Mussolini's Microphone by Tanja Tatomirovic

Mussolini’s Microphone
Radio Propaganda in Fascist Italy
by Tanja Tatomirović, communicologist
Belgrade, 2013.

TABLE OF CONTENTS:
How do we define propaganda? ...................................................................... 7
Roots of Propaganda ......................................................................................... 10
ROOTS of Italian fascisM ................................................................................ 15
FASCIST OPTION ...................................................................................................... 16
Guillermo Marconi ........................................................................................... 17
Fascist indoctrination and use of radio............................................... 19
German School .................................................................................................... 28
International outreach of Italian propaganda .............................. 30
Rediscovering America ................................................................................... 34
the importance of the Radio in
spreading italian fascist ideology........................................................... 47
Radio Truth – Radio Veridad ........................................................................ 51
war and Propaganda ........................................................................................ 53
Ezra Pound............................................................................................................. 56
Lisa Sergio, “Rome’s golden voice”............................................................... 62
Activities as a translator.....................................................................................69
Escape from Italy.................................................................................................71
What is the true story?.......................................................................................76
Instead of the Conclusion............................................................................ 79
Development of radio broadcasts – a timeline.................................. 84
literature............................................................................................................... 86
Afterword.............................................................................................................. 89

To you.

“During a war, news should be given out for instruction
rather than information.”
Paul Joseph Goebbels (1897-1945)
Third Reich’s Minister of Propaganda, Third Reich
How do we define propaganda?
Propaganda is one-way communication created to influence opinions and motivate
people to act.
The main intention behind the communication - to influence or deceive - is the key
factor in identifying propaganda.
Experts have many different definitions of propaganda, what can be regarded as
propaganda and how we establish the difference between propaganda and other
means of persuasion such as advertising or political campaigning.
Some experts see propaganda as neither a good nor a bad thing. For example,
propaganda can be used in fundraising for charity. On the other hand, experts
claim that the public needs clear and accurate information to make the right
decision and that propaganda is an obstacle in this process. Experts also claim
that propaganda lessens the ability of the public to think rationally.
Propaganda consists of a number of individual elements and activities combined
to shape up or distribute a desired set of messages. These basic propaganda
techniques are the foundation of every propaganda effort and attempts to
influence public opinion; they can be tailor made to suit the requirements of
different media formats.
Propaganda can have short term results and relatively insignificant goals – e.g.
to motivate one to buy a product. Other propaganda types can have more serious
effects.
Propaganda is mostly used in times of war when governments campaign on a
number of issues – from food and resource rationing, conscription, public support
for the war effort or sacrifices needed for the final victory.

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Tanja Tatomirović
Psychological warfare is a special type of propaganda designed to weaken the
enemy by spreading defeatism. One of such techniques is known as brain washing,
used mostly on enemy prisoners war to crush their desire to resist any further.
A major part of the propaganda effort is usually clandestine and comes from
undisclosed sources. For example, propaganda may use falsified newspapers to
demoralize enemy soldiers with false information informing of mass losses on
their side. The so called fifth column – a group which has infiltrated enemy teritory
– can also be a part of the clandestine propaganda effort.
At the same time, open propaganda tends to come from well known sources of
information, and is easily identified as such.
To be successful, propaganda must be simple, easy to remember and reproduce
and carry simple, clear messages.
Adolf Hitler wrote: “It is very difficult for masses to understand politics due to
their limited intelligence. The masses will only memorise simple messages if
repeated for a thousand times” 1
Creators of propaganda put questionable emphasis on some facts and twist the
meaning of others. They tend to hide those facts which could provoke the public to
react in an undesired manner.
Disseminating inaccurate information is rarely used as a propaganda technique as
it can be easily contested and cause a massive loss of trust in propaganda sources.
Propaganda therefore tends to use only that information which can be readily
identified as being ‘correct’.
Censorship is usually visible in situations where the state exercises total control
over the entire system of communications. Censorship can support the propaganda
effort by censoring opinions that challenge the Government.
Propaganda comes from a number of sources; the most important are state
institutions, organizations and companies.
1 Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf (1925)

Mussolini’s Microphone 9
With few exceptions all governments including democratic ones use propaganda to
win the sympathies of other governments or nations. Governments also support
propaganda activities in news to inspire its own people to action.
Today, the word propaganda implies clandestine or coveted operations, far from
the original meaning of the word.
The term propaganda originally comes from a Latin word “propagare” –
meaning to spread around.
This term was fairly unknown until 19 th century. According to a number of sources,
the first time the term was used in its modern form was in 1622 when Pope
Gregory XV established “Congregatio de Propaganda Fide” 2 , a new body within
the Catholic Church, consisting of cardinals and other high ranking ecclesiastic
dignitaries in charge of evangelization. 3
In the earliest societies, propaganda was used to persuade, convey important
information and impose social values and norms using religious rituals, symbols
and rudimentary voice signs; later in history legends and myths were used towards
the same goal.
During the antiquity propaganda was considered a legitimate mean and a
useful rhetoric tool in the arsenal of a skilled orator. During the mid 20 th century
propaganda was considered to be a scientifically based instrument of subjugation
in the arsenal of the modern state, employed to control complex social processes.
It is important to understand that this specific form of communication existed
throughout the history though not always in the same form; it was used to
accomplish goals both personal and of an interest group.
2 The official name of the body was Sacra Congregatio Christiano Nomini Propagando and was
in fact a council of church dignitaries in charge of spreading the faith. The congregation had
a special institution for education of missionaries and its own printing press. Its formation is
dated back at the first half of the Thirty Years War which had a purely religious character (as a
war between Catholics and protestants)
3 Slavujević, dr.Zoran: “Biblijska koncepcija propagande”, Radnička štampa i Institut društvenih
nauka, Biblioteka Povodi, Beograd, 1993.

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Tanja Tatomirović
Roots of Propaganda
From the beginning of the 20 th century the term propaganda had a negative
connotation. The term still implies something bad and something associated with
lies, deception and brain washing.
Similar views have recently been associated with so called spin doctors, and are
said to have corrupted the democratic process. In their book “Age of propaganda”
psychologists Anthony Pratkanis and Eliot Aronson attempted to introduce their
readers to the sophisticated propaganda techniques currently in use and teach
them how to neutralize the negative effect of these techniques. It was necessary
to strip the term of its negative connotation before it could be used to achieve
positive goals.
Ancient Greeks viewed persuasion as an oratory skill because they thought the
logic and reason are necessary for successful transfer of ideas. The leading class
tried to influence the way its subjects think from the dawn of time. The Nazi
regime even introduced the Ministry of National Enlightenment and Propaganda,
the Soviets had the Propaganda Committee of the Communist Party, the British
had Ministry of Information while the US government operated the Bureau of
Information.
During the both world wars the Allies described the enemy’s public relations effort
as being little more than propaganda; at the same time they claimed to be the only
one communicating the truth.
The origin of the term propaganda dates back to the time of the Reformation
when Europe was shaken by a social and religious schism in the Catholic Church.
This was particularly the case in Northern Europe. During the consequent
religious wars between Catholics and Protestants the church had to think of a
way to improve its standing in non-Catholic regions of Europe.
The Council of Cardinals established under Pope Gregory XIII (1572-1585) was
in charge of spreading the Catholicism and running the affairs of the Church in
troublesome countries. A generation later after the break out of the Thirty Years
War (1618-1648) Pope Gregory XV established in 1622 “Sacra Congregatio
de Propaganda Fide” 4 which was tasked with managing the Church’s missions
4 Congregation for propaganda and faith

Mussolini’s Microphone 11
abroad. The body received funding from the tax on bells levied upon every
new cardinal prior to his investiture. In 1627 Pope Urban VII established the
Collegium Urbanum, a propaganda teaching college for the new generations of
Catholic clergy.
The first institute for propaganda was in fact a body tasked to improve spreading
of the religious dogma. The word propaganda soon became a synonym for every
organization thought to be spreading a belief or a cause. It later became a synonym
for the doctrine and the methodology of information dissemination.
Between 17 th and 20 th century propaganda was modernized alongside the
technological and scientific advances that marked the era. During the English
Civil War (1642-1646) propaganda efforts consisting of the use of pamphlets
and newspapers was an integral part of the overall war effort. Oliver Cromwell’s 5
army was equally engaged in spreading religious and political dogma and waging
war. Propaganda had its renaissance during 18 th and 19 th centuries, especially
during the American War of Independence and the French Revolution. French
Gironde Movement 6 uused propaganda on their enemies to create illusions that
desertion would be rewarded in gold. The propaganda efforts during the American
Revolution are considered to be among the most eloquent in the modern history;
its human rights inspired slogans are still in use today.
Propaganda, from an historical perspective, always accompanied social turmoil
and crisis, backed usually by the use of physical force.
Propaganda was in full swing during the Great War. Introduction of new
communication tools in the 19 th century allowed mass outreach and governments
were determined to use it for indoctrination of the masses, to mobilize available
industrial capacities in support of the war effort.
One of the most important lessons learned during the World War I was that
the public could not be ignored any more, and public opinion was considered an
essential factor in the formation of leading politics.
The Great War was the first total war engaging nations and their armies, dubbed
‘The War to end all Wars’. Propaganda was the essential part of the overall war
5 Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) English military leader and politician
6 A French political movement from XVIII century

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Tanja Tatomirović
effort for all of the warring parties, developing alongside other methods of war.
Belligerents hoped for a fast and bloody conflict. Instead the war turned into a
long and exhausting one; it included civilians more than any other war before, and
maintaining morale became a key to victory.
Propaganda was the way to influence public opinion. Newspapers, leaflets, posters
and a brand new medium – film, were controlled, censored and coordinated to
spread the official views.
At the beginning of the war, in 1914, propaganda was yet a novelty for both
sides. The British Government had the best starting position and moved quickly
to form the Ministry of Information in 1917 headed by the Lord Beaverbrook. The
Ministry operated a separate Department for Enemy Propaganda.
The British approach known as propaganda of facts presented the news by ta k ing
in special consideration the interpretation which was in support of the war effort.
When the U.S. joined the war in 1917 the approach was adopted in Washington
D.C. where the Committee of Public Information was formed. The committee was
better known as the Crile’s Committee, George W. Crile (1876-1953) was its first
director.
The Committee focused on making the war effort popular among the American
public mostly by printing posters; it also promoted war bonds.
To draw a parallel, similar activities on the part of the Germans were under
the control of the army. Despite popular opinions, Germany had a clear vision
of its propaganda effort and its methodology. A national network was soon
set to monitor the public mood. Although the authorities had all the available
resources they did not always act adequately. The reason for this can be found in
the militarization of the society and the fact that propaganda was under tight
military control.
Unlike Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia had a modest propaganda effort.
The only exception was the Bolshevik movement which in 1917 saw propaganda
as one of keys to victory.
All of the belligerents used propaganda along its war efforts to boost national
pride, improve moral and spread fear and defeatism in the enemy camp.

Mussolini’s Microphone 13
British government was leading in both the scope and effectiveness of its
propaganda.
After the end of war a general climate of suspicion towards government –
disseminated information was prominent amongst the citizenry when they
realised the scale of the cover up during the war. The fact that the truth was
being covered by catchy slogans and colorful posters, portraying the enemy as
the embodiment of evil also contributed to this suspicion. The citizens also felt
deceived because the war veterans never received promised benefits. The term
propaganda meant lies and deception, and as a consequence the Ministry of
Information was dismissed.
The similar situation was in the U.S. where George Crils Report of 1920 contributed
to public suspicions in the bona fides behind the government propaganda effort.
This created serious reputation obstacles for all further propaganda campaigns
especially during the 30’s when the government tried to motivate the people to
fight fascism.
European dictators also relied on propaganda during their rise to power. In
defeated Germany the British example created a good starting point for the
extremist’s offensive on the Weimar Republic and peace treaties.
Adolf Hitler would go on to dedicate two chapters of his main work “Mein
Kampf ” to propaganda.
British method of propaganda served as a very good starting point for the further
development of propaganda in Europe. Adolf Hitler soon realized the importance
of propaganda in his struggle to become the ruler of Germany; he considered it
one of the tools of the political marketing. It is no surprise that one of the first
ministries formed under the Nazi regime was Ministry of National Enlightenment
and Propaganda.
The role of propaganda was to attract the public attention to certain topics. It
should be simple, to the point and repeated as often as possible to inspire emotions
among its target group.
Unlike the Bolsheviks, the Nazis did not make a distinction between propaganda
and agitation. In the Soviet Russia agitation was a way to promote ideas among
the people through slogans and phrases, while the propaganda effort promoted
Marxism and Leninism.

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This clear distinction comes from Georgij Plekhanov who in 1892 said: “Propaganda
promotes ideas to one or more persons. Agitation presents one or more idea to an
entire nation”.
The Nazis did not consider propaganda as a means for the party elite, but as an
instrument for indoctrination of the general public. And if WWI showed the world
the power of propaganda the post-war period advanced it to the point it never
reached before.
Between 1870 and 1939 the communication became global in its outreach. This
period was marked by increasingly subtle global information campaigns making
propaganda a tool to advance political, national, and commercial goals.
The use of film and radio to advance political causes was a common thing in the
20’s and 30’s. Totalitarian regimes such as the one in Soviet Russia, Fascist Italy
and Nazi Germany are the most obvious examples of how media can promote
ideologies.
In the mid 30’s governments throughout Europe established different bodies in
charge of incorporating media in the overall propaganda effort.

Mussolini’s Microphone 15
Roots of Italian Fascism
Turbulent years between two world wars were a fertile ground for totalitarian
ideologies to flourish. Uneven distribution of colonies between the super
powers, economic instability, revisionism and emergence of new nations and
interest groups were among the key contributors to European instability.
In 1919, one sixth of the globe was under the first totalitarian regime of
the modern Europe – the Soviet Union. The fear of Bolshevism led some to
support what they saw was the only effective counterbalance – fascism.
Although Italy emerged victorious from the WWI, it developed revisionist
pretensions towards its war allies. The sense of frustration caused by the
limited territorial gains was amplified by the fact that the South Slavic
nations managed to form a single country on the territories seen as Italian.
Italy was deeply divided on cultural and social grounds, with its economically
underdeveloped South (where secessionist ideas were frequent) and rich
North in the full economic development swing. During the 20’s the country
was put to a serious test which threatened to undermine the national
consolidation and the Italian attempt to become an equal part of the
Entente.
Divides in the parliament and different republican movements further
burdened the political scene. The end of the first decade of the 20 th century
in Europe was marked by emergence of anarchistic and leftist movements
and Italy was no exemption. Italian intellectual and trade union circles were
particularly open to this trend.
Italian North was characterized by a strong monarchist and clerical
movements supported by a strong middle class; they soon realized the
Soviet threat to their way of life.
Italy needed a new political option able to safeguard the ruling elite.

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FASCIST OPTION
In 1919 Fascism was one of the two emerging political factions demanding
radical changes. Fascism demanded the same level of democracy as socialist,
catholic and republican parties.
The working class was initially loyal to socialist idea which had a devastating
effect on Fascist Party’s results during 1919 elections. However in summer
of 1920 the movement expanded to include 36 branches with more than
20,000 members mostly coming from urban areas of the Italian North.
During 1919 and 1920, a period named the Two Red Years, the increasingly
powerful working class participated in a series of militant strikes, protests
and riots directed against the Socialists. The opposing movement which
became known by the term ‘agrarian fascism’ gained strength against the
Socialist Party; the movement spread fascism towards southern more rural
areas gaining popular support but lacking representatives in the Italian
Parliament. 7
Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) was one of the prominent political leaders
who stood out with his radical and innovative ideas. Coming from lower
social circles he was able to formulate political views that later turned to be
devastating for Italy.
A teacher by vocation and later a journalist Mussolini spent two years in exile
in Switzerland. Upon his return he formed a radical wing of the Socialist
Party naming it “People of Italy”.
Often contradictory he promoted political views based on social justice, history,
necessity to restore lost national dignity, territorial claims and a desire
to resurrect the Roman Empire.
He entered the Parliament after 1921 elections and spends its time skillfully
balancing between royalist and republican fractions. On October 31, 1922
he became the Speaker of the Parliament following the famous 20,000 fascist
supporters strong March on Rome. From that moment on he would
become the absolute ruler of Italy and its faith.
7 M.Beasley, “Women in Journalism: Contributors to Male Experience or Voices of Feminine
Expression?” American Journalism 7

Mussolini’s Microphone 17
Guillermo Marconi 8
Although other scientists also contributed to the development of the
wireless telegraphy (Tesla, Faraday, Popov, Hertz, Edison) it was Guillermo
Marconi whose name we associate with the major scientific breakthroughs
in this field.
His first patent - “Improvements in transmitting electrical impulses and
signals and in apparatus there-for” - was registered on July 2, 1897.
Marconi’s system developed according to theories set by Nikola Tesla and
Alexander Popov brought him the title of father of wireless.
In July 1897 Marconi founded Wireless Telegraph Trading Company in
London; the company was later renamed to Marconi Wireless Telegraph
Company. The first office was opened in Chelmsford in 1898.
The first successful wireless transmitting was between Bailey Castle
in Northern Ireland and Rathlin Island, while the first transatlantic
transmitting was between Ireland and Newfoundland thanks to a 130
meters tall areal.
At the beginning of the 20 th century Marconi founded Marconi Corporation
and became the Nobel Prize laureate for physics.
Marconi next to a recorder
8 1874 -1937

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Tanja Tatomirović
In 1920 from Chelmsford Marconi transmitted the first public audio signal
in Great Britain sparking world-wide interest.
The Fascist rise to power inspires the scientist to join their ranks. He soon
becomes the Chairman of the Italian Academy of Sciences and a member of
the Grand Fascist Council.
Following Italian invasion of Ethiopia the British Broadcasting Corporation
stripped Marconi of all rights to broadcast.

Mussolini’s Microphone 19
Fascist Indoctrination
and use of radio
From its early days radio was used as a weapon of war.
Governments and big corporations had the greatest influence on the development
of radio and the ways it was to be used. During the 30’s radio became
the main propaganda and counter-propaganda tool suitable both for
national and international use. A large number of legal and illegal stations
emerged broadcasting various political viewpoints including those of partisans,
which was incredibly important during the WWII.
The use of radio in support of the war effort was enabled by its main technical
features. Radio was suitable for cost effective mass advertising efforts.
The early history of radio reveals the importance of technology both in war
and in peace time.
Broadcasts were not limited to the national level. During the 30’s Europe
was covered by a network of stations. Their broadcasts heralded the upcoming
WWII. Every broadcast seemed to have a counter-broadcast, designed
to limit its influence; these shows were broadcast in short and medium length
waves from increasingly modern radio stations. 9
Introduction of the short wave broadcasting invigorated the radio war. In
1930 Europe had only three short wave radio stations. In 1937 there were
over 40.
Governments were the most influential promoters of radio, especially military
and corporate circles. They regulated the radio usage by setting up state
monopolies or exercising control over distribution of broadcasting frequencies.
Taming of the radio by the state or corporations was never total due to technical
limitations of the medium. Some of the most important facts were:
• Radio is a medium for public information
• Radio waves were easily subjected to jamming
9 In 1962 the total of 116KW was used, and in 1938 - 8000KW

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Tanja Tatomirović
• Radio can be easily broadcast outside the reach of government
• It is hard for an ordinary listener to determine the source of the
broadcast
• Broadcast costs were steadily decreasing
As the public information source radio enables a very small group of people to
control dissemination of information. It is therefore only natural that both
governments and corporations understand the need to control this medium.
The technology behind the radio is perfect for propaganda efforts and at the
same time that technology gives a good excuse to those governments who
want to control radio including here distribution of frequencies within a
closed circle of allies.
Having in mind that radio broadcasts reach people outside the country, radio
is a very good tool for communication during international crisis as well as
in promoting the local system of values. This fact explains why Europe in the
30’s was overwhelmed with radio shows in languages foreign to country of
their origin.
Because the radio was easily jammed, governments soon developed ways
to block foreign broadcasts. A large number of so called “grey” and “black”
radio stations prove that there are benefits to be drawn out of the fact that
the listeners cannot easily determine the source of broadcasts.
Had the radio stayed an expensive technology it would most inevitably fall
under total control of governments or corporations. Having in mind that
broadcasting costs were steadily decreasing radio became available to an
increasing number of people.
During the first couple of decades the radio amateurs gave impetus to the
development of radio; at the same time they presented a major threat
to governments and corporations seeking to control dissemination of
information. Relatively low broadcasting costs allowed different rouge and
resistance groups to use radio. Control of the radio waves was always loose
because constantly improving technology made the total control almost
impossible.

Mussolini’s Microphone 21
If the fascist regime did not manage to get a firm grip over the cultural
life in Italy, it achieved magnificent results in presenting itself to the
world. To achieve this, the regime used radio as well as all other means
of communication such as publications, newspapers, films and tourist
agencies.
The process of forming the Italian Ministry of Culture and Propaganda is
a unique one. As a professional journalist Mussolini understood well how
to use press to its own advantage and tap on its influence on people. His
regime imposed greater control over the media with decrees issued on July
10, 1923.
The history of the radio in Italy starts with the Italian Radio Union in 1924.
As a state owned monopoly URI 10 started broadcasting on October 6, 1924.
The first step towards serious political indoctrination was the broadcast of
the Mussolini’s speech on the 5th anniversary of the Fascist Combat Groups
on March 25 1924 held at the Constanci Theatre in Rome. The broadcast
was a complete failure; due to technical problems the speech was mostly
incomprehensible. Mussolini was disappointed after this fiasco and decided
to leave radio for the time being. This was nevertheless the beginning of
the radio era, an era of propaganda and communication that would leave a
lasting mark on Italy.
In 1926 Italy had 26,865 registered radio receivers, a number that prevented
any serious use of radio as a mass indoctrination medium. Throughout the
20’s printed media had absolute advantage over the radio, a position that
would soon be lost due to high illiteracy rates, especially in South Italy.
By the end of 1930’s the print propaganda was regime’s weapon of choice,
and radio grew in significance as the government realized the level of
illiteracy in some parts of Italy.
By the end of November 1927 the government formed EIAR 11 the Italian
Association of Radio Broadcasters which received substantial government
financial support.
10 Unione Radiofonica Italiana
11 Ente Italiana Associazione Radioemitenti

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For a number of years the radio was a status symbol and a privilege of the
rich, mostly due to the fact that the domestic industry failed to mass produce
widely affordable receivers.
After a detailed analysis of the educational and propaganda capabilities of
the radio the regime kicked off a campaign to introduce a radio in every
Italian village (emphasizing the mass outreach); it was a replica of a similar
campaign held in Germany under the title “A radio in every house”.
Radio receiver VE-301 12
Increased efficiency of the German industry allowed the invention and production
of VE-301 Radio Receiver, the first generally affordable radio.
In time the radio became an information service of the Fascist regime. The
celebration of the first anniversary of the March on Rome, held in Milano
on October 26, 1926 was in details broadcast on the radio, for all of Italy to
hear.
The prime minister’s voice was constantly on air on issues ranging from the
Spanish Civil War to fall harvest results.
Radio Milano and Radio Rome broadcast nationwide covering the entire country.
Due to the inability of government to achieve deeper penetration of radio
among the population radio receivers were soon installed on Italian squares;
this secured the maximal outreach and the government messages became an
integral part of life.
Use of mass-media was of great importance to totalitarian regimes due to the
innovations it introduced to communications and indoctrination processes.
The most frequently used medium was the radio.
12 Volksempfänger, 1933

Mussolini’s Microphone 23
When the fascist secured their grip on power they did not immediately realized
all the potential of the radio. At the beginning of his dictatorship Mussolini
preferred public appearances to radio as well as many other politicians and
artists who underestimated the talking box.
At the same time the radio slowly conquered the rest of the world as the main
communications medium.
Italy had to wait the 30’s to see a mass use of the radio.
The motive behind Mussolini’s decision to prefer public appearances over the
radio was well founded. Italy was at the time a country of many inequalities.
Cultural and social differences were clearly visible and that had a great influence
on the popularity of the radio.
The high illiteracy rates and different dialects used in different parts of the
country also complicated the matter; the South had exceptionally small newspaper
readership.
Radio as a communications tool was not used properly from the beginning.
In 1926 Mussolini announced that public offices could not be occupied without
a prior consent from the state. This decree also regulated the radio,
film, opera, drama, concerts and the ballet. The decree allowed the Fascists to
extend the control over new parts of Italian society. 13
In 1927 Italy had five radio stations broadcasting over 6000 hours of program
(11 hours every day) from Rome, Milano, Napoli, Bolzano and Genoa; their
audience was estimated at around 61,500 registered radio subscribers. 14
Despite its late start in 1932 the state controlled radio broadcasting system
soon became respected throughout Europe. In September of 1932 a new
radio broadcasting center was opened in Rome. 15
13 Walter B. Emery, “National and International Systems of Broadcasting: Their History,
Operation and Control”, Michigan State University Press, 1969
14 Philip V. Cannistraro, “The Organization of Totalitarian Culture: Cultural Policy and the Mass
Media in Fascist Italy, 1922-1945”, New York University, 1971
15 Sergio, “From Intervention to Empire: A Book of Fascist Dates”, http://openlibrary.org/a/
OL256636A

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Italians could brag about with 14 radio stations at the time, a cable network
of 3700km in length and even two complete symphonic orchestras each
with 80 musicians working exclusively for the radio.
The UK press based in Nottingham marveled at the fact that “Italian network
is organized in a way to allow nationwide broadcasts regardless of the actual
location of the covered event.” 16
The idea to create a central radio station came from the need of the fascist
regime. It was supposed to announce a new way of communications, one
with huge propaganda potential. The modest studios used to date became
obsolete and unable to meet the growing demands of the regime. Together
with the decree to establish EIAR on December 29, 1927 the government
decided to build a new radio HQ, impressive and providing all the necessary
technical and technological conditions for successful broadcast.
This is how the government initiated the building of the “House of the Radio”
which spanned from 1929 to 1931.
The spatial characteristics of the neighborhood designated to host the building
put the architects to the test. The urban planning rules and the strict
purpose of the building guided the planners to come up with a highly recognizable
and functional building. The original project envisioned seven recording
halls with the largest, located on the second floor, measuring 420
sqm. A slightly smaller hall B located in the mezzanine was designed to host
smaller orchestras and recitals. The installed equipment was state of the art.
Rome’s broadcasting house had thick walls and soundproof recording studios that
created the impression that “a man becomes deaf when walking in. We couldn’t
even hear the symphony orchestra playing in the room next to us”. 17
In the years following the foundation of the Italian Radio Union fascism
used the radio as the national loudspeaker to convey dry speeches given by
16 “Italy’s Radio Progress”, The Nottingham News, 23 January 1934. Box 19 Folder 1, Lisa
Sergio Papers, Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C.
Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C., http://library.
georgetown.edu/
17 Ibidem

Mussolini’s Microphone 25
the party officials; during these years different censorship techniques were
also tested.
The studio in Rome
In 1933 the radio was put under a serious, scientific scrutiny which resulted
in creation of radio stations tailor made to suit the needs of particular social
groups; this allowed fascism to penetrate deeper in all parts of the Italian
society. This is how School Radio and Village Radio were created.
Mussolini’s plan to broadcast tailor made propaganda programs was put
to test on Village Radio (Radio Rurale) 18 a station with program specially
designed to introduce fascism to the country’s rural population.
The radio played a crucial role in this process. At the beginning the radio
shows for youth were broadcast during afternoon hours. This allowed the
students to listen to the talking box – a popular description of the radio
at the time – during afterschool hours. In time these shows gained in
popularity which forced radio stations to include youth radio programs in
their broadcast schedule.
Under the initiative launched by the Association of Radio Broadcasters the
radio became an integral part of education curriculum. Educational shows
with strong propaganda background were recorded glorifying fascism,
Italian history and military and technical achievements of the nation.
In 1934 Italy had 365,000 registered radio receivers or 8.6 on every 1000
people. It was among the smallest percentages in Europe: Spain had 7.7,
18 Cannistraro, “The Organization of Totalitarian Culture: Cultural Policy and the Mass Media in
Fascist Italy, 1922-1945”, 185-186

26
Tanja Tatomirović
Lithuania 7.1 and Poland 9.75. Short wave broadcasting was directed towards
countries with significant number of radio subscribers such as France
(33.1), USA (147.9) and Great Britain (133.4). 19
The lack of production capacities forced the regime to promote communal listening
of the radio in party branch offices, army barracks and city squares.
Radio enters schools and factories. In time radio became affordable due to
the mass production of a special type of radio receiver called RURAL which
was later used for mass indoctrination of the youth.
The collective listening to the radio in schools became mandatory on April
19, 1933. The voice of Mussolini became a part of everyday life. The idea
that the regime is omnipresent was deliberately created along the picture
of Mussolini as the supreme lord and benefactor; a cult of all powerful leader,
standing guard over the fate of the nation was created. Fascism focused
from the beginning on youth education mostly by founding different party
and paramilitary organizations for all ages.
The indoctrination reached its height towards the end of 1939 when a number
of racially themed shows were broadcast.
Even though it was developed and had great potential the radio was never
fully integrated in the regime’s official communication policy at least not
in the same measure as other media. Scholars noted that totalitarian governments
were responsible for the fast development of the mass-media
– mostly film and radio – but that they have mostly underestimated their
potential favoring of the newspapers.
“Even after the War in Ethiopia when the films started to take over as the communication
method of choice of the fascist regime, radio was still number three of the
most favorite communications channels” said Phillip Cannistraro, an expert on
Italian radio. 20
This was partly due to the controlling method which favored the print over
radio. It was relatively easy to prevent the printing of the opposition newspapers.
Prevention of unwanted radio broadcasts was significantly more di-
19 A.R. Burrows, “World Radio Population over 176.000.000” Broadcasting, 15 April 1934, 13.
20 Cannistraro, “The Radio in Fascist Italy”, 127, 153.

Mussolini’s Microphone 27
fficult and no one could stop the short wave broadcasts from outside Italy
(the general feeling at the time was that a few Italians actually listened to
foreign programs in Italian). 21
The inability of governments to censor short wave broadcasts was the strategic
advantage used by Mussolini’s regime to produce these programs and
influence foreign audiences.
21 Daniel Waley, British Public Opinion and the Abyssinian War 1935-6. London: Maurice
Temple Smith, 1975. 229.

28
Tanja Tatomirović
German School
When Nazis seized power in Germany in 1933 the potential of the radio as
a propaganda tool was well recognized. The fact that Germany, despite its
war losses, retained a high technological literacy propelled the popularity of
radio. In his book “Mein Kampf” Hitler wrote the following: “in the skillful
hands radio is a weapon more powerful than a bomb or artillery”.
Joseph Goebbels, media theorist and propaganda innovator said: “True
radio is propaganda. Propaganda means to fight on every battleground including
the battleground of the spirit to destroy it and then renew it in the everlasting and
repeating process.”
Under the supervision of Goebbels the radio becomes the key tool to create
fifth columns in almost every European state. Despite the fact that the
propaganda shows were tailor made to fit the need of each of the countries
they were a propaganda tool for the anti-Semitic agenda of the Third Reich.
These broadcasts labeled Jews as the source of all problems in Europe but
also focused on the USSR and the threat of communism.
Radio became a powerful weapon in the hands of Nazi propaganda masters
which in time became able to provoke various sentiments among listeners.
The concept of these shows indicates that the Nazis viewed people as easily
manipulated masses. The radio was used to broadcast all kinds of lies in
order to manipulate as many people as possible. It was of vital essence for
propaganda to keep up with developments on the frontline of battle.
According to Hitler by reporting on front news, conquests and victories, the
radio should contribute towards mental confusion, contradictory feelings,
excitement, panic among the enemy while at the same time creating a strong
belief in the final victory and national unity at home.
As a propaganda tool radio was far more efficiently used by the Nazis than in
Fascist Italy. In regard to other communication channels such as newspapers,
radio shows were more straightforward, with more content and thus ideal
to manipulate emotions.
To embed the message in the heads and minds of their listeners, propaganda
masters used three psychological methods:

Mussolini’s Microphone 29
1.
2.
3.
Simplifying the ideology and theory to ensure easy comprehension;
Constantly repeating the same message;
Adding the appropriate slogan to the repeating ritual to help
people memorize the message.
This was the first time in the history of radio that its use as a propaganda
tool was brought to perfection. The purpose given to radio by the Nazis will
remain in use by other governments and propaganda centers outliving the
Nazi regime long after the end of WWII. One of the proofs is a statement
by Goebbels: “During a war, news should be given out for instruction rather than
information.”
During the WWI German chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg 22 issued a list of
26 prohibited things to prevent unwanted information from reaching the
public.
Newspapers were the source of information at the time and the way for
politicians to speak to the public; they were the only source of information
on the war, information previously cleared by the army.
Radio introduced new standards in journalism and new ways to influence
the public. Among the first to realize that potential was Joseph Goebbels,
the head of the German Ministry of Propaganda.
Goebbels was successful in controlling the radio though he was far more
successful in controlling the printed media.
22 Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg (1856 – 1921)

30
Tanja Tatomirović
International Outreach of the Italian Propaganda
International propaganda was one of the main activities of the fascist regime
in which it invested most of the time and resources and achieved significant
credibility.
The success is visible in a statement by Gaettano Salvemini: 23 “Having in
mind that we have suppressed the opposition in Italy the regime could literally do
everything it wanted in the media. Abroad however we could not smash heads but
had to win them over like we did with a lot of them.”
Since 1933 Italy extended its outreach and began broadcasting its propaganda
on short waves across the globe spreading the fascist idea in Europe,
America and South America.
In response, France launched its own short wave radio service in 1935 broadcasting
globally in English and Spanish. Germany soon joined them and
established its own global service reaching out to North, Central and South
America, Africa and Asia.
It is not a coincidence that radio broadcasts in foreign language appeared
at the same time when daily propaganda news bulletins appeared on the
waves.
The methodology used to promote fascism abroad much resembled the one
used for domestic purposes – reality was ornamented to create sympathies
towards fascism. In this respect propaganda became one of the key elements
of the Italian foreign policy until the tragic events of 1943 revealed just how
corrupted the system was.
It is hard to pin the exact date when Italian fascists decided to promote
themselves abroad using radio in a serious and systematic way as the process
was multilayered and complex.
Initiatives undertaken towards this goal during the mid30’s were more a
response to negative reactions abroad than a planned action. In January
1931 Mussolini spoke in English to the members of Italian diaspora in USA
23 Gaetano Salvemini (1873-1957) theorist and politician. One of the biggest opponents of
fascism.

Mussolini’s Microphone 31
and Canada; the date can be taken as a symbolic start of the Italian propaganda
effort abroad.
The launch of the Emerald Field Radio Station showed that the effort received
serious political connotation. To show the extent of the effort its worth
mentioning that the station was used by scientist and artists in service
of the regime who glorified the achievements of the Italian fascism at the
movement’s 10th anniversary in 1932.
Radio Italy was intended mostly for Italian diaspora abroad where it was
gladly received. It focused on music and the first political shows were added
in 1928 by the order of mandatory inclusion of political shows on all Radio
Stations issued by the National Radio Committee.
The first serious attempt was the launch of the Radio Bari on August 15,
1933 with programs in Albanian language. The radio was a short wave station
whose content was created under the watchful eye of the Italian Oriental
Chamber of Commerce.
In 1935 in London the Times wrote that Italy “is ahead of other countries when
it comes to special broadcasts in foreign languages. The shows are clearly intended
for the local audience in these countries and are broadcast in local languages”. 24
According to the Times the broadcasts carried shows “carefully crafted and
written from the Italian point of view to influence the domestic public opinion”. 25
At later stages the outreach was extended to the Balkans and the Middle
East where broadcasts in Arabic introduced economic and political topics
to local audiences; the aim was to help secure the Italian hegemony in the
Mediterranean.
Broadcasts in Italian were developed to meet demands from Libya, an Italian
colony at the time, and they became an important factor in propaganda
directed towards the rest of the world.
24 “Propaganda By Radio, Italian Activity Increasing,” The Times of London, 21 September
1935. Box 19 Folder 1, Lisa Sergio Papers, Georgetown University Library, Special Collections
Division, Washington, D.C. Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division,
Washington, D.C.
25 Ibidem

32
Tanja Tatomirović
Other activities include news on key world events and trending political
issues broadcast on short waves in several European languages and directed
towards the Americas in an effort to reach out to local Italian diaspora based
there.
In 1932 Italy planned a colonial conquest of Ethiopia trying at the same
time to prevent the involvement of the major European powers. Ethiopia
was of no real importance to England or France but Italy expected problems
for invading a founding member of the League of Nations.
Mussolini’s conquest showed the inability of the League of Nations to
guarantee global security. League imposed partial sanctions banning exports
to Italy and limiting its access to international loans as well as imposing ban
on weapons trade with Italy. The sanctions were not efficiently enforced and
were only partly supported by the members of the League (e.g. USA did not
support the sanctions).
Mussolini invaded Ethiopia in October of 1935 launching a full scale war
with artillery and air force. After seven months following the decision of
Haile Selassie to flee the country, Mussolini declared Ethiopia a part of the
Italian Fascist Empire. The first radio broadcasts were dedicated to the discussions
led in the League of Nations and sanctions against Italy. These broadcasts
attracted so much attention that they received coverage in USA. The
New York based “Paris Letter” wrote that Italian broadcast in five languages
was picked up in Paris at 7 pm and that the public was fascinated by the fact
that almost all of the presenters were women. 26
The imminence of the Italian campaign in Ethiopia resulted in increased
focus on that particular part of Africa; radio propaganda picked up pace and
offered a number of different shows underlining the limiting influence of
the League of Nations and its attempts to fight against Mussolini’s colonial
appetites. At the same time one of the main goals of this particular effort
was to justify the upcoming war at home. This was the first major test for
the dictator’s propaganda machinery, also tasked to divert the public attention
from the negative effects of the economic crisis.
26 One of them was Lisa Sergio

Mussolini’s Microphone 33
This time the radio proved its efficiency, building on the fact that it now
covered the entire country.
The rest of the propaganda effort was directed at the European audience.
For example, the Italian Embassy in London received 14,600 pounds to fuel
its propaganda effort and disseminate thousands of propaganda leaflets
across the country.
The Italian ambassador in the United Kingdom Dino Grandi reported to
Mussolini “our arguments were well received among the public. In return we
have received many letters of acknowledgment from the members of the public
and a single person returned the materials”. 27 Radio, however, was much faster
in spreading news than leaflets were.
27 Sergio, “It was a day so long ago”, http://openlibrary.org/a/OL256636A

34
Tanja Tatomirović
reDiscovering America
Together with Argentine and Uruguay, the United States of America were
home to the largest Italian community in the world. The peacetime propaganda
effort of the Italian regime in the Americas can be considered one of
the most extensive propaganda efforts in the history of the Italian fascist
regime.
As Matteo Fochessati wrote in the 1920’s, in the eyes of the Italian fascist
radio was a tool that was easier to control than to use rationally.
In 1930 the brother of the Italian dictator Arnaldo Mussolini said the role of
the radio was to educate through entertainment.
The first extensive assessment of the radio and its potential was done in
1936 alongside the war campaign in Ethiopia when the State Secretary for
the National Culture and the future Minister Dino Alfieri defined the radio
as a political tool. 28
The reality however was in the fact that Benito Mussolini understood the
potential of the radio late in the process. This can be attributed to the fact
that the broadcasting network was lagging behind the major European competition
but also to the fact that Mussolini had a contradictory personality
and had simply made a bad assessment.
The regime reacted only after Marconi established the first intercontinental
radio connection between the United Kingdom and Australia. “The official
newspapers of the regime “People of Italy” wrote: “Broadcasting picked up
pace in America and Great Britain, Germany and France, as well as in Egypt and
across the British dominions. The fact that the home of Guillermo Marconi is beginning
with broadcasts after Congo or carefree Pacific islands of Njam Njam is
a shame.” 29
Marconi’s confidant count Louigi Sollari wrote to Mussolini explaining the
importance of advertising his cause abroad: “I have always tried to utilize radio
telegraphy to promote the Italian cause abroad. Now I intend to develop a radio
28 Matteo Fochessati, “The Voice of the world, pictures of the Italian radio between two World
Wars”, Genoa, 1990.
29 „Il Popolo d´Italia“ Rome, 1925

Mussolini’s Microphone 35
network to broadcast news from Italy throughout Eastern Europe and America,
where news usually arrives late and is deliberately misinterpreted by the foreign
news agencies. It is in Italian interest and interest of the fascist movement that
we deliver our news without any interference.” 30
The copy of this letter was sent to Italian Parliament to complement the
speech delivered by Sollari on the importance of radio telegraphy. In June
1924 first radio broadcasts received positive evaluation and a year later the
Italian government installed a short wave 12 kW-strong transmitter on the
outskirts of Rome. The launch, originally planned for the commemoration
of the 7th anniversary of the March on Rome, was delayed for a year due to
technical difficulties. It was not until 1930 that the Italian Radio Association
(EIAR) was able to announce that “the voice of the eternal Rome will be
available in all four corners of the Earth thanks to the new high tech short wave
technology.” 31 “In Rome we present the strongest radio station in Europe”
30 Italian Stated Archives, January 16, 1924
31 Giovani Antonio Colona, addressing the Parliament, February 4th, 1924

36
Tanja Tatomirović
Due to bureaucratic difficulties the launch was postponed for a number
of times until Rome was finally able to address the Italian community
worldwide.
The program of the first broadcasts to America was made to link the Italian
community in the US with their home country.
The broadcasts were also used to secure technological upper hand for the
Fascist regime. A New York-based pro-fascist weekly “Carocco” proudly
announced the first ever broadcast from Rome to Italian community in Los
Angeles.
The early broadcasts neglected experts who suggested program improvements
and they failed to attract larger audience in the USA. Even the local
Italian dailies in the US did not show any interest in these broadcasts.
Instead, they chose to focus on Marconi and his plans to develop radio
technology. 32
To make things worse, the audience was not willing to give any feedback
on the quality of the program to EIAR. Frequent broadcasts of Mussolini’s
public speeches did little to attract new listeners. Even Mussolini’s special
address to the people of Americas, delivered on January 1, 1931 failed
to attract new audience; this situation changed in the mid 30’s when the
Fascist regime introduced a new broadcasting strategy.
The success of the Italian propaganda effort was increased with the launch
of global news agencies, such as Stefani News Agency, and in particular with
the establishment of the State Press Agency, later transformed in to the
Directorate for Propaganda. In late 1934 the regime also established the
Supreme Committee for Monitoring of Radio Broadcasts in charge of exercising
control over all radio broadcasts.
The total state control over the broadcasts came in an aftermath of a visit
to Germany and the local propaganda agencies made by the members of the
Supreme Committee. After the visit Italian regime assumed full control of
all media in the country.
32 An Interview with Marconi, “Italian-American progress”, July 5th, 1930

Mussolini’s Microphone 37
One of the novelties was the beginning of the monitoring process that
allowed the regime full insight into foreign broadcasts; the monitoring was
undertaken by the Ministry of Propaganda.
In 1934 the strength of the Radio station “Emerald field” was increased to
25kw. A new short wave transmitter was put into operation on October
28 at the 12th anniversary of the March on Rome, though not without
difficulties.
Radio technology of “The Emerald Field” in 1931
“Emerald Field” in 1941

38
Tanja Tatomirović
The program was broadcast with strong support from a number of members
of the Italian community in the USA, Italian diplomats and Italian-co mmunity
orientated dailies.
As reported in the press “Unfavorable weather conditions influenced the short
wave broadcasts shutting down all radio stations”. 33
With the upcoming campaign in Ethiopia the quality of signal was
significantly improved. The program designed for the audience in the USA
was improved and made relevant to recipients which helped win the Italian
community’s support for the Ethiopian campaign as shown by increase in
the financial donations and increased lobbying to influence the US political
establishment.
Economic sanctions imposed on Italy in response to her aggression on
Ethiopia increased the number of radio appeals for aid in badly needed
raw materials. One of the notable appeals was made by Pietro Carboneli, a
member of the Italian-American Chamber of Commerce in New York and
a correspondent of the “Evening Courier” who said: “We are all aware of the
fact that by buying Italian products we are not only helping ourselves but also
our compatriots fighting in Ethiopia for a better future of our homeland. To buy
an Italian product means to support our agriculture and industry in their effort
to cancel the effects of the economic sanctions and improve lives of our workers,
currently undertaking heroic efforts for the benefit of our homeland. We are
helping Italy to obtain badly needed foreign currency. Buying Italian products is
a way to support our homeland in her fight against those imperialistic forces who
try to bring her down to knees, to humiliate and destroy her with sanctions.” 34
It is interesting to mention that the exporting companies did not bother to
sell Italian products in areas not covered by Fascist radio.
The Italian ambassador in US reported back to the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs: “I would like to point out that we have a significant community of Italians
in the USA, more than 5 million and that we must make an effort to inspire a
sense of solidarity and interest in Italian affairs as they can exercise a significant
influence on the local political scene and public opinion.”
33 Radio station “Emerald Field”, “Radio Courier” from March 17 to March 23, 1935
34 The speech of Pietro Carboneli over the radio station “Wow” on January 25, 1936

Mussolini’s Microphone 39
Propaganda was strengthened in the English speaking world in an effort to
spur anti-British sentiment and create sympathy for the Fascist movement
and Italy.
Local Italian-American press promoted homeland broadcast programs
appealing to the community to listen to the voice of the motherland.
During the military campaign, special programs in English were broadcast
in Africa, portraying the intervention as necessary and inferring that the
position of official Washington was indifferent towards those opposed to
the Italian expansion. More than a few commentators characterized the
conquest of Abyssinia as a crusade to spread Catholicism and values of the
modern civilization.
One of the major obstacles for the Italian propaganda effort was the
unique perception of the radio among people in the US who saw it more
as an entertainment than source of information. Italian community was
surveyed to determine the most effective way to disseminate information.
Radio-based propaganda that included calls for humanitarian aid through
the Red Cross was expanded to include appeals for financial support. This
turned the radio into a tool for mobilization and a tool for creating greater
cohesion between Italy and its compatriots in Americas; fascism gained
support within the Italian communities across Americas raising morale
and creating a sense of national pride for the country that emerged as an
important international power.
Military victories in Africa left significant impact across the USA where the
members of the Italian community organized a string of public celebrations
in all the major cities. The newspapers “Italian Nation” reports: “Members of
the Italian community showed up in thousands from all parts of Philadelphia and
chanted in favor of Italy and Mussolini and processions with live music converged
into one huge celebration of the Italian might and glory.” 35
Less emotional, although not less important was the campaign to promote
Italian products as a way to support the homeland through the sanctions
imposed by the League of Nations.
35 “Italian people delighted by victory”, “Italian Nation”, May 6, 1936

40
Tanja Tatomirović
Angelo Flavio Guidi, a journalist for the “Italian-American Way Forward”
newspapers, reported to the Ministry of Press and Propaganda that “a
number of Italian celebrities helped promote the economic significance of buying
Italian merchandize contributing significantly to the increase of Italian exports
to the USA.” 36
In mid October 1935 Ministry of Press and Propaganda dispatched a special
mission to the USA to evaluate the effectiveness of the Italian propaganda
effort to promote Fascism among the local Italian community. During the
mission a number of cooperation agreements were signed with American
broadcasters to extend the outreach and the quality of programs. On
February 17, local radio stations in the US re-broadcast the Radio Emerald
Field and the speech given by Galeazzo Ciano 37 to the members of the Italian
Community in the States.
Italian propaganda was similar to Nazi propaganda in the way they influenced
their compatriots abroad: “German government allocated $30 million towards
the propaganda effort in the USA. The existing spy network, established to provide
information on the military and the industry, was complemented by a skillfully
organized and led organization equally dangerous as the direct spy activities.
German Radio programs broadcast from eight centers were of major propaganda
significance.” 38
Financial support was the only difference between the Italian and German
radio propaganda effort. After the evaluation mission returned to Italy,
Bernardo Bergamaschi 39 ssuggested the acquisition of a US-based radio
station to the Italian government to increase the quality of broadcasts
and reduce costs. Negotiations were launched but never concluded due to
constant financial problems.
Bilateral agreements with the US based broadcasters were cancelled in
protest of their broadcast of the Ethiopian Governments appeal for US
sanctions on Italy.
36 De Pepo, “Propaganda in the United States”, Washington, 1936
37 Galeazzo Ciano (1903-1944), diplomat, later Minister of Foreign Affairs,
Mussolini’s son in law
38 Washington Herald, 1938.
39 Bernardo Bergamaschi, an Inspector at the Ministry of Radio and Propaganda

Mussolini’s Microphone 41
In spite of that Mussolini’s speeches declaring the Empire were broadcast in
the USA and created a climate of collective excitement and resurrected national
pride affecting not just the Italian community but the rest of the world,
too.
During the last weeks of the Ethiopian campaign a high ranking official from
the Ministry of Press and Propaganda George Nelson Page, an American with
Italian citizenship, visited Washington D.C. to reestablish the relationships
with the local broadcasters. This renewed cooperation came about on July
15, 1934, with the broadcast of a special radio program honoring a joint
flight across the Atlantic made earlier that year by a group of 24 Italian
airplanes. 40
The idea to infiltrate agents in radio stations was never neglected. The most
famous case is that of Lisa Sergio 41 , an official of the Radio Emerald Field for
English and French-speaking markets, whose role ever-remained unclear.
The official Rome relied on the individual activities implemented by the
diplomatic staff, as it was the case with the Consulate General in San
Francisco, in charge of financing local radio stations broadcasting in
Italian.
One of them broadcast a speech given by Mario Lauro on the 15th
anniversary of the March on Rome: “The wind of change started by the March
on Rome created a new spirit and mentality of the Italian people, both at home
and abroad, reaching the hearts of our compatriots across the world, making
them, as per Duce’s desire, more proud of their Roman history.” 42
Lauro was a correspondent of the “Telegraph” newspapers and a coordinator
of all Fascist activities in the USA.
The Fascist propaganda during the 30’s successfully influenced the local
radio stations broadcasting in Italian. Live broadcasts were made from all
events important to the local Italian community and all visits of the Italian
40 A Propaganda transatlantic flight from Orb et ell to Chicago without landing under the
command of Ital Balbo, the Minister of Aviation
41 Elisa Sergio (1905-1989), Italian radio announcer, known as “Golden voice of Rome”
42 The speech of Mario Lauro on “W3xal” radio, November 13, 1937

42
Tanja Tatomirović
officials. The program was in favor of naturalization to help spread the
Fascism in the USA.
Antifascist propaganda grew parallel to fascist efforts to promote them.
Serious accusations and offences were exchanged over the radio frequently.
In all cities with sizable Italian communities special portions of the Radio
programs were dedicated to immigrants.
Broadcasts in foreign languages were an integral part of the programs
spreading the economic messages, an important aspect for the commercial
radio stations.
More than 200 radio stations across the USA broadcast program in Italian,
mostly along the eastern coast where the majority of Italians in the USA
lived. Italian hour, as it was known at the time, was a popular broadcast in
Boston, New York, Philadelphia and Bridgeport.
A variety of programs, political marketing and disseminated information
attracted the attention of the US Congress and military intelligence services.
All of the major newspapers printed a statement of Girolamo Valenti,
chairman of the Antifascist Association, given before the Congressional
Committee set up to investigate fascist and anti-American activities in
the US: “Radio became the main way to spread fascist propaganda. New York
based radio stations WBNX, WOW, WHAM and WHAB broadcast Italian
programs drenched with fascism. Radio programs start and end with fascist
national anthem and they glorify Mussolini and his imperialistic policies. It is
understandable that these companies do not allow any criticism of the Fascist
movement in their broadcasts.” 43
According to the FBI analysis one of the major sponsors of pro-Fascist
broadcasts in the USA was Julius Patruzzo, the Sales Director of the Fernet
Branca beverages. 44
San Francisco based radio station KRE broadcast commercials paid by Rossi
Cigars mocking the British and French democracies.
43 Francesco Nardini, “Who is financing the Fascist radio?”, September 2, 1938
44 Today it is called “Amaro”, Milan, Italy

Mussolini’s Microphone 43
Local radio stations were often under pressure from local Italians, Fascist
sympathizers, not just to secure their favorable attitude towards Fascism
but also to help them gain political influence in Italy.
Before the WWII intelligence agencies estimated that more than 2 million
people listened to Italian radio shows in New York alone, which basically
covered one third of the entire Italian population in the US.
Fascist indoctrination was not conducted exclusively in Italian language.
Numerous individual campaigned for Fascism in English language such as
Charles Coglin, a catholic priest from Detroit and a staunch supporter of
Mussolini and Fascist ideology.
Coglin’s speeches were so radical that they even made the Italian government
distance itself from him. 45
At the beginning of the Second World War the radio propaganda picked up
in pace.
In 1937 Italian Ambassador in the USA Fulvio Suvic analyzed the radio
propaganda effort in a report sent to Ministry of Press and Propaganda: “I am
convinced that the radio is the easiest way to reach target groups. However I think
we should not rely exclusively on bilateral agreements with local broadcasters in
light of the fact that they represent the interests of their Government. Due to the
significant percentage of illiterate people within the Italian community the radio
remains the best propaganda tool.” 46
In 1941, to give just one example, broadcasts for Boston area were picked
up by 85.4 percent of people compared to 76.6 percent who picked up
broadcasts in English language. On February 12, 1938 Italian Ministry of
National Culture and its Inspectorate General of Radio and TV formed a
special service to plan and analyze new propaganda efforts abroad.
During this period Mussolini launched the biggest and the most powerful
radio transmitter of the Radio Emerald Field named the Imperial Rome.
45 Teodor Kovalef, “Father Coglin and Mussolini, impossible allies”,
Church and State Journal, 1971
46 Fulvio Suvic to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Washington, 1937. USA Archives,
http://www.archives.gov/

44
Tanja Tatomirović
This equipped fascist propaganda machinery with a powerful tool for grass
root indoctrination, not just in America but throughout the world.
Following the Italian invasion of Albania on April 7, 1939, Ministry of
Culture and Propaganda, started broadcasting in Greek for the members of
the Greek community in the USA to win them over for the idea of the Italian
(re)occupation of parts of the Balkan Peninsula.
In November 1939 analysis showed a necessity to increase the propaganda
effort in the USA to help secure American neutrality in the event of war with
England or France.
In June 1940 Italian broadcasts last for two and a half hours a day mostly
during the evening prime time. 47
Inspectorate General of the Radio and TV took steps to include political
messages in broadcasts. These attempts were met with a number of
technical obstacles. Stefany News Agency closed for business at the time
when broadcasts for the North America were about to start which made it
impossible to add the latest news to the program. Extending the broadcasts
by half an hour increased the use of lamps on transmitting aerials which was
unacceptable as the lamps were imported goods.
EIAR never wanted to take the responsibility to extend the program without
the prior authorization from the Ministry of National Culture. Unlike Rome,
Nazi Berlin had a six hour program, three times longer than the Fascists. 48
Consulate General in Philadelphia soon joined the growing calls for extended
broadcasting times to curb the growing anti-Fascist propaganda from UK
based media: “Extending the news from the front lines would be useful to limit
the effect of the news spread by other foreign news agencies”.
The solution was found in the re-broadcasting of the “Daily Op-Ed”, a
program originally intended for distribution in Italy which increased the
number of listeners significantly. This was the first time the members of the
Italian community in the USA could receive news from the Eastern Front,
praises for the Independent State of Croatia and its leader Ante Pavelic,
47 An anonymous intelligence report to Antonio Fulvini, Rome, 1940.
48 A report to the Ministry of Culture and Propaganda, Turin, October 21, 1940

Mussolini’s Microphone 45
combined in a radio show entitled “From Sava to Aegean, from Velebit to
Egypt”.
With the beginning of the war in 1939 the US based listeners became
witnesses of a transformation of the Italian Radio from a news service into
a broadcaster of political opinions. 49
Modeled after the campaigns made during the war in Ethiopia radio was
used to inspire people to give financial, medical and goods donations.
In February 1941 Mussolini founded Radio Urbe Agency designed to
broadcast news from the front lines exclusively. Italian propaganda effort
was partially successful in bringing the Italian community in the USA closer
to Italy and the Fascist ideology, but it failed to mobilize them against
their new homeland once the two countries became enemies. American
sociologist Joseph Roucek said: “Italians hope for impossible – the US victory
without Italian defeat.” 50
The Italian community in the USA could not secure American neutrality
which led to the mass arrests of Fascist sympathisers in the country,
courtesy of local security services from a constant monitoring of radio
broadcasts in Italian.
A number of Radio stations were closed, some subjected to censorship. In
summer 1943 EIAR program for Italians in the States lasted for just 15
minutes a day. The program was anchored by Ezra Pound, 51 an American poet
who spoke about national discrimination of the American Italian workers in
America: “A number of dubious broadcasters advocate that the US loves Italy and
that it stands only against the regime of Mussolini. Franklin Delano Roosevelt
forgets what Italians and Italian citizens did in 1911 before the Fascism emerged.
Now America shows its gratitude by deporting immigrants, starving Italy in an
attempt to subject it. What kind of love is that?“ 52
In mid July 1943 a series of programs were designed in cooperation with
the Germans. These programs were recorded as dialogues between Italian
49 Historical dictionary of Fascist Italy, Westport CT, 1982.
50 “Italian-Americans and World War II”, July-August, 1954, p.458
51 Ezra Weston Loomis Pound (1885-1972), American poet, critic and intellectual
52 “Ezra Pound’s Italy”, Rome, 1974

46
Tanja Tatomirović
and German soldiers to explain the situation on the front lines. This was an
attempt to underline the close partnership of Rome and Berlin; at the same
time it showed a growing influence of Germany over the Italian Ministry of
Culture and Propaganda.
The start of the project was disrupted by the events of August when Italy
capitulated to Allies. Dissolution of the Fascist Italy and establishment of
the Socialistic Republic in the north destroyed any chances for a propaganda
effort abroad.

Mussolini’s Microphone 47
The importance of the radio in
spreading the Italian fascist ideology
To understand the impact of the radio on everyday life it is important to
refer to the famous broadcast of imaginary Martian invasion organized by
Orson Welles in 1938. 53 This broadcast caused panic and almost riots among
the citizens.
A radio show usually started with a live performance of a jazz band from
one of New York hotels. The music was interrupted a number of times by
the announcer reporting unusual activities in the skies above the city which
later culminated with reports of a Martian invasion. Panic caused by this
broadcast was unbelievable and people took to the streets in great numbers,
rioted and caused huge damages, luckily without any deaths. This was
caused by the growing fear and tension created in anticipation of the war.
This remains to date one of the best examples of the influence radio might
have on masses.
Orson Welles in a radio show
“War of the Worlds”, 1938
Both the Fascists and Nazis skilfully employed radio as a megaphone, to
broadcast political events and speeches – aimed at manipulating emotions.
53 Orson Welles, “War of the Worlds”, October 30, 1938

48
Tanja Tatomirović
Listening to the radio with the family was quickly replaced by listening with
work colleagues or the wider community.
The role of the radio gradually changed from just speech reproduction to
events and military parades coverage; in the end radio became an integral
part of the ongoing politick. The 10th anniversary of the Fascist movement
was an ideal opportunity for state propaganda. Massive manifestations
took place across Italy and Mussolini’s speeches became an integral part of
the daily life.
Benito Mussolini Speaking at the 10th anniversary of the Fascist
Movement:
“Black shirts, citizens of Turin, I made a promise to visit your city at least once
during the first 10 years of Fascism. I have kept my promise. I stand proudly here
among you touched by your hospitality that went beyond my wildest expectations.
(Applause)
Could it be any different? Turin is a great Roman city that gave us a tetrarchy,
and deserves a title of the hero city in war and in peace.
A little over a year ago I was speaking in Naples outlining the basics of the fascist
ideology. Since then European history has seen a number of high importance
events. I spoke about the tragic consequences of the war and bad calculations
made in the name of Italian people, calculations that we have to annul. Lausanne
peace conference is one of the rare ones to reach a conclusion. Vigorously led by the
British Prime Minister the reparation ship is still in harbor. Will the great people
of the nation of stripes and stars willingly come aboard this ship? The ship full
of misery and despair for many nations (crowd: No. No). I wish your no could fly
across the Atlantic and reach that great nation.
However, there are ones who would never forgive us the fact that Italy is once
again strong and back on its feet. For these pathetic remains of some lodges the
fact that Italy stand the way it stands today is an unforgiving sin because the
greatest enemies of the peace are exactly those who mind only they own interest
(applauses)
There is another issue that touches the German question. Fascism had clear ideas
and guidelines. German request for equal treatment is just, and we should say
so. The sooner this happen the better. At the same time, during the disarmament
conference, Germany cannot arm itself in any way. But the moment the conference

Mussolini’s Microphone 49
is over without a single useful result, it will be impossible for Germany to remain
a member of the League of Nation if this disarmament degrade her completely
(applauses). We do not want hegemony in Europe. We are against any kind of
hegemony, especially those who will lead to injustice.
The second guideline towards the success is our cross-class cooperation. This city
is home to numerous workers and with a clear heart I can say that the workers
completely fulfilled their duty despite all the crisis and obstacles.
I have to add that the Italian industrial class marches towards a better future with
optimism and hope. If the cooperation is desirable in good times then it is required
through hard times, when every lack of energy equals high treason. Turin was
united in reaching out to others. We have moved on from the pathetic concept
of philanthropy towards the deepest and most profound sense of helping one
another. We have to make just one more step from this position to reach nationwide
solidarity. (applauses)
Mussolini is addressing the masses
Turin must offer jobs to its workers. Everything Turin has showed us – courage,
persistence and genius – must remain in Turin. (applauses)
There are those who foresee difficult political years for us. They are lying. As far
as politics is concerned we can spend 50 difficult years and nothing will happen,
because we are aware that after every winter a spring of rejuvenation and glory
comes. From a humane point the very thought of a suffering family pains me
deeply because I have myself been in the same situation. (Crowd cheers: Duce,
Duce)
I know what an empty house without the roof is! (Crowd cheers: Duce, Duce)

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Tanja Tatomirović
Fellow citizens of Turin, this magnificent display of unity, this single soul and
body I see before me today, cannot pass without mentioning our total devotion to
His Majesty the King (applauses) who stands for our nation’s vitality, health and
longevity.
So what is our motto for the upcoming decade? The motto is - go forward, create
and if necessary fight and be victorious!”
Turin, Castles Square,
October 23 1932
Fascist leadership used the radio to address the masses, the great national
theatre, and thrill them with stories of its magnificence: “At this moment 20
million Italians are gathered on squares across Italy. This is the largest gathering
in the history of the mankind. Twenty million people are one heart, one soul, one
will. This gathering has one purpose – to show the rest of the world that Italy and
Fascism are one, inseparable, perfect and pure.” 54
The radio became the main communication channel between the regime
and its masses as well as between the nation and the rest of the world. This
completed the radio empire – the Balkan Peninsula, Near and Far East,
North and Eastern Africa and both Americas.
State Secretary at the Ministry of Press and Propaganda, count Ciano,
introduced political broadcasts in German and English language over the
short waves; at their start the quality of these broadcasts was questionable,
often provoking comments on the poor grammar and linguistic errors.
In 1934 the Fascist regime adopted a new strategy exercising complete
control over the information which was noticed abroad. For the first time
the regime analyzed its approach to crisis in Spain and the drop in number of
listeners abroad. The focus was shifted to other parts of the world, primarily
the Mediterranean and Near East as part of Italy’s sphere of influence.
54 The Introduction of radio broadcast of Mussolini’s speech for 10th anniversary of Fascist
movement, Milan, 1932

Mussolini’s Microphone 51
Radio Truth – Radio Veridad
Following the general elections on July 18, 1936 right-wing officers staged
a coup d’état. Their plans varied in success. The inability of the socialist
government to quell the uprising in its early stages led to one of the bloodiest
civil wars in history.
At the beginning of the war significant propaganda resources were mobilized
in Italy and programs in Spanish and Catalan were broadcasted from Milan,
Turin, Genoa and Florence. In Spain the growing Fascist tide was met with
equally strong anti-Fascist propaganda which alerted the regime.
Recognizing the dangers of a coordinated counter propaganda effort, the
regime started a number of clandestine radio stations trying to jam other
broadcasts. This is how Radio Truth, broadcasting in Spanish, was founded.
Two additional radio stations were planned to pick up on the success of this
project in out speaking the red media, and cover the entire Spain. However,
Italy lacked the resources to accomplish this ambitious plan. Radio Truth
got a double role, one as jammer, the other to promote Fascism in Spain.
Radio Truth remains a classic example of Fascist radio propaganda – clash of
two civilizations, barbarians and defenders of a modern, western culture, defense
of Christian values from the plague of bolshevism.
The clash between radio stations promoting opposing ideologies was an
overture to a much serious conflict in the late 30’s. Italian involvement in
the war, on the General Franco’s 55 side, not just on the propaganda front,
brought much needed respect and credibility for Italian regime in foreign
right wing political circles.
Radio Truth broadcasts had so much influence that the Spanish regime
insisted on having a say in its program, much to Rome’s disapproval. On
top of the regular political and front line reports the Radio Truth used the
network of Italian and foreign correspondents to provide political analysis
programs on foreign policy issues. The grandiose military and political
campaign against the bolshevism and the Third International did not go
55 Generalisimus Francisko Franko (1892- 1975) Spanish dictator

52
Tanja Tatomirović
unnoticed in the world and it even managed to provoke reactions in the
Vatican.
Anti-Stalinist broadcasts soon appeared under the leadership of Tomaso
Napolitano, 56 an expert on Soviet Union. This project was supposed to cause
confusion in the communist circles by pretending to promote Leninist
ideology; since this failed to happen the project was terminated in 1938 at
the time of the signing of the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact of non-aggression.
Later in 1940 the project was revived but with similar results. Radio Milano
was established in Spain the mock radio station broadcasting to left wingers
across Italy. The late night broadcasts had a serious impact on its target
audience. Additional radio stations such as Radio Madrid and Radio Valencia
were set up later towards the same goal. The Fascist’s soon mastered media
warfare.
56 Tomaso Napolitano, a sociologist and analyst of USSR politics

Mussolini’s Microphone 53
War and Propaganda
The Second World War was led outside the trenches and battle fields over
the radio waves. Each belligerent operated war-time radio stations. Programs
made for troops at the front lines and enemy civilian population were
broadcast by Radio London and Radio Moscow; radio stations had special
broadcasts intended to undermine the morale of enemy civilians.
Between 1936 and 1935 radio reached its peak in Italy with its popularity
driven by more and more visible war euphoria and listening to foreign
broadcasts in public was soon banned. The greatest effect of the radio propaganda
can be observed in the changing habits of the civilian population.
Since most found it impossible to afford their own radio, mass listening in
public spaces soon became an everyday occurrence, much to the delight of
the anti-Fascist propaganda effort too.
Secret police raided and controlled these gatherings and uncovered secret listening
locations where people could, and did, listen to foreign propaganda .
Left wing political activists were late in recognizing the importance of radio.
Outlawed left wing Party of Justice and Freedom was the first to act. Massive
propaganda effort was however hampered by the fact that the party
cells were not organized under a single umbrella and the constant pursuit
of party supporters by the regime which in turn resulted in severe financial
problems.
From 1938 and on the propaganda was mostly organized to support the war
effort and broadcasts were made in 23 languages across the globe.
In January 1939 new propaganda programs emerged; one of them was Free
Corsica launched to support the territorial claims Italy had on the French
island. Fascist propaganda effort reached its peak between 1939 and 1943;
during this period special attention was paid to the Arab speaking world.
Radio Bari was established to broadcast in Arabic to Syria, Palestine, Iraq,
Egypt, Algeria and Morocco.
These efforts had some success in installing anti-colonial sentiment in local
people under French or British colonial rule. Bad pronunciation and difficulties
in broadcasting in different dialects of the Arabic language caused a lot

54
Tanja Tatomirović
of problems as well as the increasing British counter propaganda campaign
that soon followed.
One of the facts that was most impressive for the listeners was the speed
in which the information on everyday life of ordinary Italians were broadcast.
News on riots, military operations and border clashes was filled with
tension and details.
With the 1938 Anschluss of Austria emphasize was placed on Italian alliance
with Germany.
The radio propaganda caused the entire generation to be brought up indoctrinated
with a twisted understanding of the reality.
In Italy, radio broadcasts soon completely replaced newspapers as the source
of information. Up to eight news bulletins were broadcast daily complemented
on case to case basis with additional live reports from the front
lines. The war bulletins were prepared by the High Command, and Mussolini
approved most of them personally. Morning broadcasts started with the
national anthem and a speech by Mussolini; citizens were expected to listen
to these broadcasts while standing.
In general, radio was a recognised part of the war effort tasked to inform
and shape public opinion; it would, however, be a propaganda tool which led
to a decline in the popularity of the medium of radio.
Creators of radio propaganda did not forget to include entertainment programs
to distract the people from the horrors of war. This was done by introducing
a mix of moral boosting news, propaganda and music.
Anti-fascist movement in Italy was almost extinct at the time, but its resuscitation
came with the increase in the number of foreign radio stations
broadcasting in Italy. For the first time ever Italians had an opportunity to
compare news and get a realistic overview of the situation.
With the beginning of the WWII number of Italians listening to the foreign
broadcasts grew as well as their trust in foreign radio programs. The reports
of defeats and massive territorial losses were in sharp contrast with the persistent
official propaganda.

Mussolini’s Microphone 55
The myth of Fascist invincibility was dispersed together with the regime
that perpetuated it, and the fascist propaganda ceased completely in 1943
after the Italian capitulation.

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Tanja Tatomirović
EZRA POUND
During the period known as modernism many artists engaged actively in
politics. Some of them were Fascists (Ezra Pound, Marinneti), while others
advocated Communism.
One of the best examples of the fascist propaganda effort directed for foreign
audiences was the involvement of Ezra Pound (1885-1972), an American poet
and writer.
Together with his poetry Pound will remain known for his involvement in
the Italian propaganda effort through his input in daily newspapers and
the development of appropriate school curricula and books.
A Fascist sympathizer and a staunch anti-Zionist, he emigrated to Rapallo,
Italy from Paris in 1924. Together with his wife Dorothy he soon moved to
Sicily only to return to Rapallo in less than a year. During his early years in
Italy Ezra organized a number of classical concerts across Italy.
In 1939 he returned to his native America, with Europe on the brink of
war, with - according to some sources – every intention of staying there.
However he quickly returned to Italy. As a personal friend of Mussolini
and a citizen of a country in war with Italy he was extremely important for
Italian propaganda effort.
His first contact with Mussolini was in 1933 but the sympathies he had
for Fascists were not a decisive factor in his decision to return to Italy. The
poet had aging parents living in Italy and they could not take the long and
exhausting travel to the USA. He also had an illegitimate daughter Maria
Rudge from his brief affair with cello player Olga Rudge (1895-1996).
Olga and Ezra in late years

Mussolini’s Microphone 57
If Pound’s policies before 1933 reflected his positive aspirations towards the
early Fascism his political development from 1933 to 1940 led him towards
nihilism. He had a tendency to label the Jews as the distracting factor and
from 1940 his anti-Semitism grew as he started associating all the Jews
with loan sharks. According to some sources the radicalization of Pounds
political views can be seen as his way to maintain close relationships with
the Duce.
During the 30’s Mussolini fell more and more under the Hitler’s influence.
As a consequence Italian propaganda matched the German in its anti-Semitism
describing the Jews as servants to international bolshevism and, as
Hitler liked to say, finanzkapital. Insight into Pound’s political writing shows
that the poet fully subscribed to these views.
Pound’s political writings entitled “Jefferson and/or Mussolini” 57 were broadcasted
on Radio Rome and contain almost all major elements of the Fascist
ideology.
Ezra Pound during World War II
In line with the ruling Fascist policy toward intellectual freedoms and
freedom of expression Radio Rome offered its microphone to Pound twice
a week. The high point of his pro-fascist activities was a series of radio
shows broadcast from Rome in English for audiences in England and the
USA during the WWII. Although filled with some dubious content, Pound’s
shows did not go unnoticed.
57 Ezra Pound, “Jefferson and/or Mussolini”, Volitionist Economics, Stanley Nott Ltd, 1935

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Tanja Tatomirović
In his short wave programs broadcast from January 1941 to July 1943 he
criticized Western democracy and Zionism. He was against the US entry in
WWII on the Allied side and especially of the US-British alliance. His critics
described his speeches as a “hard to follow mix of anti-Semitism, Fascist apologetics
and economic theory”. Fascist propaganda counted on the fact that the
audiences will understand that he was free-willingly making these speeches
aligning them with the responsibilities of an American citizen.
Ezra became one of the leading propaganda tools of the Axis 58 powers. Pound
used the Fascist radio to broadcast his messages to American public on
constitutional issues, criticizing FDR’s 59 policy as deeply unconstitutional.
Ezra Pound in American prison, 1945
For as long as they kept clear from anti-Semitism these were good examples
of intellectual and ideological deliberations.
After the war he was interned to the USA where he was unsuccessfully
tried for high treason; after the trial Pound spent 12 years in mental health
58 “Axis alliance”, “Axis powers”, also known as “Tripartite pact” (Germany, Italy and Japan,
which signed an agreement on cooperation in September 1940)
59 Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882-1945), 32 nd president of the United States

Mussolini’s Microphone 59
institutions. After his release he returned to Italy where he died in 1972. He
and Olga Rudge are buried next to each other in Venice.
Ezra Pound, “America Was Promises!”:
“I do what I can to keep an even tone of voice; now when I drop my voice, they
turn on more current. As to the tone, there are times to speak mildly and there
are times to speak with asperity, and as to American war makers ALL thought of
America going to war is bunkum, it is hogwash, bug wash, unmitigated b.b.b. [?];
and I will tell you WHY it is hogwash, and why we should not give way to the gibes
of pink tea females, and their soup headed consorts.
There has even come up the term “UNamerican” used by asinine females and
tinhorn employees of Jewsfelt to define ANY man, woman, or child who isn’t
ready to chuck away and destroy every last vestige of the American heritage.
They git that way reading Jew papers for 40 years. They git that way hearin’
kike radio, and I propose to use the word KIKE regardless of race. Use it to cover
honorary Jews, AND TO EXCEPT honest Jews when we find ’em.
Talk of America enterin’ war is sheer DIRT. And it is ignorant dirt because it
HIDES a hundred years of American history. It forges and falsifies the WHOLE
aim and purpose of the American national foundation. The colonists went to the
stem and rock bound to get away from dirt, and start fresh.
The Union of the 13 Colonies after the Revolution was founded to efface certain
differences and, whatever one may think now of the meltin’ pot theory, it has had
this effect. The U.S.A. is NOT formed and organized INTERNALLY to participate
in foreign quarrels.
It can’t be done without a lot of small dirty meanness to millions of American
citizens and that means appeal to the smallest and dirtiest human instincts. It is
babyish, it comes from the natural akussed tendency of two or three kids to pick
on some other one. A meanness which their mammies and pappies try to wipe out
if there is any decency in the family. Anybody who will draw back a minute and
look at the way people pick on minorities, can see what I mean by this statement.
When things are scarce, or fearing fear, when people git scared and make a run on
a bank or a grocery store, there is a scramble and, when things go slower, there is
a conspiracy, to shut out someone or other.

60
Tanja Tatomirović
Starts as a joke: ends as a monopoly. The only old style relation of emigrants IN
America to aliens was in their Indian wars. They are over. As to how much dirt
was done to the Injuns, as to how far the Injuns wuz fractious, I refrain from
pronouncin’.
The Injuns were an alien race. Our other troubles came FIRST from or trying to
git out from UNDER the rump and boot of money lenders and stinkers in London,
who thereafter tried to bust us. Look up the history of our relations to London
during the Civil War. I am not lookin’ backward for the sake of rousin’ a rancour.
I am telling you something about the way the U.S. are built up inside for PEACE,
and NOT for takin’ sides in European combat. Our Civil War was wangled. Read
Christopher Hollis on the DEBTS of the South to the City of New York. Also read
Overholser, on the DEBTS to BE CREATED by that war so [that] London kikes
and American traitors could control the American currency.
It is not today a case of being DARED to fight part of Europe. It is a case of
getting rid [of] the whole snot and dung of usury propaganda, which conduces
to slaughter. The British who are in part a softhearted, in part a dirty and brutal
race, have been had. They have shown docility in fighting for their owners and
masters. And these owners and masters have gradually become Jewish; but are
not yet wholly so. When we did something clean, Europe honored us. Europe even
longed for a U.S. of Europe. Toward which Europe is now movin’, offered now only
by the usury centrals.
It is such UTTER buncomb, this talk of America being menaced by FINLAND.
And it is such utter buncomb, this alliance with the Bolshevik government. Fruit
of utter hysteria. Fruit also of readin’ periodical crap for the past 50 or 80 years.
And these ninnies, these pimps, and shysters who now have the gall to use the
words American and Unamerican with NO reference to the fiber of the American
nation. Most of ’em have never read anything but magazines.
The extent of the betrayal, whereof Roosevelt is part, whereof he is an excrescence:
a protuberant nose is indicated by the fact that there are NO handy volumes of
the writings of the men who MADE and kept up the American Union from 1750
till 1864.
What does Mrs. Jonas Keikenbaum mean by “American”? These chicken-headed
fat mammies have never given a glance at our history. They are wholly unaware
of the purpose for which we are existin’.

Mussolini’s Microphone 61
Clever Kikes runnin’ ALL our communication system. Simple-hearted Wallaces
and Wickards, trying to do good to the farmer; without gittin’ down to bedrock.
OF course there are scandals about Army contracts, and for defense of the Volga
and the Yangtze-Kiang River in China. Where the WHOLE system is founded on
fraud, fraud will crop up in the details. Does any man of my age reflect on the
theory prevalent when I was in college, namely that you GOT TO BE dishonest to
git on in business? What caused that theory at the turn of the century?
It warn’t there in 1776. I’ll say it WAS NOT. When you git a minority of Americans,
that is, a large enough minority, to KNOW why it is tommyrot to issue all national
purchasing power as INTEREST payin’ debt, the nation will lay off so doing, and
thereafter men can live, and carry on business without being told to run crooked.
Without young men being advised to run crooked. You got to define your terms,
define your words, think what money will BUY (as that constitutes the value of
money). All that is part of a nation’s INTERNAL structure.
But in the immediate foreground, get it into your block that the U.S.A. has not been
livin’ for a thousand years NEXT door to ALIEN races, formed, compacted with
relatively clear national or tribal frontiers. We are all intermixed, interwoven,
livin’ next door to each other. We do NOT need more land, we may need land
improvement. If you go on destroyin’ and urging others to DESTROY, you will
need more production. Don’t believe me if you don’t want to, but do at least look
into facts of American history. Why was the U.S. founded? How come we had any
colonial architecture, any American craftsmanship?
What part did local colonies’ groups of different European races take in the
development, in the foundation of what made our life worth livin’?
You look into that, before you go shootin’ Frenchmen at Dakar, or keepin’ up dope
sales in the Orient. You can’t go to war without small meanness to SOME of the
neighbors. You get het up over the sorrows of Mrs. Ikestein, the tailor’s wife;
you can’t DO anything about it without doin’ dirt to Giovanni the grocer, and
the Hungarian livin’ next door, or the grandson of R. Schuz’s old friend who sells
delicatessen.”

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Tanja Tatomirović
LISA SERGIO, “ROME’S GOLDEN VOICE”
Lisa Sergio was the golden voice of the Rome-broadcast Fascist radio shows;
she fled to the United States of America in 1937. Although her mother was
a US citizen, Sergio was considered an enemy of the state from the moment
the US entered the war. Despite all of that Lisa Sergio was naturalized in
1944 and continued to build a successful radio career, starting at NBC and
then later working for New York based WQXR; this was the time when female
voices were considered unsuitable for serious programs. In early 1950’s
she was blacklisted as a communist and lost her job at radio; she moved on
to become a lecturer and author in Washington where she died in 1989.
Her successful career as a radio announcer can be explained with her unique
talent and her ability and talent to portrait herself in public as an ideal American
woman living in turbulent times.
She grew up in a bilingual Italian-American family and came to age at the
time when the Fascism was on the rise to power. At the time Italy had a parliamentarian
system with the King as head of the state and in control of all
executive powers.
When first Fascist riots broke out in Florence, Sergio was 15 years old and
just entered university.
She was born in Florence in 1905 and in 1922 – with some support from
her grandfather - she became assistant editor at “Posta Italiana” the only
English weekly published in Italy at the time. She later moved on to become
the editor. She published works of Huxley, Pound and D.H.Lawrence before
she left the magazine in 1927. Sergio described the magazine as apolitical
and purposed for cove¬ring a wide range of cultural topics to all Englishspeaking
people in Italy 60 .
The same year when Sergio joined “Posta Italiana” Mussolini launched his
March on Rome and forced the Italian King Vittorio Emmanuel II to appoint
him the Prime Minister at the head of the Second Government. Although it
took Mussolini seven years to completely consolidate all the political power
in his hands Fascists started to influence everyday life of ordinary Italians
from the beginning of their rule. The government introduced worker pro-
60 Sergio, “The dreams was veiled in Blue”, http://library.georgetown.edu/

Mussolini’s Microphone 63
tection legislation, improved health and education and launched public
construction projects. Fascist Government turned to women and enabled
their larger participation in public affairs. The fascists, ironically, used this
to impose control over their political activities and prevent their individual
or collective emancipation. 61
The State glorified motherhood and yet removed women from political offices.
For example, although other societies which increased motherhood rights
followed with an increase in political powers, Italy took the completely
opposite direction. One of the students, Victoria de Garcia wrote: “Availability
of social services was limited by the arbitrary political power resulting in an
ideological opposition to developing the rights of women.”
Lisa wrote that Fascism made work modern for women. Besides living with
her grandfather, later with her mother, the job she had gave her independence.
Actually, since more women started listening to the Italian media, journalism
became a fastest growing profession in Italy between the wars. In 1921,
7% of writers were women, and in 1931 the number reached 12%. 62
Lisa Sergio travelled a lot and during her time on the road she met her
father’s friend and a person whose role would be crucial in securing her
survival after she fled Italy – Marconi himself. Her letters give conflicting
accounts of the date the two of them met – on one occasion she wrote that
it was at an reception given by the Italian Embassy in London in either 1923
or 1929; 63 the other account places their meeting in Rome in 1932. 64 According
to Sergio Marconi asked her to prepare his notes for a lecture he was
about to deliver in London. 65
61 Victoria De Grazia, How Fascism Ruled Women. Berkeley: University of California Press,
1992. , http://library.georgetown.edu/
62 Ibidem
63 Lisa Sergio, “Chapter IV Breaking the Rules”, Box 5 Folder 26, Lisa Sergio Papers, Georgetown
University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C. 1; Lisa Sergio, “Guglielmo
Marconi: The Silent Man Who Made the Ether Speak,” Box 7 Folder 40, Lisa Sergio Papers,
Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C. 1; Sergio,
“Gente translation,” 3., http://library.georgetown.edu/
64 Sergio, “Guglielmo Marconi: The Silent Man Who Made the Ether Speak”, 2., http://library.
georgetown.edu/
65 Sergio, “Guglielmo Marconi: The Silent Man Who Made the Ether Speak”, 2., http://library.
georgetown.edu/

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Tanja Tatomirović
Soon after she moved to Rome, Sergio began contributing to the Association
of the Mediterranean Studies’ magazine combining her interest in archeology
and journalism. 66 She claimed to have written the first Pompeii tourist
guide; the guide was in use until mid 50’s. 67 She participated in excavations
in Ostia, Herculaneum and Pompeii where she worked under Eugene Sellers
Strong. She wrote that she worked on Sundays serving tea and cookies at
Strong’s house which is how she met a number of prominent Americans,
including Ezra Pound. 68
Available documents show that she was a member of the Royal Archeological
Institute, Archeological Library and Arts History Library; she also had
free access to galleries and the Royal Museum where she studied the most
famous pieces of excavated arts.
Italian dictator Mussolini kicked off his short wave radio propaganda effort
in 1932. Mussolini called on Marconi to be his advisor in the process and
to recommend someone with good English. Sergio claimed Marconi recommended
her; something she heard from Mussolini during preparations for
an archaeological exhibition of antique silverware. They exchanged a few
words on the exhibition and her second language. 69 Few days after the encounter
she received a call from the Department for print media at the Italian
Ministry of Foreign Affairs; she was requested to meet Gaetano Polverelli. 70
Polverelli showed her plans for broadcasts in foreign languages and implied
that Marconi recommended her for the job. He inquired about her political
views and whether she was a staunch Fascist. “Am I a staunch Fascist?
Everybody is a staunch Fascist supporter because I think Fascism did a great service
to Italy” wrote Sergio. 71
66 Lisa Sergio to Gayle K. Yamada 17 September 1986, Box 9 Folder 34, Sergio papers, http://
openlibrary.org/a/OL256636A
67 Sergio, “Curriculum Vitae”, http://library.georgetown.edu/
68 Sergio, “Chapter V Death and the Pain of It”, http://library.georgetown.edu/
69 Lisa Sergio, “One Woman’s Opinion, April 22 1946,” Radio script, Box 12 Folder 7, Lisa Sergio
Papers, Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C. 22
April 1946. , http://library.georgetown.edu/
70 President of Mussolini’s Press office from 1931 to 1933
71 Sergio, “One Woman’s Opinion, October 30, 1944,”, http://openlibrary.org/a/OL256636A

Mussolini’s Microphone 65
In her interview to Christian Science Monitor given in 1941 Sergio expressed
her hopes that Mussolini will create a better, economically and socially
prosperous Italy: “Together with thousands of other young Italians I
found myself in the midst of it all. Fascism is in essence a youth movement, and
youth in general is rarely aware of history and its teaching.” 72
Sergio said she initially said no to the job . She said she knew nothing about
radio and politics and had no intention of changing her profession; Polverelli
insisted on Sergio taking the position, claiming that the new role would only
take an hour or two of her time per day, and that she would be able to keep
her original job. When she eventually acquiesced, it became obvious that due
to its complexity she would have to leave the field of archaeology. “I had an
internal struggle – on one hand I wanted the new job on the other there was a voice
inside me insisting I declined. I was very flattered and yet scared by the job.” 73
Sergio consulted with Marconi and one of her fellow archaeologists and
both insisted she should take on the new job. Later in her life she considered
consulting her uncle; Don Gullio Rodino di Miglione was a staunch anti-Fascist
who lived in Naples. In 1945, following the Allied victory in WWII he
became a minister in the provisional Italian Government. She was not close
to her father’s side of the family. “If he lived in Rome or had I at least known
my relatives I would have consulted them too and my life would take a different
course” wrote Sergio. 74 The Fascist movement, in 1932, was popular both
home and abroad with Italians; she also claimed that Fascists did more good
to her than bad. 75
Mussolini was a rising star and Sergio was closely following social changes
in the country. 76 When Polverelli asked her for the second meeting and sent
72 Lisa Sergio, “One Woman’s, June 4 1945”, Radio transcript, Box 12 Folder 3, Lisa Sergio
Papers, Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C. 4 June
1945., http://library.georgetown.edu/
73 “Column of the Air Reviewed.”
74 “Lisa Sergio Reviewed”, Billboard, 19 July 1941. Box 19 Folder 4, Lisa Sergio Papers,
Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C. Georgetown
University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C., http://library.georgetown.
edu/
75 Sanger, Rebel in Radio. 86, 87.
76 Margaret A. Walsh, ““Brave Women and Fair Men”: Women Advocates of U.S. Intervention in
World War II, 1939-1941” (Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Washington, 1996), 235.

66
Tanja Tatomirović
a police motorcycle to pick her up, she said she found it extremely difficult
to decline the invitation. “The persuasion was irresistible, the wooing, Duce,
Marconi, police escort, two men who waited for me at the radio stations to discuss
technical questions. To sum it all up – a Fascist invitation was in fact the Fascist
order. You cannot say that Italy was late with radio broadcasts. The first Italian
radio station was launched in 1924 but Mussolini was not interested in the process
until late in the 20’s” said Sergio. 77
In 1932 Lisa Sergio reluctantly became one of the most famous radio presenters
of all time. She became a radio presenter in service of Italy broadcasting
in foreign languages under the patronage of Press and Propaganda Department;
the Department soon grew into a full Ministry (named Ministry of
National Culture in 1937) .
English and the US press reported on her work which helped her become
famous and strengthen her connections with American social circles 78 . She
was issued an official press identification to confirm her status as a professional
journalist as well as the appropriate travel documents entitling her
to 70 percent discounts on all routes. She was in charge of translating the
news to French and English; she also broadcast the 15 minutes-long news
at seven o’clock.
Mussolini wanted to explain the ideologies of his party to those living abroad,
specifically to introduce his fo¬reign policies to British and American
listeners. Sergio was also in charge for recruiting announcers for broadcasts
in foreign languages. In 1935 she came up with a plan to teach Italian language
to listeners with books available for free to all those who requested
them. Her broadcasts brought a lot of concern throughout Europe and England,
and the press started following the English reporter from Rome.
77 Lisa Sergio, “Lisa Sergio’s Column of the Air WQXR November 27th 1940,” 27 November
1940. Box 11 Folder 78, Lisa Sergio Papers, Georgetown University Library, Special
Collections Division, Washington, D.C. Georgetown University Library, Special Collections
Division, Washington, D.C., http://library.georgetown.edu/
78 http://openlibrary.org/a/OL256636A

Mussolini’s Microphone 67
Her pronunciation was perfect and it was a pleasure to listen to her, reported the
Nottingham News. 79 Similar comments were printed in London-based the
Daily Telegraph; the newspaper praised her flaw near-flawless accent and
wrote that pronunciation of only a handful of names revealed that she had
not been born British.
When Italians started their Ethiopian propaganda campaign the feedback
from the US and England to Sergio’s broadcast was immense, as she wrote
in her unpublished biography. Commenting on her nickname – the Golden
Voice – she wrote: “The news attracted more attention than anyone expected.
News was grounded in facts and I tried to make them easy to listen and interesting.”
There were but a handful of female voices on European radio waves, if any,
and it was soon clear why this voice from Rome was daubed golden. 80 Her
broadcasts were generally a Q&A session on Fascism; questions were sent
by letter to the Italian gover¬nment, and then a selection were forwarded
to the presenter. Sergio remembered later how she spent most of her time
answering these letters. 81 People were most interested in the possibility to
replicate the success of the Fascist regime in other countries, if the corporate
state was the answer to labor problems and unemployment or if the single
party system was the answer to the problem of weak democracy. Other
questions included – if the mix of state controlled culture and education was
the answer to crime and juvenile delinquency. Someone also asked if state
controlled health system was efficient in fight against tuberculosis. 82
The New Yorker published an article analyzing the effect of her broadcasts:
“Apart from the extreme left newspapers, the French media and Parisians are ge-
79 Variety, 23 July 1941. Clipping preserved in Sergio scrapbook. Box 19 Folder 4, Lisa Sergio
Papers, Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C.
Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C., http://library.
georgetown.edu/
80 Sanger, Rebel in Radio. 20, 21.
81 Sergio, “Brains Have No Sex,” 2, 9. When this article appeared in the New York Times in 1943,
Sergio was one of three women giving “comments” in the morning, and the only woman doing
so in the evening. “The Week’s Radio Programs,” The New York Times, 25 April 1943,
82 Waller, Judith, “Radio: The Fifth Estate”, http://ia331318.us.archive.org/2/items/
radiofifthestate00wallrich/radiofifthestate00wallrich.pdf

68
Tanja Tatomirović
nerally pro-Italian, cautious about the League of Nations and against everything
pro-British.“ 83
English newspapers saw the broadcasts as tools of indoctrination: “Having
in mind that the broadcasts are intended to English speaking world they
present a stealth aggression on the British policies” wrote the Daily Telegraph.
84
London-based the Spectator was in agony when writing that the listeners
might be tricked by a news anchor whose perfect diction “could out speak
Oxford with its faked flawlessness”.
Italy followed by introducing broadcasts in other languages, as Sergio managed
to hire additional linguists for the team, mostly women. BBC started
broadcasting in foreign languages as late as in 1938 and by that time Italy
was already broadcasting in Arabic which forced the British House of Commons
to act in an effort to match the outreach of the Italian propaganda
machine. 85
In her autobiography Sergio wrote about other less important aspects of
her life in Rome. She hosted Mahatma Gandhi during his visit to Rome in
1932.
She also noted that her Italian lessons broadcast at the end of the program
attracted so much attention that London-based publishing houses wanted
to print a text book based on her broadcasts. The State allowed her to write
the book and it was published in 1935. However, when she left the country
in 1937, the State republished the book and sold it at the Italian stand during
the 1940 World Fair.
“Since they did not remove or change the author’s name they gave me publicity
instead of my royalties” wrote Sergio.
83 Sergio, “One Woman’s Opinion, October 30, 1944”, 6. , http://openlibrary.org/a/OL256636A
84 Evelyn Wellson Wendt, “A History of WQXR and WQXR FM: The Radio Stations of the New
York Times” (Ed.D., Columbia University, 1962), 113, 115.
85 Donald G. Godfrey and Frederic A. Leigh, eds., “Historical Dictionary of American Radio”
(Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1998), 381, 382.

Mussolini’s Microphone 69
In addition she won the Italian Ministry of Press and Propaganda prize for
the best article on Italy, printed in daily or weekly newspapers abroad. The
article entitled “Ancient Rome surfaces under Mussolini’s rule” promoted Italian
tourism and was printed in Washington Post in 1935. Sergio claimed
that she even attended the first meeting between Mussolini and Hitler in
Venice in June 1934.
Her work as an anchor attracted so much attention that a number of Italian
radio shows were re- broadcast by the US based radio stations. “For a European
anchor America is a radio paradise. and to hear a voice of a person who reads
to audiences across the ocean from the field is something we all crave for, but very
few manage to fulfill” wrote Lisa Sergio.
Activities as a translator
Sergio became the official English translator of all speeches given by Mussolini.
The American audience would first listen to the original live recording
of Mussolini, followed by a short musical intermission so as to allow translation
of the speech. 86 Sergio translated Mussolini’s speeches at least twice,
the proof of which is in two scarves containing printed speeches. 87
In May 1936 she translated the famous speech by Mussolini in which he
announced the Italian conquest of Ethiopia and the accession of the King of
Italy to the throne of Ethiopia. 88 In this speech Mussolini also announced
his pact with Hitler, and Sergio claimed that it was her who used the word
Axis to describe the pact and that she even forged the word.
Sergio later wrote that while she translated the speech she knew that there
is a growing foreign interest in recent talks between Hitler and Mussolini
and their pact. In her translation she needed to paraphrase excerpts of the
speech but decided to give a word-to-word translation of one particular part
86 “Business, Professional Women Elect Sally Butler as President”, The New York Times, 26 July
1947, 16., http://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/nytarchive.html
87 Ryan, “Lisa Sergio: The Golden Voice of Rome, The Progressive Complainer in America”, 64.,
https://ls2.cmich.edu/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0610&L=AEJMC&P=17562
88 Lisa Sergio, “July 31st 1940”, 31 July 1940. Box 11 Folder 78, Lisa Sergio Papers, Georgetown
University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C. Georgetown University
Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C., http://library.georgetown.edu/

70
Tanja Tatomirović
of Duce’s oration : “This vertical line between Rome and Berlin is not just a cover
but an axis that will attract all the European countries willing to cooperate
towards peace“. 89
When she came to this part of the speech in her translation, Sergio recalls,
she knew the Italian word “asse” (axis) presents the very essence of the
speech. 90
At the time Sergio was at the height of her radio career. However, the first
signs of her disappointment in Fascist regime surfaced after she witnessed
the Italian invasion of Ethiopia and actively took part in shaping the propaganda
war. According to her autobiography it was then that she became
aware of her role in the propaganda effort. She said that she soon realized
that her broadcasts were used not just to report on foreign press articles in
support of Italy but also to spread pure lies. Mussolini had a particular style
of editing the news that was highly unpopular with the audience in the USA
and England: Sergio wrote: “Sometimes this was not an ill intended misinterpretation
of an actual event, but more often they were deliberately shaped to suit
his Machiavellian agenda.”
Sergio recalls, on one occasion, some particular information she received
for broadcast. It was the British army report on water well poisoning in
Afghanistan which affected the local shepherds. Her friends at the British
Embassy told her that the British Army never released such a report so she
decided to remove the information from the broadcast. “The same minute my
superiors realized I had not read the information I was summoned to explain my
actions” Sergio recalls. “I said that my decision was motivated by the lack of broadcast
time.” On another occasion Mussolini wrote an article on how British
soldiers in Egypt were infected by plague and that the disease spread among
civilian population. Sergio sensed that Duce’s intention was to start rumors
that would increase hostilities between Egyptians and the British. 91
89 Sergio, “Chapter IX Another World, Another Life”, 1-2., http://openlibrary.org/a/OL256636A
90 Allies, “axis” powers
91 Jack Preble to Lisa Sergio 16 November 1949, Box 4 Folder 3, Lisa Sergio Papers, Georgetown
University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C. Georgetown University
Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C., http://library.georgetown.edu/

Mussolini’s Microphone 71
By 1936 Sergio faced a dilemma – to stay, spread lies in support of the Italian
invasion of Abyssinia and be disgraced or to listen to her conscience, change
the language of her broadcasts and face dismissal.
Escape from Italy
A chain of events that started on August 1, 1933 led Sergio to think about
leaving Italy. The appointment of Count Ciano as the Head of the Press and
Propaganda was the first.
Ciano was born on March 8, 1903 in Livorno and served as military attaché
in South America and Asia as well as in the Italian representation to the
Holy See. In 1930 he married Eda Mussolini, Duce’s eldest and the most
favorite daughter. The couple moved to China, but Ciano was soon recalled
to Rome since Mussolini missed his daughter and transferred to the Bureau
for press and propaganda.
Ciano became Assistant Minister in 1934 and was appointed Minister in
1935. His job was to make sure that tightly controlled Italian media praise Mussolini
and the regime, smear the hostile governments and avoid news that were
unfavorable to Italian cause.
Ciano Left the Ministry in October 1935 shortly before the beginning of the
Ethiopian campaign to become a bomber pilot. On June 9, 1936, at age 33,
he was appointed Italian Foreign Minister.
There are two accounts of Lisa Sergio’s escape from Italy – her own which
she shared in interviews she gave, and the one recorded in her 300 pages
long FBI file. Ciano is a vital part in both versions. According to Sergio’s
story Ciano discovered her omissions on several occasions. Ciano questioned
her on the day she left out the information on Afghan water wells. She
said that he lost trust in her: “I have a feeling that you take far too many liberties
in your work.” Ciano said “From now on make sure you follow instructions to
the letter. I am telling you this for your own personal benefit. We have enough on
you to destroy you.” 92
92 Jack Preble to Lisa Sergio 13 February 1950, Box 4 Folder 3, Lisa Sergio Papers, Georgetown
University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C. Georgetown University
Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C., http://library.georgetown.edu/

72
Tanja Tatomirović
On one particular occasion when they questioned her broadcasts, Sergio
claimed that she was put under Police surveillance and insisted that she
went over the surveillance recordings herself. In the recordings she referred
to Ciano as the mad man, and called the army bulletins absurd 93 . Recordings
were also made of her contacts with the British Embassy during which she
questioned the authenticity of official news and commented on a number of
Fascist officials. Police let her go without making further problems. One of
the officers simply told her: “Ms Sergio, do us a favor and please try to be more
cautious in the future.” 94
Sergio claimed Mussolini himself found out about her editing escapades in
February 1937 when she asked an US journalist to give him English lessons.
The journalist – addressed by Sergio as Mary Ann - suggested that Mussolini
practice language by listening to the radio. “My English is worse than I thought.
I think I cannot follow Ms. Sergio’s translations. I think her lines do not match the
lines I have” Mussolini said. 95 Marry Ann checked the two texts and found
that some lines were omitted in the translation.
In April 1937 she was told that Mussolini planned to sack her and she was
ordered to sign a letter of resignation. She allegedly refused by saying “I would
not resign as that is impossible”. 96 When she refused to resign she faced
Ciano who told her “If I was Duce I would have had you shot a long time ago.”
She replied by saying: “You are the one that will end up being shot, not me. Remember
this.” 97
It is unclear why Ciano, by that time the Foreign Minister, confronted her.
After the meeting she was escorted out of the building once and for all.
93 Ibidem
94 “Brands American Red Traitors or ‘Off Trolley’”, Detroit Sunday Times, 29 October 1950,
part 1, page 3. Box 14 Folder 8, Lisa Sergio Papers, Georgetown University Library, Special
Collections Division, Washington, D.C. Georgetown University Library, Special Collections
Division, Washington, D.C., http://library.georgetown.edu/
95 Ibidem
96 “Preble to Sergio”, February 13, 1950, http://openlibrary.org/a/OL256636A
97 W.C. “Tom” Sawyer to Charles H Gilbert 10 April 1950, Box 4 Folder 3, Lisa Sergio Papers,
Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C. Georgetown
University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C., http://library.georgetown.
edu/

Mussolini’s Microphone 73
In July 1937 soon after she arrived in New York, the New Yorker magazine
announced that she will be hired as an announcer at the NBC. 98 She was the
first woman ever to record a commercial and be recorded in the NBC archives.
Soon she started lecturing on the values of American democracy and on
March 17, 1938, on her 33 birthday, she applied for the US citizenshipn. 99
A year later she used her connections in the US to secure a job at WQXR as
a news commentator.
Her activities in the USA attracted the attention of the Italian Ministry of
Culture. A note in Italian language from the Head of the Propaganda Department
to the Ministry, accused Sergio of engaging in an anti-Italian and
anti-Fascist campaign, speaks bad things including the story that she was forced
to flee Italy for her political views. 100
Sergio was not happy to leave Italy which she repeated in a number of interviews:
“I was unhappy to leave. On the other hand I understood that as a necessity
as I was left without a choice. I had to leave and that was that.” she said
in a 1980-interview. 101 If she knew that the Italian regime would only last
for another two years she would have risked the jail and stayed. In another
interview she referred to her escape as one of the great misfortunes of her
life. 102
98 Stanley M. Isaacs to James Moore 10 March 1954, Box 1 Folder 42, Sergio papers; Olive K.
King to J. Edgar Hoover 17 February 1966, Memo contained in Sergio FBI file; American
Legion National Headquarters to Edith Davis 18 April, Box 4 Folder 3, Lisa Sergio Papers,
Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C. Georgetown
University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C., http://library.georgetown.
edu/
99 Bayard F Ennis, “Forum Speaker, Accused ‘Pink,’ Gives Ardent Plea for Democracy”,
The Charleston (W.V.) Gazette, 26 January 1951, 7. Box 15 Folder 8, Lisa Sergio Papers,
Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C. Georgetown
University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C., http://library.georgetown.
edu/
100 “Interesting Highlights About Lisa Sergio, Today’s Speaker”, Box 4 Folder 3, Lisa Sergio
Papers, Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C.
Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C., http://library.
georgetown.edu/
101 David Caute, The Great Fear. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978. 21 6.
102 “Hornet’s nest of questions for speaker”, Pittsburgh Sun-Telegraph, 8 March 1954. Box 23
Folder 3, Lisa Sergio Papers, Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division,
Washington, D.C., Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington,
D.C., http://library.georgetown.edu/

74
Tanja Tatomirović
An interview given by an unidentified woman who worked with her at the
Ministry of National Culture became one of the most revealing sources of
information on Sergio. The woman claimed she was close to her and that
she openly bragged about having multiple lovers and that she gave particularly
detailed accounts of her love affairs when she was under the influence
of alcohol. 103
Sergio was at the time protected as Ciano was the head of the Ministry.
However, during the second part of 1935 Ciano joined his bomber squadron
during the Ethiopia campaign and later moved on to become Minister of
Foreign Affairs. When Ciano left Dino Alfiglieri was appointed Minister of
National culture. According to the informant he was not so understanding
of Sergio’s behavior which culminated in her dismissal from the service in
1937, at 6 o’clock one hour before her usual 7 o’clock broadcast. 104 The informant
said that a friend of Sergio’s (whose identity was never established
with certainty with some speculations that it could have been John Whitaker)
helped her earn her living interviewing famous Italians for various
American and Italian magazines. Her first interview was with Marconi. 105
The informer also claimed that this friend also contacted Ciano asking a
permission for a joint project he was about to launch with Sergio; Ciano
replied that it would be better if a man wrote the articles ending any further
discussion on the matter.
At that point Marconi and De Revel persuaded Sergio to leave for the States.
The informant also said that she left because she could not find a job. 106 Other
sources confirmed this story. 107
These sources confirm the fact that Sergio never worked for Italian secret
police or any other Government branch other than Ministry of National
103 Kathleen McLaughlin, “Poletti Upholds Fair Exhibit Ban”, The New York Times, 29 August
1941, http://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/nytarchive.html
104 “Lisa Sergio Naturalized”, The New York Times, 7 September 1944, 8. ; John C Knox to Lisa
Sergio 6 November 1944, Box 4 Folder 1, Lisa Sergio Papers, Georgetown University Library,
Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C. Georgetown University Library, Special
Collections Division, Washington, D.C., http://library.georgetown.edu/
105 “Sergio to Shipley”, 23 April 1953., http://openlibrary.org/a/OL256636A
106 Ibidem
107 Ibidem

Mussolini’s Microphone 75
Culture. She was never engaged in espionage activities on behalf of the Fascists.
Still, none of this information gave a clear proof of who Lisa Sergio
really was.
According to the same sources she agreed to become an informant to the
FBI and supply information on Italian officials; 108 she also cooperated in
investigations of the fascist activities in New York area.
What is the true story?
The two conflicting stories cast shadow over one of the basic challenge a
historian can face – inconclusiveness of historical sources. The biggest mismatch
between the two stories is the question of whether Sergio left Italy
driven by her despise of the Fascist regime or her inability to find a job or
even her adultery. The papers Sergio left behind mention no accusations
of treason which lead us to believe that the reason was elsewhere. It was
a common fact that Ciano also had numerous affairs. Mussolini started to
receive anonymous letters on Ciano’s adultery in 1935. Both Ciano and his
wife Eda were known for their extra-marital activities which they did not
try to hide. Ciano had a number of mistresses from aristocratic circles while
Eda enjoyed the company of younger, athletic men. Even though Ciano did
not work for the Ministry of National Culture for as long as Sergio did (she
worked there 1932-1937 while he was there 1933-1936) they were frequently
in contact. For example, Sergio claims she was in Venice when Mussolini
met Hitler. Editing press releases from this meeting seems to have been
Ciano’s first task, as confirmed by Sergio’s papers.
Even though it is impossible to prove she had a love affair with Ciano that
remains an option. The FBI informant who claims she left Italy because she
could not find a job can also be regarded as credible. A job for a single woman
trying to support herself was a serious problem in a regime that tried
to oust women from the workplaces. From 1928 on the Government worked
to make it more difficult for working women. On September 5, 1938
the campaign reached its peak when the Government placed a 10% limit on
108 Stanley M. Isaacs to Lisa Sergio 31 August 1953, Box 4 Folder 2, Lisa Sergio Papers,
GeorgetownUniversity Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C. Georgetown
University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C.

76
Tanja Tatomirović
the number of women in workplaces. 109 So if she did not leave Italy for her
political views when did she start considering the move? The US press at the
time reported that she arrived for a vacation to learn first-hand about the
American radio management. 110
This might be true or it might be just a cover story for her real intentions
either due to political differences, inability to find a job or possible treason.
Her statements from the period make us doubt that she had problems
with the Fascist regime. In her interviews she defended the Fascists policies
like financial support for each new baby. Statements like these broadened
support the Fascist regime enjoyed abroad. But as WWII came nearer she
regretted ever making them. Her interviews provoked people across the country
to write to the FBI to alert the Bureau of her activities.
Despite all that Sergio frequently stood for her homeland. In one of her first
appearances on NBC she said she was honored to translate for Mussolini
“The fact that I as a woman was given a chance to broadcast from the key point in
our modern history makes me thrilled.“ 111 She might have been an anti-fascist
when she left Italy or she might have became one in the USA. A handwritten
note found in her papers show that the change, no matter when it occurred,
was genuine and honest. “People are not all-knowing. They are born with the
ability to learn. They learn how to walk and talk. They also have to learn how to be
free” she wrote. 112 After her encounter with David Samof at the NBC’s New
York office she became a part of their team and one of their anchors. Dozens
of newspapers reported on her arrival to the States as a long vacation and a
chance to visit friends and family as well as a study visit. Some reported that
109 De Grazia, How Fascism Ruled Women. 166, 193.
110 “A Guest of NBC Famous European Announcer to Broadcast Here”, NBC, “Lisa Sergio to
Announce Dell Concerts.”
111 The Helen Traubel Program Copy of Milton Cross’s scripted interview of Lisa Sergio, Box 19,
Folder 2, Lisa Sergio Papers, Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division,
Washington, D.C. Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington,
D.C. 18.July 1937.
112 Lisa Sergio, List of colleges Sergio lectured at from 19661-1967. Box 10 Folder 5, Lisa Sergio
Papers, Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C.
Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C., http://library.
georgetown.edu/

Mussolini’s Microphone 77
she would be a guest at the NBC. 113 Newspapers reported on the fact that
her aunt Alice Fitzgerald lives in New York and her uncle Charles Fitzgerald
in Baltimore. 114 One of the newspapers described her as “slim and attractive
American who caused quite an international storm over the war in Ethiopia with
her Rome broadcasts.” 115 She was also described as the most interesting voice
to date 116 and one of the best radio announcers in the States. 117
Lisa Sergio at the American “NBC” radio
113 For example: “Behind the Mike”, Columbus Dispatch, 18 July 1937. Box 19 Folder 2, Sergio
papers;“Lisa Sergio of Italy is Added to NBC Staff as Guest Announcer”, Greenville Piedmont,
21 July 1937.Box 19 Folder 2, Sergio papers; “Radio”, Macon News, 19 July 1937. Box 19
Folder 2, Sergio papers; “Voice of 2RO Here as Guest, Will Announce”, New York Herald
Tribune, 18 July 1937. Box 19Folder 2, Lisa Sergio Papers, Georgetown University Library,
Special Collections Division,Washington, D.C. Georgetown University Library, Special
Collections Division, Washington, D.C., http://library.georgetown.edu/
114 “Round About in Social Whirl”, Baltimore American, 8 May 1938. Box 19 Folder 3, Lisa
SergioPapers, Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C.
Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C., http://library.
georgetown.edu/
115 “Gleanings,” Brooklyn Citizen, 20 July 1937. Box 19 Folder 2, Lisa Sergio Papers, Georgetown
University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C. Georgetown University
Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C., http://library.georgetown.edu/
116 “Newcomer!” Chicago American, 21 October 1937. Box 19 Folder 2, Lisa Sergio Papers,
Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C. Georgetown
University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C., http://library.georgetown.
edu/
117 Igor Cassini, “Petit Point”, Washington Times, 11 March 1938. Box 19 Folder 3, Lisa Sergio
Papers, Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C.
Georgetown, University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C., http://
library.georgetown.edu/

78
Tanja Tatomirović
Her Italian background was of interest to journalists behind specialty articles.
One of them was so thrilled with the way Italian radio was operating:
“Italy may have Mussolini and black shirts, but the fans of Italian radio can laugh
at their American peers as they never have to listen to commercials.” 118
Sergio was a magnet for press and the positive publicity she received enabled
her to strengthen her position at the NBC. However, the people she met at
the NBC and who became her safety net were key in securing her career as a
lecturer and a news analyst; they also proved to be her vital allies in the fight
to fend off accusations of being a communist supporter in years following
the WWII.
118 Lee Roy Manuel, “Turning the Dial”, Ft, Worth Press, 2 August 1937. Box 19 Folder 2, Lisa
Sergio Papers, Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C.,
Georgetown University Library, Special Collections Division, Washington, D.C., http://library.
georgetown.edu/

Mussolini’s Microphone 79
Instead of Conclusion
In short we can claim that the radio was a weapon in state and corporate
hands from its beginnings, carefully crafted to suit the war needs of the
regime.
The technical characteristics of the radio ensured this newly arrived device
of its role in the overall propaganda effort. The state attempted to exercise
control over the radio in every stage of its development. These attempts
met the fierce opposition from the radio amateurs and other rebellious groups
who benefited from its relatively low operation costs and launched their
own radio stations. Radio could also be used to promote peace – the League
of Nations advocated this approach. Radio can be considered a tool that can
be used for both war and peace.
The constant effort put by the Italian state and the corporations to control
the radio also influenced its technical application. As an information source
to the public it was too important to be left without control. Even today
governments track down pirate radio stations regardless of their outreach.
This shows how a new technology can be reshaped to serve as a part of the
war effort.
In the first couple of decades radio was put under total state control either
by making it a monopoly or through various licensing schemes. State control
over the radio soon became so common that it was rarely questioned.
Mussolini did not plan on controlling the actions and opinions of the public,
at least not in any stated plans. Opposition was not met with violence, a
method so common in Nazi Germany. Instead the opposition was simply
marginalized so it could never reach wider audience. Fascism wanted to
become an integral part of the nation and it enjoyed wide support among
Italians (at least at the beginning) Mussolini aimed to strengthen the nation
through Fascism and give it a strong national identity.
One of the main characteristics of the Fascism was its application of totalitarian
and radical solutions to problems; in reality it was a populist party
that came to power after elections, picking up support of people all over
Italy. Just like other totalitarian regimes, the Fascists relied on propaganda

80
Tanja Tatomirović
to secure popular support, strengthen the regime and create loyal and satisfied
electorate base.
Mussolini and his regime employed different propaganda tools. The media
held the prominent place in their propaganda effort – radio and newspapers
above all. Film, literature and music were also used to create an idyllic picture
of Italy and its leader. The potential of sport as a propaganda tool was
also recognized which led to further militarization of the society but also
influenced the language and symbols used in addressing the masses.
As with any other dictatorship the public opinion was a mere abstraction.
The power was concentrated in the hands of a single man guaranteeing total
supremacy over the legislature. Opposition was not a real threat as the
highly militarized regime was ruthless in dealing with the internal enemy
employing the most violent of repression methods.
To secure public support propaganda infiltrated all pores of the society portraying
the dictator as wise and powerful and the electorate as strong, united
and superior. The myth of ancient Rome was the main theme of the
fascist propaganda drawing parallels between the magnificent and glorious
past and the achievements of the then-current Fascist regime.
The parallels with the ancient Rome were of great importance to the regime
as they portrayed a strong and invincible Italy. The aim of the Fascists was
to create an image of a strong and proud nation firmly behind its leader.
The idea of a disciplined and brave nation, ready to fight until the end was
imposed by idolizing Fascism and Fascist heroes which always rise from the
nation, the perfect nation.
Special emphasize was placed on the way Mussolini was presented. His name
was always written in capital letters and his image was present everywhere;
on posters across the public sphere, in school text books, anywhere people
would gather. He was rarely presented accompanied by clergy or while
enjoying in his free time to avoid him being perceived as a normal human
being. The repetition of the same phrases and slogans, and neglect for the
reality are one of the main features of the totalitarian regimes.

Mussolini’s Microphone 81
Special places were created for public listening of the radio in every factory,
school, and other such places. They were decorated with Fascist symbols and
were used to make people associate more with the regime and Il Duce, whose
voice was soon omnipresent breaking into even the most private parts
of family lives. Radio, the only home entertainment available at the time
had a monopoly in the indoctrination of the masses. It successfully secured
omnipresence for the regime and the leader in the everyday lives of ordinary
people.
*******

Development of Radio Broadcasts
A timeline
August 27, 1924 .
March 16, 1925
December 8, 1925
April 9, 1926
- Founding of the Italian Broadcasting
Association (URI)
- Beginning of the twice-a-day broadcasts of the
state announcements
- Founding of Radio Milano
- Founding of Radio SIPRA in Turin
November 14, 1926 - Founding of Radio Naples and networked
broadcasting between Milano, Turin
and Naples
January 15, 1928
January 21, 1928
January 7, 1929
January 19, 1930
February 18, 1930
July 1, 1930
February 12, 1931
June 14, 1931
- URI transforms into EIAR
- Founding of the State Radio Supervising
Committee
- First political broadcasts, three times a day
- The most powerful broadcasting station in
Europe is opened in Rome
- EIAR HQ moves from Milano to Turin
- Founding of the Royal Radio Center
“Prato Smeraldo” in Rome and
news broadcasts in short waves
- Radio Vatican kicks off with Marconi’s assistance
- Founding of Radio Palermo
December 20, 1931 - First broadcasts to North America from
Radio Turin
March 23, 1933
- Law called “Radio Consciousness” is put in effect
to promote radio shows in rural part of Italy
December 27, 1933 - First broadcast of “Regime Chronicles”
a political news bulletin

84
October 28, 1934
March 12, 1935
April 13, 1935
- “Prato Smeraldo” is reinforced with
two additional transmitters
- First broadcasts in Spanish and Portuguese
for South America
- The whole of Mediterranean covered with shows
in Italian language
September 26, 1935 - Ministry of press and propaganda gains control
over the radio broadcasts
1936 - First broadcasts for Far East in Chinese, Arabic,
English and Hindu and networking of all Italian
radio stations
1937 - Broadcasts for Italian Diaspora as well as
broadcasts in Arabic, Turkish, German, French,
Albanian, Croatian, Bulgarian,
Spanish and Portuguese language
May 22, 1937
- Founding of MINCULPOP,
Ministry of Peoples Culture
1938 - Broadcasts in Serbian and Danish language
1938 - Founding of the short wave Radio Center in
Rome
1939 - First broadcasts for Oceania in English and
Italian language
1940 - First broadcasts in Persian, Dutch, Maltese and
Bengali language
June 16, 1940
- The beginning of the war leads to unification
of all Italian radio stations and introduction
of ban on foreign radio stations
1941 - Broadcasts in Finnish, Swedish and
Thai language
April 22, 1941
- Abolition of copy rights

85
1942 - First broadcasts designed to boost morale
at front lines
July 22, 1943
August 6, 1943
September 8, 1943
- News on Mussolini’s arrest
- Radio Palermo broadcasts the US program
- Capitulation of Italy

86
Literature:
Tadić, Darko: Propaganda, Spektrum, Beograd, 2005.
Pakard, Vans: Skriveni ubeđivači, Službeni glasnik, Beograd, 2001.
Bernejs, Edvard: Propaganda, Horas Livrajt, Njujork, 1928.
Le Bon, Gustav: Psihologija gomile, Argument, Beograd, 2005.
Gareth, J., O Donell, V.: Propaganda and Persuasion, Penguin Books, 1998,
USA
Slavujević, dr. Zoran: Biblijska koncepcija propagande, Radnička štampa i
Institut društvenih nauka, Biblioteka Povodi, Beograd, 1993.
Matteo Fochessati: L’immagine della radio in Italia tra le due guerre,
Đenova, 1990.
Stock, Noel: The life of Ezra Pound, Routledge, 1970.
Ezra Pound: Jefferson and/or Mussolini, Volitionist Economics, Stanley
Nott Ltd., 1935., http://yamaguchy.netfirms.com/7897401/pound_ezra/
jeffmuss.html
Mary Cawte: Making Radio Into A Tool For War, Unpublished paper, 1996.
Stock, Noel: The Life of Ezra Pound (An expanded edition), North Point
Press, 1982.
Gerd Horten: Radio goes to War-The Cultural Politics of Propaganda during
World War II, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press,
2002.
Jackelin J.Jarvis: The Birth of Italian Radio - Celebrating the 100 Years of
Italian Radio, http://www.lifeinitaly.com
Burton Hatlen: Pound and Fascism, Modern American Poetry, Oxford
University Press, 2000
Cannistraro, Philip V.: The Organization of Totalitarian Culture: Cultural
Policy and the Mass Media in Fascist Italy, 1922-1945. New York
University, 1971.

87
Bassanese, Fiora A. Sibilla Aleramo: Writing a Personal Myth. In Mothers
of Invention: Women, Italian Fascism, and Culture, ed. Robin Pickering-
Iazzi.Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995.
Cramer, Judith A.: Radio: A Woman’s Place is on the Air iz dela Women in
Mass Communication, ed. Pamela J. Creedon. Newbury Park: Sage, 1989.
De Grazia, Victoria: How Fascism Ruled Women. Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1992.
Evans, Sara M.: Born for Liberty: A History of Women in America, New
York: Simon and Schuster, 1997.
Fang, Irving E.: Those Radio Commentators!, Iowa State University Press,
1977.
Moseley, Ray: Mussolini’s Shadow: The Double Life of Count Galeazzo
Ciano. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999.
Sontag, Susan: Fascinating Fascism iz dela Under the Sign of Saturn. New
York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1972.
Cannistraro, Philip V.: The Radio in Fascist Italy, Journal of European
Studies 2, no. 2 (1972): 127-154.
Isola, Gianni: Italian Radio: History and Historiography, Historical Journal
of Film, Radio and Television 15, no. 3 (1995): 393-400.
Chester, Giraud: Power of the Radio Commentator, American Mercury,
September 1947, 334-339.
F. Monteleone: La radio Italiana nel periodo fascista, edizione Marsilio,
Milano 1976.
A. Monticone: Il fascismo al microfono, edizione Studium, Roma 1978.
A. Papa: Storia politica della radio, edizione Guida, Napoli 1980.
Numerous sources referred to, from Georgetown University Library, USA,
http://library.georgetown.edu/
Materials of the author Lisa Sergio at http://openlibrary.org/a/
OL256636A

Afterword
The base for this book was a midterm paper entitled “Broadcasts in Fascist
Italy” written during my postgraduate studies of communicology at the
University of Belgrade. The university professors and the editorial staff
of the “Communication Manager” quarterly magazine described it as a
thorough scientific paper and noted that “... it tackles a theme that lacked
proper scientific attention in Serbia. The books and sources used are mostly
foreign (Italian) which gives a special value to the evaluated paper; the
paper is significant also for the facts and data it contains which are mostly
less known to our academia. The theses in the paper are coherent with the
general scientific positions and opinions in regard to the topic in question”
Special “thank you” note goes to professor Branimir Stojkovic PhD, my
mentor and Igor Aldo Christiano Cvetkovic who helped me both with
translation and during my tours of the Italian province of Veneto in
September 2008 in search of literature and better understanding of the
ideology.
On top of it all, the book is the first publishing project of the Serbian PR
Society; the book’s value was recognized by the Chairman of the Association
Milos Djajic and the entire membership. The Serbian edition of the book
“Mussolini’s Microphone” is a part of the official, additional, curriculum at
the University of Belgrade. This is the first book in both Serbia and the wider
Balkan region to deal with the subject of the use of radio as a propaganda
tool during the regime of the Italian fascists.
Thank you.
Tanja Tatomirović

MUSSOLINI’S MICROPHONE
Author
MSc Tanja Tatomirović
www.pr.in.rs
Translations from the original
Tibor Jona
Proofreaders
Lee Murphy
Ivana Simić
Translations from Italian
Igor Aldo Christian Cvetković
Covers and pre-press
Slađana Đorđević
Number of copies printed
300
Printed by
Greenfield, Belgrade
Publisher
Serbian PR Society
www.pr.org.rs
with the support of
“7 Media”