attributed under the rules of international law to the action or omission of any public
authority constitutes an act imputable to the State, which assumes responsibility in the
terms provided by” the legal source concerned. 44 Whilst the Court was in this Judgment
explaining the meaning of article 1(1) of the American Convention on Human Rights, it
indeed merely stated a general rule of law applicable to international human rights law
as a whole.
Agents for whom a State is responsible include such groups and individuals as
ministerial civil servants, judges, police officers, prison officials, customs officials,
teachers, government-controlled business and other similar groups. This means that
States are under an obligation to prevent, investigate, punish, and, whenever
possible, restore rights that have been violated and/or to provide compensation. 45
International human rights law also sometimes has an important third-party
effect in that States may be responsible for not having taken reasonable action to
prevent private individuals or groups from carrying out acts that violate human
rights, or to provide adequate protection against such violations under domestic
law. 46 As held by the European Court of Human Rights with regard to the right to
respect for one’s private and family life in article 8 of the European Convention on
Human Rights, for instance, this provision
44 I-A Court HR, Velásquez Rodríguez case, Judgment of July 29, 1988, Series C, No. 4, p. 151, para. 164.
45 See e.g. ibid., p. 152, para. 166. As to obligations to provide effective protection of the right to life under article 6 of the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, see e.g. General Comment No. 6, in United Nations Compilation of General
Comments, pp. 114-116.
46 See as to the American Convention on Human Rights, I-A Court HR, Velásquez Rodríguez Case, Judgment of July 29, 1988,
Series C, No. 4, pp. 155-156, paras. 176-177; and as to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, UN doc. GAOR,
A/47/40, Report HRC, p. 201, para. 2. At the European level, see e.g. Eur. Court HR, Case of A. v. the United Kingdom,Judgment of
23 September 1998, Reports 1998-VI, at p. 2692 et seq.
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Chapter 1 • International Human Rights Law and the Role of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction
“is essentially that of protecting the individual against arbitrary interference
by the public authorities, it does not merely compel the State to abstain
from such interference: in addition to this primarily negative undertaking,
there may be positive obligations inherent in an effective respect for
private or family life (...). These obligations may involve the adoption of
measures designed to secure respect for private life even in the sphere of
the relations of individuals between themselves.” 47
The States parties to the European Convention will thus have to provide
“practical and effective protection” in their domestic law “where fundamental values
and essential aspects of private life are at stake”, such as, for instance, in order to
protect persons against sexual abuse, 48 or in cases of corporal punishment by family
members that constitutes a violation of article 3 of the Convention. 49
With regard to the duty to secure for everyone within its jurisdiction the right
to life, the European Court has held that it “involves a primary duty” to put “in place
effective criminal-law provisions to deter the commission of offences against the
person backed up by law-enforcement machinery for the prevention, suppression and
punishment of such provisions”, and, further, that this duty
“also extends in appropriate circumstances to a positive obligation on the
authorities to take preventive operational measures to protect an individual
or individuals whose life is at risk from the criminal acts of another
individual(...)”. 50
These rulings are significant in that they extend the scope of States’
international legal obligations beyond the strict public sphere into the field of private
life, thereby allowing for a more adequate and effective protection against various
forms of human rights violations, such as physical and mental abuse of children,
women and the mentally handicapped.
*****
A State will however only incur international responsibility for a human rights
violation if it has failed to provide the alleged victim with an adequate and effective
remedy through the workings of its own courts or administrative authorities. The
requirement at the international level that all effective domestic remedies must have been
exhausted before an alleged victim’s complaints can be considered by an international
monitoring body of a judicial or quasi-judicial character has been introduced precisely
in order to allow the State itself to remedy the wrongs committed. This also means that
the establishment of the various international machineries for the protection of the
human person is in fact “subsidiary” to the available domestic systems for safeguarding
the individual, since they “become involved only through contentious proceedings and
once all domestic remedies have been exhausted”. 51
47 Eur. Court HR, Case of X. and Y. v. the Netherlands, Judgment of 26 September 1985, Series A, No. 91, p. 11, para. 23.
48 Ibid., p. 14, para. 30 and p. 13, para. 27.
49 Eur. Court HR, Case of A. v. the United Kingdom, Judgment of 23 September 1998, Reports 1998-VI, concerning the responsibility
of the United Kingdom for beating of child by stepfather.
50 Eur. Court HR, Case of Mahmut Kaya v. Turkey, Judgment of 28 March 2000, para. 85. The text used is that found on the Court’s
web site: http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/hudoc/
51 Statement with regard to the European Convention on Human Rights, Eur. Court HR, Case of Handyside, Judgment of 7
December 1976, Series A, Vol. 24, p. 22, para. 48.
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Chapter 1 • International Human Rights Law and the Role of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction
States’ responsibility to provide protection and redress for victims of abuses
of power will be dealt with in some detail in Chapter 15 of this Manual.
Whenever bound by international human rights law, States have a
strict legal obligation to guarantee the effective protection of human
rights to all persons within their jurisdiction.
States’ legal duty to protect human rights implies an obligation to
prevent, investigate and punish human rights violations, as well
as to restore rights whenever possible or provide compensation.
States may also have a legal duty not only to provide protection against
human rights violations committed by public authorities, but also to
ensure the existence of adequate protection in their domestic law against
human rights violations committed between private individuals.
3. Business Corporations and
Human Rights
In recent years there has been wide discussion of the question whether, and to
what extent, entities other than States, such as business corporations, could and should
be held legally responsible for not complying with rules of international human rights
law in the exercise of their various activities. Whilst it is clear from the preceding
sub-section that States themselves may have a duty to ensure that their domestic law
also offers adequate remedies against serious human rights violations that may be
committed by private individuals, this reasoning would appear to be equally applicable
to the activities of business corporations. However, this is not, of course, the same as
saying that these corporations are themselves incurring international legal responsibility
for any wrongful acts.
The discussion at the international level on the legal responsibility of business
corporations to guarantee human rights offers a wealth of ideas concerning, inter alia,
standards to protect workers from abuses or the environment from unnecessary
damage and destruction. However, the development of the law in this important area is
still very much in its infancy, and the arguments put forward at this stage belong
primarily to the field of lex ferenda.
Since the aim of this Manual is to explain the legal duties of States themselves
under international law, no further consideration will be devoted to the possible legal
responsibilities of business corporations to protect human rights. However, judges,
prosecutors and lawyers may well be confronted with these problems in the exercise of
their professional duties at the domestic level. In addition to any duties business
corporations may have to protect individual rights and the environment under
domestic law, it might therefore be useful for members of the legal professions to be
aware of the fact that discussions are taking place at the international level and that
Human Rights in the Administration of Justice: A Manual on Human Rights for Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers 19

Chapter 1 • International Human Rights Law and the Role of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction
there is, as a minimum, an ethical duty under international law for corporations to run
their businesses in such a manner as to respect basic human rights. 52
States may have an international legal obligation to ensure adequate
protection in their domestic law against human rights violations
committed by business corporations.
Business corporations may themselves have legal obligations in the field of
human rights derived from domestic law.
At the international level business corporations are considered to have, as
a minimum, an ethical responsibility to respect fundamental human
rights.
4. International Human Rights Law
at the Domestic Level
4.1 Incorporating international law into domestic
legal systems
As previously noted, and as provided in article 27 of the Vienna Convention
on the Law of Treaties, a State “may not invoke the provisions of its internal law as
justification for its failure to perform a treaty”. On the other hand, States are free to
choose their own modalities for effectively implementing their international legal
obligations, and for bringing national law into compliance with these obligations. Since
domestic legal systems differ considerably in this respect, albeit also having some
similarities, it will be for each domestic judge, prosecutor and lawyer concerned to keep
himself or herself informed as to the manner of incorporation of the State’s
international legal obligations into national law. Below, a mere general account will be
given of the various ways in which a State can modify its municipal law so as to bring it
into conformity with its international legal obligations.
First, according to the monist theory, of which there are in fact several divergent
versions, 53 international law and domestic law can in general terms be described as
forming one legal system. This means that once a State has ratified a treaty for the
protection of the human person, for instance, the terms of that treaty automatically
become binding rules of domestic law.
52 Suggested reading on the question of business corporations and human rights: Michael Addo, Human Rights Standards and the
Responsibility of Transnational Corporations (The Hague, Kluwer Law International, 1999); and Alan Dignam and David Allen,
Company Law and the Human Rights Act 1998 (London, Butterworth, 2000).
53 See Ian Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 3 rd edn., 1979), p. 34.
20 Human Rights in the Administration of Justice: A Manual on Human Rights for Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers

Chapter 1 • International Human Rights Law and the Role of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction
Secondly, according to the dualist theory, municipal law and international law are
different legal systems. Municipal law is supreme, and for municipal judges to be
competent to apply international treaty rules, for instance, these have to be specifically
adopted or transposed into domestic law. It follows that a human rights treaty ratified by
the State concerned cannot in principle be invoked by local judges unless the treaty
is incorporated into municipal law, a process which normally requires an Act of
Parliament.
However, these theories have been criticized for not reflecting the conduct of
national and international organs, and they are gradually losing ground. For legal
practitioners it is therefore more important to emphasize practice rather than theory. 54
Changes in the role and in domestic perception and understanding of international law
in general, and of international human rights law in particular, have led to an increased
use of such law in domestic courts. One of the purposes of this Manual is therefore to
prepare judges, prosecutors and lawyers to adapt and contribute to these fundamental
changes. The following is a list of some of the principal means through which
international human rights norms can be contained in municipal law or otherwise
applied by domestic courts and other competent authorities:
Constitutions: Many constitutions actually contain numerous human rights
provisions, which may follow the text of, for instance, the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights or the
regional human rights conventions. The use of such common language enables
judges, prosecutors and lawyers to draw upon the jurisprudence of, in particular,
international courts and other monitoring organs in interpreting the meaning of
their own constitutional or other provisions;
Other national legislation: Many States adopt specific legislation either to clarify
or elaborate on their constitutional provisions, or in order to adapt their domestic
laws to their international legal obligations. When transforming international law
into municipal law, the same legal terms are often used, thus allowing the legal
professions to draw inspiration from international jurisprudence or the
jurisprudence of other States;
Incorporation: It is also common for States to incorporate international human
rights treaties into their domestic law by enacting a national law. This is for instance
the case with the European Convention on Human Rights in the United Kingdom,
where that Convention was incorporated into British law by virtue of the Human
Rights Act 1998, which entered into force on 2 October 2000;
Automatic applicability: In some States treaties take precedence over domestic
law and are thus automatically applicable in domestic courts as soon as they have
been ratified by the State concerned;
Interpretation of common law: In interpreting common-law principles, judges
may be governed by international human rights law and international jurisprudence
interpreting that law;
54 As to monism and dualism Higgins states that of “course, whichever view you take, there is still the problem of which
system prevails when there is a clash between the two”; and that “in the real world the answer often depends upon the tribunal
answering it (whether it is a tribunal of international or domestic law) and upon the question asked”; in her view different “courts
do address that problem differently”, see Rosalyn Higgins, Problems and Process: International Law and How We Use It (Oxford,
Clarendon Press, 1994), p. 205.
Human Rights in the Administration of Justice: A Manual on Human Rights for Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers 21

Chapter 1 • International Human Rights Law and the Role of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction
When there is a legal vacuum: In some countries there may be an absence of
national legislation with regard, inter alia, to human rights; but, depending on the
circumstances, judges and lawyers may be able to rely on international human rights
law as well as relevant international case-law – or domestic case-law from other
countries – in order to apply some basic legal principles for the protection of the
human person.
Numerous efforts have been made in recent years – both through the
technical assistance programmes of the United Nations, and through various training
programmes provided by regional organizations such as the Organization of American
States, the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in
Europe – to help States adjust their laws to their international legal obligations, and also
to train the legal professions so as to enable them to make human rights a living reality
within their specific jurisdictions. Numerous independent human rights institutes and
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) also have extensive training programmes for
the various legal professions.
States may not invoke their internal law to justify violations of
international law, but are free to choose the modalities for implementing
that law.
4.2 The application of international human rights law
in domestic courts: some practical examples
A growing number of domestic courts in both common-law and civil-law
countries now regularly interpret and apply international human rights standards. The
following cases show how such standards can influence decisions taken by domestic
courts.
Germany: In a case involving an American pianist belonging to the Church of
Scientology and the Government of Baden-Württemberg, the Administrative Court of
Appeal of Baden-Württemberg considered the grounds of appeal of the plaintiff in the
light not only of the German Basic Law but also of article 9 of the European
Convention on Human Rights and articles 18 and 26 of the International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights.
The complaint originated in negotiations between an agent acting on behalf of
the Government and the pianist, regarding the latter’s participation in a concert to be
held in connection with the presentation to the public of the framework programme for
the World Athletics Championship. The negotiations were broken off when it became
known that the pianist concerned was a member of the Church of Scientology. In a
written reply to a question put by the Parliament of Baden-Württemberg, the Ministry
of Culture and Sport, acting in concertation with the Ministry of the Family, Women,
Education and Art, explained that the promotion by the State of cultural events must be
questioned when the persons performing are active and self-avowed members of the
Church of Scientology or other similar groups; for this reason they had declined to
engage the pianist as originally envisaged. The pianist argued that his right to freedom
22 Human Rights in the Administration of Justice: A Manual on Human Rights for Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers

Chapter 1 • International Human Rights Law and the Role of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction
of religion had been violated by the written reply from the Ministries. However, the
Administrative Court of Appeal concluded that the protection afforded by article 9 of
the European Convention and article 18 of the International Covenant had not been
infringed. As to the alleged violation of article 26 of the International Covenant, the
Court likewise found that it had not been violated, since the ministerial reply did not
result in discriminatory treatment of the pianist on the basis of his beliefs or religious
convictions, the reply being limited to the announcement of a specific procedure to be
followed in the future with regard to the allocation of grants made available for the
organization of events by third persons/agents. For this reason, and considering that
the plaintiff in this case was not himself a recipient of any grant, it was not necessary to
clarify whether he could base himself inter alia on the protection afforded by article 26
of the International Covenant, were an application for a grant to be rejected on the
abovementioned ground. 55
New Zealand: The 1994 Simpson v. Attorney General case, one of the most famous
human rights cases in New Zealand, originated in an allegedly unreasonable search of
the plaintiff’s home which, it was claimed, violated the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act
1990. In its decision, the Court of Appeal emphasized that the purposes of the Bill of
Rights were to
“affirm, protect, and promote human rights and fundamental freedoms in
New Zealand and to affirm New Zealand’s commitment to the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. From these purposes,
it was implicit that effective remedies should be available to any person
whose Bill of Rights guarantees were alleged to have been violated”. 56
When there had “been an infringement of the rights of an innocent person”,
“monetary compensation was”, in the view of the Court, “an appropriate and proper,
indeed the only effective, remedy”. 57 As observed by the Court, that “was consistent
with a rights-centred approach to the Bill of Rights and international jurisprudence on
remedies for human rights violations”, and reference was in this respect, inter alia,
made to the jurisprudence on remedies of both the Human Rights Committee and the
Inter-American Court of Human Rights. 58
United Kingdom: The most prominent case decided in recent years in which
international human rights law played an important role is the case of Pinochet, which
was decided by the House of Lords on 24 March 1999, and which originated in a
request that the Chilean Senator – and former Head of the Chilean State – be extradited
from the United Kingdom to Spain to be tried for crimes of torture and conspiracy to
torture, hostage-taking and conspiracy to take hostages, as well as conspiracy to commit
murder – acts committed whilst he was still in power. The obligations to which the 1984
Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or
Punishment gave rise, were incorporated into United Kingdom law by Section 134 of
the Criminal Justice Act 1988, which entered into force on 29 September 1988. The
55 Urteil vom 15. Oktober 1996, Verwaltungsgerichtshof Baden-Württemberg, 10 S 1765/96, in particular, pp. 11-16: as to
article 26 of the International Covenant, see p. 16.
56 Simpson v. Attorney General (1994) 1 HRNZ at 42-43.
57 Ibid., at 43.
58 Ibid., loc. cit.
Human Rights in the Administration of Justice: A Manual on Human Rights for Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers 23

Chapter 1 • International Human Rights Law and the Role of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction
Convention against Torture as such was ratified on 8 December 1988. By virtue of
these changes, torture, wherever it takes place in the world, became a triable criminal
offence in the United Kingdom. The question before the House of Lords on second
appeal turned on whether there were any extraditable offences and, in the affirmative,
whether Senator Pinochet was immune from trial for committing those crimes. 59 The
question of double criminality became an important issue, with a majority of the Lords
being of the view that Senator Pinochet could be extradited only on charges concerning
acts which were criminal in the United Kingdom when they took place. A majority of the
law Lords concluded that State immunity in respect of torture had been excluded by the
Convention against Torture, and that the offences of torture and conspiracy to torture
committed after 8 December 1988 were extraditable, with a minority of the House of
Lords holding that English courts had extraterritorial jurisdiction as from 29 September
1988 when Section 134 of the Criminal Justice Act 1988 entered into force.
This decision allowed the United Kingdom Home Secretary to go ahead with
the proceedings relating to the relevant parts of the Spanish request for Senator
Pinochet’s extradition. However, on 2 March 2000, after medical experts had
concluded that the former Head of State of Chile was unfit to stand trial, the Home
Secretary decided that he would not be extradited to Spain but was free to leave Britain.
In spite of its final outcome, this case is a landmark in the international law of human
rights in that it confirmed the erosion of the notion of State immunity for international
crimes as a result of the entry into force of the Convention against Torture.
South Africa: The example of South Africa is significant in that, after the
collapse of the apartheid regime, it drafted a constitution which was heavily influenced
by international human rights standards and which contains, in its Chapter 2, a detailed
Bill of Rights, which includes a wide range of rights, such as the right to equality, the
right to freedom and security of the person, the freedoms of expression, assembly and
association, political rights, environmental rights, the right to property, the right of
access to adequate housing, the right to health care services, sufficient food and water,
social security, the rights of the child, the right to basic education, the right of access to
courts and the rights of arrested, detained and accused persons.
International human rights law has had a considerable impact on the
development of law at the domestic level and is now frequently invoked
and applied by domestic courts.
59 See definition of question by Lord Brown Wilkinson, House of Lords, Judgment of 24 March 1999 – Regina v. Bartle and the
Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis and Others Ex Parte Pinochet; Regina v. Evans and Another and the Commissioner of Police for the
Metropolis and Others Ex Parte Pinochet (On Appeal from a Divisional Court of the Queen’s Bench Division); this Judgment is found on the
following web site: http://www.publications.parliament.uk.
24 Human Rights in the Administration of Justice: A Manual on Human Rights for Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers

Chapter 1 • International Human Rights Law and the Role of the Legal Professions: A General Introduction
5. The Role of the Legal Professions
in the Implementation of Human
Rights
As a consequence of legal developments over the last few decades, human
rights have ceased to be a “fringe activity”, instead becoming “an area of law which is
fundamental to everyone and which permeates all legal activity, economic and social, in
public law and in private”. 60 In a particularly interesting recent development, the
“pervasive importance of human rights law” to corporations and business lawyers has
also been recognized. 61 Yet, whilst the influence of international human rights law on
many dimensions of domestic law is thus steadily gaining ground, its true potential still
remains to be explored. 62
It is the professional role and duty of judges, prosecutors and lawyers
throughout the world to explore this potential, and at all times to use their respective
competences to ensure that a just rule of law prevails, including respect for the rights
of the individual. Whilst this entire Manual focuses on providing knowledge and
guidance to the legal professions in their daily work, Chapter 4 will focus on the specific
rules and principles conditioning the work of judges, prosecutors and lawyers. These
rules and principles have to be consistently and meticulously applied, since judges,
prosecutors and lawyers perhaps have the single most important role to play in applying
national and international human rights law. Their work constitutes the chief pillar of
the effective legal protection of human rights, without which the noble principles
aimed at protecting the individual against the abuse of power are likely to be sapped of
much or even all of their significance.
6. Concluding Remarks
The present chapter has provided a synopsis of the modern development of
the international protection of the human person, which originated in a devastated
world’s yearning for peaceful, secure and just domestic and international legal orders.
Further, it has explained some of the basic legal notions relevant to international human
rights law and offered a description, however general, of the role to be played by the
legal professions within their respective fields of competence in order to be able
effectively to use the legal tools available to protect the human person against abuses of
power. We shall now turn to a succinct examination of the terms and functioning of the
major existing universal and regional human rights conventions.
60 See editorial of Lord Goldsmith QC and Nicholas R. Cowdery QC, “The Role of the Lawyer in Human Rights”, in HRI
News (Newsletter of the IBA Human Rights Institute), vol. 4, No. 2, 1999, p. 1.
61 Ibid., loc. cit. See also Nicholas R. Cowdery QC, “Human Rights in Commercial Practice – an IBA Perspective”, ibid., pp.
16-18, and Stephen Bottomley, “Corporations and Human Rights”, ibid., pp. 19-22.
62 See reference to speech of Justice Kirby, ibid., p. 10.
Human Rights in the Administration of Justice: A Manual on Human Rights for Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers 25

Page 170 of 198

Attachment B
The International Court
of Justice
Page 171 of 198

Chapter Four
International Court of Justice (ICJ)
What is the International Court of Justice?
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) was established under
Chapter XIV of the United Nations Charter. It replaced the Permanent
Court of Justice, which existed under the UN’s predecessor, the
League of Nations.
The ICJ is the only major UN body whose headquarters is not in New
York City; the Court sits in The Hague, Netherlands. The Court is
the principal judicial organ of the UN, and all members of the UN
are ipso facto parties to the Statute of the ICJ. Fifteen independent
justices, elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council,
each serve on the Court for nine-year terms.
The primary purpose of the ICJ is to render opinions on international
legal disputes between States. These cases may only be submitted by
States that have accepted the jurisdiction of the ICJ. Another purpose
of the ICJ is to clarify significant international legal questions brought
to it by the UN General Assembly and the Security Council. When
a UN body brings an issue before the Court, they are requesting an
Advisory Opinion. The ICJ does not have authority to decide disputes
involving individuals, the public, or private organizations, although
the Court may request that public organizations present information in
a case.
When states have a case before the Court, participants submit written
memorials and present oral arguments. When the Court is asked to
render an Advisory Opinion, interested or assigned parties also submit
written memorials and present orally before the Court. In both types
of cases, interested parties can seek to submit an Amicus Curiae
memorial, Latin for “friend of the court.” Amicus Curiae memorials
may be submitted by any AMUN delegation that seeks to assist the
Court in defining the issue. These memorials may be submitted by
states not specifically named in the case.
Article 38 of the Statute of the ICJ establishes the sources of law
to be applied by the Court in resolving disputes in accordance with
international law:
1. International Conventions (and treaties);
2. International Custom, as evidence of a general practice
accepted as law; and
3. General Principles of Law recognized by civilized States.
Since 1945, the Court has rendered a number of decisions and
advisory opinions. Since the Court has no binding enforcement
mechanism, not all of the disputing parties have complied with its
decisions. Despite this condition, the Court’s rulings are typically
considered as authoritative interpretations of law and have a strong
moral and suasive effect on the international legal community.
The Court’s most effective areas have been boundary disputes
and providing legal basis for enforcing damage claims by states in
disputes involving the use of force (e.g. in Islamic Republic of Iran v.
United States, and in Libya v. Chad).
Structure of AMUN’s ICJ
The cases before the 2007 AMUN International Court of Justice (ICJ)
include:
• Spain v. Canada - Fisheries Jurisdiction Case (Historical);
• Republic of the Congo v. France - Certain Criminal Proceedings
in France;
• Costa Rica v. Nicaragua - Proceedings Instituted by Costa Rica
Against Nicaragua.
Other cases may be determined and announced later. Representatives
are strongly encouraged to contact AMUN if their delegation wishes
to bring a case before the Court; these cases should be submitted
before 1 October.
Background papers on the cases listed above are provided in the
Issues at AMUN Handbook. Explicit instructions on the procedures of
the Court will be forthcoming to all registered delegations in an ICJ
Addendum.
AMUN’s ICJ is an all-student-run simulation, in that students serve
both as Justices and as Advocates. While Justices adjudicate on the
dispute, the Advocates present the arguments for the parties in the
dispute. Advocates can also represent other interested groups who
seek to submit an Amicus Curiae memorial.
Amicus Curiae memorials may be submitted by a Representative from
any State or organization with an interest in the case. Such memorials
may advocate the position of either the Applicant or the Respondent,
or they may advocate other arguments, based partially on each side’s
position(s), or another position not advocated by either party.
The ICJ Justices and Advocates will be assisted by members of
AMUN’s Secretariat: the Director and Registrars of the Court. Staff
responsibilities include the approval of cases for inclusion on the
Court’s docket, the review of memorials submitted to the Court,
assisting in the preparation of the Court’s docket, and the provision of
any other assistance needed by ICJ Justices and Advocates.
The cases pre-selected by the AMUN Secretariat will form the
substance of the Court’s docket. Requests for additional cases may
be submitted by any state registered as an AMUN delegation or by
any ICJ Representative. Likewise, the UN General Assembly or the
Security Council may submit a request to the ICJ for an advisory
opinion on a topic of international law. The Director will review such
requests. The AMUN Secretariat, with the advice of the Director, will
decide whether such additional cases will be included on the Court’s
docket.
The Court will meet to hear arguments throughout the Conference.
The Justices, in consultation with the Director, will set the docket and
review the procedures of the Court on the first day of the Conference.
Page 14 • 2007 AMUN Rules & Procedures
International Court of Justice

Representative Information
Any college, graduate or law student may register as either a Justice
or an Advocate for the ICJ, regardless of whether the student’s school
is registered for a delegation at AMUN.
A delegation with a case before the ICJ will be expected to provide
a Representative(s) to argue its case, unless other arrangements
are made with the Secretary-General by 1 October.
Justice positions are available on a first-come, first-served basis,
until the fifteen seats on the Court are filled. Note that no school will
be allowed more than one Justice on the Court, unless additional
seats are open just prior to the Conference. It is not a requirement
for Justices to be a member of a delegation. States involved in a
case before the Court are strongly encouraged to place a Justice on
the Court for the duration of the Conference. States wishing to do
this may do so in two ways: (1) they may register someone to be a
permanent justice (up to the maximum listed above); or (2) they may
appoint an ad hoc justice that would only sit for their case.
Ad hoc justices only sit on the court for the case in which their
country is involved and must be assigned to another simulations.
All other justices are duration-of-conference assignments, and
Representatives serving as justices shall not be assigned to another
simulation. The justices should expect to spend the first day setting
the docket, determining the final procedures of the Court, and hearing
the first case. The rest of Conference will be spent hearing cases, in
deliberations, and rendering opinions on those cases.
Advocate positions are not duration-of-the-conference assignments.
ICJ advocates should expect to spend three to four hours presenting
their case and hearing the opinion during conference. ICJ Advocates
should also serve as Representatives to another AMUN simulation. It
is essential that, whenever possible, the ICJ advocate or ad hoc justice
is teamed with another Representative in a Committee/Council,
so that their state is represented while the advocate is presenting
the case. Advocate positions would also be ideal for a Permanent
Representative who is “floating” between Committees/Councils.
There is no additional per delegate fee for a student assigned to a
Committee/Council who also serves as an ICJ Advocate from a school
with a registered delegation.
Preparation
General Preparation: Initially, ICJ Representatives should determine
whether they have access to international legal sources. All ICJ
Representatives need to acquire a basic working knowledge about
the history of the ICJ and how it functions, which is available at
www.icj-cij.org. They will also need to read the ICJ section in the
Issues at AMUN handbook, and further research the factual and legal
background about each of the disputes in which they are involved.
Justices: Justices should review relevant treaties, applicable
international common law, and prior ICJ decisions and
scholarly articles analyzing those treaties, common laws and
decisions. Most law school libraries, and many undergraduate
libraries, have international law casebooks which contain ICJ
opinions, as well as opinions written by justices sitting on other
International Court of Justice
international tribunals; these are also available online at www.un.org/
Depts/dhl/resguide/specil.htm. As you read these decisions, ask
yourself:
• What writing style does the author use?
• How do Justices address jurisdictional issues?
• How do they apply the law to the facts of the case?
Note: Remember that the AMUN ICJ is a simulation. No one expects
students, who are by definition not lawyers or justices, to make
decisions and render opinions with the same level of sophistication as
actual ICJ justices. Your job is simply to gain a basic understanding of
what considerations are taken into account by justices when deciding
cases and writing opinions.
Advocates: Advocates must thoroughly research both the law and
facts involved in the dispute from which their case arises. Advocates
also will be responsible for the preparation of written memorials and
the presentation of oral arguments regarding their positions in their
case.
Preparation of Memorials
ICJ memorials contain, in the following order:
1. A statement of facts (what are the relevant facts in the case?);
2. A jurisdictional statement and arguments (i.e. does the state recognize
the Court’s jurisdiction on this case, and why or why not?);
3. A statement of law (what laws, customs, precedents or treaties
apply?);
4. A detailed argument section, which discusses how the law and facts
apply to the merits of the case (how do the laws and facts support your
case?); and
5. A summary and prayer for relief (what do you want the Court to do?).
The “plaintiff,” or party bringing the case, is called the Applicant. The
“defendant” is called the Respondent. Due to time constraints, both
the Applicant and Respondent in any AMUN ICJ case must prepare
their memorials without seeing the memorial of their opponent.
However, the Respondent’s memorial should seek to counter the
anticipated arguments of the Applicant.
All memorials must be submitted by 7 November to the AMUN
Secretariat at mail@amun.org.
Preparation of Oral Arguments
Oral arguments provide Advocates with an opportunity to explain to
the Justices the factual and legal merits of their case. In each case,
the Applicant shall argue first. The Respondent shall then have the
same amount of time to reply. Advocates presenting Amicus Curiae
arguments will then be accorded no more than five minutes each to
speak. On the first day of Conference, the Justices will create the
docket and define the amount of time for oral arguments. Advocates
should be prepared for anywhere between 10 and 20 minutes for
arguments.
Advocates should be aware that the oral argument is not simply an
opportunity to give a prepared “speech.” While an Advocate should
have an outline of the points they wish to make, the Justices often
2007 AMUN Rules & Procedures • Page 15

interject with specific questions during each Advocate’s presentation.
The first five minutes of each Advocate’s presentation will be
uninterrupted, to allow each side the opportunity to freely present
the key issues of their arguments. After the initial five minutes, the
Advocates may continue with their presentations, but the Justices
may also interject and question the Advocates on the merits of
their case. Therefore, be prepared to both answer questions and
defend your position.
The following steps should be taken to prepare for oral arguments:
1. Identify the issues that are the critical, deciding factors in the
case. You should try to have at least three critical points to your
argument.
2. Examine your memorial. What are your best arguments regarding
the critical issues?
3. Develop a “theme” which incorporates your best arguments on
the critical issues. Keep it simple. Remember, you are just trying
to tell the Justices a story - a story about why your country has
been wronged, or about what they can do to provide a fair and
just solution.
4. Prepare an outline. The outline should include your theme,
your best arguments on the critical issues, your answers to your
opponent’s best arguments, and ideas about answers to any other
questions you think the justices might ask. Try to make your
memorial and oral argument outline consistent, so that the first
issue addressed in the memorial is the first addressed in the oral
argument.
5. Though each Advocate will have more than five minutes to
present oral arguments, keep in mind that only the first five
minutes of the presentations will be uninterrupted. Therefore,
while preparing your presentation it is to your advantage to focus
on the main points and key issues during the first five minutes.
We suggest that you follow a “pyramid” format, in which the
crux of the argument is presented first and then for the remainder
of the allotted time the speaker expands on those issues in a
more thorough and complete manner. This format can also allow
for a quick means of referencing issues during the remaining
period of presentation/questions. It is also wise to conclude your
presentation by again summing up the key points.
6. Do not write out answers verbatim. Do, however, write out
“catch phrases” or legal terms you will want to remember
precisely. Oral arguments will involve extemporaneous speaking
and responses, not the presentation of a memorized speech.
7. Be sure your outline includes specific names of conventions,
treaties, cases, etc. which you are using to support your answers.
This is very important because your legal argument is what you
need to use to convince the Justices that your side of the case is
stronger.
8. Practice, practice, practice! There is no substitute for practicing
oral arguments. Your presentation is likely to be smoother, and
thus more persuasive. Have your Faculty Advisor and/or other
students fire questions at you. Learn to field those questions, and
then transition back to the point you were making prior to the
question.
9. Hammer home your theme again and again. Remember, your
legal argument is what is going to convince the Justices to decide
in favor of your state. The facts are the facts; what is going to
be in contention is how international law views the dispute.
Rambling, disjointed presentations are not persuasive. Simple,
concise answers that repeatedly stress the same points are
persuasive, and will be remembered by the Justices.
10. Contact a court (an appeals court, if possible) in your area and
find out when arguments or a trial will occur. Then, visit the court
and observe how the attorneys make their presentations, and how
the Justices question them. Also, on the web, at www.icj-cij.org,
there are oral arguments that you can listen to via your computer.
11. Learn proper courtroom demeanor. Remember to be polite
and deferent to the justices at all times. While argument is the
method, persuasion is the goal.
Duties of the Justices
AMUN ICJ justices have wide latitude to operate within the AMUN
Statute of the ICJ, copies of which will be furnished to all ICJ
Representatives. Justices will meet with the Director on the first day
of the Conference to go over the Statute and to establish their own
internal rules of procedure.
Each justice, while “independent,” will still have a role-playing
function. ICJ justices “retain” their citizenship with whatever state
their school represents at the Conference. Justices not affiliated with
a delegation will be assigned citizenship with a state. A justice’s
citizenship is important, since it is frequently the case in the “real”
ICJ that a justice from a particular country will side with the position
advocated by their country of origin when that state comes before the
ICJ, although they do not always do so. Thus, while ICJ justices are
supposed to be independent advocates for the law, they often come to
the Court with inherent biases based on their home country’s history,
culture, religion and laws.
Justices will each have an opportunity to review the memorials
submitted for each case. All justices will be expected to hear
arguments and question the advocates in all cases on the docket. After
each case is argued, the justices will retire to deliberate and to write
opinions.
Justices should take the time to do preliminary research on the cases
and advisory opinions. If Justices have difficulty accessing documents
relevant to the cases or advisory opinions, they should contact the
Secretary-General or the Director of the Court to request assistance at
icj@amun.org.
Page 16 • 2007 AMUN Rules & Procedures
International Court of Justice

Page 172 of 198

Attachment C
Everything You Always Wanted to Know
About The United Nations
Page 173 of 198

Everything You
Always Wanted to
Know About the
United Nations
FOR STUDENTS AT INTERMEDIATE AND SECONDARY LEVELS
United Nations
Department of Public Information
New York, 2008
An introduction to the United Nations
i

Material contained in this book is not subject to copyright.
It may be freely reproduced, provided acknowledgement
is given to the
United Nations.
For further information please contact:
Visitors Services,
Department of Public Information,
United Nations, New York, NY 10017
Fax 212-963-0071;
E-mail: inquiries@un.org
All photos by UN Photo, unless otherwise noted
Published by the
United Nations
Department of Public Information
Printed by the
United Nations Publishing Section, New York

Table of contents
1 Introduction to the United Nations 1
2
3
4
5
6
The UN family 11
The UN works for
international peace and security 25
The Millennium Development Goals 39
Human Rights 51
Frequently asked questions 59
iii

1
An introduction to
the United Nations
• The United Nations has four purposes: to maintain international
peace and security; to develop friendly relations among nations;
to cooperate in solving international problems and in promoting
respect for human rights; and to be a centre for harmonizing the
actions of nations. Cooperating in this effort are more than 30
affiliated organizations, known together as the UN system.
• The United Nations is not a world government, and it does not
make laws. It does, however, provide the means to help resolve
international conflicts and formulate policies on matters affecting
all of us.
• At the UN, all the Member States — large and small, rich and poor,
with differing political views and social systems — have a voice
and a vote in this process. The United Nations gives the opportunity
for countries to balance global interdependence and national
interests when addressing international problems.
• The UN system works to promote respect for human rights, reduce
poverty, fight disease and protect the environment. The United
Nations leads international campaigns against drug trafficking
and terrorism.
• Throughout the world, the UN and its agencies help expand food
production, assist refugees, lead the fight against AIDS and set up
programmes to clear landmines, among others.

2
Everything About the United Nations

An introduction to the
United Nations
The United Nations building in New York City
What is the United Nations?
The United Nations is a unique organization of
independent countries that have come together
to work for world peace and social progress. The
Organization formally came into existence on
24 October 1945, with 51 countries considered
founding Members. By the end of 2008, the
membership of the UN had grown to 192 countries.
Since its inception, no country has ever been
expelled from membership. Indonesia temporarily
quit the UN in 1965 over a dispute with neighbouring
Malaysia, but returned the following year.
So, the United Nations is like a world government?
Wrong. Governments represent countries and peoples. The United Nations represents
neither a particular government nor any one nation. It represents all its Members and
does only what the Member States decide that it should do.
Is there a set of rules or principles that guides the United
Nations in its work?
Yes, the Charter of the United Nations. It is a set of guidelines that
explains the rights and duties of each Member country, and what
needs to be done to achieve the goals they have set for themselves.
When a nation becomes a Member of the UN, it accepts
the aims and rules of the Charter.
The UN has four
main purposes:
To keep peace throughout
the world;
To develop friendly relations
among nations;
: www.un.org/aboutun/charter/
How did the United Nations begin?
The idea of the United Nations was born during World War II
(1939-1945). World leaders who had collaborated to end the war
felt a strong need for a mechanism that would help bring peace
and stop future wars. They realized that this was possible only if
all nations worked together through a global organization. The
United Nations was to be that Organization.
To work together to
help poor people live
better lives, to conquer
hunger, disease and illiteracy,
and to encourage
respect for each other’s
rights and freedoms;
To be a centre for
helping nations achieve
these goals.
An introduction to the United Nations 3

Where did the name “United Nations” come from?
The name “United Nations” was suggested by United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt. It was
first officially used in 1942, when representatives of 26 countries signed the Declaration by United
Nations. As a tribute to President Roosevelt, who died a few weeks before the signing of the Charter,
all those present at the San Francisco Conference agreed to adopt the name “United Nations”.
Was this the first time that such an organization had been created?
A similar organization, the League of Nations, was set up in 1919, following World War I. Its
main objective was to keep world peace. However, not every country joined the League. The
United States, for example, was never a member. Others that had joined later quit, and the
League often failed to take action. Though it did not succeed, the League ignited a dream for a
universal organization. The result was the United Nations.
FACT CHECK
The building that rose from a slaughterhouse
At its first meeting in
London in 1946, the
General Assembly
decided to locate the
United Nations Headquarters
in the United
States. However, New
York was not the first choice. Philadelphia, Boston and
San Francisco were also considered. What eventually
persuaded the General Assembly to settle on the present
site was a last-minute gift of $8.5 million from John D.
Rockefeller, Jr. Later, New York City offered additional
property as a gift.
The site chosen for UN Headquarters was a run-down
area of slaughterhouses, a railroad garage building and
other commercial buildings.
On 24 October 1949, Secretary-General Trygve Lie laid the
cornerstone of the 39-storey building. On 21 August 1950,
the Secretariat staff began moving into their new offices.
Same view of the site chosen for UN Headquarters,
taken from Tudor City at 41st street, looking north
to 48th street (left). United Nations Headquarters
building in New York City as it stands today (above).
: http://www.un.org/tours/ • http://www.un.org/Pubs/CyberSchoolBus/untour/
Who owns the United Nations Headquarters?
The United Nations Headquarters is an international zone. This means that the land on which the UN
sits does not belong to just the United States, the host country, but to all the Members of the United
Nations. The UN has its own flag and its own security officers who guard the area. It also has its own
post office and issues its own stamps. These stamps can be used only from UN Headquarters or from
UN offices in Vienna and Geneva.
4
Everything About the United Nations

Who pays for the work of the United Nations?
The 192 Members of the United Nations pay for everything that the Organization
does. It has no other source of income. There are two types of budgets at the UN:
The regular budget includes the core functions at its Headquarters in New York
and field offices around the world;
The peacekeeping budget pays for various operations, often in “hot spots”
around the world.
Payments to the UN for both budgets are compulsory. Members pay according to a
scale of assessments agreed upon by all. This scale is based on a country’s ability to
pay, national income and population.
The road to the
United Nations:
a chronology
September 1939
This is how Warsaw
(Poland) looked only
weeks after the start
of the Second World
War. The war reduced
much of Europe to
rubble.
Is the United Nations a good value for the money?
The regular budget for the United Nations is approved by the General Assembly for
a two-year period. The budget approved for 2008-2009 was $4.17 billion, which
pays for UN activities, staff and basic infrastructure. Citizens of the United States
spend approximately the same amount on cut flowers and potted plants each year.
For peacekeeping, the budget for the year from 1 July 2007 to 30 June 2008 was
about $6.8 billion. This represented 0.5% of global military spending, estimated at
$1,339 billion in 2007. That amount would pay for the entire UN system for more
than 65 years. Peacekeeping is far cheaper than war and is good value for money!
The UN is funded by Member
countries. The top 10 Member States
in assessment for the 2008 UN
regular budget were:
Assessment rates/amount
Country
per cent
US$
millions
United States 22.00 453.3
Japan 16.62 342.5
Germany 8.57 176.7
United Kingdom 6.64 136.8
France 6.30 129.8
Italy 5.07 104.6
Canada 2.97 61.3
Spain 2.96 61.1
China 2.66 54.9
Mexico 2.25 46.5
14 August 1941
President Roosevelt
and Prime Minister
Churchill met on
board a battleship in
the Atlantic Ocean.
They adopted the Atlantic
Charter, wherein
a plan for world peace
was outlined.
1 January 1942
On New Year’s Day
1942, the representatives
of 26 nations
signed at Washington,
D.C., the Declaration
by the United Nations.
30 October 1943
Representatives of
China, the Soviet
Union, the United
Kingdom and the
United States signed
the Moscow Declaration
and agreed to set
up an organization of
nations to keep peace
once the war was
ended.
An introduction to the United Nations 5

Summer and fall, 1944
Leaders of China, the
United States and the
United Kingdom met
at Dumbarton Oaks,
Washington, D.C., and
agreed on purposes and
principles of the future
United Nations.
11 February 1945
President Roosevelt,
Prime Minister Churchill
and Premier Joseph
Stalin, after their
meeting in Yalta, in the
Soviet Union, declared
their resolve to establish
the United Nations.
They also agreed on
the voting system to
be used in the Security
Council.
26 June 1945
Representatives of
50 countries unanimously
adopted the
Charter of the United
Nations at a conference
in San Francisco.
24 October 1945
After a majority of
countries, including the
five permanent members
of the Security
Council (China, France,
USA, UK and USSR),
had signed the UN
Charter and officially
recognized it, the
United Nations came
into being. That is why
24 October is observed
as United Nations Day.
The UN Peacekeeping
budget is funded by
Member countries
The top ten contributors
to the UN in 2007 were:
1. United States of America (20%),
2. Japan (17%), 3. Germany (9%),
4. United Kingdom (8%),
5. France (7%), 6. Italy (5%),
7. China (3%), 8. Canada (3%),
9. Spain (3%), and
10. Republic of Korea (2%).
Top ten contributors of uniformed UN personnel
Top ten contributors of uniformed UN personnel
France 1,975
France 1,975
Nigeria 2,465
Nigeria 2,465
Italy 2,539
Italy 2,539
Uruguay 2,583
Uruguay 2,583
Ghana 2,907
Ghana 2,907
Jordan 3,564
Jordan 3,564
Nepal 3,626
Nepal 3,626
(as of 31 March 2007)
(as of 31 March 2007)
Pakistan
10,173 Pakistan
10,173
India 9,471
India 9,471
Top ten providers of contributions to
Top ten providers of contributions to
UN Peacekeeping Budget
UN Peacekeeping Budget
United Kingdom
United Kingdom
(as of 1 January 2007)
(as of 1 January 2007)
Germany
Germany
Japan
Japan
9,675Bangladesh
9,675
Republic of
Republic of
Spain
Korea
Spain
Korea
Canada
Canada3% 2%
3% 2%
United States
China 3%
United States
China
of America
3%
3%
of America
Italy
3%
20%
Italy
20%
5%
5%
France 7%
France
7%
8%
8%
9%
9%
17%
17%
: For more:
www.un.org/aboutun,
www.un.org/av
(for photos)
6
Everything About the United Nations

How does a country become a Member of the United Nations?
Membership in the Organization, in accordance with the Charter of
the United Nations, “is open to all peace-loving States that accept the
obligations contained in the United Nations Charter and, in the judgment
of the Organization, are able to carry out these obligations”. States
are admitted to membership in the United Nations by decision of the
General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council.
How is the United Nations structured?
The work of the United Nations is carried out almost all over the world
and is done by six main organs:
1. General Assembly
2. Security Council
3. Economic and Social Council
4. Trusteeship Council
5. International Court of Justice
6. Secretariat
All these organs are based at UN Headquarters in New York, except for
the International Court of Justice, which is located at The Hague, Netherlands.
Related to the United Nations are 15 specialized agencies that
coordinate their work with the UN but are separate, autonomous organizations.
They work in areas as diverse as health, agriculture, telecommunications
and weather. In addition, there are 24 programmes, funds
and other bodies with responsibilities in specific fields. These bodies,
together with the UN proper and its specialized programmes, compose
the United Nations system.
1
2
3
4
: http://www.un.org/geninfo/faq/factsheets/memberstate.pdf
What is a Permanent Observer?
Non-Member States of the United Nations, which are members of one
or more specialized agencies, can apply for the status of Permanent
Observer. The status of a Permanent Observer is based purely on practice,
and there are no provisions for it in the United Nations Charter. The
practice dates from 1946, when the Secretary-General accepted the designation
of the Swiss Government as a Permanent Observer to the United
Nations. Observers were subsequently put forward by certain States that
later became United Nations Members, including Austria, Finland, Italy,
and Japan. Switzerland became a UN Member on 10 September 2002.
5
6
Permanent Observers have free access to most meetings and relevant
documentation. Many regional and international organizations are also
observers in the work and annual sessions of the General Assembly.
An introduction to the United Nations 7

What are the official languages of the United Nations?
The official languages used at the United Nations are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian
and Spanish. The working languages at the UN Secretariat are English and French.
A delegate may speak in any of the official languages, and the speech is interpreted simultaneously
into the other official languages. Most UN documents are also issued in all six
official languages. At times, a delegate may choose to make a statement using a non-official
language. In such cases, the delegation must provide either an interpretation or a written text of
the statement in one of the official languages.
Originally English and French were established as working languages at the UN.
Later, Arabic, Chinese, Russian and Spanish were added as working languages in the
General Assembly and in the Economic and Social Council. English, French, Chinese,
Russian and Spanish are the working languages of the Security Council.
The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) brought together hundreds of children and UN staff as part of a global attempt to break the world record for the
largest lesson. The lesson was the value and urgency of girls’ education.
8
Everything About the United Nations

How does a new State or Government obtain recognition
by the United Nations?
The recognition of a new State or Government is an act that only other States and
Governments may grant or withhold. It generally implies readiness to assume diplomatic
relations. The United Nations is neither a State nor a Government, and therefore
does not possess any authority to recognize either a State or a Government. As
an organization of independent States, it may admit a new State to its membership
or accept the credentials of the representatives of a new Government.
Membership in the Organization, in accordance with the Charter of the United
Nations, “is open to all peace-loving States which accept the obligations contained
in the [United Nations Charter] and, in the judgment of the Organization, are able
to carry out these obligations”. States are admitted to membership in the United
Nations by decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the
Security Council. The procedure is briefly as follows:
1. The State submits an application to the Secretary-General and a letter
formally stating that it accepts the obligations under the Charter.
2. The Security Council considers the application. Any recommendation for
admission must receive the affirmative votes of 9 of the 15 members of
the Council, provided that none of its five permanent members — China,
France, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Northern Ireland and the United States of America — have voted
against the application.
3. If the Council recommends admission, the recommendation is presented
to the General Assembly for consideration. A two-thirds majority
vote is necessary in the Assembly for admission of a new State.
4. Membership becomes effective the date the resolution for admission
is adopted.
At each session, the General Assembly considers the credentials of all representatives
of Member States participating in that session. During such consideration,
which routinely takes place first in the nine-member Credentials Committee but can
also arise at other times, the issue can be raised whether a particular representative
has been accredited by the Government actually in power. This issue is ultimately
decided by a majority vote in the Assembly. It should be noted that the normal
change of Governments, as through a democratic election, does not raise any issues
concerning the credentials of the representative of the State concerned.
: http://www.un.org/aboutun • http://www.un.org/members
From 51 member states in 1945
to 192 member states in 2008
An introduction to the United Nations 9

Q&A Team Play
Team Play
When playing as team-mates (2 or more players on a team), team-mates can work
together to arrive at an answer, but must reach a consensus before declaring an answer
to the other players.
1. In what year was the United Nations founded?
2. How many Member States does the United Nations have?
3. What are the official languages of the United Nations?
4. Who coined the phrase “United Nations”?
5. How many organs does the United Nations have?
6. What was the League of Nations?
7. Has any country ever quit the United Nations?
8. What is the list of rules and regulations of the UN called?
9. Name one of the aims and purposes of the United Nations.
10. When and where was the United Nations Declaration signed?
This is the United Nations flag. It has a blue background with a white emblem in
the centre. The emblem has a world map with olive branches around it, signifying
world peace. The emblem should be one half the height of the flag and
entirely centred.
10
Everything About the United Nations

2
The United Nations Family
Some achievements by the UN System
• The UN was a promoter of the great movement of decolonization,
which led to the independence of more than 80 nations.
• The UN system is a major purchaser of goods and services, totalling
over $6.4 billion a year. UNICEF buys half the vaccines produced
worldwide.
• UN relief agencies together provide aid and protection to more
than 23 million refugees and displaced persons worldwide.
• The UN system defines technical standards in telecommunication,
aviation, shipping and postal services, which make international
transactions possible.
• UN campaigns for universal immunization against childhood diseases
have eradicated smallpox and reduced cases of polio by 99
per cent.
• The World Food Programme, the UN’s front-line food aid organization,
ships over 5 million tonnes of food annually, feeding some 113
million people in 80 countries.

The United Nations Family
The UN Charter establishes six main organs of the United Nations. This is a summary of
their composition and functions:
THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY
All members of the United Nations (currently
192) are represented in the General Assembly.
Each nation, rich or poor, large or small, has
one vote. Decisions on such issues as international
peace and security, admitting new members
and the UN budget are decided by a twothirds
majority. Other matters are decided by
simple majority. In recent years, a special effort
has been made to reach decisions through consensus,
rather than by taking a formal vote.
The General Assembly’s regular session begins
each year in September and continues throughout the year. At the
beginning of each regular session, the Assembly holds a general
debate at which Heads of State or Government and others present
views on a wide-ranging agenda of issues of concern to the international
community, from war and terrorism to disease and poverty.
In 2005, world leaders gathered at UN Headquarters in New York
for the General Assembly High Level Summit and to commemorate
the Organization’s 60th birthday. Each year, the Assembly
elects a president who presides over–that is, runs–the meetings.
The green and gold General Assembly
Hall accommodates all 192 delegations.
Each delegation has six seats, and there
is a gallery for the media and the public,
making a total of 1,898 seats.
President of the 62nd Session of
the General Assembly, Dr. Srgjan
Kerim of the former Yugoslav
Republic of Macedonia.
Functions
To discuss and make recommendations on any subject (except
those being dealt with at the same time by the Security Council);
To discuss questions related to military conflicts and the
arms race;
To discuss ways and means to improve the state of children,
youth, women and others;
To discuss the issues of sustainable development and human
rights;
To decide how much each Member country should pay to run
the United Nations and how this money is spent.
The United Nations Family 13

Main Committees
Most discussions in the General Assembly take place in its six main committees:
First Committee (Disarmament and International Security)
Second Committee (Economic and Financial)
Third Committee (Social, Humanitarian and Cultural)
Fourth Committee (Special Political and Decolonization)
Fifth Committee (Administrative and Budgetary)
Sixth Committee (Legal)
One country, one vote
In the General Assembly, each
member has one vote. This rule
applies to all nations, large and
small. China has over a billion people.
It has one vote. Palau, one of the
smallest UN Member countries,
has only 17,000 people. It, too,
has one vote.
Some recent actions by the General Assembly
In 2006, United Nations Member States agreed on a process
of reforming the work of the Assembly that involves speeding
up the decision-making process, streamlining the Assembly’s
agenda, and strengthening the role and authority of the Assembly
President.
In 2006, the Assembly approved the establishment of the new,
strengthened Human Rights Council to replace the muchcriticized
UN Human Rights Commission. The new Council that
was inaugurated on 19 June 2006 in Geneva has a higher status
in the UN system as a subsidiary body of the General Assembly.
The Assembly designated 2001-2010 as Roll Back Malaria
decade in developing countries, particularly in Africa. The Roll
Back Malaria movement helps prevent disease and improves
lives. It is estimated that malaria kills up to 2.7 million persons
each year; 90 per cent of these deaths occur in Africa, and
children under the age of five years are the most vulnerable.
Malaria kills more than 3,000 African children every day.
At the United Nations Summit in 2000, and reconfirmed in
2005, world leaders set goals in a landmark Millennium Declaration
to make the world of the twenty-first century a safer and
better place.
: www.un.org/ga
14
Everything About the United Nations

THE SECURITY COUNCIL
While the General Assembly can discuss any world
concern, the Security Council has primary responsibility
for questions of peace and security.
Membership
The Security Council has fifteen members. Five are
permanent members: China, France, the Russian Federation,
the United Kingdom and the United States.
The other ten non-permanent members are elected
by the General Assembly for two-year terms and are
chosen on the basis of geographical representation.
Functions
To investigate any dispute or situation which might lead to
international conflict;
To recommend methods and terms of settlement;
To recommend actions against any threat or act of aggression;
To recommend to the General Assembly who should be appointed
Secretary-General of the United Nations.
The Security Council chamber, a
gift from Norway, was designed
by Norwegian artist Arnstein
Arneberg. A large mural by Per
Krohg (Norway), symbolizing
the promise of future peace
and individual freedom, covers
most of the east wall.
Meetings
The Security Council, unlike the General Assembly, does not hold regular meetings. It can be called
to meet at any time on short notice. The members take turns at being President of the Council for a
month at a time. They serve in the English alphabetical order of the names of their countries.
To pass a resolution in the Security Council, nine members of the Council must vote “yes”, but if
any of the five permanent members votes “no”, it is called a veto, and the resolution does not pass.
: www.un.org/docs/sc/
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon speaks with Red Cross
Youth students in the Security Council.
Some recent actions by the Security Council
In July 2007, the Council voted unanimously to deploy a
26,000-strong joint United Nations-African Union Mission
in Darfur (UNAMID) in an attempt to quell the violence in
Sudan’s western Darfur region, where fighting between pro-
Government militias and rebel guerillas has killed more than
250,000 people since 2003.
The Council established two international criminal tribunals
to prosecute crimes against humanity in the former Yugoslavia
and in Rwanda.
Following the terrorist attacks on the United States on
11 September 2001, the Council established its Counter-
Terrorism Committee to help States increase their capability
to fight terrorism.
The United Nations Family 15

Is it fair that only five major Powers have the right to veto?
At the end of World War II, China, France, the
Russian Federation (originally the USSR),
the United Kingdom and the United States
played key roles in the establishment of
the United Nations. The creators of the UN
Charter conceived that these five countries
would continue to play important roles in
the maintenance of international peace and
security. So the “big five” were given a special
voting power known as the “right to veto”. It
was agreed by the drafters that if any one of the “big five” cast a negative vote in the
15-member Security Council, the resolution or decision would not be approved.
THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL
(ECOSOC)
The Economic and Social Council is the forum
to discuss economic problems, such as trade,
transport, economic development, and social
issues. It also helps countries reach agreement
on how to improve education and health conditions
and to promote respect for and observance
of universal human rights and freedoms
of people everywhere.
Functions
Serves as the main forum for international economic and
social issues;
A gift from Sweden, the ECOSOC chamber was
designed by Sven Markelius of Sweden.
Promotes higher standards of living, full employment and economic and social progress;
Advances solutions to international economic, social and health-related problems, as well as
international cultural and educational cooperation.
Membership
The Council has 54 members, who serve for three-year terms. Voting in the Council is by simple
majority; each member has one vote. Each year, the Council holds several short sessions with
regard to the organization of its work, often including representatives of civil society. The Economic
and Social Council also holds an annual four-week substantive session in July, alternating
the venue between Geneva and New York.
16
Everything About the United Nations

Subsidiary bodies
ECOSOC has many commissions to administer the wide range of issues that fall within
its purview. Among them, the Commission on Narcotic Drugs, the Commission for Social
Development, the Commission on Population and Development, the Commission on the
Status of Women, the Statistical Commission, the Commission on Crime Prevention and
Criminal Justice, the Commission on Sustainable Development, the Commission on Science
and Technology for Development and the United Nations Forum on Forests.
The Council also directs 5 regional commissions: the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA),
the Economic Commission for Europe (ECE), the Economic Commission for Latin America
and the Caribbean (ECLAC), the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
(ESCAP), and the Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA).
Some UN Specialized Agencies, Funds and Programmes
The Economic and Social Council considers reports from several specialized agencies, funds
and programmes, each of which is a separate organization with its own membership, budget
and headquarters. A partial list follows.
UNDP
www.undp.org
UNICEF
www.unicef.org
UNEP
www.unep.org
UNFPA
www.unfpa.org
UNHCR
www.unhcr.org
ILO
www.ilo.org
IMF
www.imf.org
The United Nations Development Programme is the UN’s global development
network, advocating for change and connecting countries
to knowledge, experience and resources to help people build a better
life. UNDP is on the ground in 166 countries, working with them on
their own solutions to global and national development challenges.
The United Nations Children’s Fund is the main UN organization
defending, promoting and protecting children’s rights. It also works
towards protecting the world’s most disadvantaged children.
The United Nations Environment Programme provides leadership
and encourages partnership in caring for the environment. It supports
environmental monitoring, assessment and early warning.
The United Nations Population Fund promotes the right of women, men
and children to enjoy a healthy life. UNFPA supports countries in using
population data for policies and programmes to reduce poverty and to
ensure that every pregnancy is wanted, every birth is safe and every girl
and woman is treated with dignity and respect.
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees provides legal
protection for refugees and seeks durable solutions to their problems,
either by helping them to return voluntarily to their homes or to settle
in other countries.
The International Labour Organization formulates policies and programmes
to promote basic human rights of workers, improve working
and living conditions and enhance employment opportunities.
The International Monetary Fund ensures that the global monetary
and financial system is stable. It advises on key economic policies,
provides temporary financial assistance and training, promotes
growth and alleviates poverty.
The United Nations Family 17

FAO
www.fao.org
UNESCO
www.unesco.org
WHO
www.who.org
World Bank
www.worldbank.
org
ICAO
www.icao.int
IMO
www.imo.org
ITU
www.itu.int
UPU
www.upu.int
WMO
www.wmo.int
WIPO
www.wipo.int
IFAD
www.ifad.org
UNIDO
www.unido.org
The Food and Agriculture Organization works to eradicate hunger and
malnutrition and to raise levels of nutrition. It also assists its Member
States in the sustainable development of their agricultural sector.
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
promotes international cooperation and facilitates the
exchange of information in the fields of education, science, culture
and communications.
The World Health Organization directs and coordinates international
health work. It also promotes and coordinates research on preventing
disease.
The World Bank provides low-interest loans and interest-free credits
and grants to developing countries for education, health, infrastructure,
communications and other purposes.
The International Civil Aviation Organization assures the safe, secure,
orderly and sustainable development of international air transport
while minimizing the adverse effect of global civil aviation on the
environment.
The International Maritime Organization is responsible for safe, secure
and efficient shipping on clean oceans and the prevention of marine
pollution from ships.
The International Telecommunications Union works with governments
and the private sector to coordinate the operation of global telecommunications
networks and services. From broadband internet to latest-generation
wireless technologies, from aeronautical and maritime navigation
to radio astronomy and satellite-based meteorology, from phone and fax
services to television broadcasting, ITU helps the world communicate.
The Universal Postal Union fosters the sustainable development of
quality universal, efficient, accessible postal services in order to facilitate
communication among the people of the world.
The World Meteorological Organization coordinates global scientific
activity on the state and behaviour of the Earth’s atmosphere, its
interaction with the oceans, the climate it produces and the resulting
distribution of water resources.
The World Intellectual Property Organization ensures that the rights of
creators and owners of intellectual property are protected worldwide
and that inventors and authors are, thus, recognized and rewarded for
their ingenuity.
The International Fund for Agricultural Development provides direct
funding and mobilizes additional resources for programmes designed
to promote the economic advancement of the rural poor. 800 million
women, children and men live in rural areas and depend on agriculture
and related activities for their livelihoods.
The United Nations Industrial Development Organization helps countries
improve their national development policies and regulatory frameworks.
Its tailor-made programmes support market access and access to finance
for micro, small and medium scale agro-industrial development.
18
Everything About the United Nations

UNWTO
www.world-tourism.org
UNODC
www.unodc.org
UNIFEM
www.unifem.org
WFP
www.wfp.org
UNHABITAT
www.unhabitat.
org
The World Tourism Organization promotes the development of responsible,
sustainable and universally accessible tourism, with the aim
of contributing to economic development, international understanding,
peace, prosperity and universal respect for, and observance of,
human rights and fundamental freedoms. It pays particular attention
to the interests of developing countries in the field of tourism.
The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime assists countries in
their struggle against illicit drugs, crime and terrorism. It seeks to increase
understanding of drug and crime issues and to assist countries
in developing domestic legislature and implementing international
treaties.
The United Nations Development Fund for Women provides financial
and technical assistance to innovative programmes and strategies to
foster women’s empowerment and gender equality, and acts as a catalyst
to ensure the appropriate involvement of women in mainstream
development activities.
The World Food Programme supplies food to sustain victims of manmade
and natural disasters, improves the nutrition and quality of
life of the most vulnerable people at critical times in their lives, and
promotes self-reliance of people and communities.
The United Nations Human Settlements Programme promotes socially
and environmentally sustainable towns and cities with the goal of
ensuring adequate shelter for all.
THE TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL
In 1945, when the United Nations was established,
there were eleven territories (mostly in Africa and in
the Pacific Ocean) that were placed under international
supervision. The major goals of the Trusteeship System
were to promote the advancement of the inhabitants
of Trust Territories and their progressive development
towards self-government or independence.
The Trusteeship Council chamber was furnished
by Denmark and designed by Finn Juhl, a Dane.
Against one wall is a nine-foot statue of a woman
with arms up-raised carved from teak by Henrik
Starcke, also a Dane.
Membership
The Trusteeship Council is composed of the permanent
members of the Security Council (China, France,
the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom and the
United States). Each member has one vote, and decisions
are made by a simple majority.
Meetings
Since the last Trust Territory — Palau, formerly administered
by the United States — achieved self-government
in 1994, the Council has formally suspended
operations after nearly half a century. It will meet only
as the need arises.
The United Nations Family 19

Decolonization
FACT SHEET
In 1945, half of the world’s people lived in countries that were controlled by outsiders. These
countries, known as colonies, were divided by a handful of major Powers, including Great
Britain, France and Portugal. Through the process known as decolonization, the United Nations
has helped most of the colonies gain independence. The General Assembly, in 1960, adopted a
declaration to urge the speedy independence of all colonies and peoples. The following year it
set up the Special Committee on Decolonization. As a result of the UN’s decolonization efforts,
more than 80 former colonies are now themselves members of the United Nations. Today, only
1.5 million people live in dependent territories.
The International Court of Justice in observance of its 60th anniversary
at the Peace Palace at the Hague in the Netherlands.
THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) was established
in 1946 as the main UN organ for handing
down legal judgments. Only countries, not individuals,
can take cases before the Court. Once a
country agrees to let the Court act on a case, it
must agree to comply with the Court’s decision.
In addition, other organs of the UN may seek an
advisory opinion from the Court.
As of June 2006, the ICJ had delivered 92 judgments
on disputes between states, including cases
on territorial boundaries, diplomatic relations,
not interfering in countries’ domestic affairs, and
hostage-taking.
Composition
The Court sits at the Peace Palace in The Hague,
Netherlands. It has fifteen judges who are elected by
the General Assembly and the Security Council. No
two judges can come from the same country. Nine
judges have to agree before a decision can be made.
All the judgments passed by the Court are final and
without appeal. If one of the states involved fails
to comply with the decision, the other party may
take the issue to the Security Council. On 6 February
2006, Judge Rosalyn Higgins (United Kingdom),
the sole woman Member of the Court, was elected
the first female President of the International Court
for a term of three years.
After an international competition, French architect Louis Cordonnier’s
design of the Peace Palace now stands in The Hague, Netherlands. It has
housed the International Court of Justice and its predecessors since 1913.
20
Everything About the United Nations

Some recent decisions by the International Court of Justice
After the Court concluded public hearings in 2006, it decided to hear the case brought by Bosnia
and Herzegovina alleging that Serbia and Montenegro had breached their obligations under the
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.
In 2004, the Court unanimously reaffirmed that Israel’s construction of the wall in the Occupied
Palestinian Territory violates international law.
In 2002, the Court ruled on the border dispute between Nigeria and Cameroon, placing the main
territory under dispute, the Bakassi Peninsula, under Cameroonian sovereignty.
: www.icj-cij.org
FACT CHECK
What are some other international courts?
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) rules on disputes between
governments. However, it does not prosecute individuals.
The International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia and
Rwanda do try individuals accused of having committed crimes
against humanity, but only in those specified countries.
THE SECRETARIAT
The Secretariat, headed by the Secretary-General, consists of an
international staff working at the United Nations Headquarters
in New York, and all over the world. It carries out the day-to-day
work of the Organization. Its duties are as varied as the problems
dealt with by the United Nations. These range from administering
peacekeeping operations to mediating international disputes or
surveying social and economic trends and problems. The Secretariat
is responsible for servicing the other organs of the United Nations
and administering the programmes and policies laid down by them.
Over 5,000 people, drawn from all parts of the
world, work at the UN Headquarters in New York.
Who it serves
The United Nations Headquarters was designed to serve four major groups: delegations, who represent
the 192 current Member States and who send more than 5,000 persons to New York each year for the
annual sessions of the General Assembly; the international staff or Secretariat, numbering about 5,478
persons in New York; visitors, estimated at about 1 million in 2007; and journalists, close to 2,000 of
whom are permanently accredited while nearly 5,000 are present during major meetings. There are also
more than 3,000 non-governmental organizations accredited to the United Nations, many of whom
attend meetings at Headquarters. The aggregate annual income to New York resulting from the UN
presence is estimated at $3.3 billion.
The United Nations Family 21

Functions
To gather and prepare background information on various problems so that the
government delegates can study the facts and make their recommendations;
To help carry out the decisions of the United Nations;
To organize international conferences;
To interpret speeches and translate documents into the UN’s official languages.
Composition
The Secretary-General is the chief officer of the United Nations. He or she is assisted by a
staff of international civil servants. Unlike diplomats, who represent a particular country,
the civil servants work for all 192 Member countries and take their orders not from governments,
but from the Secretary-General.
How is the UN Secretary-General appointed?
The Secretary-General is appointed for a period of five years by the General Assembly on the
recommendation of the Security Council. There have been eight Secretaries-General since the
UN was created. The appointment of the Secretary-General follows a regional rotation.
• Trygve Lie (Norway) 1946-1952
• Dag Hammarskjöld (Sweden) 1953-1961
• U Thant (Myanmar) 1961-1971
• Kurt Waldheim (Austria) 1972-1981
• Javier Pérez de Cuéllar (Peru) 1982-1991
• Boutros Boutros-Ghali (Egypt) 1992-1996
• Kofi Annan (Ghana) 1997-2006
• Ban Ki-moon (South Korea) 2007-
Some functions of the Secretary-General
The UN Charter describes the Secretary-General as the “chief administrative officer” of the
Organization, who shall act in the capacity and perform “functions as are entrusted” to him or
her by the General Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council and other United
Nations organs. The Charter also empowers the Secretary-General to bring to the attention of the
Security Council any matter that threatens international peace and security.
To propose issues to be discussed by the General
Assembly or any other organ of the United
Nations;
To bring to the attention of the Security Council
any problem which the Secretary-General feels
may threaten world peace;
To act as a “referee” in disputes between Member
States;
To offer his or her “good offices”.
FACT CHECK
Dag Hammarskjöld
Does the Secretary-General act alone?
No. The Secretary-General does not act without
the support and approval of the United Nations
Member States. Any course of action, whether it
concerns sending peacekeeping troops to war-torn
areas or helping a country rebuild after a war or a
natural disaster, must be set by the Member States.
22
Everything About the United Nations

BAN KI-MOON
Ban Ki-moon of the Republic of Korea (ROK), the eighth
Secretary-General of the United Nations, brings to his post 37
years of service both in government and on the global stage.
Career highlights At the time of his election as Secretary-
General, Mr. Ban was his country’s Minister of Foreign
Affairs and Trade. His long tenure with the ministry included
postings in New Delhi, Washington D.C. and Vienna, and
responsibility for a variety of portfolios, including Foreign
Policy Advisor to the President, Chief National Security
Advisor to the President, Deputy Minister for Policy Planning and Director-General
of American Affairs. Throughout this service, his guiding vision was that of a peaceful
Korean peninsula, playing an expanding role for peace and prosperity in the
region and the world.
Mr. Ban has long-standing ties with the United Nations, dating back to 1975, when
he worked for the Foreign Ministry’s United Nations Division. That work expanded
over the years, with assignments as First Secretary at the ROK’s Permanent Mission
to the UN in New York, Director of the UN Division at the Ministry’s headquarters
in Seoul, and Ambassador to Vienna, during which time, in 1999, he served as
Chairman of the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban
Treaty Organization. In 2001-2002, as Chef-de-Cabinet during the ROK’s Presidency
of the General Assembly, he facilitated the prompt adoption of the first resolution
of the session, condemning the terrorist attacks of 11 September, and undertook a
number of initiatives aimed at strengthening the Assembly’s functioning, thereby
helping to turn a session that started out in crisis and confusion into one in which
a number of important reforms were adopted.
Mr. Ban has also been actively involved in issues relating to inter-Korean relations.
In 1992, as Special Advisor to the Foreign Minister, he served as Vice Chair
of the South-North Joint Nuclear Control Commission following the adoption of
the historic Joint Declaration on the Denuclearization of the Korean peninsula.
In September 2005, as Foreign Minister, he played a leading role in bringing about
another landmark agreement aimed at promoting peace and stability on the Korean
peninsula with the adoption at the Six Party Talks of the Joint Statement on resolving
the North Korean nuclear issue.
Education Mr. Ban received a bachelor’s degree in international relations from
Seoul National University in 1970. In1985, he earned a master’s degree in public
administration from the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University.
Prizes and awards Mr. Ban has received numerous national and international
prizes, medals and honours. In 1975, 1986 and again in 2006, he was awarded the
ROK’s Highest Order of Service Merit for service to his country.
Personal Mr. Ban was born on 13 June 1944. He and his wife, Madam Yoo (Ban)
Soon-taek, whom he met in high school in 1962, have one son and two daughters. In
addition to Korean, Mr. Ban speaks English and French.
The United Nations Family 23

The seventh Secretary-General of
the United Nations, Mr. Kofi Annan,
holds the Nobel Peace Prize
awarded to the United Nations
and to him.
Why a Nobel peace prize for the United Nations?
The Norwegian Nobel Committee decided to award the Nobel Peace Prize for 2001
in two equal portions–to the United Nations and to its Secretary-General, Kofi Annan
– “for their work for a better organized and more peaceful world.”
The Committee said the end of the Cold War had at last made it possible for the UN
to perform more fully the part it was originally intended to play; the Organization
was at the forefront of efforts to achieve peace and security in the world, and central
to the international mobilization aimed at meeting the world’s economic, social and
environmental challenges. Besides, Secretary-General Kofi Annan had been preeminent
in bringing new life to the Organization, “while clearly underlining the UN’s
traditional responsibility for peace and security, he has also emphasized its obligations
with regard to human rights.” In its statement announcing the peace prize, the
Nobel Committee acknowledged “he has risen to such new challenges as HIV/AIDS
and international terrorism, and brought about more efficient utilization of the UN’s
modest resources.”
In 2007, the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize jointly
with Albert Arnold Gore Jr, former Vice-President of the United States. This was the fifteenth time the UN
was honoured by the Nobel Committee with the peace award. Previous winners were: the International
Atomic Energy Agency and Mohamed ElBaradei, IAEA Director-General ( 2005); the United Nations and Kofi
Annan, UN Secretary-General (2001); the UN Peacekeeping Forces (1988); Seán MacBride, UN Commissioner
for Namibia (1974); Lester Bowles Pearson, for striving to end the Suez conflict and
Middle East question through the UN (1957); the Office of the UN High Commissioner for
Refugees (1954 and 1981); the International Labour Organization (1969); the UN Children’s
Fund (1965); Dag Hammarskjöld, UN Secretary-General (1961); Léon Jouhaux, a
founder of the ILO (1951); Ralph Bunche, UN Trusteeship Director (1950); Lord John Boyd
Orr, founding Director-General of the UN Food and Agricultural Organization (1949); and
Cordell Hull, US Secretary of State instrumental in establishing the United Nations (1945).
Q&A Team Play
Team Play
When playing as team-mates (2 or more players on a team), team-mates can work together to arrive at an answer, but
must reach a consensus before declaring an answer to the other players.
1. What does UNICEF stand for?
2. Where is the International Court of Justice located?
3. What is the name of the UN agency that deals with
refugees?
4. What is a veto?
5. How many votes does each Member State have in the
General Assembly?
6. What is the main judicial organ of the United Nations?
7. How many members does the Security Council have?
8. True or false- China has more votes at the General Assembly
than Monaco because its population is larger?
9. On what does the General Assembly discuss and/or
make suggestions?
10. With what is ECOSOC concerned?
11. Which Trust territory was the last country to achieve
self-government thanks to the Trusteeship Council?
12. The judges of the International Court of Justice come
from how many different countries?
13. Who are the members of the Secretariat?
14. How many times has the United Nations system been
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize?
24
Everything About the United Nations

3
The United Nations works
for international peace
and security
UN peacemaking efforts
• UN peacebuilding in post-conflict situations often includes overseeing
the collection and destruction of hundreds of thousands of
weapons and facilitating the reintegration of former combatants
into civil society.
• The UN played a crucial role in encouraging countries to support
the 1997 Ottawa Convention - which provides for the total ban on
the production, export and use of landmines - and continues to
promote universal adherence to this treaty.
• UN support has resulted in a wide range of agreements, including
the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, the Comprehensive Nuclear-
Test-Ban Treaty, and treaties to establish nuclear-free zones.
• During the 1990s, more than 2 million children were killed and 6 million
seriously injured in conflicts involving revolvers, assault rifles,
mortars, hand grenades and portable missile launchers. At a UN
Conference on the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Lights Weapons
in 2001, States agreed on measures to strengthen international
cooperation in curbing this illegal arms trade.

26
Everything About the United Nations

The United Nations works for
international peace and security
The UN was created to keep peace. How does it do that?
The United Nations serves as a global forum where countries can raise and discuss the
most difficult issues, including problems of war and peace. When government leaders talk
to each other face-to-face, a dialogue is established. This can result in agreement on how
to peacefully settle disputes. When many countries speak with one voice – or by consensus
– it creates a global pressure on all. The Secretary-General, either directly or through a
representative, may also advance a dialogue between and among nations.
Blue helmets and uniforms
Who commands the peacekeeping operations?
Peacekeeping operations are established by the Security
Council and directed by the Secretary-General,
often through a special representative. When a threat
to peace is brought before the Council, it usually
first asks the parties to reach agreement by peaceful
means. If fighting breaks out or persists, the Council
tries to secure a ceasefire. It may then send peacekeeping
missions to troubled areas to restore peace
or call for economic sanctions and embargoes.
Has the UN stopped any war?
The UN has helped prevent many conflicts from flaring up into full-scale wars. It has also negotiated the
peaceful settlement of conflicts. On many occasions, the UN has provided a mechanism to help defuse
hostilities, for example, the Berlin crisis (1948-1949), the Cuban missile crisis (1962) and the 1973 Middle
East crisis. In each of these cases, UN intervention helped prevent war between the super-powers.
The UN also played a major role in ending wars in the Congo (1964), between Iran and Iraq (1988), and
in El Salvador (1992) and Guatemala (1996). The UN led the way to a peace that has brought sustained
economic growth in Mozambique (1994); independence to Timor-Leste (2002) and in December 2005,
the Organization successfully completed its peacekeeping mandate in Sierra Leone.
Other accomplishments include:
The UN Transition Assistance Group (UNTAG) supervised Namibia’s first free and fair elections,
leading to its independence.
In Cambodia, the UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) monitored a ceasefire
and withdrawal of foreign forces, supervised various government offices and organized a free
and fair election.
In the former Yugoslavia, the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) worked to protect
the civilians in demilitarized zones and to enable the delivery of humanitarian assistance.
The United Nations works for international peace and security 27

What happens when a country ignores the decisions of the Security Council?
When decisions of the Security Council are not complied with, the Council may take several
actions to ensure their implementation. Should a country threaten or breach the peace or commit
an act of aggression, it may impose economic and trade sanctions, or other specific measures
such as arms and travel ban and diplomatic restrictions. It can also authorize the use of force in
certain instances. But these measures are usually a last resort, to be used only if peaceful means
of settling a dispute have been exhausted.
The Security Council can authorize a coalition of Member States to use “all necessary means”,
including military action, to deal with a conflict as for example :
in 1991 to restore the sovereignty of Kuwait after its invasion by Iraq;
in 1992 to secure the environment for humanitarian relief to be delivered in Somalia;
in 1994 to restore the democratically-elected government in Haiti;
in 1999 to restore peace and security in East Timor.
Does the UN have an army?
No, the United Nations has no standing international police or military force. Troops
who serve in the UN peacekeeping operations are voluntarily contributed by the Member
States. Civilians, often drawn from the UN itself, also play a key role in forming
such operations.
UN Peacekeepers on patrol in El Arish, Egypt.
The first UN peacekeeping operation, the UN Truce Supervision
Organization, was created in 1948 following a war between Israel and its
Arab neighbours. To this day, UNTSO’s military observers remain in the
region to monitor ceasefires and supervise agreements.
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Everything About the United Nations

What, then, is a peacekeeping operation?
Peacekeeping has traditionally been defined as the use of multinational forces, under UN command,
to help control and resolve conflicts between countries. Peacekeeping operations fulfill the
role of a neutral third party to help create and maintain a ceasefire and form a buffer zone between
warring parties. They also provide electoral assistance and help in clearing deadly landmines.
As peacekeepers maintain peace on the ground, mediators from the United Nations meet with
leaders from the disputing parties or countries and try to reach a peaceful solution.
There are two types of peacekeeping operations: observer missions and peacekeeping forces.
Observers are not armed. Soldiers of UN peacekeeping forces carry light weapons, which they may
use only in self-defence. The UN peacekeepers are easily identifiable by the UN insignia and the
blue beret they wear when on duty. The blue helmet, which has become the symbol of UN peacekeepers,
is carried during all operations and is worn when there is danger. Peacekeepers wear their
own national uniforms. Governments that volunteer personnel retain ultimate control over their
own military forces serving under the UN flag.
Why does the UN have so many peacekeeping operations?
Peacekeeping operations are created in response to serious military or humanitarian crises. In the
past, peacekeepers were mainly involved in keeping peace between warring nations. But now many
nations are at war with themselves. Due to civil strife and ethnic conflicts, some governments are
unable to exercise authority over their own territory, causing great human suffering. In such situations,
the United Nations is often asked, on the one hand, to negotiate a settlement and, on the
other, to provide emergency relief to the people affected by the conflict. Working under difficult
conditions, the United Nations integrates humanitarian assistance with efforts to resolve the crisis.
What are some recent United Nations peacekeeping operations?
In the first 40 years of its history (1945-1985); the United Nations set up only 13 peacekeeping operations.
In the 20 years since then (1986-2006), 47 peacekeeping missions were deployed.
United Nations-African Union Mission in Darfur (UNAMID)
A joint African Union/United Nations Hybrid operation in Darfur was authorized by the Security Council
on 31 July 2007. The Council, acting under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, authorized UNA-
MID to take necessary action to support the implementation of the Darfur
Peace Agreement, as well as to protect its personnel and civilians, without
“prejudice to the responsibility of the Government of Sudan”. The Council
decided that UNAMID would start implementing its mandated tasks no later
than 31 December 2007.
Sudanese refugees in Iridimi Camp in
Chad.
United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic and Chad
(MINURCAT)
On 25 September 2007, the Security Council approved the establishment
in Chad and the Central African Republic, in concert with the European
Union, of a multi-dimensional presence intended to help create the security
conditions conducive to a voluntary, secure and sustainable return
of refugees and displaced persons. The Council decided that the multidimensional
presence would include a United Nations Mission in the
Central African Republic and Chad.
The United Nations works for international peace and security 29

UN Peacekeeping troops from Rwanda mount the guard
during the commemoration of the International Day of
United Nations Peacekeepers, at the Headquarters of the
United Nations Mission in the Sudan (UNMIS) in Khartoum.
United Nations Mission in the Sudan (UNMIS)
On 24 March 2005, the Security Council voted unanimously
to send 10,000 troops and more than 700
civilian police to southern Sudan to support the peace
agreement between the Government of Sudan and the
Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A),
which ended more than two decades of civil strife.
Until the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement
in 2005, there had been 21 years of continuous
fighting over resources, power, the role of religion and
self-determination in southern Sudan. Over two million
people died, four million people were uprooted and
some 600,000 people fled the country as refugees.
United Nations Integrated Mission in Timor-Leste (UNMIT)
The UN was called in to East Timor (now Timor-Leste) in late 1999 to guide the Timorese towards statehood
in the wake of violence and devastation that followed a UN-led consultation on integration with
Indonesia. The UN established an effective administration, enabled refugees to return, helped to develop
civil and social services, ensured humanitarian assistance, supported capacity-building for self-governance
and helped to establish conditions for sustainable development. In 2005, the peacekeeping mission
was transformed into an assitance and peacebuilding mission.
United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone
(UNAMSIL)
The efforts of the international community to end
an 11-year civil war and move the country towards
peace enabled Sierra Leone since 2002 to enjoy
a much improved security environment. After a
decisive intervention by British troops in 2001, the
UN helped disarm and demobilize some 75,000
combatants. UN peacekeepers reconstructed roads;
renovated and built schools, houses of worship and
clinics; and initiated agricultural projects and welfare
programmes. UNAMSIL also helped Sierra Leone to
ensure that the rights of its citizens were fully protected;
to bring to justice those who bore the greatest
responsibility for serious violations of international
humanitarian law through the UN-backed Special
Court for Sierra Leone; and to develop a professional
and democratic police force. A new mission—the
United Nations Integrated Office for Sierra Leone
(UNIOSIL)—was established by the Security Council
60
years of peacekeeping
(1948-2008)
63 peacekeeping operations
since 1948
16 current operations (2008)
107,503 personnel serving
in current peacekeeping
operations
2,493 fatalities
One Nobel peace prize
to help consolidate the peace, strengthen human rights, develop the economy, improve transparency
and hold elections in 2007. The United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone, which came to a close at the
end of 2005, could serve as a prototype for the UN’s new emphasis on peacebuilding.
30
Everything About the United Nations

What else does the UN do for peace?
The UN’s work for peace does not end with the successful conclusion of a peacekeeping
mission. In the aftermath of a conflict, the UN helps displaced persons and
refugees to return to their homes. It clears mines, repairs roads and bridges and provides
economic and technical help to rebuild the economy. It also monitors elections
and closely follows how a country respects the human rights of its citizens.
This process, also known as peacebuilding, has helped over 60 countries to build
democratic institutions.
Peacebuilding, peacekeeping, nation-building: what’s the difference?
Peacekeeping is organized around a military deployment. It is often a central part
of a peacebuilding effort. Nation-building means different things to different people
and is not a term used by the UN. It normally refers to a longer historical process
and includes the building up of a national identity. Peacebuilding provides all that is
needed to help a country move from war to peace and a functioning self-government.
The UN has been engaged in peacebuilding activities for years, but only
recently decided to establish a Peacebuilding Commission. Why?
The United Nations has played a vital role in reducing the level of conflict in several
regions by mediating peace agreements and assisting in their implementation. However,
some of those accords have failed to take hold, such as in Angola in 1993 and
Rwanda in 1994. Roughly half of all countries that emerge from war lapse back into
violence within five years, driving home the message that, to prevent conflict, peace
agreements must be implemented in a sustained manner.
In June 2006, the UN set up the Peacebuilding Commission with a view to helping
countries make the transition from war to lasting peace. It forms the connecting link
between peacekeeping and post-conflict operations. Its job is to bring together all the
major actors in a given situation to discuss and decide on a long-term peacebuilding
strategy. What that means is that assistance is better coordinated, money is better
spent, and there is a real link between immediate post-conflict efforts on the one
hand and long-term recovery and development efforts on the other.
: www.un.org/peace/peacebuilding/
The United Nations works for peace and progress. But there is so little peace
in the world today. Do we really need the UN?
The world has fought more than 50 wars in the past 60 years. According to the Stockholm
International Peace Research Institute, in 2006 alone, 17 major armed conflicts
were waged around the world. Luckily, none of them turned into devastating world
wars. There is general agreement that the UN’s campaign for peace and disarmament
played a key role in this regard.
Many people feel that the UN should be made stronger to stop smaller wars and have
its decisions fully carried out. But the effectiveness of UN actions depends on the
political will of the Member States — on their readiness to respect the decisions they
The United Nations works for international peace and security 31

themselves take. Also, these operations are costly. Because of a lack of funds, the UN is often
unable to play a greater role.
The strength of the UN comes from its refusal to give up, even in the face of the stiffest challenge.
When countries at war do not have the political will to stop, the UN sometimes has to
withdraw its peacekeeping troops. But it continues its work through diplomacy and negotiations,
by constantly speaking with the parties concerned. When better conditions are created,
the peacekeepers may return.
The world still has a long way to go before it can ensure peace and justice for everyone.
Wars, poverty and human rights violations are still widespread. But that’s precisely why there
is a need for the UN to continue to operate. It has been said that, if the UN did not exist, the
countries of the world would have to create another organization, maybe with another name,
to do exactly what the UN does.
: http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/
What is the UN doing to combat terrorism?
The United Nations has long been active in the fight against international terrorism. Reflecting
the determination of the international community to eliminate this threat, the Organization
and its agencies have developed a wide range of international legal instruments that
enable the international community to take action to suppress terrorism and bring those
responsible to justice. Thirteen global conventions have been negotiated through the UN
dating back to 1963, including treaties against hostage-taking, airplane hijacking, terrorist
bombings and terrorism financing. A Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee oversees
how Member States carry out the commitments they promised subsequent to 11 September
2001 and works to increase their capability to fight terrorism.
“Whether we like it or not, our generation will go down in history as one that
was challenged to protect the world from terrorism”.
Ban Ki-moon, UN Secretary-General
: www.un.org/terrorism/
: http://disarmament.un.org/terrorism.htm
19 August 2003
A suicide attacker set off a bomb
explosion in a cement truck
parked outside the Canal Hotel
that housed the UN Headquarters
in Baghdad, Iraq, killing at
least 17 people including the
Secretary-General’s Special Representative
in Iraq, Sergio Vieira
de Mello, and wounding some
100 people.
32
Everything About the United Nations

A Global counter-terrorism strategy
The United Nations General Assembly adopted a global counter-terrorism
strategy on 8 September 2006. The strategy – in the form of a Resolution
and an annexed Plan of Action – is a unique instrument to enhance
national, regional and international efforts to counter terrorism. Its adoption
marks the first time that all Member States have agreed to a common
strategic and operational approach to fight terrorism. Important new initiatives
set forth in the strategy include:
• Improving the coherence and efficiency of counter-terrorism technical
assistance delivery so that all States can play their part effectively.
• Voluntarily putting in place systems of assistance that would address
the needs of victims of terrorism and their families.
• Addressing the threat of bioterrorism by establishing a single comprehensive
database on biological incidents, focusing on improving States’
public health systems, and acknowledging the need to bring together
major stakeholders to ensure that biotechnology’s advances are not
used for terrorist or other criminal purposes but for the public good.
• Involving civil society, regional and sub-regional organizations in the
fight against terrorism and developing partnerships with the private
sector to prevent terrorist attacks on particularly vulnerable targets.
• Exploring innovative means to address the growing threat of terrorists’
use of the internet.
• Modernizing border and customs controls systems, and improving
the security of travel documents, to prevent terrorists’ travel and the
movement of illicit materials.
• Enhancing cooperation to combat money laundering and the financing
of terrorism.
: http://www.un.org/sc/ctc
The United Nations works for international peace and security 33

Unexploded cluster bombs in Lebanon
Some of the unexploded devices found in
the de-mining of the town of Hiniyah in
Lebanon by a United Nations Chinese battalion.
The soldiers remove the unexploded
devices, and relocate them to a safe area
where they then detonate them.
Mine Terror
Battling Landmines
Since the 1980s, the United Nations has been addressing the problems posed
by the millions of deadly landmines scattered in over 60 countries. Each year
thousands of people - most of them children, women and the elderly - are
maimed or killed by these “silent killers”. Meanwhile, new landmines continue
to be deployed in various countries around the world.
The United Nations Mine Action Service (UNMAS) acts as the focal point for
mine action and coordinates all mine-related activities of UN agencies, funds
and programmes. The work focuses on mine action clearance, mine awareness
and risk-reduction education, victim assistance and stockpile destruction.
: www.mineaction.org/
Cluster Munitions and Mine Action
Since the antipersonnel mine-ban treaty went into force in 1999, the number
of new victims each year has dropped, large tracts of land have been cleared,
and the number of stockpiled mines has decreased by millions. The treaty has had a major impact on the
global landmine problem. It has not, however, addressed another major problem: explosive remnants of
war, which kill thousands of civilians annually.
“Explosive remnants of war” refer to abandoned explosive ordnance and unexploded ordnance, or UXO,
such as cluster munitions that fail to detonate but remain volatile and dangerous, often threatening the
safety of civilians. UN-supported mine-action programmes help countries eliminate the threat of landmines
and explosive remnants of war. An international movement seeking to limit the use of cluster
munitions has gained momentum in recent years.
FACT SHEET
• Every 20 minutes someone is either killed or maimed by a landmine.
• At the beginning of the 20th century, nearly 80 per cent of landmine victims were
military personnel. Today, nearly 80 per cent of landmine victims are civilians.
• It cost as little as $3 to buy a landmine but as much as $1000 to remove one.
• The countries most affected by landmines are Angola, Afghanistan, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Cambodia, Croatia, Eritrea, Iraq, Mozambique, Sudan and Vietnam.
The Mine-Ban Convention forbids the possession and use of anti-personnel landmines.
As of April 2007, 133 States had signed the Convention. A total of 153 States have formally
agreed to be bound by the Convention.
• 76 States Parties have completed destruction of their stockpiles.
• 58 States Parties have officially declared not having a stockpile of anti-personnel mines.
• 9 States Parties are in the process of destroying their stockpiles.
• 8 States Parties are late to declare the presence or absence of stockpiles.
• 2 States Parties are scheduled to formally announce the presence or absence of
stockpiles in their initial transparency measures report.
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Everything About the United Nations

More than
keeping peace
Peacekeeping, in the
traditional sense, is sending
multinational troops under
the UN command to keep
warring factions apart.
These days, UN peacekeepers
do much more
than just acting as a buffer
between opposing forces.
Here are a few examples:
Truce supervision,
ceasefire monitoring,
military observation
Demobilization and
reintegration
Disarmament
Humanitarian
assistance
Electoral assistance
Human rights
Civilian police
Mine clearance
Cooperation with
regional organizations
More spending for weapons
than for people
$800 billion — annual world
military expenditures
compares to:
$50 billion Provide clean,
safe energy
$30 billion Retire developing
nations’ debt
$24 billion Prevent soil erosion
$21 billion Provide health care
and AIDS control
$21 billion Provide shelter
$19 billion Eliminate starvation
and malnutrition
$10.5 billion Stabilize population
$10 billion Provide clean,
safe water
$8 billion Prevent acid rain
$8 billion Prevent global
warming
$7 billion Eliminate nuclear
weapons
$7 billion Stop deforestation
$5 billion Stop ozone
depletion
$5 billion Refugee relief
$5billion
Eliminate illiteracy
$2 billion Remove landmines
$2 billion Build democracy
A young man
demonstrating the
method involved to
deactivate a mine.
The United Nations works for international peace and security 35

In 1945, more than 120,000 people
were killed in Hiroshima and Nagasaki
(Japan) by atomic bombs.
Disarmament
Ensuring world safety by reducing nuclear weapons
Humankind has so far avoided a second nuclear war, due in large part
to United Nations activities for disarmament, in particular, the elimination
of weapons of mass destruction. But the world remains a dangerous
place: weapon supplies continue to grow; more people train for war
every day; and the costs of the arms race continue to mount.
Consider this: In 1945, after two atomic bombs were dropped over Hiroshima
and Nagasaki in Japan, the Second World War (1939-1945) was
over. Since then, the world has witnessed some 150 wars. These conflicts
have cost more than 20 million lives, more than 80 per cent of them
civilians. Though nobody has used nuclear weapons again, we now have
at least seven “nuclear Powers”. The total stockpile of nuclear weapons
in the world now amounts to some 15,000 megatons, roughly equivalent
to more than 1 million Hiroshima bombs.
Now consider this: Take a minute to count from 1 to 60. By
the time you finish, the world has lost about 25 to 30 children,
most of them in the developing countries, to malnutrition,
hunger and curable diseases. During the same time, the
world has spent some $2.3 million for military purposes — or
about $800 billion annually. Arms transfers to developing
countries are estimated at some $30 billion a year.
The accumulation of arms and economic development both
require large-scale human and material resources. But since
resources are limited, pursuing either process tends to be at
the expense of the other. There is growing agreement that, in
the long run, the world can either continue to pursue the arms
race or achieve and sustain social and economic development
for the benefit of all, but it will not be able to do both.
The Hiroshima Peace Memorial (Genbaku Dome)
was the only structure left standing in the area
where the first atomic bomb exploded. In 1996 it
became a UNESCO World Heritage site.
General and complete disarmament — or gradual elimination of weapons of mass destruction — is
one of the goals set by the United Nations. Its immediate objectives are to eliminate the danger of war,
particularly nuclear war, and to implement measures to halt and reverse the arms race.
: http://disarmament.un.org
Some UN actions for disarmament
The Partial Test-Ban Treaty, 1963, prohibits nuclear tests in the atmosphere, in outer space
and under water.
The Non-Proliferation Treaty, 1968, prohibits the spread of nuclear weapons from nuclear to
non-nuclear countries.
The Chemical Weapons Convention, 1992, prohibits use, manufacturing and stockpiling of
such weapons.
The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty, 1996, bans all underground nuclear-test explosions.
The Anti-Personnel Landmines Convention, 1997, prohibits the use, stock-piling, production
and transfer of such mines.
36
Everything About the United Nations

The story of a child soldier
“I don’t know how old I am,” said Abu Bakar Bangura, a slight and serious
young boy from the West African country of Sierra Leone. “I was very
young when I was taken from my family,” he explained. Abu, as he is
known, is one of the 10,000 children who were abducted from their homes
and forced to become soldiers by both the pro-government and the rebel
forces during the 11-year civil war that tore his country apart.
After being kidnapped by the rebel group, Abu was drugged, beaten,
and forced to commit terrible atrocities. Instead of a childhood of innocence
and affection, he lived a life of violence and fear. Only once the fighting
in Sierra Leone stopped in 2001, could these children put down their
weapons and return to their homes and their childhoods. But many had
forgotten how to be children and part of a family. Fighting and fending for
themselves was all that they remembered.
Actor Michael Douglas of the United States, a United Nations
Messenger of Peace, met Abu while at the Child Protection Care Center
in Kono in the eastern district of Sierra Leone. At that point, Abu’s
time was running out – if his family wasn’t found soon, he would be
placed in foster care, an option that he was not looking forward to.
Although Samuel T. Kamanda, the assistant programme manager of
the International Red Cross’ Child Protection Care Center, had already
visited several villages trying to track down Abu’s family without success,
he decided to follow one of Abu’s last leads – a village in another
region of Sierra Leone. Michael Douglas accompanied Kamanda and
Abu on the quest. After flying in on a UN helicopter, they walked for
miles under the hot sun in a tiring search for Abu’s village and family.
Finally they came to a village, and suddenly, while waiting for the village
chief, Abu heard a cry of joy and surprise. It was his mother. Abu recognized
her immediately and rushed to her crying with relief and excitement.
: www.un.org/works/
Michael Douglas and
Abu – screenshot
from the UN Works
documentary series
“What’s Going On?’
: www.un.org/
works/goingon/
goinghome.html
Far right photo:
Actor George Clooney,
United Nations
Messenger of Peace
: www.un.org/sg/mop
The United Nations works for international peace and security 37

Seeking Inner Peace
Photo: Arun Malhotra
“We all have within us a centre of stillness
surrounded by silence. This house, dedicated
to work and debate in the service of
peace, should have one room dedicated to
silence in the outward sense and stillness
in the inner sense. It has been the aim to
create in this small room a place where the
doors may be open to the infinite lands of
thought and prayer”.
Dag Hammarskjöld, 1957
“The Meditation Room” • United Nations Headquarters, New York
In the original plan for the new Headquarters, a tiny room had been provided as a place
dedicated to silence, where people could withdraw into themselves, regardless of their faith,
creed or religion, but Dag Hammarskjöld wanted something more dignified. In his efforts he
was supported by a group, composed of Christians, Jews, and Muslims, the “Friends of the
UN Meditation Room”, who combined their efforts and provided the money for a room worthy
of a world organization. The work on the room began, and Mr. Hammarskjöld personally
planned and supervised in every detail the creation of the “Meditation Room”. The abstract
mural was made by his friend and artist Bo Beskow.
: http://www.un.org/Depts/dhl/dag/meditationroom.htm
Q&A Team Play
Team Play
When playing as team-mates (2 or more players on a team), team-mates can work together to arrive at an
answer, but must reach a consensus before declaring an answer to the other players.
1. Does the United Nations have its own army?
2. What are the two types of peacekeeping operations under UN command?
3. UN peacekeepers are easily recognized by what piece of clothing?
4. Can peacekeeping soldiers fight for one side of a dispute?
5. What does the United Nations do to promote peace after the successful completion of a peacekeeping mission?
6. What is the Mine-ban Convention?
7. What is the UN doing to combat terrorism?
38
Everything About the United Nations

4
The Millennium
Development Goals
Development facts
• The proportion of the worldwide population living in extreme
poverty has fallen from one-third to one-fifth since 1990.
However, in sub-Saharan Africa, while the poverty rate has leveled
off, life expectancy is lower today than it was three decades
ago. The percentage of underweight children is still very high in
sub-Saharan Africa and in Southern Asia.
• The benefits of economic growth in the developing world have
been unequally shared. Widening income inequality is of particular
concern. Also, most economies have failed to provide
employment opportunities to their youth, with young people
more than three times as likely as adults to be unemployed.
• Half the population of the developing world lacks basic sanitation.
Approximately 1.1 billion people have no access to clean water.
• Over half a million women still die each year from treatable
and preventable complications of pregnancy and childbirth. The
odds that a woman will die from these causes in sub-Saharan
Africa are 1 in 16 over the course of her lifetime, compared to
1 in 3,800 in the developed world.
• The number of people dying from AIDS worldwide increased to
2.9 million in 2006, and prevention measures are failing to keep
pace with the growth of the epidemic.

A girl in Karachi, Pakistan, masters the art of writing.
Children in a refugee camp, in Goma, Rwanda.

The Millennium
Development Goals
What are the Millennium Development Goals?
At the Millennium Summit in 2000, the Member States of the United Nations agreed on eight goals, the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) that call for national action, and international cooperation, to provide
access to food, education, healthcare and economic opportunities for children, women and men everywhere.
In 2005, world leaders gathered at UN Headquarters in New York for the General Assembly High-Level Summit,
at which they spoke about the progress they had made nationally in achieving the Millennium Development
Goals. United Nations Member States have vowed to work together to reduce poverty and eliminate
hunger in developing countries, and to achieve the targets set out in the MDGs by 2015.
What is the UN doing about fighting poverty?
In the Millennium Declaration, world leaders resolved to halve, by 2015, the number of people living on less
than $1 a day, and also set targets in the fight against poverty and disease.
Secretary-General Kofi Annan proposed specific actions that rich countries should take:
1. Grant free access to their markets for goods produced in poorer countries:
Many developing countries are forced to rely on exporting unprocessed agricultural products to
earn income overseas. At the same time, world market prices for fuel and for manufactured and
processed goods have risen. Furthermore, many developed countries have imposed steep trade
restrictions on agricultural products from developing countries, making it almost impossible for
them to sell their goods.
2. Write off foreign debts:
Over the last few years, there has been a worldwide movement pressing for the cancellation of
the debts that poor countries owe to their creditors—developed country Governments, commercial
banks, and multilateral international lending institutions, such as the World Bank and the
International Monetary Fund.
The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund launched a programme in 1996 known as
the Debt Initiative for Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC), to help the world’s poorest countries
with crippling debts. By October 2007, there were 32 countries receiving debt relief. As a
result, the money that might have been used to repay their huge debts could instead be used for
health, education and other social services.
3. Grant more generous development assistance:
Overcoming poverty requires global efforts. In 1980, the industrialized countries pledged at the
General Assembly to devote 0.7 per cent of their gross national products (GNP) to official development
assistance. To date, only five countries – Denmark, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway
and Sweden – have consistently provided 0.7 per cent of their GNP as development assistance
to poor countries.
The Millennium Development Goals 41

4. Work with pharmaceutical companies to develop an effective and affordable vaccine
against HIV:
Developing a vaccine to combat HIV/AIDS has been slow, mainly due to the enormous scientific,
logistical and financial challenges involved. Since the discovery of the human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV) as the cause of AIDS, multiple vaccines have been tested in scores of
human clinical trials, with moderate success.
The World Health Organization and its partners successfully implemented a global initiative
called “3 by 5”, to provide antiretroviral therapy to 3 million people with HIV/AIDS in developing
countries by the end of 2005.
: www.undp.org/poverty/
: www.un.org/cyberschoolbus
Towards eradicating poverty
The United Nations system assists Governments and civic groups in the developing world to
address various factors that contribute to poverty. Here are a few examples:
China: Improve Teacher Quality in
Poor Areas of Western China
Raising the standards of teacher qualifications,
and continuing professional development of
teachers are priorities in China’s educational
development strategy. It is especially true in
western China where poor rural teachers, particularly
women teachers and minority teachers,
find few means to improve their professional
skills. A United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) project aims at increasing educational
equity and improving teachers’ abilities
at the primary level in three western provinces
of China through delivering high-quality, distance
teacher training. So far, 45,000 teachers
have been trained under this project.
Ethiopia: Leadership Development
Programme to combat HIV/AIDS
One of the main components of UNDP’s poverty
reduction initiative is combating HIV/AIDS. The
objective of the Leadership Development Programme
is to promote leadership at all levels, and
develop the capacity of government, civil society,
development partners, communities and individuals
to effectively respond to the epidemic. The
programme has been successful in building partnerships
through forming coalitions such as the Ethiopian
Volunteer Media Professionals against AIDS
and the National Coalition for Women against HIV/
AIDS, uniquely positioned to mobilize women at all
levels in advocating for gender equality and HIV/
AIDS issues from policy level to the grassroots.
Timor-Leste: Local Development Programme
UNDP and the UN Capital Development Fund are supporting the Government of Timor-Leste in
“piloting” decentralized assemblies at the district and sub-district level in Bobonaro and Lautem,
to test-run participatory planning processes, financial management and procurement procedures as
well as representational arrangements at the local level.
The pilot programme is resolving practical obstacles for the future transfer of funds from central
government to local governments. Simultaneously, the programme is building the capacity of local
assembly members, local technical staff and the population on how to interact and respect each
others’ responsibilities. It creates a downward accountability mechanism through the local assembly
members who are empowered as the decision makers to determine local development priorities.
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Everything About the United Nations

Millennium Development Goals
to achieve by the year 2015
Goal 1
Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
By 2015, reduce by half the proportion of people living on less than $1 a day.
By 2015, reduce by half the proportion of people who suffer from hunger.
Goal 2
Achieve universal primary education
By 2015, ensure a full course of primary schooling for all boys and girls.
Goal 3
Promote gender equality and empower women
By 2005, eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, and at
all levels of education no later than 2015.
Goal 4
Reduce child mortality
By 2015, reduce by two-thirds the number of children dying under the age of five.
Goal 5
Improve maternal health
By 2015, reduce by three quarters the number of women dying from complications
of pregnancy and childbirth.
Goal 6
Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
By 2015, halt and begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS.
By 2015, halt and begin to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major diseases.
Goal 7
Ensure environmental sustainability
Reverse the loss of environmental resources.
By 2015, halve the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe
drinking water.
By 2020, achieve significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million
slum dwellers.
Goal 8
Develop a global partnership for development
MDG logo by UNDP/Brazil
Address the special needs of the least developed countries, landlocked countries
and small island developing states.
Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing countries through
national and international measures in order to make debt repayment sustainable
in the long term.
In cooperation with the private sector, make available to developing countries
the benefits of new technologies, especially information and communications
technologies.
The Millennium Development Goals 43

What is the connection between the environment and development?
The environment is everything that surrounds us. It is the air we breathe, the
water we drink, the soil that grows all our food, and all living beings. Development
is what we do with these resources to improve our lives. All over the
world we do things that we think will make our lives better, but everything we do
changes us and our environment.
Sometimes we do not see how we are connected to the Earth and to each other, but the connections are
there. Medicines that save lives in Germany may depend on plants that grow in the forests of Costa Rica.
Pollution from automobiles in London or Mexico City may affect the climate in Rabat or Tokyo. We now
know that carbon dioxide and other gases from factories and cars cause the atmosphere to heat up. This
rise in temperature may change the world’s climate. Forests help free the air of carbon dioxide, but many
forests are being cut down for their wood or to clear land for farms.
What is sustainable development?
It means that development should meet our current needs without diminishing the ability of future generations
to meet theirs. In other words, we must use our resources wisely. Sustainable development requires
us to conserve more and waste less. In industrialized countries, many people live beyond nature’s means.
For example, one person in a very rich country uses as much energy as 80 people in a very poor country.
Over-consumption leads to waste, which pollutes our environment and uses up our resources.
Crushing poverty and growing populations also create great pressure on the environment. When land and
forests, which provide food, natural resources and employment, are exhausted, people find it harder, and
sometimes impossible, to survive. Many go to cities, crowding into unhealthy and unsafe slums.
If poor people are forced to destroy their environment to survive, all countries will suffer the consequences.
Some UN actions to protect the environment
What does the UN do to protect our environment?
The natural world around us is a fragile place that requires
care, respect and knowledge by all people in all nations. Air
pollution, waterborne diseases, toxic chemicals and natural
disasters are just some of the challenges the environment
presents for mankind.
The UN plays a key role in shaping international action to
protect our environment, and the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) leads its global efforts. The UN conducts
research, monitors the state of the environment and advises
Governments on ways to preserve their natural resources. Most
importantly, it brings Governments together to make international
laws to solve particular environmental problems.
The Kyoto Protocol to the Convention on Climate Change (1997) aims to slow global warming.
It became a legally binding treaty in 2004. It requires countries to cut harmful green house gasses
by 5.2% by 2012.
The Declaration and Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island
Developing States (1994) calls on countries to take special action in the interest of 40 small island
developing States to promote their social and economic development. Many of these small islands
have very limited resources and have been unable to reap the benefits of globalization.
44
Everything About the United Nations

Tony taps the coconut:
Making sustainable development work
In the middle of the South Pacific,
the island nation of Vanuatu has
a precious resource that could
help it overcome trouble in paradise.
Tony Deamer, an Australianborn
mechanic and environmental
entrepreneur, believes that coconuts
hold the promise of a better
future for Vanuatu’s people. There
are plenty of coconuts on the 80
beautiful tropical islands that make
up Vanuatu, but the global price for
coconuts fluctuates, and as a result, farmers cannot count on a steady income
and the local economy suffers.
Tony has a solution. He has successfully used pure coconut oil as an alternative
to petroleum in automotive diesel engines. The result is both environmentally
friendly and good for the local economy. Deamer believes that if Vanuatu
embraces coconut oil as a fuel, the local demand for copra, or dried coconut
meat, would increase, stimulate the economy and create more jobs. Copra is
an excellent animal feed, its fibre has many
uses and coconut shells can be converted into
charcoal.
Tony’s project has the potential to lessen the
need for imported fuel and put much needed
cash in the hands of local coconut growers.
Currently, Vanuatu has to import all of its diesel
fuel, costing $12 million a year, which is a lot of money for a tiny island
nation with limited resources and purchasing power. The Government in
Vanuatu sees his project’s potential and has given some support.
www.un.org/works/smallislands/vanuatu.html
The Convention to Combat Desertification (1994) seeks to resolve problems of overcultivation,
deforestation, overgrazing and poor irrigation. One quarter of the Earth’s land is threatened by
desertification. The livelihoods of over one billion people in more than 100 countries are jeopardized,
as farming and grazing land become less productive.
The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) seeks to protect and conserve
the wide variety of animal and plant life that is essential for human survival.
: www.unep.org
The Millennium Development Goals 45

FACT SHEET
Goodbye to Small Pox & Polio
Measles, tuberculosis, tetanus, diphtheria, whooping cough and polio are six of the deadliest diseases
affecting children in developing countries. Today, some 3 million people in the developing
world, who would have been paralysed, are walking because they have been immunized against
polio, as a result of efforts by the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health
Organization (WHO).
Smallpox, another deadly disease, has now been eradicated worldwide. Ali Maalin of Merka
town, Somalia, is the last recorded case of smallpox. In October 1977, he suffered a mild
form of the disease and quickly recovered. Not sure whether this was the end of smallpox,
the WHO offered a reward of $1,000 to anyone who could identify a case of smallpox. None
was reported. Two years later, in December 1979, WHO declared that smallpox had been
eradicated from the world.
Water, water . . .
Water is such a basic necessity that it is often called the
source of life. When contaminated, water can become
dangerous and cause serious illness. In many countries,
people have limited access to safe drinking water. As a
result, at least 4 million children die every year in developing
countries from water-borne diseases. In 1980, the
United Nations launched an international campaign to
bring safe drinking water to everyone by the year 2000.
This campaign has already brought safe drinking water
to over 1.3 billion people worldwide. Another 1.9 billion
people have been helped with sanitation facilities.
Waking up to a Disaster
The United Nations jumped into action to
assist the survivors of the December 2004
tsunami in East Asia. Within three days, a
UN disaster assessment team had arrived
in the worst-affected area, the Indonesian
province of Aceh, where some 165,000
people had died and 600,000 were made
homeless. In the following six months,
the UN fed two million people, vaccinated
more than 1.2 million children and
employed more than 30,000 people in
“cash-to-work” programmes in Indonesia, Sri Lanka and other areas. More than 561,000 children
were learning again with the help of “school in a box” education start-up kits, and fishermen and
farmers were being helped to rebuild their businesses. UN agencies continue to work to promote
recovery and reconstruction.
46
Everything About the United Nations

Rethinking globalization
What is it?
Globalization is an inevitable phenomenon in human history that has brought the world
closer through the exchange of goods and products, information, knowledge and culture.
Over the last few decades, the pace of this global integration has become much faster and
dramatic because of unprecedented advancements in technology, communications, science,
transport and industry.
While globalization is a catalyst for and a consequence of human progress, it is also a messy
process that requires adjustment and creates significant challenges and problems.
Why should I care?
Globalization has sparked one of the most highly charged debates of the past decade.
When people criticize the effects of globalization, they generally refer to economic integration.
Economic integration occurs when countries lower barriers such as import tariffs and
open their economies up to investment and trade with the rest of the world. These critics
complain that inequalities in the current global trading system hurt developing countries.
Supporters of globalization say countries—like China, Vietnam, India and Uganda—that
have opened up to the world economy have significantly reduced poverty.
Critics argue that the process has exploited people in developing countries, caused massive
disruptions and produced few benefits.
For all countries to be able to reap the benefits of globalization, the international community
must continue working to reduce distortions in international trade (cutting agricultural
subsidies and trade barriers) that favour developed countries and to create a more
fair system.
Some countries have profited from globalization
•
India: Cut its poverty rate in half in the past two decades.
China: Reform led to the largest poverty reduction in history. The number of rural poor
fell from 250 million in 1978 to 34 million in 1999.
•
But others have not
Many countries in Africa have failed to share in the gains of globalization. Their exports
•
have remained confined to a narrow range of primary commodities.
Some experts suggest poor policies and infrastructure, weak institutions and corrupt
•
governance have marginalized a number of countries.
Others believe that geographical and climatic disadvantages have locked some countries
out of global growth.
For more:
: www.youthink.worldbank.org
The Millennium Development Goals 47

Millennium Development Goals: 2007 Progress Chart
Goals and Targets
Africa
Asia
Commonwealth of
Independent States
Latin America
Northern Sub-Saharan Eastern South-Eastern Southern Western Europe Asia
Oceania & Caribbean
GOAL 1 | Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
Reduce extreme
poverty by half
low poverty
very high
poverty
moderate
poverty
moderate
poverty
very high
poverty
low poverty ---
moderate
poverty
low poverty
low poverty
Reduce hunger by
half
very low hunger
very high
hunger
moderate
hunger
moderate
hunger
high hunger
moderate
hunger
moderate
hunger
moderate
hunger
very low hunger
high hunger
GOAL 2 | Achieve universal primary education
Universal primary
schooling
high enrolment low enrolment high enrolment high enrolment high enrolment
GOAL 3 | Promote gender equality and empower women
Equal girls’ enrolment
in primary school
Women’s share of
paid employment
Women’s equal representation
in national
parliaments
close to parity
almost close
to parity
moderate
enrolment
moderate
enrolment
high enrolment high enrolment high enrolment
parity parity close to parity close to parity close to parity parity parity parity
low share medium share high share medium share low share low share medium share high share high share high share
very low
representation
GOAL 4 | Reduce child mortality
low
representation
moderate
representation
low
representation
low
representation
very low
representation
very low
representation
moderate
representation
low
representation
low
representation
Reduce mortality of
under-five-year-olds
by two thirds
low mortality
very high
mortality
low mortality
moderate
mortality
high mortality
moderate
mortality
moderate
mortality
low mortality
low mortality
moderate
mortality
Measles
immunization
high coverage
low coverage
moderate
coverage
moderate
coverage
low coverage high coverage low coverage high coverage high coverage high coverage
GOAL 5 | Improve maternal health
Reduce maternal
mortality by three
quarters*
moderate
mortality
very high
mortality
low mortality
high mortality
very high
mortality
moderate
mortality
high mortality
moderate
mortality
low mortality
low mortality
GOAL 6 | Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
Halt and reverse
spread
of HIV/AIDS
low prevalence
very high
prevalence
low prevalence
low prevalence
moderate
prevalence
low prevalence
moderate
prevalence
moderate
prevalence
moderate
prevalence
low prevalence
Halt and reverse
spread
of malaria*
low risk high risk moderate risk moderate risk moderate risk low risk low risk moderate risk low risk low risk
Halt and reverse
spread
of tuberculosis
low mortality
high mortality
moderate
mortality
moderate
mortality
moderate
mortality
low mortality
moderate
mortality
low mortality
moderate
mortality
moderate
mortality
GOAL 7 | Ensure environmental sustainability
Reverse loss of
forests**
low forest cover
medium forest
cover
medium forest
cover
high forest cover
medium forest
cover
low forest cover high forest cover high forest cover high forest cover low forest cover
Halve proportion
without improved
drinking water
high coverage
low coverage
moderate
coverage
moderate
coverage
moderate
coverage
high coverage low coverage high coverage high coverage
moderate
coverage
48
Everything About the United Nations

Goals and Targets
Africa
Asia
Commonwealth of
Independent States
Latin America
Northern Sub-Saharan Eastern South-Eastern Southern Western Europe Asia
Oceania & Caribbean
GOAL 7 | Ensure environmental sustainability (continued)
Halve proportion
without sanitation
moderate
coverage
very low
coverage
very low
coverage
low coverage
very low
coverage
moderate
coverage
low coverage
moderate
coverage
moderate
coverage
moderate
coverage
Improve the lives
of slum-dwellers
moderate
proportion
of slum-dwellers
very high
proportion
of slum-dwellers
high proportion
of slum-dwellers
moderate
proportion
of slum-dwellers
high proportion
of slum-dwellers
moderate
proportion
of slum-dwellers
moderate
proportion
of slum-dwellers
moderate
proportion
of slum-dwellers
low proportion
of slum-dwellers
moderate
proportion
of slum-dwellers
GOAL 8 | Develop a global partnership for development
Youth
unemployment**
very high
unemployment
high
unemployment
low
unemployment
high
unemployment
moderate
unemployment
very high
unemployment
low
unemployment
high
unemployment
high
unemployment
high
unemployment
Internet users moderate access very low access moderate access moderate access low access moderate access low access high access moderate access moderate access
Compiled by: Statistics Division, UN DESA.
Country experiences in each region may differ significantly from the regional average. For the regional groupings and country data, see http://mdgs.un.org.
Sources: United Nations, based on data and estimates provided by: Food and Agriculture Organization; Inter-Parliamentary Union; International Labour Organization; International Telecommunication
Unit; UNESCO; UNICEF; World Health Organization; UNAIDS; UN-Habitat; World Bank – based on statistics available as of June 2007.
The progress chart operates on two levels. The words in each box tell the current rate of compliance with each target.
The colours show the trend, towards meeting the target by 2015 or not. See legend below:
Target already met or very close to being met.
Target is expected to be met by 2015 if prevailing trends
persist, or the problem that this target is designed to
address is not a serious concern in the region.
Target is not expected to be met by 2015.
No progress, or a deterioration or reversal.
Insufficient data.
* The available data for maternal mortality and malaria do not allow a trend analysis. Progress in the chart has been assessed by the responsible agencies on the basis of proxy indicators.
** The assessment is based on a new methodology and therefore not comparable with previous assessments.
URBANIZATION AND MDGS
In 2008, for the first time in history, more than half of the world’s population – 3.3 billion people –
will be living in urban areas. This number is expected to swell to almost 5 billion by 2030. In 1800,
only 2% of people lived in cities and towns. In 1950, only 30% of the world population was urban.
Though mega-cities (more than 10 million people) will continue to grow, most people will be living
in cities of 500,000 or fewer. Globally, future population growth will take place in cities, nearly all of it
in Asia, Africa and Latin America.
The battle for the Millennium Development Goals to halve extreme poverty by 2015 will be won or
lost in the cities of the developing world.
For more:
: www.unfpa.org
: www.worldbank.org
The Millennium Development Goals 49

FACT SHEET
Saving the Temples of Nubia
Egypt is the home of many ancient temples and monuments, including those at
Nubia. The construction of the Aswan Dam on the River Nile threatened the existence
of these 5,000-year-old monuments. In 1960, the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) launched an international campaign
to save them from destruction. But this could be done only by removing the monuments
from the flooded area and taking them to a higher place. This is exactly
what the international experts, brought together by the United Nations, did:
they cut the monuments into blocks and then reassembled them at a safer
place. It took them 20 years of hard work to accomplish this spectacular job.
By 2008 the United Nations placed over 851 cultural, natural and mixed
properties onto its World Heritage List. Such diverse sites as the Pyramids
of Egypt, the Grand Canyon in the United States, and the Taj Mahal of
India are included in the list. Because of their outstanding universal value,
these sites are considered to be mankind’s common heritage. Some 180
nations have signed a treaty agreeing to cooperate and contribute to the
protection of these properties.
UNESCO has helped to protect many such historic monuments in over
80 countries, including the Acropolis in Greece; the Angkor Wat Temple in
Cambodia; Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park in Australia and the Borobudur
Shrine in Indonesia.
: www.unesco.org
Q&A Team Play
Team Play
When playing as team-mates (2 or more players on a team), team-mates can work together to arrive at an
answer, but must reach a consensus before declaring an answer to the other players.
1. What is sustainable development?
2. What are the Millennium Development Goals?
3. How would you define poverty?
4. What is the Kyoto Protocol?
5. How have some countries benefitted from globalization?
6. What does the United Nations do to reduce poverty?
7. What is the World Heritage list?
8. What kind of emergency relief did the UN provide to the December 2004 tsunami victims?
50
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5
Human Rights
Some facts about human rights
• In 2007, 113 million school-age children were not in school—97% of
them in developing countries. Of the world’s estimated 854 million
illiterate adults, 544 million are women.
• An estimated 171 million children – of whom 73 million are under
the age of 10 - are working with hazardous chemicals and pesticides
in agriculture, with dangerous machinery or in mines.
• An estimated 8.4 million children are forced into bonded labor,
prostitution, pornography, armed conflict or other illicit activities.
• The UN has successfully negotiated two Optional Protocols to its
1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child—by which States parties
agree to ban the participation of children under 18 in armed
conflict; and agree to prohibit the sale of children, child prostitution
and child pornography. Both came into force in early 2002
• Women tend to face higher rates of violence because discrimination
on the basis of gender frequently renders them among the
powerless members of society. Racial discrimination often results
in violence. Women who face discrimination based on both race
and gender are thus doubly at risk of violence.

Four-year old boy on the garbage dump in Sao Paulo.
A group of children are at the International Rescue Committee kindergarden at the Hamadiya internally displaced persons (IDPs) camp in Zalingei, West Darfur,
Sudan.

Human Rights
What is meant by human rights?
Human rights are those rights which are essential for us to live as human beings. Without
human rights, we cannot fully develop and use our human qualities, our intelligence, our talent
and our spirituality.
The United Nations set a common standard on human rights for all nations when, in 1948,
it adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. By this Declaration, Governments
accepted the obligation to ensure that all human beings, rich and poor, strong and weak, male
and female, of all races and religions, are treated equally. The Declaration is not part of binding
international law, but due to widespread acceptance by countries in the world, it has gained
great moral weight.
Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt, former First Lady of the United
States, holds a poster-size copy of the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights. She was one of the authors of the
Declaration in 1948.
Which UN body has responsibility for human rights?
The Human Rights Council was established in
June 2006 to replace the Human Rights Commission
which operated from 1946 to 2006.
Unlike the Commission, the new Council is a
subsidiary body of the General Assembly. This
makes it directly accountable to the full membership
of the United Nations. The Council is
the main United Nations forum for dialogue
and cooperation on human rights. It is administered
by the United Nations High Commissioner
for Human Rights.
The UN has also adopted many international
human rights treaties, legally
binding nations to guarantee their
citizens’ social, economic and political
rights. The most important of these
treaties are two International Covenants
— one on economic, social and cultural
rights and the other on civil and political
rights. These treaties, together with
Optional Protocols, are known as the
International Bill of Human Rights.
: http://www.un.org/rights/
Inaugural session of the United Nations Human Rights Council in
Geneva, 19 June 2006.
Human Rights 53

All
human
beings
are
born
FREE
and
EQUAL
in
dignity
Every child has the right to:
a name and a
nationality;
protection from all
forms of violence,
including sexual
exploitation;
education;
freedom of
thought.
Do children enjoy human rights?
Children enjoy the same rights as adults. However, because they are minors,
they need special protection. The Convention on the Rights of the Child,
adopted in 1989, sets forth the individual rights that any person under 18
years of age requires to develop his or her full potential, free from hunger and
want, neglect and abuse. More countries have ratified the Child Rights Convention
than any other human rights treaty in history – all the 192 Member
States of the UN had become State Parties to the Convention as of May 2006.
What other human rights laws and agreements have been
negotiated by the UN?
The United Nations has helped negotiate over 80 human rights treaties and
declarations, dealing with the rights of women, children, disabled persons,
minorities, indigenous people and other vulnerable groups. Together, these
agreements have helped create a “culture of human rights” throughout the
world, proving to be a powerful tool in curbing abuses.
Some human rights conventions :
The Convention on the Prevention of the Crime of Genocide
(1948) defines genocide as the committing of certain acts with
the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial
or religious group;
The Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or
Degrading Treatment or Punishment (1984) holds States responsible
for preventing torture and makes it legally punishable;
The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination (1966) defines racial discrimination as “any
distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour,
descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect
of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on
an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the
political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life”,
and obliges States to eliminate racial discrimination;
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
against Women (1979) is often described as an international bill
54
Everything About the United Nations

All people have the right to:
of rights for women. It defines discrimination against women as any distinction,
exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex and encourages
governments to take measures to stop discrimination.
The Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (1951) defines the rights
of refugees, especially their right not to be forcibly returned to countries
where they are at risk, and makes provisions for various aspects of their
everyday lives, including their right to work, education, public assistance
and social security, as well as their right to travel documents.
Other than adopting international laws, how does the UN protect
human rights?
The UN promotes respect for human rights in several ways, including:
Monitoring the human rights records of nations. It has set up the Human
Rights Council which has the authority to recommend that the General
Assembly suspend the rights and privileges of any Council Member that
it decides has persistently committed gross and systematic violations of
human rights. This process of suspension would require a two-thirds
majority vote by the General Assembly.
Through its six committees, which may call upon the Governments to
respond to allegations; they may also adopt decisions and make them public,
along with criticisms or recommendations;
Appointing experts known as special rapporteurs or representatives who
gather facts, visit prisons, interview victims, and make recommendations
on how to increase respect for human rights;
Establishing working groups to investigate such issues as arbitrary detention.
When their reports highlight human rights violations, they help to
mobilize international attention;
Providing technical assistance to strengthen national and regional institutions,
such as courts and school systems.
Holding international conferences to discuss human rights issues and ask
Governments to commit themselves publicly on human rights issues.
life,
liberty and
security;
freedom of
expression;
freedom
from
slavery;
fair trial;
equal
treatment
before the
law;
Who are the special rapporteurs and working groups?
Special rapporteurs and working groups on human rights are on the front lines in
the protection of human rights. They investigate violations and intervene in individual
cases and emergency situations, in what are referred to as “special procedures”.
Human rights experts are independent. They serve in their personal capacity
for a maximum of six years. The number of such experts has grown steadily
over the years. There are currently over 30 special procedure mandates.
In preparing their reports to the Human Rights Council and the General Assembly,
these experts use all reliable resources, including individual complaints and infor-
Human Rights 55

freedom of
movement;
a
nation ality;
contract a
marriage
and found
a family;
work;
equal pay
for equal
work.
mation from non-governmental organizations (NGOs). A significant portion of their
research is done locally, where they meet both with authorities and victims, and
gather on-site evidence. Their reports are made public to emphasize the responsibility
of Governments for the protection of human rights.
: www.ohchr.org/
Can individuals complain about violations of their rights?
Yes. Optional protocols to some UN treaties allow individuals to lodge complaints
if the Government in question has ratified the protocols. Under a confidential communications
procedure, allegations of gross and systematic violations of human
rights can also be submitted to the UN if domestic remedies have been exhausted.
There is a Human Rights website to go to if one has human rights complaints or
concerns: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/chr/complaints.htm. The email
address is: CP@ohchr.org
Who created the International Criminal Court?
Why do we need such a court?
In 1998, at a conference in Rome, 120 nations agreed to establish
a permanent International Criminal Court (ICC). The court
has the jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for some of the
most serious offences, such as genocide, war crimes and crimes
against humanity. As of 1 June 2008, 106 countries were partners
to the Rome Statute of the ICC.
There are real needs for such a court. In some countries, in times of conflict, there
may be no courts capable of dealing properly with war crimes. It may also be that
the Government in power is unwilling to prosecute its own citizens, especially if
they are high-ranking officials. The ICC provides a just option in such cases.
: www.icc-cpi.int/
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of the Indigenous Peoples
On 13 December 2007, the General Assembly adopted the United Nations Declaration
on the Indigenous Peoples. It is a triumph for justice and human dignity
following more than two decades of negotiations between Governments and Indigenous
peoples’ representatives.
The Declaration establishes a universal framework of minimum standards for
the survival, dignity, well-being and rights of the world’s Indigenous peoples. It
addresses both individual and collective rights; cultural rights and identity; rights
to education, health, employment, language; and others. It outlaws discrimination
against Indigenous peoples and promotes their full and effective participation in
all matters that concern them. The Declaration also ensures their right to remain
distinct and to pursue their own priorities in economic, social and cultural development.
It explicitly encourages harmonious and cooperative relations between
States and Indigenous peoples.
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FACT SHEET
Sending Girls to School
Everywhere in the world, girls face discrimination. They often receive less food than boys do and, in
many countries, they work long hours even when they are only 5 or 6 years old. Eighty million girls
aged 6 to 11 do not go to school. The United Nations has adopted a treaty, the Convention on the
Rights of the Child (1989), which asks Governments to spend more money to educate girls. Thanks in
part to the United Nations, today 77 per cent of primary-school-age children are enrolled in school, a
big jump from less than 50 per cent in 1960. This is progress, but a lot remains to be done.
Children who work
Until recently, 12-year-old Leandra Cristina Da
Silva worked hard for a living. Instead of playing
in her backyard or attending school, she
laboured seven days a week, coated with dust
and grime in the filth of the Olinda garbage
dump on the outskirts of the coastal town of
Recife in northern Brazil. Although she lives
close to the sea, with Marcia, her mother, and
her brother and sister, Leandra had never
seen the Atlantic Ocean. Each day for Leandra
was the same: after finishing her chores at
home, she left every morning to work alongside
her mother for 10 hours or more each day, scavenging for cans and bottles to sell.
After an exhausting day at the dump, she returned to a home with no running water
and crawled into a bed that she shared with her mother and two siblings.
Working at the Olinda dump is mind-numbing and dangerous. When the supermarket
truck appears, men, women and children scramble to get the best garbage.
Yet for all the drudgery and hazards, Leandra barely earned the equivalent of $3 a
day selling the collected bottles to a middleman, who makes money exploiting child
workers. It is illegal for children in Brazil to work in such dangerous conditions,
but the pressures of poverty force parents to take risks to feed their families.
Recognizing that education is the best way to fight poverty, the United Nations
Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the UN International Labour Organization have joined
forces with the Brazilian Government to open new doors for children, putting them
back in school where they belong. The Bolsa Escola (“School Scholarship”) programme
makes cash and in-kind grants to families to replace the income children bring in.
Though Leandra was proud to help her family, she longed to go to school. Her
mother, Marcia, had worked all her life and did not get any schooling. She did not
really understand the bolsa and did not believe it would replace the money her
daughter earned at the dump to help support the family. But then one day, good
fortune smiled on Leandra. With the help of UNICEF Project Officer Ana Maria
Azevedo and Susan Sarandon, UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador, Leandra was awarded
a bolsa. She was thrilled to make a new start.
Adapted from: UN Works
: www.un.org/works/goingon/labor/eleandra_story.html
Human Rights 57

Helping the victims of torture
The police arrived in the middle of the night. They fired tear gas, kicked down the door and began
assaulting the people in the house. A small group of people had gathered to mourn the death of
a 15-year-old boy who had died in police custody. Everyone in the house, including three boys
between the ages of 11 and 15, was forced into police vans.
The event described above is just an illustration of torture by the State, still practiced in many
countries. The United Nations wants this to stop.
In 1984 the UN adopted the Convention against Torture. A 10-member Committee against Torture
periodically examines reports from countries that have ratified the Convention. The UN has also
set up a voluntary fund for victims of torture. It provides humanitarian, legal and financial assistance
to torture victims and their children.
The UN fights apartheid:
a crime against humanity
Apartheid, in the Afrikaans language of South Africa, means
separateness. South Africa, though 80 per cent of its people
are black, had long been ruled by the country’s tiny white
minority. They imposed the policy of apartheid, racially segregating
the country and depriving the black population of
the very basic human rights. The United Nations, condemning
apartheid as a “crime against humanity”, carried out a
sustained campaign against this policy for more than three
decades. Apartheid finally ended in April 1994 after the United
Nations assisted in and supervised the holding of the country’s first free and multiracial election. Nelson
Mandela, speaking before the United Nations (left), who was jailed for decades by the apartheid regime,
became the first President of a new, racially-integrated South Africa.
Q&A Team Play
Team Play
When playing as team-mates (2 or more players on a team), team-mates can work together to arrive at an
answer, but must reach a consensus before declaring an answer to the other players.
1. What are human rights?
2. When was the Convention on the Rights of the Child adopted? What does it entail?
3. Which UN body has primary responsibility for human rights?
4. Other than adopting international laws, how does the UN protect human rights?
5. What is the function of a special rapporteur?
6. What does apartheid mean?
7. What does the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples say?
58
Everything About the United Nations

6
Frequently asked questions

Frequently asked questions
How can individuals support the UN? Can they join the Organization as members?
No, only independent countries with international recognition can become members of the UN.
However, individuals can support the work of the United Nations through international and
local non-governmental organizations. Some of them collaborate with the UN Department of
Public Information and provide the UN with valuable links to people around the world.
For more information:
: http://www.un.org/dpi/ngosection/index.html
There are United Nations Associations (UNA-USA and WFUNA) in more than 100 countries,
often with many local chapters. The UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF) has national committees in
many countries, spreading awareness about UNICEF’s programmes and raising the funds to help
make them a reality. Some 3,600 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization
(UNESCO) clubs, centres and associations (associated with UNESCO) in over 90 countries
undertake activities in the areas of education, science, culture and communication. Major contact
points are the UN information centres and services all over the world.
If you have a skill in such fields as agriculture, medicine, education, information technology, vocational
training, the promotion of human rights, industry and population – as well as the necessary
flexibility and commitment – the UN Volunteers (UNV) programme may place you, for a one- to
two-year period, with an appropriate UN development project in a developing country.
Contact UN Volunteers, P.O. Box 260111, D-53153, Bonn, Germany • Tel: 49 (228) 815-2000;
Fax: 49 (228) 815-2001 • Email: information@unvolunteers.org
www.unv.org
I want to continue my studies at a foreign university. Can the UN provide me with
financial assistance?
The United Nations does not provide financial assistance to students. You can find some information
about scholarships offered by higher education institutions and international organizations
in a guide published by UNESCO, entitled “Study Abroad”. To purchase a copy of the
Study Abroad catalogue, please write to: UNESCO Publishing, Promotion and Sales Division,
1 rue Miollis, 75732 Paris Cedex 15 (France) or order on-line at:
: http://www.unesco.org/publishing
Does the UN accept student interns?
The United Nations offers an unpaid internship programme for graduate students only at its New
York Headquarters. It consists of three two-month periods throughout the year. For more information
go to:
: http://www.un.org/Depts/OHRM/sds/internsh/index.htm
Frequently asked questions 61

Where can I get information about a UN Member country’s position on various
current issues?
You can obtain such information from the Permanent Mission to the United Nations of the
country concerned. The list of websites for the Member States can be found at:
: http://www.un.int/index-en/webs.html
What is United Nations Day?
It is the birthday of the United Nations. It falls on 24 October, the day that the Organization
came into being in 1945 after a majority of its original Members formally accepted their
membership by agreeing to the Charter of the United Nations. Thus, 24 October is celebrated
all over the world as United Nations Day.
Is information about the UN available through the Internet?
The UN has its own home page at
: www.un.org
Is there anything on the UN webite designed especially
for young people?
The United Nations CyberSchoolBus has been set up to provide
materials about the Organization for children and teachers.
: www.un.org/Cyberschoolbus
Does the UN have an anthem?
The UN does not have an official anthem or hymn. The General
Assembly recognized the need for an official song and reserved the
right to select and adopt one. So far, no decision has been taken.
In 1970, Maestro Pablo Casals of Spain set music to a hymn written
in honour of the UN by English poet W. H. Auden. This hymn was
performed on UN Day in 1971 at UN Headquarters.
Where can I write for more information about the
United Nations?
You can write to:
Visitors Services, Department of Public Information,
GA-57, United Nations, New York, NY 10017, USA.
E-Mail: inquiries@un.org
Phone: (212) 963-4475
Fax: (212) 963-0071
Maestro Pablo Casals of Spain conducting
the premiere of his “Hymn to the United
Nations” at UN Headquarters,
24 October 1971.
: www.un.org/geninfo/faq
62
Everything About the United Nations

What are some of the special days celebrated by the United Nations?
27 January International Day of Commemoration in Memory of
the Victims of the Holocaust
8 March International Women’s Day
21 March International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
25 March International Day of Remembrance of the Victims of Slavery
and the Transatlantic Slave Trade
7 April World Health Day
3 May World Press Freedom Day
15 May International Day of Families
21 May World Day for Cultural Diversity for Dialogue and Development
29 May International Day of United Nations Peacekeepers
31 May World No-Tobacco Day
5 June World Environment Day
20 June World Refugee Day
26 June International Day against Drug Abuse
11 July World Population Day
9 August International Day of the World’s Indigenous People
8 September International Literacy Day
21 September International Day of Peace
1 October International Day of Older Persons
2 October International Day of Non-Violence
17 October International Day for the Eradication of Poverty
24 October United Nations Day
16 November International Day of Tolerance
20 November Universal Children’s Day
25 November International Day for the Elimination of Violence Against Women
29 November International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People
1 December World AIDS Day
3 December International Day of Disabled Persons
9 December International Anti-Corruption Day
10 December Human Rights Day
18 December International Migrant’s Day
Frequently asked questions 63

64
Everything About the United Nations

Did You Know?
77
Since 1945, the UN has assisted in negotiating more than
170 peace settlements that have ended regional conflicts.
77 The United Nations played a role in bringing about
independence in more than 80 countries that are now
sovereign nations.
77 Over 500 multinational treaties – on human rights, terrorism,
international crime, refugees, disarmament, commodities and
the oceans – have been enacted through the efforts of the
United Nations.
77 The World Food Programme, the world’s largest humanitarian
agency, reaches on average 90 million hungry people in
80 countries every year.
77 An estimated 90 per cent of global conflict-related deaths
since 1990 have been civilians, and 80 percent of these have
been women and children.
77 If each poor person on the planet had the same energy-rich
lifestyle as an average person in Germany or the United
Kingdom, four planets would be needed to safely cope with
the pollution. That figure rises to nine planets when compared
with the average of the United States or Canada.
07-26304—DPI/1888/Rev.3—August 2008—15M

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Advocacy Foundation Publishers
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Advocacy Foundation Publishers
The e-Advocate Quarterly
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Issue Title Quarterly
Vol. I 2015 The Fundamentals
I
The ComeUnity ReEngineering
Project Initiative
Q-1 2015
II The Adolescent Law Group Q-2 2015
III
Landmark Cases in US
Juvenile Justice (PA)
Q-3 2015
IV The First Amendment Project Q-4 2015
Vol. II 2016 Strategic Development
V The Fourth Amendment Project Q-1 2016
VI
Landmark Cases in US
Juvenile Justice (NJ)
Q-2 2016
VII Youth Court Q-3 2016
VIII
The Economic Consequences of Legal
Decision-Making
Q-4 2016
Vol. III 2017 Sustainability
IX The Sixth Amendment Project Q-1 2017
X
The Theological Foundations of
US Law & Government
Q-2 2017
XI The Eighth Amendment Project Q-3 2017
XII
The EB-5 Investor
Immigration Project*
Q-4 2017
Vol. IV 2018 Collaboration
XIII Strategic Planning Q-1 2018
XIV
The Juvenile Justice
Legislative Reform Initiative
Q-2 2018
XV The Advocacy Foundation Coalition Q-3 2018
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XVI
for Drug-Free Communities
Landmark Cases in US
Juvenile Justice (GA)
Q-4 2018
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Issue Title Quarterly
Vol. V 2019 Organizational Development
XVII The Board of Directors Q-1 2019
XVIII The Inner Circle Q-2 2019
XIX Staff & Management Q-3 2019
XX Succession Planning Q-4 2019
XXI The Budget* Bonus #1
XXII Data-Driven Resource Allocation* Bonus #2
Vol. VI 2020 Missions
XXIII Critical Thinking Q-1 2020
XXIV
The Advocacy Foundation
Endowments Initiative Project
Q-2 2020
XXV International Labor Relations Q-3 2020
XXVI Immigration Q-4 2020
Vol. VII 2021 Community Engagement
XXVII
The 21 st Century Charter Schools
Initiative
Q-1 2021
XXVIII The All-Sports Ministry @ ... Q-2 2021
XXIX Lobbying for Nonprofits Q-3 2021
XXX
XXXI
Advocacy Foundation Missions -
Domestic
Advocacy Foundation Missions -
International
Q-4 2021
Bonus
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Vol. VIII
2022 ComeUnity ReEngineering
XXXII
The Creative & Fine Arts Ministry
@ The Foundation
Q-1 2022
XXXIII The Advisory Council & Committees Q-2 2022
XXXIV
The Theological Origins
of Contemporary Judicial Process
Q-3 2022
XXXV The Second Chance Ministry @ ... Q-4 2022
Vol. IX 2023 Legal Reformation
XXXVI The Fifth Amendment Project Q-1 2023
XXXVII The Judicial Re-Engineering Initiative Q-2 2023
XXXVIII
The Inner-Cities Strategic
Revitalization Initiative
Q-3 2023
XXXVIX Habeas Corpus Q-4 2023
Vol. X 2024 ComeUnity Development
XXXVX
The Inner-City Strategic
Revitalization Plan
Q-1 2024
XXXVXI The Mentoring Initiative Q-2 2024
XXXVXII The Violence Prevention Framework Q-3 2024
XXXVXIII The Fatherhood Initiative Q-4 2024
Vol. XI 2025 Public Interest
XXXVXIV Public Interest Law Q-1 2025
L (50) Spiritual Resource Development Q-2 2025
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LI
Nonprofit Confidentiality
In The Age of Big Data
Q-3 2025
LII Interpreting The Facts Q-4 2025
Vol. XII 2026 Poverty In America
LIII
American Poverty
In The New Millennium
Q-1 2026
LIV Outcome-Based Thinking Q-2 2026
LV Transformational Social Leadership Q-3 2026
LVI The Cycle of Poverty Q-4 2026
Vol. XIII 2027 Raising Awareness
LVII ReEngineering Juvenile Justice Q-1 2027
LVIII Corporations Q-2 2027
LVIX The Prison Industrial Complex Q-3 2027
LX Restoration of Rights Q-4 2027
Vol. XIV 2028 Culturally Relevant Programming
LXI Community Culture Q-1 2028
LXII Corporate Culture Q-2 2028
LXIII Strategic Cultural Planning Q-3 2028
LXIV
The Cross-Sector/ Coordinated
Service Approach to Delinquency
Prevention
Q-4 2028
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Vol. XV 2029 Inner-Cities Revitalization
LXIV
LXV
LXVI
Part I – Strategic Housing
Revitalization
(The Twenty Percent Profit Margin)
Part II – Jobs Training, Educational
Redevelopment
and Economic Empowerment
Part III - Financial Literacy
and Sustainability
Q-1 2029
Q-2 2029
Q-3 2029
LXVII Part IV – Solutions for Homelessness Q-4 2029
LXVIII
The Strategic Home Mortgage
Initiative
Bonus
Vol. XVI 2030 Sustainability
LXVIII Social Program Sustainability Q-1 2030
LXIX
The Advocacy Foundation
Endowments Initiative
Q-2 2030
LXX Capital Gains Q-3 2030
LXXI Sustainability Investments Q-4 2030
Vol. XVII 2031 The Justice Series
LXXII Distributive Justice Q-1 2031
LXXIII Retributive Justice Q-2 2031
LXXIV Procedural Justice Q-3 2031
LXXV (75) Restorative Justice Q-4 2031
LXXVI Unjust Legal Reasoning Bonus
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Vol. XVIII 2032 Public Policy
LXXVII Public Interest Law Q-1 2032
LXXVIII Reforming Public Policy Q-2 2032
LXXVIX ... Q-3 2032
LXXVX ... Q-4 2032
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The e-Advocate Monthly Review
2018
Transformational Problem Solving January 2018
The Advocacy Foundation February 2018
Opioid Initiative
Native-American Youth March 2018
In the Juvenile Justice System
Barriers to Reducing Confinement April 2018
Latino and Hispanic Youth May 2018
In the Juvenile Justice System
Social Entrepreneurship June 2018
The Economic Consequences of
Homelessness in America S.Ed – June 2018
African-American Youth July 2018
In the Juvenile Justice System
Gang Deconstruction August 2018
Social Impact Investing September 2018
Opportunity Youth: October 2018
Disenfranchised Young People
The Economic Impact of Social November 2018
of Social Programs Development
Gun Control December 2018
2019
The U.S. Stock Market January 2019
Prison-Based Gerrymandering February 2019
Literacy-Based Prison Construction March 2019
Children of Incarcerated Parents April 2019
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African-American Youth in The May 2019
Juvenile Justice System
Racial Profiling June 2019
Mass Collaboration July 2019
Concentrated Poverty August 2019
De-Industrialization September 2019
Overcoming Dyslexia October 2019
Overcoming Attention Deficit November 2019
The Gift of Adversity December 2019
2020
The Gift of Hypersensitivity January 2020
The Gift of Introspection February 2020
The Gift of Introversion March 2020
The Gift of Spirituality April 2020
The Gift of Transformation May 2020
Property Acquisition
for Sustainability June 2020
Investing for Organizational
Sustainability July 2020
Biblical Law & Justice TLFA August 2020
Gentrification AF September 2020
Environmental Racism NpA October 2020
Law for The Poor AF November 2020
International Law & Justice LMI December 2020
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The e-Advocate Quarterly
Special Editions
Crowdfunding Winter-Spring 2017
Social Media for Nonprofits October 2017
Mass Media for Nonprofits November 2017
The Opioid Crisis in America: January 2018
Issues in Pain Management
The Opioid Crisis in America: February 2018
The Drug Culture in the U.S.
The Opioid Crisis in America: March 2018
Drug Abuse Among Veterans
The Opioid Crisis in America: April 2018
Drug Abuse Among America’s
Teens
The Opioid Crisis in America: May 2018
Alcoholism
The Economic Consequences of June 2018
Homelessness in The US
The Economic Consequences of July 2018
Opioid Addiction in America
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The e-Advocate Journal
of Theological Jurisprudence
Vol. I - 2017
The Theological Origins of Contemporary Judicial Process
Scriptural Application to The Model Criminal Code
Scriptural Application for Tort Reform
Scriptural Application to Juvenile Justice Reformation
Vol. II - 2018
Scriptural Application for The Canons of Ethics
Scriptural Application to Contracts Reform
& The Uniform Commercial Code
Scriptural Application to The Law of Property
Scriptural Application to The Law of Evidence
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Legal Missions International
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Issue Title Quarterly
Vol. I 2015
I
II
God’s Will and The 21 st Century
Democratic Process
The Community
Engagement Strategy
Q-1 2015
Q-2 2015
III Foreign Policy Q-3 2015
IV
Public Interest Law
in The New Millennium
Q-4 2015
Vol. II 2016
V Ethiopia Q-1 2016
VI Zimbabwe Q-2 2016
VII Jamaica Q-3 2016
VIII Brazil Q-4 2016
Vol. III 2017
IX India Q-1 2017
X Suriname Q-2 2017
XI The Caribbean Q-3 2017
XII United States/ Estados Unidos Q-4 2017
Vol. IV 2018
XIII Cuba Q-1 2018
XIV Guinea Q-2 2018
XV Indonesia Q-3 2018
XVI Sri Lanka Q-4 2018
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Vol. V 2019
XVII Russia Q-1 2019
XVIII Australia Q-2 2019
XIV South Korea Q-3 2019
XV Puerto Rico Q-4 2019
Issue Title Quarterly
Vol. VI 2020
XVI Trinidad & Tobago Q-1 2020
XVII Egypt Q-2 2020
XVIII Sierra Leone Q-3 2020
XIX South Africa Q-4 2020
XX Israel Bonus
Vol. VII 2021
XXI Haiti Q-1 2021
XXII Peru Q-2 2021
XXIII Costa Rica Q-3 2021
XXIV China Q-4 2021
XXV Japan Bonus
Vol VIII 2022
XXVI Chile Q-1 2022
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The e-Advocate Juvenile Justice Report
______
Vol. I – Juvenile Delinquency in The US
Vol. II. – The Prison Industrial Complex
Vol. III – Restorative/ Transformative Justice
Vol. IV – The Sixth Amendment Right to The Effective Assistance of Counsel
Vol. V – The Theological Foundations of Juvenile Justice
Vol. VI – Collaborating to Eradicate Juvenile Delinquency
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The e-Advocate Newsletter
Genesis of The Problem
Family Structure
Societal Influences
Evidence-Based Programming
Strengthening Assets v. Eliminating Deficits
2012 - Juvenile Delinquency in The US
Introduction/Ideology/Key Values
Philosophy/Application & Practice
Expungement & Pardons
Pardons & Clemency
Examples/Best Practices
2013 - Restorative Justice in The US
2014 - The Prison Industrial Complex
25% of the World's Inmates Are In the US
The Economics of Prison Enterprise
The Federal Bureau of Prisons
The After-Effects of Incarceration/Individual/Societal
The Fourth Amendment Project
The Sixth Amendment Project
The Eighth Amendment Project
The Adolescent Law Group
2015 - US Constitutional Issues In The New Millennium
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2018 - The Theological Law Firm Academy
The Theological Foundations of US Law & Government
The Economic Consequences of Legal Decision-Making
The Juvenile Justice Legislative Reform Initiative
The EB-5 International Investors Initiative
2017 - Organizational Development
The Board of Directors
The Inner Circle
Staff & Management
Succession Planning
Bonus #1 The Budget
Bonus #2 Data-Driven Resource Allocation
2018 - Sustainability
The Data-Driven Resource Allocation Process
The Quality Assurance Initiative
The Advocacy Foundation Endowments Initiative
The Community Engagement Strategy
2019 - Collaboration
Critical Thinking for Transformative Justice
International Labor Relations
Immigration
God's Will & The 21st Century Democratic Process
The Community Engagement Strategy
The 21st Century Charter Schools Initiative
2020 - Community Engagement
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Extras
The Nonprofit Advisors Group Newsletters
The 501(c)(3) Acquisition Process
The Board of Directors
The Gladiator Mentality
Strategic Planning
Fundraising
501(c)(3) Reinstatements
The Collaborative US/ International Newsletters
How You Think Is Everything
The Reciprocal Nature of Business Relationships
Accelerate Your Professional Development
The Competitive Nature of Grant Writing
Assessing The Risks
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About The Author
John C (Jack) Johnson III
Founder & CEO
Jack was educated at Temple University, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and Rutgers
Law School, in Camden, New Jersey. In 1999, he moved to Atlanta, Georgia to pursue
greater opportunities to provide Advocacy and Preventive Programmatic services for atrisk/
at-promise young persons, their families, and Justice Professionals embedded in the
Juvenile Justice process in order to help facilitate its transcendence into the 21 st Century.
There, along with a small group of community and faith-based professionals, “The Advocacy Foundation, Inc." was conceived
and developed over roughly a thirteen year period, originally chartered as a Juvenile Delinquency Prevention and Educational
Support Services organization consisting of Mentoring, Tutoring, Counseling, Character Development, Community Change
Management, Practitioner Re-Education & Training, and a host of related components.
The Foundation’s Overarching Mission is “To help Individuals, Organizations, & Communities Achieve Their Full Potential”, by
implementing a wide array of evidence-based proactive multi-disciplinary "Restorative & Transformative Justice" programs &
projects currently throughout the northeast, southeast, and western international-waters regions, providing prevention and support
services to at-risk/ at-promise youth, to young adults, to their families, and to Social Service, Justice and Mental
Health professionals” everywhere. The Foundation has since relocated its headquarters to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and been
expanded to include a three-tier mission.
In addition to his work with the Foundation, Jack also served as an Adjunct Professor of Law & Business at National-Louis
University of Atlanta (where he taught Political Science, Business & Legal Ethics, Labor & Employment Relations, and Critical
Thinking courses to undergraduate and graduate level students). Jack has also served as Board President for a host of wellestablished
and up & coming nonprofit organizations throughout the region, including “Visions Unlimited Community
Development Systems, Inc.”, a multi-million dollar, award-winning, Violence Prevention and Gang Intervention Social Service
organization in Atlanta, as well as Vice-Chair of the Georgia/ Metropolitan Atlanta Violence Prevention Partnership, a state-wide
300 organizational member, violence prevention group led by the Morehouse School of Medicine, Emory University and The
Original, Atlanta-Based, Martin Luther King Center.
Attorney Johnson’s prior accomplishments include a wide-array of Professional Legal practice areas, including Private Firm,
Corporate and Government postings, just about all of which yielded significant professional awards & accolades, the history and
chronology of which are available for review online. Throughout his career, Jack has served a wide variety of for-profit
corporations, law firms, and nonprofit organizations as Board Chairman, Secretary, Associate, and General Counsel since 1990.
www.TheAdvocacyFoundation.org
Clayton County Youth Services Partnership, Inc. – Chair; Georgia Violence Prevention Partnership, Inc – Vice Chair; Fayette
County NAACP - Legal Redress Committee Chairman; Clayton County Fatherhood Initiative Partnership – Principal
Investigator; Morehouse School of Medicine School of Community Health Feasibility Study - Steering Committee; Atlanta
Violence Prevention Capacity Building Project – Project Partner; Clayton County Minister’s Conference, President 2006-2007;
Liberty In Life Ministries, Inc. – Board Secretary; Young Adults Talk, Inc. – Board of Directors; ROYAL, Inc - Board of
Directors; Temple University Alumni Association; Rutgers Law School Alumni Association; Sertoma International; Our
Common Welfare Board of Directors – President)2003-2005; River’s Edge Elementary School PTA (Co-President); Summerhill
Community Ministries; Outstanding Young Men of America; Employee of the Year; Academic All-American - Basketball;
Church Trustee.
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www.TheAdvocacyFoundation.org
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