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Of course, many other proposed solutions fall outside of these mentioned categories. Each come with their own associated strengths and shortcomings, but all challenge previously-held assumptions about the field and contribute to a growing body of literature about the black hole information paradox. However, in spite of this progress, it will likely take many more years to observe what actually happens to information in a black hole, since current technology limits our ability to measure Hawking radiation and quantitatively observe the behavior of black holes. 8 Instead of viewing the paradox as a conflict between quantum mechanics and general relativity, many regard it as an opportunity to reconcile the two foundational theories. Despite these challenges, the implications of the black hole information paradox remain profound. Instead of viewing the paradox as a conflict between quantum mechanics and general relativity, many regard it as an opportunity to reconcile the two foundational theories. As Moskowitz writes, the black hole information paradox urges a deeper need to “describe gravity according to quantum rules” and perhaps suggests the existence of another theory which unites the other two. Most scientists agree that discovering such a unifying theory of quantum gravity could marry quantum mechanics and general relativity, offering a satisfying resolution to the information paradox and inspiring a “conceptually new understanding of nature.” 3 In the meantime, by improving scientific instruments, conducting research, and reexamining our underlying assumptions about the physical world, we can refine our existing theories about the black hole information paradox and develop new ones. Although the final answer remains ambiguous, we advance with tireless inquiry and curiosity about the mystique of space. In the process, our understanding—like our universe— inevitably continues to grow. WORKS CITED [1] Nagaraja, M. Black Holes. [Online] n.d. NASA. https:// science.nasa.gov/astrophysics /focus-areas/black-holes (accessed Oct. 8, 2017). [2] Curiel, E.; Bokulich, P. Singularities and Black Holes. [Online] 2012, Fall 2012 Edition, n.p. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford. edu/entries/spacetime-singularities/ (accessed Oct. 28, 2017). [3] Hossenfelder, S. Forbes. [Online] 2017. https://www. forbes.com/sites/startswithabang /2017/01/24/nobody-knows-where-a-black-holesinformation-goes/#7f04ed73767a (accessed Nov. 11, 2017). [4] Baez, J.; Schmelzer, I. UCR Mathematics. [Online] 1997. http://math.ucr.edu/home /baez/physics/Relativity/BlackHoles/hawking.html (accessed Oct. 28, 2017). [5] Cain, F. Universe Today. [Online] 2015. https://www. universetoday.com/119794/howdo-black-holes-evaporate/ (accessed Oct. 29, 2017). [6] Toth, V. Forbes. [Online] 2017. https://www.forbes. com/sites/quora/2017/04/13/whydo-general-relativity-and-quantum-mechanics-need-tobe-unified/#3d650734aa2c (accessed Nov. 8, 2017). [7] Moskowitz, C. Scientific American. [Online] 2015. https://www.scientificamerican. com/article/stephen-hawking-hasn-t-solved-the-blackhole-paradox-just-yet/ (accessed Nov. 8, 2017). [8] Strassler, M. Of Particular Significance. [Online] 2014. https://profmattstrassler.com/ articles-and-posts/relativity-space-astronomy-andcosmology/black-holes/black-hole-information-paradoxan-introduction/ (accessed Nov. 12, 2017). DESIGN BY Katrina Cherk EDITED BY Kelsey Sanders BLACK HOLE REGIONS ergosphere event horizon quiet region: negligible gravitational influence gravitational spacetime distortion singularity 8 | CATALYST
HIGH-ALTITUDE SULFUR INJECTION by Meredith Brown I f global warming increases the temperature of the Earth by more than two degrees Celsius, there will be catastrophic consequences - major flooding will wipe out homes, businesses, and ecosystems. 1 Sulfur dioxide may hold the answer to combating the threat of global warming. Although aerosols and sulfur dioxide are detrimental to the ozone layer and human health, studies have shown that sulfur dioxide increases both plant growth and the overall reflectivity of solar radiation of the Earth’s atmosphere, known as the Earth’s albedo. 2 Scientists hypothesize that by injecting sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere, we could combat the gradual temperature increase without harming human and plant life. The negative consequences of aerosols and sulfur dioxide are well documented. Both are banned in large quantities by the MARPOL regulations and by the National Ambient Air Quality Standards enforced by the Environmental Protection Agency.3 The most harmful aerosols found in hairspray cans and other products were made illegal in the United States in the 1970s. 2 Additionally, atmospheric sulfur dioxide precipitates as acid rain, negatively affecting plants and ecosystems. Furthermore, sulfur emissions are responsible for a large percentage of particulate matter, a class of air pollutants that is responsible for approximately two million deaths per year globally due to respiratory problems. 4 Sulfur dioxide and aerosols also play key roles in the destruction of the ozone layer, the main component of the atmosphere that protects humans from harmful UV rays. 3 In order to utilize sulfur dioxide to counteract greenhouse gases, these negative impacts must be mitigated. Despite these numerous risks, aerosols and sulfur dioxide have potential that encourage scientists to look beyond their negative qualities. Although sulfur dioxide is a particulate matter pollutant, it also acts as a cloud catalyst in certain layers of the atmosphere. In this insane or insanely genius? phenomenon, water vapor in the air is able to cling to sulfur dioxide molecules more easily than to salt crystals or to other water molecules, resulting in a larger and brighter cloud cover. This is desirable because larger and brighter clouds reflect more solar radiation than smaller and dimmer clouds that lack sulfur. More solar radiation is reflected back into space, and thus, less solar energy is Water vapor in the air is able to cling to sulfur dioxide molecules more easily, causing clouds to be larger, more frequent, and brighter. available for greenhouse gases to trap near the Earth’s surface. Also, sulfur dioxide plays a critical role in plant growth. When a solar ray cuts through Earth’s atmosphere, it generally travels in a straight line. But if the ray hits the large sulfur dioxide particles, the light scatters. This scattered light is able to reach more plants on the ground, allowing plants to grow larger. Larger plants are desirable because the leaves have a greater surface area and are thus able to absorb more carbon dioxide, removing this potent greenhouse gas from the atmosphere. Dr. David Keith, a professor of physics and public policy at Harvard University, has outlined one cheap method of using sulfur dioxide to combat global temperature increases: high altitude injection. 3 He proposes that specialized planes could fly annually and inject one million tons of sulfur dioxide to create a thin atmospheric layer intended to reflect one percent of solar rays. These planes would fly 20 kilometers high, beyond the cloud formation point, to avoid contributing to acid rain, while still reflecting solar radiation before it ever hits Earth’s surface. Therefore, this solar radiation is unable to become trapped by greenhouse gases, thereby slowing Earth’s temperature increase. In fact, this concept was underscored by a mega-volcanic eruption in 1991, where a major increase in sulfur caused a decrease in global temperature by half a degree Celsius for two years. 5 However, this solution still has some flaws. Scientists fear disruptions in precipitation patterns, reductions in atmospheric ozone, and obstacles in logistics regarding “who will inject the sulfur, where will they inject the sulfur, and who will pay for this?” Furthermore, the molecular size of sulfur dioxide causes the particle to have a short atmospheric life, so gas would have to be continuously pumped into the atmosphere, costing billions of dollars and acting as a mere band-aid for our emissions problems. 6 Scientists argue against this tactic by suggesting that if the world were to develop low-emissions energy systems and transportation methods, such steps would fix the greenhouse gas problem in a cheaper and more sustainable manner in the long-run. Al Gore denounced this geo-engineering plan, calling it “insane, utterly mad and delusional in the extreme.” 7 While high altitude sulfur dioxide injections are possible with current technology, there is not enough information to determine the full scope of the environmental impact. Many scientists have simply suggested decreasing emissions to combat the source of the problem instead of putting on the “bandaid” of high-altitude sulfur dioxide injection. However, most scientists can agree that something must be done to mitigate our air pollution problem, but global warming is a challenge that we must tackle immediately. WORKS CITED [1] Aton, ClimateWire Adam. “Earth Almost Certain to Warm by 2 Degrees Celsius.” Scientific American, 1 Aug. 2017, www. scientificamerican.com/article/earth-almost-certain-to-warmby-2-degrees-celsius/. [2] “Sulfur Dioxide: Its Role in Climate Change.” Institute for Global Environmental Strategies >> Sulfur Dioxide: Its Role in Climate Change, esseacourses.strategies.org/module. php?module_id=168. [3] “Setting and Reviewing Standards to Control SO2 Pollution.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, 13 Oct. 2017, www.epa.gov/so2-pollution/setting-and-reviewingstandards-control-so2-pollution#standards. [4] Physics, Institute of. Researchers Estimate over Two Million Deaths Annually from Air Pollution, www.iop.org/news/13/jul/ page_60518.html. [5] Rotman, D. A Cheap and Easy Plan to Stop Global Warming . MIT Technology Review. https://www.technologyreview. com/s/511016/a-cheap-and-easy-plan-to-stop-global-warming/ (accessed Nov 7, 2017). [6] Stephen et al. Self, pubs.usgs.gov/pinatubo/self/. [7] Hansman, Heather. “Is This Plan to Combat Climate Change Insane or Insanely Genius?”Smithsonian.com, Smithsonian Institution, 14 May 2015, www.smithsonianmag. com/innovation/is-this-plan-combat-climate-change-insaneinsanely-genius-180955258/. DESIGN BY Katrina Cherk EDITED BY Anna Croyle + CATALYST | 9
Page 1 and 2: VOLUME 11, 2018 RICE UNDERGRADUATE
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Page 5 and 6: the EVOLUTION of GENETIC ENGINEERIN
Page 7: ticks.” 2 While the falling perso
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Page 13 and 14: F Mirror Neurons: Unlocking the Min
Page 15 and 16: CPR FOR THE VAQUITA Celina Tran A n
Page 17 and 18: approach which have minimal control
Page 19 and 20: NNECTION OF MANY DEGREES R2 is incr
Page 21 and 22: AMPs Giant unilamellar vesicle AMPs
Page 23 and 24: Change r Neonatal Care by Pujita Mu
Page 25 and 26: currently testing the drugs in mice
Page 27 and 28: LIGHT SHOW: By Oliver Zhou I magine
Page 29 and 30: stem cells no further growth furthe
Page 31 and 32: Critical periods of survival: Main
Page 33 and 34: TURKEY SYRIA IRAQ IRAN EGYPT SAUDI
Page 35 and 36: she alone was responsible. 13 All i
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Page 39 and 40: Figure 1: Panel of Image Processing
Page 41 and 42: Identifying Presence/ Absence of Ma
Page 43 and 44: may not be reliable. Conclusion The
Page 45 and 46: Gut microbiota and bile homeostasis
Page 47 and 48: the science of beauty by Krithika K
Page 49: READ OUR PREVIOUS ISSUES + MORE BLO

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